a
Bis eee

8067820.

il

ove sane

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2011 with funding from
University of Toronto

htto://www.archive.org/details/cyclopaediaoruni12rees

THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

Unthersal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

VOL. XII.

= «93

THT

- GAIGDBDLOUIYD | i

i y 5s ' Ne
* op : y a
mathe

eh

THE

CYCLOPA DIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

Arts, Sciences, and Literature,

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.RB.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

oo EE

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XII.

——— EE

LONDON:
Printep ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Parernoster-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LET TERMAN, J- CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S- BAGSTER, J- MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J- BOOTH, J- BOOKER, SU

TTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY

AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND COs;
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

; } a
| i 4 tO 22 te
a Pye ie
LWW NG ANNE Y 4B
<< | | e es ie
8. sere prosauuiet 1 i
. i vs ge,
Bb a ‘oe We A ete) Se a aa, ah TH sit
7 gai) Harbeh, 4e0w Wak % .

. pager " A ,

bs
Da, ] e\
\} ( ¢ y e ¢
vy .
ee AE WG eh Ae ca

1016658 2 4 7) . at /

st eT re ’ ;

Hi ego WemKety ARIAL Ts
eR es i me:

: é
all wetedwye v4? wera hi ‘aes a
ai fe rea, 7 hs Pah a4 vere pany we m ‘o
bush & Aen ey BL WOM) Og
etna! od “#8 du. Saas ancy Ce atars
Mem ee ER Oe 118 LR neh HH) Bi

yo”

CYT CLOPA DI A:

OR, Ay NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

Cy

ARES

and: S$ © TR NE-C ES.

DIS
ISSIMULATION, in Morals, the a& of diffembling,

by fallacious appearances, or falfe pretenfions.

Good princes regard diffimulation as a neceflary vice ; but
tyrants confider it a8 a virtue.

It is apparent that fecrecy is often neceffary, to oppofe
thofe who may be willing to circumvent our lawful inten-
tions. But the neceffity of precaution would become very
Yarey were no enterprizes to be formed, but fuch as could be
avowed openly. The franknefs with which we could then
a&, would engage people in our interetts. Marfhal Biron
would have faved his life, by dealing ingenuoufly with
Henry IV. ‘

Lord Bacon very juftly obferves, in his fhort eflay ‘* De
Diflimulatione et Simulatione’”’ (Works, vol. iii. p. 629.)
* that the weaker fort of political perfons are the great
diffemblers.”” «* For,’ he adds, ** if aman peffefs pene-
tration. of judgment, fufficient for enabling him to difcern
what things are to be laid open, and what to be concealed,
and what to be partially difclofed, to whom and at what time,
(which, indeed, are aéts of ftate and aéts of life, as Tacitus
has well denominated them) to him a Habit of diffimulation
is an hindrance. Butif a man cannot acquire that judg-
ment, then itis I<ft to him as the fafeft courfe he can
purfue, to be generally a diffembler.”? Lerd Bacon dif-
tinguifhes between diffimulation and fimulation: the former

“Being negative, as when any one by figns and tokens leads
others to conclude that he is not the perfon, that he really
is; and the latter being affirmative, as when any one openly
feigns and pretends that he is the perfon, that he really is
not. Montaigne, in his ‘ Effays’’ (vol. ii.) has admirably
pourtrayed and expofed the vice of diffimulation. ‘* As to
this virtue of diffimulation,’’ {ays he, «* I mortally hate it ;
and of all vices find none that does evidence fo much bafe-
nefs and meannefs of {pirit. ’Tis a cowardly and fervile
humour, to hide and difguife a man’s felf under a vizor,
and notto dare to fhew himfelf what he ts. By that vice
followers are trained up to treachery Being brought up
~ Vou. XIL.. ‘
3s

Strahan and Prefton,
ee 5 = ee ee” ee

DIS

to {peak what is not true, they make no confcience of a lye.
A. generous heart ought not to belye its own thoughts, but
will make itfelf feen within, all there is good, or at leaft
manly. Ariftotle reputes it the office of -magnanimity,
openly and profefledly to love and hate, to judge and
fpeak with all freedom ; and not to value the approbation or
difke of others in comparifon ef truth. Apolionis faid,
it was for flaves to lye, and for freemen to fpeak truth.
*Tis the chief and fundamental part of virtue; we mutt love
it for itfelf. A man muft not always tell all, for that were
folly ; but what a man fays fhould be what he thinks, other-
wife ’tis knavery. I do not know what advantage men
pretend to by eternally counterfeiting and diffembling, if
not, never to be believed when they fpeak the truth. This:
may once or twice pafs upon men ; but to profefs concealing
their thoughts, and to fay, as fome of our princes have
done, that “they would burn their fhirts if they knew
their intentions,’? and * that who knows not how to dif-
ferrble, knows not how to rule,” isto give warning to all
who have any thing to do with them, that ali they fay is
nothing but iying and deceit. :

With refpect to diffimulation, three things are to be ob--
ferved; 1, That the charaéters of thofe are not to be
efteemed, who are referved and cautious without diftin@tion.
2. Not to make fecrets of unimportant matters. 3. To
condu& ourfelves in fuch manner, as to have as few fecrets
as pollible.

DISSIPATION, in Phy/fics, an infenfible lofs, or con-
fumption, of the minute parts of a body: or, more pro~
perly, that flux. whereby they fly off, and are loft. See
Errruvia.

We do not fay diffipation, but Jofs of blood, in fpeaking:
of the blood dilcharged at a wound, or in any other fen-
fible manner : on the contrary, we fay diflipation, of expence
of fpirits: this is more copious than that of the folid:
parts: and confequently, the reparation ought to be more:
copious.

B Diss1vA»-

DIS

Dissipation, Circle of, or ABERRATION, in Optics, de
motes that circular fpace upon the retina of the eye, which
is occupied by the rays of each pencil in indiftin& vifion :
thus, if the diftance of the objeét, or the conftitution of the
eye be fuch, that the image falls beyond the retina, as when
obje€s are too near ; or before the retina, when the rays
have not a fufficient divergency, the rays of the pencil,
inftead of being collected into a central point, will be dif-
fipated over this circular {pace : and all other circumftances
being alike, this circle will be greater or lefs, according to
the greater or leffer diftances from the retina of the focufes
of refraded rays. But this circle caufes no perceptible
difference in the diftin&inefs of vifion, while that circle is
not greater than fome determinate magnitude; as foon
as it exceeds that magnitude, we begin to perceive an
indiftin@tnefs, which increafes as the circle of diflipation
increafes, and at length the obje€ is loft in confufion.
The circle isalfo greater or lefs, according to the greater
or lefs magnitude of the vifible object; and though
it isnot eafy to affign the diameter of the faid circle, it feems
very probable, that vifion continues diftin@ for all fuch
diftances, or fo long as thefe circles, or the pencils of light
from them do not touch one another upon the retina; and
the indiftinGnefs begins, when the faid circles begin to in-
terfere. It has been often obferved, that a precife union of
the refpeétive rays upon the retina is not neceflary to diftiné
vifion; but the firft author that afcertained the fa& beyond
all doubt, was Dr. Juri. See a variety of obfervations and
experiments on this {ubjeét, in his Effay on diftin@ and in-
diftin& Vifion, in Smith’s Optics, Appendix. See Moon
and Vision.

DissteatTion, Radius of, is the radius of the circle of
diffipation.

DISSOLENA, in Botany, (from os, double, and cwrny,
4 tube, on account of the different fhapes of the two different
parts of the tube of the corolla,) Loureiro Cochinch.
vy. 1.137- Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Vitices, Jal. :

Gen. Ch. Gai. Perianth tubular, inferior, five-cleft ; feg-
ments awl-fhaped, ereét. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ;
tube long, in the lower part thickeft, pentagonal, bearing
the ftamens; in the upper cylindrical: limb five-cleft,
fpreading. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, fhort, inferted
below the top of the inferior portion of the tube; anthers
ovate, ere. Pi/} Germen inferior, ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped,
Shorter than the ftamens; ftigma fomewhat ovate, thick,
rough. eric. Drupa {mall, ovate. Nut comprefled, rough,
with one feed.

Eff. Ch. Drupa inferior, with a rough nut. Tube of
the corolla of two different fhapes. Stigma ovate.

D. vwerticillate, the only {pecies. Mat fa of the Chinefe.
Foundin the province of Canton in China. A {mall tree,
about eight feet high, with fpreading branches. Leaves
lanceolate, entire, fmooth; the lowermoft oppofite; the
upper ones ftellate, three or four together. Clu/lers terminal,
fubdivided. Flowers white. Drupa {mall, black, {mooth.
Loureiro.

DISSOLVENT

DISSOLUTION §°

Dissotution of Metals, Sc. by fire, is particularly
called fu/ion.

Dissotution of the bload, is an affeGion of that humour,
directly oppofite to coagulation.

The diffolution is fuch a comminution of the fibrous parts
of the blood, as indifpofes it for that feparation of the craf-
famentum from the ferous part, which always enfues in
healthy bleod, on its cooling out of the body.

See So.uTion.

D115

This diffolution is frequently the confequence of maliz.
nant and peftilential fevers, end fhews itfelf in petechiz, or
purple fpots; alfo of certain poifons, particularly the bites
of venomous beatts, &c.

Dissotution of Parliament. See Parviamenr.

DISSONANCE, fee Discorp. This is a remarkable
word, half Greek, and half Latin, dss and /onans, founding —
twice. The only perceptible diffonance, or difcord, which
nature gives in the harmonies to agiven bafs, is the flat 7th
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7- See Harmonics, and Basse fone
damentale. Syfteme de Paftini. This term is generally ufed in
the fame fenfe as difcord, but a late writer, whofe MSS. we

have perufed, fays that if 1, and =, exprefs the ratios

of three founds, their harmony will be uninterrupted. or the
effet of the three founded together a concord, if 5 and d
have no common divifor but 1; and, on the other hand,
their harmony will be interrupted or a diffonance if 6 and d
have a common divifor; in that cafe, let this divifor be x ;
then will x —1 exprefs the order of diffonancy. Among
the examples given of the application of this rule are, the
key, oftave and double oftave, or 1,4 and +, where confe-
quently x 1s = 2 and x — 1 = 1; or, according to this rule,
this chord is an example of the firft order of diffonancy.
The common chord minor is next examined by this rule, or
I, 4 and 4, where x being = 3, this chord is declared to be
a diffonance of the fecond order, and the theories of Tartini
and Pizzoti are quoted, in juftification of this degradation
of the miifor common chord to the rank of difcords, a doc-
trine however, to which we are by no means difpofed to fube
{cribe, or to admit the propriety of the general rules above-
mentioned.

DISSONANT Triav. This confifts of two majors
thirds, or the fuperfluous triad of the chromatic fcale, as
C, E,»*G (Callicott’s Muf. Gram. p. 147.) The interval
C x G is a fharp or fuperfluous fifth, which fee.

ORE ee fal. Sounds that are difpleafing to

DISSONI. the ear.

DISSYLLABLE, a word of two fyllables ; as fortune,
lament, &c.

The fpondee, trochee, iambus, and pyrrhichius, are dif-
fyllabic feet. See Sponpee, &c.

F dele in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia in Arias
tol.

DISTAFF, an inftrument about which flax is tied, in
order to the {pinning of it.

DistarFr-ihifile, a name fometimes given to the afradylis
of authors. See Arracty.is and CarTHAMuS.

DISTANCE properly denotes the fhorteit line between
two points, obje&ts, &c.

Diftance, according to an ingenious author, cannot of itfelf
and immediately be feen. For diftance being a line directed
end-wife to the eye, it projects only one point in the fund of
the eye, which point remains invariably the fame, whether
the diftance be longer or fhorter. Dr. Berkeley, Effay on
Vifion.

A late eminent mathematician obferves that the diftance
here fpoken of is diftance from the eye; and that what is
faid of it muft not be applied to diftance in general. The
apparent diftance of two ftars is capable of the fame varia-
tions as any other quantity or magnitude. Vifible magni-
tudes confit of parts into which they may be refolved, as
well as tangible magnitudes; and the proportions of the
former may be afligned, as well as thofe of the latter: fo
that it is going too far to tell us, that vifible magnitudes are
no more to be accounted the objeéts of geometry than words,
and that the ideas of fpace, and things placed at a diftance,

are

DISTANCE.

are not, ftrictly fpeaking, the objects of fight, ard are not
otherwife perceived by the eye than by the ear. Mr. Mac-
‘turin, in his account of fir TIfaac Newton’s difcoveries,
aM, 22,50

y The word is alfo ufed figuratively for an interval, not only
in refpe& of place, but alfo of time or quality.

Thus, we fay, the diftance of the creation of the world
from the nativity of Jefus Chrift, is upwards of four thoufand
-years: the diltance between the Creator and the creature is
infinite.

For the divifion of Distances, or the manner wherein we
come by the idea of diftance in objects, fee VisrpLe.

Distance, in Afronomy. The {cience of aftronomy mult
have arrived at no inconfiderable degree of pertection before
any adequate conception could have been formed of the dif-
tances of the heavenly bodies,

To the firft uninformed inhabitants of the earth, the fun,
moon, and {tars would appear to rife and fet in their neigh-
bouring hills and forefts: when they were fought for there
in vain, the next theory would fuppofe them rifing from the
limits of the extended ocean, and defcending there again, after
having performed their daily courfe. Ages muft have elapfed,
and the {pherical hypothefis of the earth’s figure have been
eftablifhed, before it could have been perfeétly afcertained,
that the heavenly bodies were infulated, and entirely detached
from the furface of the earth.

The phenomena of eclipfes, when the caufe of them was
underltood, were fufficient to demonftrate that the moon was
nearer to us than the fun; and it might have been inferred
from the properties of the {phere, that the fun was diftant
at leaft feveral diameters of the earth. For as the fun was, on
the day of the equinox, twelve hours above the horizon, it
mutt have been fuppofed that half the earth was enlightened
at one time, which could not have been the cafe if the lumi-
nary were not placed at aconfiderable diftance. The phafes
of the moon would likewife indicate the great diftance of the
fun, by a method we fhall foon have occafion to explain.

The principle we ufually have recourfe to, when we wifh
to determine the diftance of an inacceflible point, is the moft
fimple that can poffibly be imagined. An obferver at A (Plate
VI. Geometry, fig. 85.) determines from obfervation that the
obje& in queltion is fomewhere in the line A M3; he then

‘removes to another ftation, as B, and by a fimilar obfervation
infers that it is likewife fomewhere in the line BN, itis evi-
dent that the place of the obje& mutt be in the interfection
O of thefe two lines, as that is the only point which is com-
mon to each of them.

But, to derive any practical advantage from this method,

it is neceflary that the diftance of the two ftations A, B,
Should not be extremely difproportionate to the diftance
fought, as in that cafe a very {mall error in the pofition of
the lines A M, BN, would caufe a very large one in the po-
fition of the point O.

{t is for this reafon that the above method is with diff-
culty applicd to the heavenly bodies that are neareft to us,
and to thofe more remote it entirely fails. . This being the cafe
in the prefent improved {tate of the {cience, it is not furprif-
ing that the ancient aftronomers fhould have formed fuch
Ht erroneous conceptions of the diftances of the heavenly

odies.

Pythagoras eftimated the diftance of the moon to be about
000 leagues inftead of 80,000, but in the time of Hip-
parchus, 300 years later, we find that.the true diftance was
pretty accurately known. -

Prolemy determined the diftance of the moon by methods
perfectly corre& in their theory, and very fimilar to thofe

employed by modern aftronomers; thefe will be fully explained
under PARALLAX,

By the moft accurate obfervations made in Europe, and at
the fame time at the Cape of Good Hope, the moon’s
greateft diftance was determined 63.66 femi-diameters of the
earth, and its leaft 57.66.

But the law of univerfal gravitation effords us another
method of determining the diftance of the moon independent
of all trizonometrical meafurement whatever: and La Place,
who has eftimated the errors to which the various methods
are liable, prefers that refult which is obtained from theory
alone to any other.

To comprehend the poffibility of this method, we fhould
recolle€t, that the force of gravity on the earth’s furface is
accurately known by experiments on pendulums ; and as this
force varies inverfely as the {quares of the diftances, the force
of gravity is known at any diltance from the earth; and from
the doGtrine of central forces we can determine the time in
which a fatellite would revolve at any diftance from the earth;
and inverfely, having given the periodical time of the moon’s
revolution, we can by the fame theory compute the diftance.

It is much more difficult to determine the diitance of the
fun from the earth, than that of the moon. The ancients
before the time of Ariftarchus, feem to have contented them
felves with mere conjeture. Pythagoras fuppofed the fun
three times as diftant as the moon; and even Pliny be-
lieved it only twelve times as far, becaufe the time of its re-
volution was twelve'times as long. Ariftarchus of Samos,
finding that the diameter of the earth was too fmall a bafe
to Uetermine the immenfe diftance of the fun, affamed inftead
of it, the diftance of the moon from the earth. His method
is to be found ina work of his ftill preferved, and publifhed
by Commandine in 1752, and afterwards by Wallis in 1688,
It fuppofes the moment of the quadrature of the moon to be
precifely afcertained. See Artstarcuus and Dicuo-
TOMY. :

Kepler, in 1718, recommended it to Galileo, to apply
his telefcopes to thefe obfervations, and thus to determine
the diftance of the fun more accurately than had been done
before.

The inaccuracy of this m:thod in practice, arifes from the
difficulty of determining the precife moment when the en
lightened part of the moon is terminated by a ftraight
line. But as it has no tendency to give the diftance either
too great or too {mall, the mean of a number of obferva-
tions fhould approach the truth; and if Ariftarchus concluded
the diftance to be not above one-tenth of what it really is,
it arofe probably from the natural repugnance we have to
adopt atheory fo much at variance with the firft impref-
fions of our fenfes. The diftances of the heavenly bodies: -
are fo immenfely greater than could poffibly have been ima
gined, that out of a number of refults, the early aftronomers
have infenfibly been led to fele@ thofe which gave the dil
tance the leaft. WVandelinus praétifed this method at Ma-
jorea in 1650, and deduced the dittance of the fun about
one half that which we now fuppofe it really to be.

Hipparchus, and afterwards Ptolemy, employed a method

founded on obfervations of eclipfes of the moon. This
method, like that of Ariftarchus, was corret:in its theory,
but defeCtive in praétice, on account of the immente diftance
of the fun, which Ptolemy eftimated at only =; of what
it really is. Tycho employed the fame means, and found
the diftance even Jefs than the above.

Dr. Halley obtained a refult nearer the truth by a tranfit
of Mercury ; he made the diftance { of that which was:
afterwards determined by a tranfit of Venus. He was:
confcious of the inaccuracy of his own refult, and ftrongly-

B.2: =

DISTANCE,

recommended to future aftronomers to avail themfelves of
the tranfits of Venus, which, as he rightly judged, were better
calculated than any otber aftronomical obfervations, to re-
move the great uncertainty in which this queftion was in-
volved.

Previoufly, however, to the tranfits of Venus, which hap-
pened in 1761 and 1769. a great part of the uncertainty was
removed, by a number of very accurate obfervations of the
parallax of Mars. It clearly appeared from the belt ob-
fervations that had been made both by the Englifh and
French aftronomers, that the femi-diameter of the earth,
as feen from the fun, could not fubtend a greater angle than
10”; this was a near approximation to the truth.

It is well known that the determination of the fun’s
diftance, which we now affume as the bafis of our aftronomi-
cal calculations, is derived from the obfervations of the
tranfits of Venus over the fun’s difk in 1761 and 1759. To
derive the greatelt poffible advantage from thefe important
obfervations, aftronomers were fent from Europe to all parts
of the globe, and the refult obtained from their obferva-
tions was, that the fun’s mean parailax was very nearly 8.”6
or &.”7, which gives the diftance of the fun 23600 times
the radius of the earth, or about 95. millions of miles.

The diftance of the fun from the earth being thus deter-
mined and taken as unity, the diftance of the other planets
may be computed: from the law of Kepler demonftrated by
Newton, that the fquares of their periodic times are as the
cubes of their diftances.

In this manner the diftances of the planets have been
computed by different aftronomers, as in the following
table.

De la |Log. ot thete;

Kepler, Caffini. | Halley. Peta peharices,
Mercury 38806 38760] 38710] 38710] 9.5878221
Venus 72413] 72340| 72333} 72333| 9-8593379
Earth 100000} fO0000}100000} T0000} 0.0000000
Mars 152350)152373|'52309) 152369] 0.1825973
Ceres and
the new } 260000
planets
Jupiter 520000|5§20290|5200098} 520270] 0.7162364
Saturn 95 1000|954180]}954007| 954072] 0.9795813
[Herfchel 1r90818c! 1.2806193

The above diftances, neglecting the four decimals, may
be nearly expreffed as follows.

Mercury. - re
Venus "7 “= lg
Earth - - Io
Mars - = IS
Ceres 5 - 26
Jupiter : - 52
Saturn - - 95
Georgian = - 19

The diftances of the fatellites are determined by mea-
furing the angle of their greateft elongation from the
primary planet, with a micrometer, and the diltance of one
being determined, the diftances of the others may be com-
puted from their periodic times, in the fame manner as for
the planets. :

The diftances of the fatellites of Jupiter are as follows ;
In femidiameters of Jupiter,| ilg 1 Tea Oe OB, ihe A

according’ to Caffini, - - | 5.67 | 9.00 | 14.38 | 25.30

Newton, - | 5.96 | 9.49 | 15.14] 26.60
Diftance in minutes, at the |
mean diftance of Jupiter, | 1’ 51”{ 2’ 5714’ 42”| 8’ 16”

Difance of the fatellites of Saturn.

Diftance in mi-| I. | IL. | IIL | 1V, | V. | VIL {VIL
utes, ~ = |9.43/0.56]1-18| 3.0 18.42 135"7.06)27".36
In femidiameters
of Saturn, - |4.89/5.2718.75 |20.29159.18 }
Diftance of the fatelites of the Te Ii.
Georgian, - = - 337.00; 447.233

Tne following table is taken from the Aftronomy of
Biot :

Table of the mean diftances of the fatellites, the radius af

the planet being taken as unity.
Sidereal
Diameter. | Revolution
in Days.
1ft fatellite of Jupiter, 5 6973 1.76913
2d, 9.0559 3.55118
3d, 14.4616 7-15455
4th, 25.4360 | 16.68902
ift fatellite of Saturn, 3.080 0.94271
2d, 3.952 1.37024
3d, 4.893 1.85780
4th, 6.268 2.73948
5th, S.754 4.51749
6th, 20295 | 15-9453
Wie tts ( 59-154 | 79-3296
| rit fatellite of Uranus, ’ 13.120 5.8926
24, 17 022 8.7068
| 3d, 19.845 10.0614
4th, 22.752 13-4559
oth, 45.597 | 38.0750
6th, gt.oo8 107.6944

If the diameter of the earth was found too {mall a bafe
to determine the diftance of the fun, no wonder that it
fhould be totally infufficient to give us any accurate in-
formation relative to the diftance of the fixed ftars, which
is fo immenfe, that even the diameter of the orbit of the
earth fcarce fubtends a vifible angle, though it 1s very little
lefs than two hundred million miles. One of the moft rae
tional arguments againit the motion of the earth round the
fun, is founded on the want of a correfponding parallax in
the fired ftars; but the arguments on the other fide are fo
ftrong and irrefiftible, that we are neceffarily led, as an
obvious confequence, to place the fixed ftars at a diftance
inconceivably remote. When we come to treat more fully
of parallax, we fhall find that there are very reafonable
grounds for fuppofing, that the nearelt ixed flars are about
a million, milion of mules diflant from us. And the {mall
telefcopic ftars at the extremity of the milky way 5co
times that diftance; fo that the light by which they are
vifible, would be twenty thoufand years in being tranfmitied
from them to us!—But fome of the nebule, feen by Dr.
Herfchel in his 40 feet telefcope, are rmmenfely more remote ;
their light muit probably have been fome millions of years
in reaching our fyftem, from which we may draw this cu-
rious inference, that they at leaft have exifted that length
of time.

Diflance of the Moon frem the Sun or jixed Star.

Tt is by means of the angular diltance of the moon.
from the fun or fixed ftars, previoufly calculated, that the
longitude is found at fea, by what 1s called the lunar me-
thod.

To calcuiate the diftance of the moon from the ftar, the

3 longitude

DISTANCE,

longitude of the moon muft be found by the tables for the
given time, fand alfo the longitude of the ftar, Their
refpective diftances from the pole of the ecliptic or latitudes
mult likewife be taken, and a fpherical triangle formed by
the moon, the ftar, andthe pole of the ecliptic, which may
be refolved by the following proportion.

As rad. col. of difference of longitude :: tangent of the
leaft of the two diftances from the north pole of the ecliptic
: tangent of fegment I. f

Subftra& fegment I. from the greateft of the two dif-
tances from the pole: the remainder is fegment IT.

Then as cof: fegment I.: cof. fegment II. :: cof. of
leaft ecliptic polar diftance : cof. of the diftance required.

Tf the diftance required is that of the fun, inftead of a ftar,
the two proportions are reduced to one, namely,

Rad. : cof. difference of longitudes :: cof. latitude of the
moon : cof. of diftance required.

Dr. Mafkelyne’s method, as given in Ph. Tranf. 1764,
confilts in finding the approximate diftance by a fimilar
proportion to that given for finding the diflance of the
fun, namely, as rad. is to cof. of the difference of long:-
tude, fo is the cof. of their difference of latitude to the cof.
of the required diftance. The diftance thus found is to be
then correéted in the following manner.

To the log. of the arc equal radius= 5.3 144251, add the
logarithms of — the fine of the latitude of the moon — the
fine of the latitude of the ftar-—the verfed fine of the differ-
ence of the longitude — and the complement of the loga-
rithms of the approximate diftance found as above. The
fura will be the logarithm of the number of: feconds which
mutt be taken from the approximate diftance to have the
true.

When the given cofires vary rapidly ; and the cofines
found, very flowly, we may employ a formula, given by Mr.
Murdoch in the Phil. Tranf.1758. In any ipherical triangle
(Plate V\. Geometry, fig. 86.) ABC; 2 fin. J A? =

m2 A) Ne We

fin, AB
fin. A* = cof. (A B — AC) — cof. BC; but
cof. (AB = AC) =1 — 2 fin. 1 (AB—AC);,

and tor the fame reafon, cof. BC = 1 —2 fin. LBC’;
{ubftituting thefe values 2 fin. , AB; fin. A C. fin.
$A°=1 —2 fin. S(AB—AC)?—1 +2 fin. £BC?;
-. fin. 7 BC’= fin. AB. fin. AC. fin. } A? + fin. S
(AB—AC)?. Let cw exprefs the difference between
A Band AC, and changing the form of the expreffion we

have fin. S(ABnAC). LAtiuse fn. AC fin, AB

fin. (A Ba
fin. 5 A? ‘ :
ears) : this value may be computed by logarithms, by

dividing it into two equations, and piglet Bis 2h,
Ue Te fay fin. (A Bay AC)

V7 fin. AC. fin. AB = tang. a,then finn } BC =
fin. (AC wA B)

- Cagnoli Trigon. p. 609,

col, a
Example. Let the diftances of the moon and ftar from
the pole of the ecliptic be AB = 80°, and AC = 30°,
their difference of longitude A = 110°; then 4 (ABa
AC) = 25°, and the reft of the calculation (which gives
BC = g1° 1'59"), will be as follows :

Sin. AC 30° = ~ =!

6989700
Sin, AB - - e aaa

9-9933515

9-6922215

9 6922215

4 . © . - 9 8461607
dd. fin. A 55° - = 9-9133045
9-7595252
Sin. 1(AB — AC) - . 9.025453
Tang. @ 53° 40/ 32” - - 0.1335769
ofa - : F 9°77 25835
Taken froom(A B —~ AC) QV ;
Sing HBO © Ly 5 9-8533048
= 45° 30 50"4 BC =e gr 1 59"

De Lambre’s formula is fomewhat fhorter and more con-
venient, namely, fin? £BC = fin.*$(A B+ AC)—col?
ZA, fin. AB, fin. AC. ee

Demonftration. Cof. BC =cof.A . fin. AB. fin. AC
+ cof. AB.cof. AC, ort — 2, fin? 3B C = 2. cof. $
A.fin. AB. fin. AC. fin. AB — fin. AC + cof. AB.
cof. AC = 2 cof@ FA. fin. AB. fina. AC + cof. (AB
+ BC)=2cof2iA.fin. AB. fin, AC + 1 — 2, fin?
+ (AB + BC); hence, fin? £BC = fin. $ (AB +
AC)—col?LA.fin. AB. fin. AC: make £AB +
AC =m, and cof i A. fin. AB. fins, AC = fin ng

and then fin. $ BC = fin.2m — fin,2n= fin. m ent pe,
fin (m—n).

Example.

Sin. AC - 9.658970] Sin. ne = 9.6047520
Sin. AB - = 9.9933515|2 = 23°44! 17.5

Senet | = 55
Sum - = 19.6923215 ——.
Itshalf = 9.8461607|\m-+n 78°44’ 1".5 9.9915494
Cof. SA - 9.7585913|m—n_ 3115 58.5 9.715 1805

Aeneas 19.7067299

Sin. SBC 4'5 30 59.4 9.8533649

Distance of the Sun from the Moon's Node, or Apogee, is
an arc of the ecliptic interceptid between the fun’s true
place, and the monn’s node, or apogee. See Nope.

Distance, Curtate. See Cul aee

Distance of the Bajlions, in Fortification, is the fide of
the extcrior polygon,

Disrance, in Geography, is the arc of a great circle in-
terfedted between two places.

To find the diftance of two places A and B (Plate I.
Geogr. fig. 1.) far remote from each other. Aflume two
ftations, C and D, from which both the places A and B
may be feen; aud with a proper inftrument find the angles
ADC, CDB, ACD, and DCB; and mealure the di-
ftlance CD. .

Then, in the triangle A CD, we have two angles given,
ACD and ADC, together with a fide; from which, by
an ecafy rule in trigonometry, delivered under the article
TRIANGLE, we find A D.

So alfo, in the triangle CD B, the bafe DC, and the
angles at the fame, being given, B D is found.

Laitly, in the triangle A D B, having the fides A D and
D B, together with the included angle A D B; the diftance
required, A B, is found by the rules given for the refolution
of triangles.

The height of a remote obje& being knows, to find its
diftance, when the eye firft defcriesit; and, again, the
height of the eye being given, to find the diftance to which

the

DISTANCE.

the eye can reach on the furface of the fea or land. Add
the height of the eye AB (Plate I. Geometry, fig. 14.) to
the femidiameter of the earth B C, by which you have AC;
and fince, in the right-angled triangle A DC, the fides A C
and D € are given, the angle DC A is found by the com-
mon rule for refolution of triangles, the quantity of which
angle forms the arc D B; which are, converted into feet, or
the like, gives the diftance required,

Suppofe, e.g. the height of the eye A B five feet, which
isfomewhat lefs than in a man of ordinary ftature; fince
BC is 19695539, AC will be 196955443 and the angle
D AB will be found 89° 57’ 43”: confequently, DC B, or
the are DB, is 2’ 17%, or 137” 3 and, therefore, fince 1°,
or 3600", make 343752 Paris feet, D B is 130813 feet.

After the fame manner we find the diltance DB, to
which an object of a given altitude AB may be feen, and,
confequently, we know what diftance we are off from an
obje& of a given altitude, when we firft difcover the top
thereof. See Horizon.

Distances, in Geometry, are meafured by the chain, de-
cempeda, and the like. See Cuan, &c.

Distances, Inacceffble, are found by taking bearings
thereto from the two extremes of a line, whofe length is
given. See PLain-TaBee, Tueoporire, &c.

Distance, in Navigation, is the number of miles, or
leagues, that a fhip has failed from any point. Sce
HAILING.

Distance, Apparent, in Optics, that diftance which we
judge an object to be from us when feen afar off, being
commonly very different from the true diftance becaufe we
are apt to think all very remote objects, whofe parts
cannot well be diftinguifhed, and which have no other ob-
jet in view near them, to be at the fame diltance from us,
though perhaps the one is thoufands of miles nearer
than the other, as is the cafe with regard to the fun and moon,

M. De la Hire enumerates five circumftances, which
affift us in judging of the ditance of objects; viz. their
apparent magnitude, the ftrength of the colouring, the
dire@tion of the two eyes, the parallax of the objects, and
the diftinQnefs of their {mall parts. Dr. Smith main-
tains, that we judge of diftance principally or folely, by the
apparent magnitude of objeéts; and concludes univerially,
that the apparent diftance of an objeé& feen in a glafs, is to
its apparent diltance feen by the naked eye, as the apparent
magnitude to the naked eye is to its apparent magnitude in
the glafs: but Alhbazen long fince obferved, that we do not
judge of diftance merely by the angle under which objects
are feen; and Mr. Robins clearly fhews the hypothelis of
Dr. Smith to be contrary to fact, in the moft common and
fimple cafes. Thus, if a double convex glafs be held up-
right before fome luminous obje&t, as a candle, there will be
feen two images, one erect, and the other inverted ; the firft
is made fimply by refle€tion from the neareft furface: the
fecond, by refleStion from the farther furface, the rays un-
dergoing a refraction from the firlt furface both before and
after the reflexion. If this glafs has not too fhort a focal di-
ftance, when it is held near the object, the inverted image
will aopear larger than the other, and alfo nearer ; but if
the glals be carried off from the object, though the eye re-
main a3 near to it as before, the inverted image will be di-
minifhed fo much fafter than the other, that it will, at
length, appear very much lefs than it, but ftill nearer.
Here, fays Mr. Robins, two images of the fame object are
feen under or view, and their apparent diftances immediately
compared ; and it is evident that thofe diftances have no
neceflary conneétion with the apparent magnitude. ‘This
experiment may be made fill more convincing, by flicking

a piece of paper on the middle of the lens, and viewing it
through a fhort tube. He obferves farther, that the appa-
rent magnitude of very diftant objets, is neither determired
by the magnitude of the angle only under which they are
feen, nor is the exact proportion of that angle compared to
their true diftance, but 1s compounded allo with a decep-
tion concerning the diitance ; fo that, if we had no idea of
difference in the diftance of objects, cach wouid appear in
magnitude proporticnal to the angle under which it was
feen ; and if our apprehenfion of the diltance was always
juft, our idea of their magnitude would be, in all diftances,
unvaricd ; but in proportion as we err in our conception
of their diftance, the greater angle fuggctts a greater mag-
nitude. By not attending to this compound effeét, Mr.
Robins apprehends that Dr. Smith-was Jed into his miftake.
Montucla alfo, without being apprifed of what Mr.
Robins had written, made fimilar objections to the hypo-
thefis of Dr. Smith. Dr. Porterficld has made feveral
remarks on the five methods of judging concerning the
diitance of objects above recited from M. De la Hire;
and he has added to them, the conformation of each eye.
(See Circle of Dissipation.) This, he fays, can be of
no ufe to us, with refpect to objects that are placed without
the limits of diftin& vifion. Lut the greater or lefs con-
fufion with which the obje&t appears, as it is more or
lefs removed from thofe limits, will affik the mind in
judging of its diftance: the more confufed it appears, the
farther will it be deemed. However, this confufion
hath its limits ; for when an object is placed at a certain
diftance from the eye, to which the breadth of the pupil
bears no fenfible proportion, the rays proceeding from a
point in the obje€t may be confidered as parallel ; in which
cafe, the picture on the retina will not be fenfibly more
confufed, though the object be removed to a much greater
diftance. The moft univerfal, and often the moft fure means
of judging of the diftance of objeéts, he fays, is the angle
made by the optic axes: our two eyes are like two different
ftations, by the affiftance of which diltances are taken; and
this is the reafon why thofe perfons who have lott the fight
of one eye fo frequently mifs their mark in pouring liquor
into a glafs, {nuffiag a candle, and fuch other aétions as re-
quire that diftance be exa@ly diftinguifhed. With refpe&
to the method of judging by the apparent magnitude of ob-
jeéts, he obferves, that this can only ferve, when we are
otherwife acquainted with their real magnitude. Thus he
accounts for the deception to which we are liable in efti-
mating diftances, by any extraordinary magnitudes that ter-
minaie them; as in travelling towards a large city, cattle,
or cathedral, we fancy them to be nearer than they really
are. Hence alfo animals and {mall objects feen in a valley,
contiguous to large mountains, or on the top of a
high mountain or building, appear exceeding fmall. Dr.
Jurin accounts for the laft recited phenomenon, by obferv-
ing that we have no diftinét idea of diftances in that oblique
direCtion, and therefore judge of them merely by their pic«
tures on the eye. Dr. Porterfield obferves, with refpe&
to the ftrength of colouring of different objects, that if we
are aflured they are of a fimilar colour, and one appears
more bright and lively than the other, we judge th
brighter objeét to be the nearer, When the {mall parts o
objets appear confufed, or do not appear at all, we judge
that they are at a greater diltance, and vice ver/a ; becaufe
the image of any object, or part of an object, diminifhes as
the diftance of it increafes, Finally, we judge of the dif.
tance of objets by the number of intervening bodies
whereby it is divided into feparate and diftinét parts; and,
the more this is the cafe, the greater will the diftance ap-
peare

DIS

pear. Thus, diftances upon uneven furfaces appear lefs
than upon a plane, becaufe the inequalities do not appear,
and the whcle apparent diftance is diminifhed by the parts
that do not appear in it: and thus the banks of a river ap-
pear contiguous to a diftant eye, when the river is low and
not feen, Accidens de la Vue, p. 358. Smith’s Optics,
vol. i. p, 52. and Rem, p. 51. Robins’s Traéts, vol. it.
p.230, 247, 251. Porterfield on the Eye, vol. i. p. 105,
vol. ti. p. 387, &ce Sze,Prieftley’s Hilt, of Villon, p. 205.
and p. 689, &c. . See VisiBLeE. :

Distance of the Pidure, in Perfpeciive. If, from the point
of fight, a ftraight line be drawn perpendicular to the picture,
the point in which that line cuts the pifiure, is called the cen-
tre of the picture; and the diltance between that centre and
the point of fight is called the diftance of the pi€ure. The
choice of a proper diftance from the eye to the picture is of
great importance to the pleafing reprefentation of an object,
which cannot be feen to advantage, if the angle which it
fubtends exceed 40°. q 4

In the examples that are given by writers of perf{pective
to illuftrate the art, we frequently find the reprefentation of
objeéts very diftorted and unnatural, This inconvenience
it is very difficult, and, in many cafes, impoflible to avoid ;
for, as all the auxiliary lines are in proportion to the diftance
of the eye from the piCture, this diftance is unavoidably af-
fumed too f{mall, otherwife the vanifhing lines and points,
and other lines conneéted with the demonftration, would ex-
ceed the limits of the paper. Therefore, learners fhould be
aware of this circumftance, and not miftake an example
for imitation, a defe&t which it would have been defirable
to have avoided. 5 : ;

Distance of a Vanifbing Line. Tf a ftraight line be
drawn from the point of fight, perpendicular to a vanifhing
line, the point where it interfe&ts it is called the centre of
the vanifhing line ; and the diftance of this centre from the
point of fight, is the diftance of the vanifhing line. _

The diftance of a vanifhing line is always the hypothenufe
of a right-angled triangle, of which the two fides are the
diftance of the pi€ture, and the diftance of the centre of the
picture from the centre of the vanifhing line. Example (Plate.
Perfpeélive, fig. 1.) Let C be the centre of the picture, V v
any vanifhing line ; through C draw C E parallel to Vv, mak-
ing CE equal to the diftance of the piture ; draw Cc per-
pendicular to V v, and join Ec: c will be the centre of the
vanifhing line, Vv and Ec its diftance, being the hypothe-
nufe of the right-angled triangle E Cc, in which E C is the
diftance of the pi@ure, and Cc the diltance of the centre of
the picture from the centre of the vanifhing line. \

Distance, Points of. It is by means of the points of
diftance, that we are enabled, in perfpedtive, to aflign to the
reprefertation of lines, their proportion with refpe@ to the
original.

The points of diftance areal wayslaid offonthe vanifhing-line
of theoriginal plane, on which the original line to be reprefent-
ed is fuppofed to be fituated. They are fo called, becaufe
they are placed at the fame diftance from the vanifhing
point, as the diftance of the vanifhing point from the point
of fight. It moft frequently occurs in praétice, that the
points of diftance are laid off on the horizontal line, and the

roportions derived from them on the ground-line, or inter-
haing line. Thus in Plate 1. Perfpedive, fig. 2. which is the
perfpective reprefentation of a cube, whofe fide is ad; Vv is
the Forizontal line, or vanifhing line, of the bafe of the cube;
V the vanifhing point of the line, or edges of the cube am,
én; E the point of fight. Then with the centre V, and
diftance VE, defcribe the arc ED, the point D, where it
interfeGts the horizontal line, is the point of diftance of the
vanifhing point V.

5

DIS

If now a@ on the ground-line be taken equal to the ori-
ginal line or fide of the cube, and D 8 be drawn from the
point of diftance, the point m, where it interfe&ts « V, will
determine the length am, which is to be given to the repres
fentation of the fide of the cube.

In the fame manner we find the point of diftance d cor:
refponding to the vanifhing point v ; aed the mitre or dia-
gonal point of diftance D m, correfponding to the diagonal
vanifhing point mv, and it will be feen by infpe&ion of the
figure, how all thefe points of diftance may be ufed to de-
termine the_proportion of lines which tend to their corres
{ponding vanifhing points. Thus if ay be taken equal to
the diagonal of the {quare ad, anda line drawn from Dm
to », the point x, where it interfe&s a m, will determine
ax, which is the perfpective reprefentation of the
diagonal.

But it is by no means neceflary that the points of diftance
fhould be taken on the horizontal line Vv; for the line am
belongs equally to the plane ad mn, whofe vanithing line is
V Dy, and interfeting line y a8. Now,if V D: be taken
equal to V E, another point of diftance D. will be obtained,
which will equally ferve to proportion the line am; for if
we takeay = a, and join D; and y, the fame interfeGtion m
will be obtained ae before, and fince am belongs not only to
the planes amanb, amxz, but to an infinity of others, it
is evident that there muft be an infinity of lines, upon which
the points of diftance may be equally taken. Hence any
line drawn through a may be confidered as the interfeGting
line of a plane, in which the ftraight line @ V is fituated; a
line drawn through V parallel to it, will be the vanifhing
line, upon which if V D be taken equal to V E, D will be
the point of diftance, by which the line a V may be divided
into any proportional parts of the interfe@ing or original
line. It cannot be too often recommended to the ftudent in
commencing the fcience of perfpective, to confider every
cafe in this general manner, and to endeavour to diveft him=
felf of all partiality for the horizontal and ground-lines,
which are nothing more than the vanifhing and interfeGing
lines of an original plane parallel to the horizon, as will be
more fully illuttrated under perfpeGtive and other fubjects
connected with it.

DISTASTE, or Diseust, a lofs of appetite, or an
averfion, or repugnance, to foods which are commonly eaten.

Diftafte is held, by phyficians, one of the principal dif-
orders of the ftomach. It arifes from a want of fenfation
in the upper orifice of the ventricle, which may be occa=
fioned various ways: as by a too great abundance of food ;
thick, heavy humours in the ftomach: fat vifcid aliment ;
obitru€tions of the laGeals: fuppreffions of the ufual eva-
cuations ;- intermiffions of the ordinary exercifes, a defe& of
the nerves, in havirg their natural faculty abolifhed, or faf=
pended, as in a lethargy, and apoplexy ; and according to
Sylvius, by a grofs vifcid faliva, or a thick bile, afcending
out of the fmall guts into the ftomach.

DISTEMPER, in Medicine: See Disease.

Distemrer is ufed in Painting, for the working up of
colours with fomething elfe befides mere water, or oil.

If the colours be prepared with the former of thefe, that
kind of painting is called limning ; and if with oil, it ie
called painting in oil, or fimply painting.

If the colours be mixed with fize, whites of eggs, or any
fuch proper glutinous, or un€tuous fubftance, and not with
oil, they then fay, it is done in diftemper; as thofe of the
admirable cartoons, formerly at Hampton court: and as all
ancient pictures are faid to have been painted before the
year I41o.

The beft method of compounding the colours with the
vehicles, is to mix the fize in water; then to levigate the

colouré

DIS

eolours in part of it, and afterwards to put each kind into
a proper pot, adding as much more of the melted fize as
will bring it to a due confiltence, and mixing the whole weil
together in the pot, witha proper brufh or wooden {patula.
Warm water may be afterwards added, if neceffary, for
grinding the colours, or for working. The pots mult be
tied with bladders. This method of painting is chiefly con-
fined to fcenesy and grofler works, where the effect depends
more upon the perlpective art, and oppofition of the co-
lours, than on their brightnefs.

DISTENSION, the a& of flretching a thing; alfoa
ftate of a thing violently ftretched, and diltended. See
TENSION.

Distension, Diftenfio, Arazaosz, in the Ancient Mufic,
was ufed for the differences of founds with rejation to acuie
and grave. Wallis’s Append. ad Ptolem. Harm. p. 154.

Nature, in this refpeét, ftrictly fpeaking, afficns no limits.
But, with regard to our ufe, the ancient mulicians held,
that the nature of what founded, and alfo of what was to
judge, that is, the human ear, was to be confidered: for,
neither the human voice, nor even any initrument, can give
intervals of diltenfions immenfcly great o: {mall, nor could
the ear judge of fuch. Ariftoxenus fixes the leaft interval
of difenfion in practice, to the diefis enharmonica. As to
the gre , he thinks it does not exceed two o€taves, and
a fourth, or a fifth, if we confider any human voice, or
three oGtaves, if we confider one and the fame inftrument.
He does not deny that the extent of the voice, confidered
in diff-rent fubje€ts, as in men and children, may go even
beyond four octaves. Ariftoxen. p. 21. edit. Meibom.

DISTHENE, in Mineralogy. See Sappane.

DISTICH, Assix0x, a couplet of verfes; or a piece of

oetry, the fenfe whereof is comprehended in two lines.
here are excellent morals in Cato’s dittichs. See Vigneul
de Marville on the Diltichs of Cato, tom. i. p. 54, 55-

Hexameter and pentameter verfes, otherwife called cle-
giacs, are difpofed in diftichs.

DISTICHIASIS, formed of os, twice, and sixo3, or.
rorxo:, order, rank, in Medicine, a diforder of the eye-lids;
wherein, initead of one, they have two rows of cilia, on
hairs.

In the diftichiais, over the common, and natural hairs,
there grows another extraordinary row, which frequently
ertdicates, and tears up the former; and,. pricking the
membrane immediately invefting the eye, occafions pain,.and
draws defluxions upon it. :

It is cured by plucking up the fecond rows of hairs
with nippers, and cauterifing the pores out of which they
iffued.

DISTICHUS, in Botany, (from ois, dauble, and stxX05, a
row,), two-rank<d, ‘applied to a ft¢m, expreffes that the

branches fpread in two oppofite direGtions, asin the Silver:

Fir, Pinus picea. Difticha folia, two ranked leaves, are fuch
as {pread hkewife in two rows, and yet are not regularly op-
polite at their infertion, likethe Yew, Taxus baccata_ and the
Pinus canadenfis. Sm. Vntrod. to Botany 121, 147.

DISTILLATION, is. one of the great operations in
Chemifry, and is performed in a great variety of ways, ac-
cording to the objeQ@ to be attained. It may. be defined a
procefs of evaporation, or volatilization, performed in veffels
adapted to condenfe or colle the fubftance volatilizcd.
Diftillation would naturally divide itfelf into three clafles,
according as the fub{tance obtatnedis folid, fluid, or gaffeous;
but it not unfrequently happens, that the products of the
fame operation are collected in all three of thefe flates, fo
that the fubje& may be Were ulefully confidered in a prac-
tical view, as being performed with Simple or with compound
apparatus.

DIS

Difillation, where the fole or principal produét is folid,
is equally termed fublimation, and in gencral is performed
with a very fimple apparatus. Ina valt number of opera-
tions, both in the {mall and large way, a fingle veffel is fuf-
ficient for fublimation. Thus, in fubliming camphor from
the rough material, a large glafs globe is the only veffel
employed. The rough camphor and other materials are
dropped in, leaving the greater part. of the veffel empty,
and the bottom alone is heated, by which the vapour of the
camphor rifes to the upper part, which is comparatively
cool, and there concretes into a hard tough cake, which
moulds itfelf into the form of the veffel. Formerly, the vef-
fels called aludels were much employed in dry diftillation,
which was the cafe when the fubftance vaporized was not
readi.y condenfed, and when it was required to continue the
procefs for a confiderable time, without deranping the lowett
veflel where the materials were heated... The aludels were a
feries of pots, with an upper and lower opening, and fitted
to each other, fo that the vapour could pafs up from the
firlt to the fecond, -the fecond to the third; and fo on to the
uppermoft. They are defcribed more particularly under the
article ALUDEL, and are reprefented in Plate IIL. Chemifiry,
Jig. 14. The ufe of aludels in manufa&ture, however, hae
been very generally fuperfeded by long lateral chambers into»
which the vapour is conduéted, thefe being found much
more convenient, particularly (among other things) on this
account, that in the perpendicular range of aludels, any flight
concuffion is apt to caule the fublimed fubftance to fall down,
again into the loweft veffel and. defeat the end of the ope-
ration.

In chernical experiments, a Florence flaflc is often quite fuffi-
cient for fublimations, the bottom. alone being heated by a
lamp, or on a fand-bath, and the neck loofely flopped.
Thus, {mall quantities of reguline-arfenic, corrofive mercu--
rial fublimate, calomel, and many other important prepara-
tions may be made. Where a very great heat is required,
an earthen retort is the belt veif-l for fublimation, and the
fublimed fubftance may oe collefted, either in the cooler ex--
tremity of the neck of the retort, or imany receiver beyond!
it which may be adapted to it. Thus zine may: be dittitled
from calamine and charcoal, or phofphorus from phofphoric-
acid and charcoal, fimply by dipping the end of the neck of the
retort in water, and the fublimed fubfance, in eithercafe,con-
cretes partiy within the neck and partly in the water. Where-
the vaporized fubftance, which is folid' when cold, is paff-d)
through water, it concretes into a remarkably fine powder,
inftead. of a hard cake, as is ufually the cafe when the re-
ceiver is dry. Advantage has ingemtoufly been taken of late
of this ‘circumftance in the preparation of calomel, in the-
laboratory of Meflrs. Howard and Company, to: fave the:
labour employed in levigatmg this important mercurial pre-
paration, for by driving the vaporized calomel through wa-
ter, it concretes into.a powder which f{carcely. any mechani-
cal operation could bring to equal in finenefs.

Sublimation is alfo occafionally performed either in a:
retort and receiver, or in amalembic and capital, as will be
prefently deferibed. This is commonly done where apart:
of the vaporized fubftance condenf{cs-alfo intoa fluid, which:
is to be preferved.

The apparatus ufed’ in the obtaining of gaffes, by the-
d.itllation of folids or liquids, is in general very fimple. A.
retort, either of giafs or earth, to the neck of which is luted
a narrow tube for the conveyance of the gas to the pneus
matic trough, is in general fufficient.. It may be obferved,
that the beft fhape for retorts for the diftillation. of: gafles
is that in which the neck isfmall, long, and narrow; whereas
in the d:f{tillation of liquids, a. much more roomy neck is re-

quired.
The

DISTILLATION.

~The apparatus for the diftillation of liquids is that which
has engaged the greateft attention from chemifts and ma-
nufacturers ; and from the conftant ufe made of this procels,
both in experiments, and in manufedture, it is of extreme
importance. Every apparatus for this purpofe mult con-
fift at leaft of two parts, viz. the botler or veffel in which
the materiale are heated, and the veffel communicating. with
the former, in which the fteam or vapour is condenfed into
aliquid. A circumftanee occurs here alfo, which does not
take place in the diftillation of folids and gaffes, which is
the large quantity of latent heat that the liquid acquires
when reduced to vapour, and confequently which mutt be
again expelled before the vapour can be condenfed into a
liquid. Hence in diftilling of liquids, eituer the condenf-
ing veffel mult be made extremely large, to allow of a vatt
furface to be expofed to the cooler air, or (what is always
the cafe if proceffes of this kind in the large way,) fome
particular contrivance muift be added for cooling the vapour,
which is generally cfleted by furrounding the outfide of
the condenfing veflel with a large body of cold water.
It was this circumitance indeed, that is, the prodigious
quantity of heat imparted to a large body of water, by a
comparatively {mall portion of fteam in the aét of conden-
fation, which firlt fuggefted to the late Dr. Black his beau-
tiful: theory of latent heat, and furnifhed him with the
mott ftriking illuftration of his opinions.

Diftillation of liquids in the large way is ufually carried
on in this country in the ttill and refrigeratory; but in
many parts of the continent the alembic is preferred. ‘The
conftruction of the alembic has been already defcribed under
that article.- It eflentially confilts of two parts, viz. the
boiler, which is either cylindrical or approaching to globu-
Jar, and the capital, which clofely fits on the top of the
boiler, and is furrounded on the outfide with, and inclof-
ed in, a veffel containing cold water. The advantages and
defects of the alembic have been defcribed under that ar-
ticle. The great defect of the old conftrution is the fitua-
tion of the veffel of cold water intended to condenfe the
vapour ; for being dire&tly over the boiler, if i: is kept
fufficiently cold to prevent the efcape of any of the vapour,
a portion of the latter, when condenfed, falls back again
into the boiler, and thus the procefs is needlefsly prolonged.
It was with the particular view of removing this defe&
that feveral chemifts (and efpecially Beaumé) have added to
the capital of the alembic a ferpentine or worm. tub,
placed hefide the boiler, into which the conduting pipe of
the capital is continued in a {piral form, fo as to detain the
vapour for its compleat condenfation, none of which
cau again fall into the boiler. ‘This led to a farther fim-
plification of the whole apparatus, by entirely removing
the refrigeratory over the boiler, and thus forcing the whole
of the vapour uncooled into the worm pipe, where the
. water which furrounds it condenfes it into a liquid. ‘Phis
apparatus forms the common ftill and cooler, or worm, now
univerfaily employed in the diftiilation of all kinds of fpirits,
and the preparation of diftilled waters, and a number of
other ufeful purpofes.

-The common fill confifts of a boiler, (a, fig. 1. Plate
VIL.) which may, for imall quantities, be made to fit
loofely into any kind of furnace or ftove, as here reprefented ;
but in the large way is fixed in mafonry with a fire-place
beneath it, of a head or capital 4, which confilts of a hol-
low globe fitting upon the boiler, and with its upper part
drawn out into a curved pipe of decreafing diameter, which
defcribes a compleat arch, and terminates at the upper part
of the ferpentine or worm into which it fits. The latter, c,

is a long pipe, with a regularly decrealing diameter, which is -

Vou. XII,

arranged in a f{piral form in the middle of a large tub of cold
water, d, by means of which the vapour is condenfed, and
trickles down in a fmall regular ftream from the lower end
of the worm ¢, where it emerges from the fide of the tub.
The boiler of the fill is generally made of tinned copper,
as well as the lower part of the capital ; but the arched ter-
mination of the latter, as well as the whole of the worm, are
generally of pewter. The joining between the boiler and
capital requires a flizhe luting, for which flips of palted pa-
per, or wet bladder, are moftly fufficient. ‘he Jine of tube,
from the arch of the capital to the bottom of the worm,
fhould be an uniformly defcending fpiral to prevent any
lodgement of the diftilled liquor, and fome nicety ts requir-
ed in large flills, to give the worm an exa& degree of flope,
which is found by experience to be the moft favourable to
f{peedy condenfation. The chief difadvantage attending this
apparatus is the difficulty of cleaning the ferpentine, when
any ftrong {melling fubflance, fuch as an effential oil, has
been procured; and, in this ref{peét, the common alembic,
with the refrigeratory round the capital, has the advantage.

The management of the fire is of great importance in all
diftillations, to aveid on the one hand boiling over, or burn-
ing the ingredients by too great heat; and on the other, to
keep up the fire ftrong enough to efford an. regular
evapcration into the condenting part of the apparatus.
When too much heat ‘is ufed, there is alfo danger of- the
capital being blown off by the great expanfive force of
the vapour which is too fuddenly generated, and cannot be
condenfed with fufficient rapidity ; or elfe the liquor in the
boiler nfes up into the capital, and flows over into the fer-
pentine. This latter accident is perceived by the liquor
coming out from the bottom of the ferpentine not ina clear
uniform ftream, but by gufhes, and ftarts with a guggling
noife, and coloured or fouled. When the ftream of dif-
ftilled water flows evenly, and the boiling liquor is heard to
fimmer moderately within the ftill, the procefs will be known
to go on properly.

We may meation in this place the projeét of diftilling in
vacuo, which feems firft to have fuggefted itfelf to the
late Dr. Black, and which, at firft fight, appears a very
ingenious and happy idea, The evaporation of 1 quids is
regulated not only by the heat to which they are expofed,
but by the degree of preflure to which they are fubjeéted,
the evaporation being inverfely as the preffure. Thus, as it
is well known, ether wiil evaporate fo violently as to boil in
vacuo, and alcohol will boil at a very moderate warmth un-
der the fame cireumftances. Hence it was fuppofed, that
by diftilling in vacuo, a vaft faving of fuel would be obtained,
as the temperature required would be fo much lefs than in
ordinary circumftances. ‘lhe experiment was made by Mr. -
Watt, and is thus related in Dr. Black’s LeGures. A very
{mall ftill was half filled with water, and then clofely united
with the receiver, fo that every joining of the apparatus was
air-tight. A {mali hole was made in the bottom of the re-
ceiver, and a plug was fitted to it. ‘The water being made
to boil violently fent the {team through the whole apparatus
(there being no water in the refrigeratory to condenfe it)
forcing the air out-by the hole. While the whole was boil-
ing hot, and the fteam blowing through the hole, this was
fuddenly ftopped by the plug, and the bottom of the full
was fet inice. This foon cooled its contents, and the fteam
which occupied the reft of the apparatus collapfed into a few
drops of water, leaving the fpace which it had occupied
nearly in vacuo. A lamp was now fet under the ftill, and
in a few minutes the whole apparatus grew warm. Cold
water was put into the refrigeratory, and the diftillation went
on flowly and evenly, though the head of the itil was

C fearcely

DISTILLATION,

fearcely warm to the hand. The temperature of the fteam
was only 100°, but on comparing the quantity of water dif-
tilled, with the increafe of temperature which had been im-
parted to the water of the refrigeratory, by the condenfa-
tion, it was found that the latent heat of the feam, when
produced in vacuo, was furprifingly increafed, and therefore
it is obvious that a proportional increafe of fuel is conftantly
required to caufe the water to evaporate at all, By repeat.
ing the experiment carefully, Mr. Wait found that water
would diftil very well in vacuo at the temperature of 70°,
but that in this ftate the latent heat of the fteam amounts
to as much as nearly 1300; and therefore as the latent heat
is at leaft as much increafed as the difilling temperature
is diminifhed, the additional quantity of fuel required for
the former purpofe more than counierbalances the faving of
fuel in the latter.

The apparatus generally ufed for the diftillation of mode-
rate quantities, and in laboratory experiments, is the retort
and recciver. The retort is made either plaia or tubulated,
and fitted with a ground flopper. It fhould be roomy at
the bend, as it is there where the vapours firft begin to con-
denfe. When the plain retort is ufed, the materials to be
diftilled, if liquid fhould be poured in by a funnel with a
very lonameck, that none may lodge in the neck of the re-
tort. Thebottom of the retort, where the heat is applied,
is blown pretty thin, and being of uniform thicknels, it will
readily bear the heat of an Argand lamp; or even it may be
flung upon a chain, and placed a little way above an open
coal or charcoal firs, it burning clearly without much
rifk of breaking. he neck of the retort a, fg. 2, Plate
VII. may either pafs at once into that of the receiver, or
fometimes an Adopter, b, as it is called, is interpofed to in-
creafe the diftance between the retort and receiver, and all
the joinings are clofely luted. The receiver c fhould be of
confiderable capacity to afford a large cool furface for the
condenfation of the vapour, and this may be further affified
by covering it with a cloth kept conftantly wetted with cold
water: the receiver is fometimes a fimple globe, but it is
preferable even in the fimplett.diftitlations, to have a long
tube drawn out from it at the bottom, as here reprefented,
which may conveniently enter a bottle d, placed underneath,
and thua the liquor is drawn off from the receiver, and the
produéts of the operation may be examined at any period of
the procefs without unluting any of the veffels ; befides which
all danger of buriting the veflels by too copious a-guth of
vapour is avoided.

All the apparatus for diftilling, however, which we have
hitherto defcribed, is only ufeful in the fimpler proceffes,
that is, where the produét of the operation is only a folid or
fluid, and eafily condenfible without addition. Thus the alem-
bic or flill, with the refrigeratory, is devoted almott exclufively
to the diilillation of aromatic and other waters or fpirits,
which readily condenfe by co.ling ; and the fimple retort
and receiver is ufually referved either to experimental pur-
pofes, or in the large way, to the preparation of the ftronger
acids, or of phefphorus and other fubltances, that require a
very ftrong heat. But the older chemifts often felt a moft
material inconvenience in the ufe of the retort and receiver ;
for many diftillations a-e attended with the produétion of a
valt quantity of gas or vapour, either entirely uncondenfible,
or which can fcarcely be made to affume a liquid form with-
out being paffed through water or other fluids. Hence it
was neccflary either to ufe one or more enormoufly large
receivers, or elfe to drilla {mall hole in the receiver em-
ployed, or to leave the veflels only flightly luted, and to
avoid the rifk of burlting them by the expanfion of the
confined vapour, by letting it efcape into the open air, ‘This

often canfed the lofs of the moft material and interefting pro -
duét of the diftillation, efpecially in experiments of refearch,
when the nature of gafeous bodies began to form fo confpi+
cuous a part of the philofophy of chemiftry. All thefe in-
conveniences have been effectually remedied by the appara-
tus of the late Mr. Woulfe, and the various improvements
upon jf, which have fince been adopted, and the utility of
this apparatus, 1s fo great, that the invention forms almoft
an era in chemical difcovery. Even as early as the time
of Glauber the incoavenience of the old apparatus was felt,
and this ingenious chemift, about the year 1655, gave a me-
thod of adding to the firft receiver a lateral feries of
fone or earthen jars, connected with it and with each other
by fyphon-fhaped tubes, whereby all the vapour which ef-
caped, condenfation in the receiver was-obliged to -pafe
through thefe jars before it could efcape into the airs Thefe
jars, however, were not half filled with water, as in Mr.
Weoulfe’s plan, but empty, and fet in a large pan of cold
water to aflilt the condeniation.

‘The great improvement made in this apparatus by the
late Mr. Woulfe, and defcribed in the Phil. Tranf. for 1767, -
was to fill rhefe veflcls with water into which the conduét-
ing pipes dip, and thus to compel every portion of vapour or
gas to pafs through as many vedlels of water as is required *
before it is allowed to efcape ; and even at laft the gas may
be detained by conneGiing the tube from the laft bottle
with a pneumatic trough or a gas-holder. :

Another contrivance, however, is eflential to the perfeétion »
of this apparatus. When the diftillation is nearly over, or>
when, from any accidental cooling, the production of gas or
vapour begins to flacken, a degree of vacuum is always -
made in the retort owing to the contra@tion by cooling in the -
bulk of the vapour which it contains. This circumftance
forms a fimilar vacuum in the receiver, to fill which a ftrong -
abforption or fu€tion of the liquic takes place from the firft
bottle back into the receiver through the conneéting tube. -
This again would caufe an equal vacuum in the firlt bottle,
were it not that aa equal portion of liquid of the fecond
bottle is fucked up into the firft: and this again produces .
the fame abforption from the third to the fecond, and fo on
through the whole feries of connected bottles, through every
part of which a retrograde motion takes place; andthe dif- ~
ferent produéts of the operation, which were colieGed fe-
parately in the different vefftls, are thus mixed and con-
founded together. Toremedy this defeé, feveral contrive.
ances have been adopted. ‘The inventor, Mr. Woulfe, em-
ployed an intermediate empty veflel between the receiver and
the firft water-bottle, into which the bent tube from the
receiver was immerfed only toa very fhort depth, in confe- -
quence of which, when the abforption took place, the liquor
was poured into this intermediate veflel, and went no further.
Another mode of obviating abforption is by letting in the
external air to that part of the apparatus where the vacuum .
begins. This, however, cannot be done by a conftant and
free communication with the air, for in this cafe, the veffels
not being air-tight, the whole objeé of the apparatus, in
compelling the produéts of diftilation to pafs through wa-
ter for condenfation, would be defeated. There mutt, there-
fore, be fome contrivence by which the veflels may be kept
air-tight fo long asthe diftillation continues, but muft admit
the atmofphere aa foon-as ever the flow of vapour or gas
ceafes, and a vacuum is beginning to be formed, This ob-
jet may be attained in feveral ways. The fimpleft is to in-’
fert into the vetlel a long tube of narrow bore, which fhall
jutt dip into the contained liquid, and thus fhut out the air
curing diftillation, but will eafily admit the air when a par- .
tial vacuum is formed, and the level of the liquid is a little

lowered

DISTILLATION.

fJowered by the faction of a portion into the condudting tube
from the adjoining veflel. Thefe tubcs, for préventing ab-
forption, generally occupy the middlemoft of the three open-
ings with which the Woulfe-apparatus bottles are ufually
made, and which is fhewn asa feparate figure in Plate V1.
with the npright tube perferating the cork. The great ad-
vantage of thefe tubes is, that they are fimple, ealily obtained,
and put together without any difficulty, nothing more being
neccflary than to bore a round hole in the cork, and lute the
joinings with fealing-wax or fome ether cement. This con-
trivance has the difadvantages, however, that when any great
influx of gas caufes a preflure within the bottle, a part of
the liquor muft be forced out of the upright tube, unlefs it be
made fo inconveniently long as to counteraé&t any moderate
preflure: and alfo that when the bulk of the contained h-
quor is much increafed during the diftillation, the lower end
of the tube dips too low to anfwer the defired purpofe of
preventing abforption of the liquid into the contiguous bottle.

Another contrivance, to prevent abforption, and which has
no other imperfeGtion than its extreme frazility and liability
to accident, is the tube with one or two bulbs, invented bya
French artift, of the name of Wetter, and bearing his name.
It is thewn with two bulbs forming the upper portion of, and
cemented to the connecting tube f, Plate V1, and with a
fingle bulb and feparate in Plate VIL. fig. 3; ¢ forming the
ftopper of the receiver a. The Wetter’s tube (which is
of glafs, like all the reft of the Woulfe’s apparatus) is beut
‘twice to a compleat return or femicircle, fo that one extremity
is oppofite to the other, The upperend is expanded into a
kind of cup or bulb, and another complete bulb is blown in
the {pace between the two bends. A little mercury is then
poured into the tube, enough to fill the lower bend, and thus
compleatly to fhut up all communication with the external air,
If in this ftate, there is 2 greater prefiure within the veflel ; to
whichthe Wetter’s tubeis adapted, thanthatof the externalair,
the mercury is forced on towards the upper orifice of the tube,
by its weight increafing the preflure within the veffel, and
it is not till this preflure is fo great as to force all the mercury
into the upper bulb, that any gas can efcape from the veflel
into the air. On the other hand, if abforption takes place
within the veffzl, and, is confequence, a partial vacuum begins
to form, the preffure of the external air then drives all the
mercury into the other bulb (or that which is between the
two bends); and as this fluid does not fill the cavity, the air
from without paffes by its fide, and rufhes into the veflel to
reftore the equilibrium. This fimple aud ingenious contrivance,
therefore, unites almoft every requifite, but unfortunately its
length and the ftrefs on particular parts render it extremely
liable to be broken, more efpecially-where it is hermetically
fealed to, and forms a part of a bent conduéting tube as in
F, Plate VI. The danger of breaking is alfo much increafed
whilft it is made to fit into any glafs veflel by grinding.
The feries of veffcls which forms the compound Woulfe’s
diftilling apparatus in the above plate may be here briefly de-
fcribed, as it is well arranged and fitted for the moft important
experiments. A is a fand-trough fixed over a furnace, and
containing the tubulated retort B, in the neck of which is
fitted the acid-holder C, This iz a glafs phial furnifhed
with a glafs flop-cock, accurately ground to fit both the
phial and the neck of the retort. Its ufe is to allow the
operator to drop any acid or other liquid down from the
phial into the retort, for the purpofe of difengaging gas on
other vapour from the contents of the retort, without ad-
mitting any particle of external air, which in delicate ex-
periments of refearch is of importance. D is a tubulated
receiver, {upported by the wooden {tand E; F is the conduct.

ing and.the Wetter’s tube in one piece, as already defcribed.
When therefore any vacuum occurs, either in the retort
or the receiver, the external air rufhesin through the Wetter’s
tube, and prevents any regurgitation of liquor from the
bottle G, into the receiver: G, I, L, are bottles with three
tubulures, conne&ted with cach other by the bent tubes H, K;
M is a tube proceeding from the laft bottle, and which is
bent of the proper form to be introduced under a jar in-
verted over water or mercury, into which may pafs any gas
which has not becen condenfed either in the receiver, or by
pafling through the liquid of any of the botties. N is a
convenient box, which ferves both asa ftand for the Woulfe
bottles, and as a fecure place to keep them in when not
ufed. It may be added that if any abforption be appre-
hended of the liquor from any one of the bottles into’ the
other, (which however can hardly happen independently of
a vacuum beginning in the retort and receiver) this may be
provided againft by fitting the middle opening with a tube,
(as here reprefented feparately) which muft juft dip below
the furface of the liquor of the bottles.

Several ingerious compound ditiliing apparatufes have been
contr:ved, which fhould anfwer the end of conveying vapour
through any ferics of liquids for the purpofe of condenfation,
without having the fragility of the Woulfe’s apparatus of
contiguous bottles on the fame level and conneGed with
bent tubes, for it fhould be added, that it is extremely dif-
ficult where the two extremities of the tubes are cilofely
ground to fit the bottles, to give that precife degree of bend
to the middie of the tubes which fhall keep the ftoppered ends
in their places, without leaving a dangerous ftrefs on any part
of fuch fragile fubftances.

fig. 28, Plate V. is a trong and ufeful kind of Woulfe’s
apparatus, invented by the late Dr. Hamilton. Its con-
ftruétion is obvious by mere infpeftion. The retort A is
to be fupported and heated either on a fand bath, or on a
ftand. over a lamp, and the dittilled matters pafs into the
fucceffive receivers C. C, C, C, intothe left three of which
water is to be put, whilft that which is neareft to the retort
is to be left empty. If this receiver is tubulated, anda
Wetter’s tube fixed to the opening, or if the retort is
tubulated and provided with the Wetter’s tube, all abforption
will be prevented.

Fig. 3, Plate VII. isa ufeful and fafe Woulfc’s apparatus,
invented by Mr. Knight of Fofter-lane, London. A, B,
C, D, reprefents four veffeis, each ground into the mouth of
that below it. E, E, E,-are glafs tubes, the middles of which
are ground into the neck of each veflel, ard of fufficient
length to allow the upper end to rife above the liquor, while
the lower defcends nearly to the bottom of the veffel below:
one of thefe tubesis reprefented feparately in fg. 4. The
veffel A is kept empty, and ferves as a receiver to contain
any liquid diftiiled from the retert which enters at the
orifice I", and it is alfo furnifhed witha Wetter’s tube G, to
prevent the abforption of any liqnid up from the lower veflels,
when a vacuum is formed by the cooling of the retort or
recetver. . The veffels B, C, and D, are filled with the li-
quor intended to be impregnated with the vapour or gag,
that diftils over and which paffes by the tubes fucceffively
through the whole range of veflels. The lower one, D, has
the bent tabe H_ to carry off any unabforbable gas, and it is
made brozd and firm at the bottom, befides being fitted
intoa heavy wooden ftand (not here reprefented,) to leifen
the danger of being overfet. This apparatus unites every
requifite, and it has the great advantage of not. being eafily
deranged, and if any part is broken, it may be replaced
without much difficulty.

Cg Somé

DIS

Some other modes of faturating liquids with gaffes ia
compound diltillations, will be mentioned under the article
Noorn’s Apparatus.

Distitiation, Brewing for. See Brewinc.

Distitration of /alt water, in order to obtain frefh.
See Salt-WarTer.

Distivvation of wood.
- DISTILLED Spirits. See Spirits,

Distitvep Waters, in Pharmacy. When any vegetable
matter is boiled with water in any veffel fitted to colle&
and condenfe the vapour, a dittilled water is obtained, which
is, in almoft every inftance, fomewhat impregnated with
odorous or fapid particles which it has extraé&ted from the
vegetable and carried up with it inthe procefs. But the
difference in degree of impregnation, according to the fub-
flance employed, is extreme. Sometimes only a faint and
naufeous tafte 1s given, which foon goes off; but in other
inftances the water is highly fcented an& tafteful.

The firft occurs where the plant is of the herbaceous and
nearly infipid kind, or only bitter without being aromatic ;
but where the plant is rich in effential oil, or ftrongly aromatic,
the water partakes largely of thefe properties. ;

“A valt variety of diltilled waters have been ufed in phar-
macy, moft of them obtained from the vegetable, but fome
from the animal kingdom. :

Of the vegetable waters, many were obtained from the
inodorous herbaceous plants, all of which are now difufed
in this country as being entirely unfit and ufelefs, but ap-
pear to be ftill common in many parts of the continent, and
efpecially'in France, and therefore they require fome little
notice in this place.

The method of preparing them is thus given by Beaumé,
taking plantain water as an example. Any quantity of the
frefh plantain is taken and put into an alembic or ftill, fo as to
fill about half its capacity. The plant is then covered with
water, the capital is luted on with palted paper, the worm-
tub is filled with cold water, and the alembic 1s rapidly heated
to the boiling point, and is kept at the fame degree the whole
time. The diftilled water of plantain then begins to come over,
and the procefs is continued till about a quarter as much li-
quor is obtained as there was put of water in the alembic.

In the like manner, all the dift‘tled waters of the fucculent
plants are obtained.

Some have recommended the expreffed juice of the plant
to beufed inftead of the plant itfelf, but this is not necef-

-fary, though in one refpect it might be ufeful, as it would
prevent all rifk of empyreuma which fometimes takes place
in the common way, by the adherence of part of the entire

lant to the bottom of the ftil,

When the entire plant is ufed, the {till fhould not be more
than two-thirds full, as the plants {well extremely on the firlt
boiling, which might caufe the hquor to boil over, or by
ftopping the canal of the ftill-head, might endanger the
veflel’s blowing up.

All the waters diftilled from the infipid fucculent plants,
havea kind of herbaceous {mell, which is fo fimilar in all, as
to make it difficult to diftinguifh which plant has been ufed.
The diftilled water has befides, when firft prepared, a fmell
and tafte which have been called empyreumatic, though it
does not depend on auy f{corching of the materials, fince it
is equally perceived, when a water-bath is ufed, and con-
fequently when the plant has not been expofed to a greater
heat than that of boiling water. This peculiar empyreuma

oes off, on expofing the water to a gentle heat for two or
fice days in bottles loofely corked. It alfo difappears, as
Beaumé has oblerved, on nage the water,

See Prroricneous acid.

ret 2

All thefe waters, when kept for fome months, begin to
grow turbid, and undergo fome kind of fermentation, or {pons
taneous action, afterwhich they depofit a number of flocculi
apparently mucilaginous, but which have not been examined
with accuracy, and after awhile, they fhew fenfible figns of
containing fometimes an acid, at others ammonia, and in
about a year’s time they begin to become offenfive and
mouldy. If, therefore, they are ufed in medicine, they
fhould not be kept for many months.

The diftilled waters from the fucculent inodorous plants
are, however, totally difcarded from the prefetit pharmaco-~
peias, at leaft in this country, and it does not appear that
we have fuftained any lofs by their removal. It ftill remains,
however, as a matter worthy of inveftigation, whether the
infipid plants, that poflefs very decided medicinal proper-
ties, fuch as the digitalis, and the numerous tribe of nare
cotics, may not yield a powerful diflilled water from which
benefit may be obtained. But for all ufeful purpofes (as far
as we yet know) the infufion and extract, or tincture of
thefe plants, or the dried plantain fubftance, anfwer every
end that can be expe€ted, and are prepared with much lefs
trouble, and are probably much more durable.

A confiderable number of infipid diftilled waters (or
nearly fo) were formerly obtained by fubmitting feveral of
the gelatinous animal fubftances to diftilation, fuch as frog’s
fpawn, {nails, &c., in which cafe the intermede of the water-
bath was effzntial. Thefe waters are infipid, but have a
flight animal f{mell, and change in courfe of time. They
were fuppofed to be ufeful in nephritic and internal he»
morrhagic complaints, and were employed pretty abundantly
externally, as co{metics. They are all now very properly
expunged from the pharmacopceias of this’ country.

The diftilled waters that are aétually kept in our fhopa
are thofe which are prepared from the aromatic vegetables,
from moft of which an effential oil in fuoftance may alfo be
obtained at the fame time; and as the water taftesand {melis
{trongly of the oil peculiar to the plant, and alfo as a water
very fimilar to the diftilled water, may generally be made by
diffolving fome of the oil in plain water, there can be no
doubt but that the diftilled waters of all the aromatic vege-
tables owe their ftrong fmell and talte to the eflential oil
which they hold in folution. Some rules are to be obferved
in the diftillation of thefe waters; the iubje& of diftilla-
tion fhould be firft thoroughly macerated water, to open its
texture and make it yield its effzntial oil more abundantly.
When the herbaceous plants are ufed, fuch as peppermint
for example, they become fufliciently macerated in the time
that it requires to bring the water to a boiling heat, fo that
no previous preparation is neceffary, it being fufficient to put
them into the ftill without the requilite quantity of cold water.
But the woods and other hard parts of plants fhould be ma-
cerated for fome time before diftillation, being previoufly
well bruifed and their texture broken down. It was for-
merly the cuftom to ferment them before diftillation, and
pearl-afhes were added to affift in breaking down the texture
of the fubftance. In molt cafes, however, this previous ftep
is needlefs, and fometimes hurtful, and it is now nearly aban-
doned. The quantity of water required, of courfe, muft vary
according to the nature of the fubftance ufed. Herbaceous
plants, recently gathered, require only two or three times
their weight. When previoufly dried, the ftill may be filled
to three-fourths of its capacity, with the plants moderately

reffed, and fo much water added as will fully cover them.
The fire Mould be raifed expeditioufly at firft, as a long con=
tinued heat is apt to impair the aromatic flavour. The water
which firft comes over is almoft always milky and turbid,
owing

DIS

ewing tovan excefs of effential oil above the quantity which
it can hold in clear folution, that it carries up with it; and
this excefs of oil, when the diftilled wacer cools gradually,
colle&s at top in the form of a thin film, or tubfides to
the bottom when its f{pecific gravity is the greatelt. As
the water diftils over it becomes clearer and proportionably
lefs aromatic to the tafte, till at laft, when perfe&tly limpid,
it becomes nearly infipid, and the fire fhould then be with-
drawn.

The fame procefs is employed in the extraction of the
effential oils. from plants, as will be mentioned under that ar-
ticle; only in this cafe, as much of the materials and as little
water as pofible are employed; and the water of the refri-
geratory is kept fomewhat warm, otherwife much of the
oil would condenfe too foon, and fall back into the boiler.

The diftilled aromatic waters, as well as thofe from the
infipid plants, have at firft an unpleafant flavour, which is
the fame in all, and may be eafily diftinguifhed through the
{trong aromatic tafte proper to the individual plant. ‘This
unpleafant tafte goes off ina few days if the water is kept
in a loofely corked bottle. That the waters may keep
better, it is ufual to add about a twentieth of their weight
of fpirit of wine.

After all the aromatic water has come over, if the procefs
be {till continued, an acidulous liquor fometimes rifes, which
is ftrong enough to corrode flightiy the {till head, to which
circumftance Quincy, with great probability, afcribes the
anthelmintic virtues which fome of thefe waters appear
to poffefs.

Beaumé has alfo remarked, that in continuing the diftil-
lation with a hot fire, after the water has run limpid and
nearly taftelefs, there fometimes rifes a fecond portion of
oil, which is ftrongly empyreumatic, and has but little of the
odour of the plant, and is lefs fluid than the firft oil. It
fhould therefore never be mixed with the aromatic water.
This oil appears to be fimilar in nature to that which 1s col-
le&ed in abundance in the diftillation of fome kinds of
brandy, aa mentioned under that article; but its nature has
not been properly examined, fo that it is doubtful whether
it be a fixed oil driven over by the continuance of the heat,
or a portion of the proper eflential oil altered in the procefs.
Beaumé has obtained this oil from thyme, rofemary, and
lavender.

Some plants that abound in fragrance, and yicld a very
aromatic water, afford very little, if any, effential oilin com-
mon diftillation. The rofe is a ftriking inftance.

The only diftilled waters retained by the London and
Edinburgh colleges are thofe prepared from orange peel,
{weet fennel, rofe leaves, peppermint, pennyroyal, {pearmint,
lemon peel, cinnamon, caffia cinnaman, dill feeds, and pi-
mento.

DISTILLER, a perfor who diftils {pirits for fale. By
43 G. III. c. 69, every diftiller or maker of low wines
or f{pirits for fale, or exportation, within England, fhall take
out a licence, which fhall be charged with the yearly fum of
iol. ; and every rectifier of fpirits within England fhall pay
for fuch licence a duty of 5/.; and fuch licence fhall be re-
newed annually before the end of the year, on pain of forfeit-
ing, if a common diftiller, 2007, ; if a molafs diftiller or rec-
tifter, 30/.; 24 G. III. c. 41. Noperfon fhall be deemed
a rectifier or compounder who fhall not have an entered {till
capable of containing, exclufive of the head, 120 gallons;
which fhall have fuitable tubs and worms, and be ufed for
rectifying Britifh fpirits for fale, 26 G. II]. c. 73. By
19 G. III. c. 50. every fuch diftiller fhall caufe to be put
up in large charaGters, over the outward door of every place
ufed for making or keeping of British-made fpirits, the words

DIS§

Difiller, ReGifer, or Compounder of Spiritusus Liquors, on
pain of 100/.; and if any perfon thali buy any fuch fpirits
of any perfon not having fuch words over his door, he
fhall forfeit so/. By 21 G. IE. c. 55, if any dittiller or
dealer fhall buy any Britith made fpirits (except, 2s in the
former cafe, at the public fales of condemned fpirits by
the commiffioners of excife) he fhall forfeit 500/, By 19
G. III. c 50, no perfon fhall be permitted to make en-
try of any workhoufe or place, or of any ftill or utenfil for
making, diftilling, or keeping of low wines or fpirits, unlefs
he fhall occupy a tenement of 10/. a year, affeffed in his own
name, and paying the parifh rates: and by 21 G. Tic. 55;
in order to prevent private diftillations, every perfon who
fhall make or diftil any low wines or fpints, whether for fale
or not for fale, fhell be deemed a common diftiller for fale,
and {hail enter his {till and veffels at the next office of excife;
and every perfon making or keeping any wafh fit for dittilia-
tion, and having in his cuttody any ftill, thall be deemed a
common diftiller for fale, and be liable to the feveral duties,
and fubje&t to the furvey of the officers. No common dif-
tiller or maker of low wines, fpirits, or ftrong waters for fale,
fhall fet up any tun, cafl, wah-back, copper, ftill or other
veffel, for making or keeping any worts, wath, low wines,
fpirits, or {trong waters; nor alter nor enlarge the fame,‘ nor
have any of them private or concealed, or any private ware-
houfe, cellar, &c. for making or keeping any the faid li-
quors, without firft giving notice at the next office of excife,
on pain of 20/.; and he in whofe occupation any of the
fame fhall be, fhall forfeit 507; 8 andg W.c. 19. And by
24 G. II. c. 40. every ditiller fhall, 10 days before he dif-
tils or makes any fpirituous liquors, enter every veflel, &ce.
at the next cflice of excife; on pain of 50/. for every ftill or
veflel ufed and not entered. And every diltiller fhall, four days
before he begins to brew any grain, &c. make entry at the
next excife office, of all coppers, veflels, &c. inferting in fuck
entry the day on which he intends to begin, and the ufe to
which fuch veffel is to be applied? which fhall not be altered
on pain of forfeiting 100 /. with the liquor, which may be
{eized by any officer of excife, 26 G. Lil. ¢. 73. And by
21 G. III. c. 55, no perfon fhall make ufe of any veffel,
room, &c. for making wafh for the dittillation of low wines
and f{pirits, without giving notice at the next cffice of excifes
on pain of 5o/ for every veflel, room, &c, ufed without
notice. Nor fhall any perfon withdraw his entry whilft any
duty is depending, or any veflels are ftanding, except by
changing it on the day of its being withdrawn, 23 G. IIT.
c. 70, 26 G. III. c. 73. No perfon is allowed to have
any ftill cr number of ‘ftills, which fingly or together con-
tain lefs than 100 gallons, under the penalty of roo/. for
every ftill; and the wafh-ftill thall contain at leat-4oo gal-
lons, exclufive of the head, under the fame penalty, 2 Geo. III.
c. 5. and 14 Geo. III. c. 73. .

Diftillers are to fhew to the officer every ftill or cther vef~
fel entered; and the veffels are to be marked by the gauger;
and defacing the mark, or rubbing out, incurs a penalty of 20/.
26 Geo. II. c. 40.

Dittillers who ufe private pipes, &c. for conveyance of
diftilled liquor, forfeit 1002. 1oand 11 W.c. 4. They thall
alfo make holes in the breaft of the fill for taking gauges
aod famples, and provide locks on the ftill-heads, the holes,
difcharge-cocks, and furnace-door, under a penalty of 50/.
and of 200/, for breaking or wilfully damaging fuch lock
or faftening, after it has been fecured by the officer, 1%
Geo. III. c. 46. 14 Geo. III. c. 73.

The diftiller fhall provide proper ladders for the officer to
examine each ftill, and affiit in fetting them up, on pain of
2col, 23 G. IIIc, 7a

Diftillers.

DISTILLER. -

Diftillers are required to give notice to the officer of ex-
cife, before they receive any wine, cider, &c. or any kind of
fermented wath, on pain of 50/. and alfo before they charge
or open the ftill, exprefling and defcribing the number and
marks of the wafh-batches ufed; and they are prohibited
from charging tke ftill with any other, under a penalty of
rool. 24 G. II. c. 40; 12 Gv II. c. 46; 14 G. IIl.c. 73.

Diftllers, in preparing grift for wafh, that ufe more
than in the proportion cf one quarter of wheat to two
quarters of any other grain, forfeit sol. 33 G.II.c. 9.

If any corn diftiller, or maker of low wines or {pirits from
corn or grain, fhall make ule of any molaffes, ccarfe fugar,
honey, or any compofition or extraét of fugar, in brewing or
preparing his wah for diftillation, or receive {ach materials
into his cuftody, exceeding rolbs. in weight, he fhail forfeit
100 /.; and officers may take famples of the wafh in any
veffel, paying for the fame at the rate of rs. 6d. a gallon;
and if the diftiller fhail obftru@ him, he fhall forfeit 100/.
23. G. Hise: 70.

Officers are to attend atthe ftill-houfe, after due notice,
to fee that thé wafh-flills are properly filled, aad when they
are fully charged to lock and fecurethem. And if any per-
fon fhall open any ftill-head, &c. after they have been fo
locked, and before they are opened by the officer of excife,
or fhall wilfully damage any lock or faitening, he fhall for-
feit 200/. .12 G. III. c. 46. :

Removing or concealing wath, &c. in the poffeffion of any
diftiller, incurs a forfeiture of the fame. and fuch difiller,
and the perfon employed to remove, or who fhall receive the
fame, fhall feveraily forfeit tos. for every gallon of it; and
no wort, wath, &c. fhall be put into the ftill, or removed
from the back or veffel in which it was fermented, till the
fame has been gauzed; in the penalty of 200/. and double
duty.

The officer fhall every three months, if required, take an
account of the flock of all diftiilers and re@tifiers, and if-any
unfair increafe fhall be found, the fame fhall be forfeited, and
may be feized; and the perfon in whofe ftock fuch ex-
cefs fhall be found fhall forfeit 50/. Re@ifiers are to mark
the flrength and quality of mixed fpirits on the outfide of the
cafk, and in default thereof, or if untruly marked, the
fame fhall be forfeited, and alfo the cafk:, and may be
feized ; and the reétifer fhall forfeit 50/. 26 G. IIl-c. 73.

By 27 G. III. c..31, made perpetual by 41 G. III.
¢. 97, it was enaGted, that all fpirits fhould be deemed and
taken to be cf the ftrength indicated by Clarke’s hydrome-
ter, but by 43 G. III. c. 97. the lords of the treafury may
difcontinue the ufe of this hydrometer, and dire&t any other
to be ufed in lieu of it. All Britifh fpirits of the third ex-
tration, or which have been twice diftilled from low wines,
and had flavour communicated to them, fhall be deemed
«< Britifh brandy ;” if no flavour bas, been communi-
cated to them, the fame fhall be deemed * reGtified
Britifh fpirits.” If of the fecond extra€tion, or once dif-
tilled from low wines, the fame fhall be deemed * raw
Britifh {pirits.’ And ail Britifh fpirits diftilled with juni-
per berries, carraway feeds, anifefeeds, or other feeds, or
ingredients ufed in the compounding of fpirits, fhall be
deemed ‘ Britifh compounds.’? And all Britifh fpirits of a
greater firength than one to two over hydrometer proof, thall
be deemed “ fpirits of wine.”? Officers fhall take an acccunt
of the ftock of reGtifiers and compounders every three
months at leaft, and if any increafe of quantity, under certain
limitations, be found, the quantity in excefs fhall be forfeited,
and may be feized; and fuch perfon fhall forfeit 5o/. And
if any Britifh {pirits or compounds are fent out of a greater
ftrength than one in five under hydrometer proof, the fame
-fhall be forfeited, and treble value, or 5/. in the whole;

A

and the fame may be feized, with the cafks and veffels cona
taining it. 30 G. III.c. 37. The diftiller hall weckly
make entry of all wafh by him ufed for the making of low
wines and fpirits within each week, on pain of 1o/.; and
within a week after fhall pay off the duties, on pain of dou-
ble duty. 19 G. IIIc. 50. All permits for removing
Brith fpirits fhall<correfpond with the requelt notes, and
delivered with fuch fpirits to the buyer, on the forfeiture of
the fame to fuch buyer, and double the price including the
duties: and fuch buyer may be admitted to prove, that fuch
{pirits were delivered without a lawful permit: but no
buyer fhall be allowed to avail himfelf of fuch forfeiture,
unlefs complaint is made within fourteen days after the
delivery of the fpirits. 26G. III. c. 73.

Retailers of diltilled liquors, or fuch as fell the fame in lefs
quantity than two gallons, muft take out a licence, for which
they are to pay annually a {um correfponding to the rent of
the premifes which they occupy ; if the rent of fuch retailer
be 15/. or upwards, 5/ 2.3 at 20/. and upwards, 5/. ros. ; at
25/. and upwards, 5/.18s.; at 3o/. or upwards, 6/. 65.3 at
4o/, or upwards, 6/. 145.; and at 50/. or upwards, 7/. 25.
This licence, which is to be renewed annually, on the pe«
nalty of 50/., is to be granted only to thofe who keep
taverns, victualling-houfes, inns, coffee-houfes, or ale-houles;
who, within the limits of the head office of excife in
London, pay ro/. a year rent and parifh rates, and in
places where the occupiers are not rated 12/. a years
and who, in other parts of the kingdom, pay to church and
poor. They muit firft be licenfed to fell ale in the places
where they dwell.

By 16 G. Il.c. 8. retailers of fpirituous liquors, without
licence, were fubje& to a penalty of ro/.; and by 24 G. IT.
c. 40, all liquors found in the cuitody of fuch perfons,
or within fix calendar months after convi€tion, were to be
feized. And by 13 G. ¥Il.c. 56, and 30G. Ill. c. 35,
fuch retailers are to forfeit 50/., fubje@& to mitigation fo as
not to be reduced below 5/. Every perfon, who fhall res
tail lefs than two gallons, fhall enter his warehoufes, fhops,
&c. and his {pirituous liquors, on pain of 20/. for every
place, and 40s. for every gallon not entered; and alfo the
liquors and cafks. 9g G.Il.c. 23. go G.IN.c. 38. By
19 G. IIL. c. 69. every importer or dealer mm {pirituous
liquors, fhall caufe to be painted, on a confpicuous part of
the honfe, fhop, or ceilar, &c. ufed by him, the words Jm-
porter of, or Dealer in, Spirituous Liquors, on pain of sol.
Any importer or dealer buying of a perfon, who has not
thefe words over the door of his fhop, &c. fhall forfeit rool,
Any perfon, who hath not madé entry of his liquers, and
who hath thefe words over his door, fhall forfeit 50/. No
fpirituous liquors fhall be brought into a place of fale,
without previous notice to the officer of excife, and leaving
with him a certificate, exprefling that all the duties are
paid, the quantity and quality, the name of the feller, &c.
on pain of forfeiting 20/., and alfo the liquor and cafks.
9 G. II. c. 23. Retailers fhall not increafe the quantity
of their liquors, on pain of 40s. a gallon; and the liquors
fo mixed with water, or any other liquors, fhall be feized
and forfeiteé. 9g G. Ii. c.23. By 21G. III. c. 55. the
tock increafed fhall be forfeited, a quantity equal to the
increafed quantity fhall be feized by the officer, and the
perfon offending fhall forfeit 20/. ‘The officer may, at all
times, by day or night, enter into warehoufes, fhops, or
other places, to take an account of the quantity and quali-
ty; and if any retailer hinder the officer, he fhall forfeit 5o/.
9 G. IL. c. 23. No licenfed retailer-fhall have any fhare in
a diftillery or re&tifying houis, or be concerned in fuch
trade, on painof 200/. 26G. II].c. 73.

Hawkers of fpirituous liquors in the ftreets, &c. are

liable

DIS

Viable toa forfeiture of tol. 9 Geo. II. c. 23. 11 Geo. II.
c. 26. Perfons giving away fpirituous liquors, or pay-
ing wages in them, fhall be deemed retailers. 9 Geo, II.
c. 23. Keepers of gaols, workhoufes, &c. felling fpi-
rituous liquors, or knowingly fuffering them to be fold, ex-
cept fuch as are prefcribed by a phyfician, furgeon, or apo-
thecary, forfeit for the firft offence 1oo/. and for the fecond
their office. Perfons bringing any fuch liquors into any
place of that kind may be apprehended, and on convictien
committed to the houfe of correétion or prifon for any time,
not exceeding three months, unlefs they immediately pay a
fine, not exceeding 20/. nor lefs than 1o0/. Debts for fpiritu-
ous liquors cannot be recovered, unlefs they have been con-
tracted, or the liquors delivered at one time to the value of
20s. or upwards: and dittillers knowingly felling or deliver-
ing diftilled liquors to unlicenfed retailers, forfeit 1o/. and
treble their value; and the retailer, convicting the diftiller,
is entitled to a fhare of the penalty, and is himfelf indem-
nified. Perfons riotoufly refcuing offenders, or affaulting
informers, and their aiders or abettors, are guilty of felony,
and liable to feven years’ tranfportation. 24 Geo. IT.c. 40.
If any perfon fhall obftru& any officer in the execution of
his duty, in relation to this a, he fhall forfeit 2oo/.
23 Geo. III. c. 81. Noliquor exceeding one gallon fhall be
removed without apermit. 6 Geo. I.c. 21. Britith fpirits
made from corn are allowed on exportation as merchandize,
a bounty or drawback of 3/. 12s. perton. 5 Geo. III.
e, 5. 27 Geo, IIT. c.'13-. “And by 6 Geo. TI. 'c. 17.
for {pirits drawn from Britifh corn, a:drawback was to be
allowed at the port of fhipping, of 4/. 18s. per ton, in full
of all drawbacks: and by 23 Geo. II. c. 9, there was to
be an additional drawback of 24/. 10s. a ton, on all Britifh
made {pirits exported; provided that they are not exported
in cafks containing lefs than a hundred gallons, and in vef-
fels of lefs burden than a hundred tons, except to Africa
and Newfoundland, whither they may be exported in any
veffels not lefs than feventy-tons. 6 Geo, III.c. 46. The
43 Geo. III. c. 69, which confolidates the duties, &c. of
excife, continues all advances, bounties, and drawbacks, which
are particularly directed to be made by any act or adts of
parliament in force, on or immediately before 5th of July,
1803, except fo far as fuch allowances may be varied or re-
pealed by the faida&. By 39 and 4o Geo. III. c. 73, fpirits
diftilled in England for exportation to Scotland, are exempted
from the excife duties in England. And by 43 Geo. III.
c. 69, for every gallon, Enghfh wine meafure, of [pirits, not
exceeding in ftrength that of one to ten over hydrometer
proof, and foin proportion for any higher degree of ftrength,
made in England and thence imported into Scotland, pay-
ment is to be made by the importer before landing, of 4s. ;
and by c. 81. an additional duty of 25,: for every fuch gal-
lon manufaétured in Scotland and brought from thence into
England, 5s. ofd.; and by c. 81. an additional duty of
2s. 5d. For every gallon of fucte{pirits of greater ftrength
than one to ten over hydrometer proof, and not exceeding
3/ per cent. over and above one to ten over hydrometer
proof, 7s. 53d. anda furcharge. And all duties and draw-
backs under thefe. a€ts fhall be proportionate to the aGtual
quantity. No fpirits fhall be fent from Scotland to Eng-
land, or from England to Scotland by land, or in veffels of
lefs than 70 tons burden, or in cafks containing lefs than
100 gallons, on forfeiture of the fame, together with cafks
or package; and alfo the veffels, boats, horfes, cattle, and car-
riages employed, which may be feized. 28 Geo. III. c. 46.
And if any diftiller, reGifier, compounder, or dealer in
Spirits, or fervant. belonging to any fuch perfon, fhail ob-

DIS5

ftru& any officer in the execution of this a, he fhall for
feit 200/.

DISTILLERY, the art of dittiiling brandy and other
fpirits. This art was firlt brought into Europe by the
Moors of Spain about the year 1550: they learned it of
the African Moors, who had it from the Egyptians; and
the Egyptians are faid to have pratifed it in the reign of
the emperor Dioclefian, though it was unknown to the
ancient Greeks and Romans. Anderfon’s Hift. of Com-
merce, vol. i. p. 83. See Fermenration, and Matt
Diftillery.

DISTINCT Norion, or idea, according to M. Leibnitz,
is, when we can enumerate marks and chara¢ters enough
whereby to recolle& a thing.

Such, e. gr., is this; that a circle is a figure bounded
with a curve line that returns into itfelf; all the points
whereof are equally diftant from one middle point. Or,
it is that wherein the mind perceives a difference from ail
other ideas.

Distinct Bafe, in Optics, is that diftance from the pole
of a convex glafs, in which objects, beheld through it, ap-
pear diitinét, and well defined: fo that the diftin@ bafe
coincides with what we otherwife call the focus.

The difin& bafe is caufed by the colle@ion of the rays
Proeeeding from a fingle point in the objeét, into a fingle
point in the reprefentation; and therefore concave glafles
which do not unite, but featter and diflipate the rays, can
have no real diftin@ bafe.

Distinct Viffon. See Vision.

DISTINCTION, a diverfity in things, or conceptions,

Logicians define diftin@ion, an affemblage of two, or
more words, whereby difparate things, or their conceptions,
are denoted. }

There are three kinds of diftinGtions, taken from the three
different modes of exiftence; the firft real; the fecond
modal; and the laft rational.

Distinction, Real,.is that between things which may
exift or be conceived to exift, apart from each other:
fuch is that between two fubftances, or the modes of two
fubftances.

Distinction, Modal, is that between feveral things, one
whereof may exift without the other; but not, vice veri,
the other without that: fuch is that between the mind,
and an aét of will; between wax, and its hardnefs ;
water, and its freezing, &c.

Distinctio Rationis, or Rational Distinction, is that
between feveral things, which are really one and the fame,
and whereof one cannot exilt without the other, nor, wice
ver/d, the other without this: fuch is that between a thing
and its effence; between the eflence, and properties, &c.

Of this diftin@ion fome authors admit two kinds ; the
one barbaroufly called rationis ratiocinate, having fome
foundation in things; as when we dittinguifh the jullice of -
God from his mercy: the other called rationis ratiocinantis,
which has no foundation at all; and therefore is, by many,
quite rejeted.

Though others contend that there is no diftinGtio rationis,
but is, at the fame time, a real diftinétion: thus, fay they, .
God, and juft God, are, to each other, as milk, and white
milk ; anda juft God, and merciful God, as white milk,
and fweet milk. But when I fay, milk is diftiiguifhed from
white milk, or white milk from {weet milk, the diflin@ion
falls between whitenefs and {weetnefs, which isa real dif
tinction. See Reavists.

Distinction, Metaphyfical, called alfo by the {chool-
men alietas, alteritas, and diverfitas, isa non-agreement of

being.

PIS

being, whereby this entity is not that, or one thing is not
another.

DISTINCTIO, or Distincuo, in the Schools, an ex-
pedient to evade an argument, or to clear up and unfold an
ambiguous propofition, which may be true in one fenfe, and
falfe in another. The refpondent was hard preffed, but he
difengaged himfelf by a diftinguo, Moliere makes T. D.
fay to his miftrefs, who had told him, he muft fubmit to the
will of a perfon he loved; ‘* Diftinguo, Mademoifelle, pour
Vintereft de fon amour, Concedo ; couatre fa paffion, Nego.”’

DISTORTION, in Surgery, a twilting or partial diflo-
cation of any member, &c.. This fpecies of deformity may
be occafioned by a fpafmodic contraction in one or more
mufcles, drawing the aflected part te either fide; or it may
be produced by a paralyfis of the fame mufcles, in which
cafe the aff2Ged part will be relaxed, fo as to feern contraGted
on the oppofite fid-. The palfied mufcles having loft their
aGtion, will be counterbalanced and furmounted by the na-
tural ation of their antagonift mufcles; and, if this kind
ef diftortion be in the mouth, a perfon will laugh, talk, or
move the lips, &c. chiefly or entirely on the found fide.

Diftortions may be produced in the bones of growing
perfons, and efpecially in their {pine, from mere carelefInefs ;
a. e. by often leaning fideways, or ufing the limbs very un-
equally. A wanton habit of fquinting has been fometimes
known to occafion a fixed contortion of the eye; but the
fame malady may be alfo caufed by a partial pally in one of
the mufcles attached to the globe of the eye, as now and
then occurs after a fevere fever.

The difeafe, cailed a wry-neck, is frequently produced by
the rigid and permanent contraction of a mufcle named
fterno-cleido-maitoideus, which admits of relief by a fur-
gical operation. See Wry-Necx, Paratysis, SPRAIN,
Luxation, Vari, Varoi, and SpinaL-Srays.

A twilting of the limbs may arife, as it often does in
children, from a preternatural laxity of the membranes in-
veiting a joint, and allowing a fub-luxation of the bones; or
the fame effect may take place from a violent and fudden
ever-ftretching of the ligaments. The term fprain appiies,
when, in confequence of any exertion, or turning of a limb
towards one fide, a very fevere pain is felt at the moment of
the diftortion. This accident may alfo occur in confe-
quence of a perfon fuddeniy reaching at any object which
is too far diftant, fo that the limbs muft be too much ex-
tended, or when he fuddenly turns his head in any particu-
lar direction, &c. The limb is immediately afterwards af-
£-Ged! with violent pain, which continues for a longer or
fhorter period, whereby the motion of the limb is more
or lefs interrupted. Trequently a {welling ts produced at
the joint, which proves very obttinate, and in the wort
cafes goes on to fuppuration, during which the fiin gene-
yally retains its natural colour. In fuch eafes there is pro-
ably an cffefionef a fluid into the burfz, or into the fheaths
of the tendons, whic: has not been re-abforbed.

The moft abfurd and pernicious practice which ‘can he
employed in thefe cafes, is to attempt to extend the limb,
as is done by many, who thereby always aggravate the com-
plaint. The heft method is to keep the limb quiet, and fre-
quetly to rub it with fome difcutient application, fuch as
a folution of fal-ammoniac, the linim. faponis, or {pir. vin.
camphorat. &c.; and to cover it with comprefles dipped in
thefe fubftances. We may alfo apply leeches, if the inflam-
mation and pain ron high.

Mr. Theden has particularly called the attention of
praCtitioners to the diltenticn of tendons, and difplace-
ment of mufcular fibres. His practice in thefe cafes is to

DIS

lay the patient upon his healthy fide, and to rub with his
finger (previoufly wetted with fome proper application) the
affeGted mufcle at the part where the pain is felt, {ometimes
longitudinally, and fometimes croffwife ; and at times he di-
reéts an affiftant to move the painful limb backwards and
forwards, the fritions being continued all the while. As
foon as by this treatment he hits the proper fpot, an im-
mediate cure is effe€ted.. He recommends at the fame
time to ufe his vulnerary wath, or a folution of balf. vite
externally with fal ammoniac.

Mr. Ponteau terms this accident an a@ual diflocation of
the mufcles, and {pecifies three cafes in which it may take
place. In the firft cafe, when one of the flexor mufcles
of the foot contraéis either alone, or more violently than
the neighbouring and affiftant mufcles, it may be forced
out of its place; or, when a relaxed mufcle is fituated
between two others that contraét, it may be forced by thefe
out of its fituation ; finally, fuch a diflocation may be pro-
duced, when at a time when the body or any limb is in
a very uncommon and forced pofition, the mufcle naturally
alfo contraéts in a very preternatural dire€tion. Long and
{lender mufcles are moft fubje& to this accident. As a
means of cure, he dire&s us to relax the diflocated mufcle,
and then to reduce it into its proper pofition by friions
applied to the whole of the painful part in the manner
recommended by Mr. Theden. ‘The relaxation of the dif-
located muticle is always efleéted by placing the patient in
that pofition in which he is fenfible of leaft pain. The
weaknefs of the limb which remains behind, after the dit
cuffion of the inflammation, is to be remoyed by the ufe
of the fhower-bath ; the fwathing of the limb is alfo of
great ufe. _In no cafe is it allowed to ufe emollient fo~
mentations, and ftill lefs greafy ointments, as thereby the
conplaint will be rendered worfe, and even fatal confe-
quences fometimes may eniue.

Diftortions of various kinds may take place in the lower
extremity, either at the knee-joint, or at the ankle, or
the joint of the foot. Of the latter {pecies of diftor-
tions two kinds are diftinguifhed, namely, that in which
the foot is turned preternaturally inwards (Vari) or out-
wards (VatG;). When the feet are turned preternaturally
inwards, the patient is alfo faid to be club-footed.

All thefe kinds of diftortions are either congenital, or
they gradually arife in weak rickety children, efpecially
when they are too early compelled to walk or ftand.
Thefe deformities may often be avoided, by avoiding a pof-
ture in which the weight of the body refs upon the de-
formed part. When the knee-joint or the ankle is diftorted,
it is in many cafes impoflible to force the bones into their
natural form by means of machines ; and it will fometimes
be far better to leave the cure to nature, whilft the rachitic
affe€tion ig counteracted by proper remedies, and all the /e-
dentia avoided.

The machine invented by Mr. Gavin Wilfon, is faid to
be of ufe in remedying diftortions of the leg. This confifts
of a fheath of ityong leather, open in front, into which the
diftorted leg is placed. The ftrength of the fheath is
increafed by means of iron hoops. When the leg has
been placed in this machine, the foot is fecured to the fole
of it, by a ftrap, and is alfo drawn either to one fide or
the other, according-to the nature of its diltartions by
two other traps, in a gradual manner. ur

As a means of remedying diftortions of the foot, Mr.
Benjamin Bell has recommended the ufe of a pair of fhoes,
of {oft leather, hooped round with iron, and attached to an
iron frame. Tor fupporting weak legs and remedying de.

formities,

DISTORTION:

formitice; Mrs Gooch recommends a machine compofed of
three femi-circular elaftic fteel hoops, which are to be ap-
plied to the fmall of the leg, go half round the foot, and
are fecured by means of leathern ftraps held by round but-
tons. A machine, fimilar to that of Mr. Gooch, has been
invented by Mr. Meinthaufen; but of thisno delineation has
hitherto been given. Mr. Lentin has alfo effeGted a perfect
cure in a cafe of a child, whofe heel was drawn upwards by
the tendo achillis in fuch a manner, that he could not make
jt touch the ground when he ftood, by means of a machine
fimilar to a prefs, combined with the ufe of the warm bath
and oily friétions.

To the cure of club-feet, as they are termed, Mr. Shel-
drake has been very attentive, and has publifhed a great
Geal in the Med. and Phyf. Journal.

Mr, Venel, of Germany, has alfo been particularly ative,
and his method has been followed by Meflrs. Ehrmann and
Briickner, with the belt fuccefs. Asin thefe cafes it is
’ principally requifite that the extenfion of the contracted and

ftiff mufcles and ligaments fhould not be performed too
fuddenly, but in a flow and gradual manner, the contioned
ufe of emollient remedies fhould be combined with a mode-
rate and gradually augmented extenfion of the parts. All
the contra@ted mufcl-s and hgaments mult be rubbed,
throughout their whole length, for the fpace of half an
hour, thrice a day, with fome emoiliznt application. Dur-
ing the application of the friétions, the limb mutt be ex-
tended gradually, but fteadily, and in proportion as the pa-
tient can bearit. Mr. Briickner recommends particularly for
friftions, animal fubftances, fuch as the fat of geefe, ducks,
and other fowls; alfo the oil which is obtained by boiling
ox’s and fheep’s feet in water. Before rubbing in the oint-
ment, he ordered the patient to be placed, morning and
evening, in a lukewarm bath, for the {pace of twenty mi-
nutes, immediately after whtch he rubbed the ointment into
the calf of the leg, and on the infide of the ankle.

The extenfion of the contracted foft parts is performed by
the hands alone, after each time of the fri€tions, and after-
wards {upported and promoted by the application of ban-
dages or machines. The extenfion of the feet is performed
after each friction, and in the following manner, after the
patient has drawn on his ftockings: If the operator has the
right foot before him, he lays hold of the heel in fuch a
manner, that his thumb refts upon the fore-part of the joint,
and the points of his fingers internally on the heel, and on
the inner fide of the ankle, With the right hand he lays
hold of the fore-part of the foot, applying his thumb to the
fele under the ball, and the hollow of his hand acrofs upon
the back of the foot, outwards and backwards. The points
of the fingers he prefles upon the root of the foot. In ope-
rating upon the left foot the hands are reverfed. In per-
forming the extenfion, the operator keeps thé hand, with
which he holds the heel, fteady, and preffes the bone of the
heel outwards with the points of his fingers, and with the
other hand he endeavours to prefs the inner margin of the
foot downwards, and to turn the fole downwards; and at
the fame time the anterior part of the foot is preffed, as

“much as poffible, outwards and upwards, and the root of
the foot downward, fo as to extend the whole foot. The
extenfion muft be performed in a gradual manner, and as
foon as the patient exhibits fymptoms of pain, it mult be
intermitted ; but the extending operations mutt be perform-
ed feveral times in fucceflion, after fhort intervals.

When thefe operations have been continued for feveral
weeks, there is obferved, as the firft favourable fymptom,
a flight tumelcence of the whole foot, together with a

Vou. XII.

greater flexibility, and this is the period when a bandage or
machine may be beneficially employed, in order to extend
the foot permanently and uniformly, “But with new-born
infants, it is not neceffary to ufe all thefe preparations.
The pediluvia, rriGlions, and extenfion mult be repeated
daily, even during the ufe of the machine. Children who
have already begun to walk, muft relinquifh the ufe of
their legs during the progrefs of the cure, and either fit or
be carried.

The bandages muft be adapted, rft, to check the volun-
tary motion of the foot, to turn it outwards, lengthen it,
draw down the heel, or elevate the fore part of the foot
towards the leg, and, in general, counteraG& all the con-
tracted mufcles ; 2dly, the preflure, by means of which this
is to be effeéted, muft be fuch that it can gradually be ins
creafed, in proportion as, in confequence of the emollient
applications and diftention, the preternatural tenfion abates ;
but it muft be permanent and operate without occafoning
pain. The bandaging is to be performed by means of the
following apparatus: take a {quare piece of linen, about a
foot anda haif long, fold it into a triangle, and roll the
two angles, that lie over each other, together in fuch a
manner, as to form a bandage fomething more than an inch
in breadth, and pointed at both ends. In rolling up the
right foot, this bandage is to be applied over the tendo
achiilis, about half a foot from its extremity, its corners
being held by an affiftant. ‘The bandage mut then be car-
ried rcund the ankle, and the ends brought forward again
on the inner fide of the ankle, after which it is to be car-
ried obliquely over the back of the foot and the middle of
the inner margin of the foot to the fole, which being
done, it is to be drawn tight on the outer fide, fo as tc ex-
tend the foot and turn it outwards. When now the tight
bandage is drawn upwards over the outer edge of the foot,
this edge may be raifed a little, and thus the fole, which
is dire&ted inwards, be preffled down. After this, another
turn is made, exatly in the famé manner, round the fore
part of the foot, by which means we are ftill better ena-
bled to give the foot the above-mentioned dire@tion. When
this has been done, the one corner of the baudage is drawn
obliquely upwards, and the other obliquely downwards ; and
both are tied together with a {trong knot upon the back
of the foot. Tne two ends of the bandage are then car-
ried orce more round the region of the ankles, and tied
together, Both the breadth and length of this bandage
muft be adapted to the fize of the font, and altered in
proportion as the child grows larger. Over the bandage
another ftrong piece of cloth muft be tied, and this muift
be changed for a dry one, as often as it is wet through, in
order that the bandage may be kept clean.

‘Venel’s apparatus was not applied by Mr. Briickner till
he had produced a perceptible flexibility of the foot by
the means above-mentioned. During the ufe of the appa-
ratus, the pediluvia muft be continued to be employed
twice a day. In warm weather, the patient fhould wear
thread, and in cold weather cotton ftockings ; which fhould
be frequently changed and kept free from holes, as other-
wife the bandages would be injured.

When the feet have been rettored to their natural form
by the ufe of the machines, but have not yet acquired their
proper ftrength, we mult employ remedies adapted to in-
creafe the tone of the fibres, and invigorate the nerves,
With this view, the luke-warm baths muft gradually be
changed for cold ones, in which the patient mult keep his
feet, after being previoufly well cooled, for the {pace of
five minutes every day. a the ule of the bath, the

feet

DIS

feet fhould be wiped dry, and rubbed with a piece of fine
flannel till they become warm; after which they may be
wathed with brandy or fome other fpirituous application.

But in order that the feet may retain the form which has
been reftored to them, tillthe relaxed parts are completely
ftrengthened, and the antagonifm of the mufcles of the leg
brought to a perfect equilibrium, the retaining machine
(Haliung?’s machine) muft now be applied. In this the pa-
tie. t muit confine his feet till the proper pofition has become
perfedlly habitual to them, and ull they have acquired their
proper ftrength. The feet muft become ab’e to turn them-
{elves outwards with greater eafe than inwards; when this
has been effected, we may proceed with fafety to teach the
child to walk. During the firft months he fhou!d never be
fuffered to waik without fome perfon to watch him; and
every evening he ought to keep his feet for fome time in the
retaining machine.

During the whole firft year the patient ought to wear
half boats, laced together over the whole back of the leg
towards the middle of the fore-parts, fo as to fit «very where
clofe to the leg. The fhoe thould have no heel, and the
outer edge of the fole ought to be twice as high as the inner,
thronghout its whole length. The quarters, as they are
termed, ought to be made of ftiff leather. On that part of
the external margin of the fo'e which hes under the heel, and
on the quarters above it, a plate of irca is fixed, and-attached
below to the fole-leather. In the middle of the place isa
hole with a ferew, which receives the inferior extremity of
the iron rcd. This:od is three lives in diameter, flat on the
inner fide, and fo long as to reach over the head of the fibula.
At the upper extremity a plate of iron, an inch anda half in
breadth, and three quarters of an inch in height, is fixed. This
plate is ho:lowed out at its inner fide, in order that it may fit
the better to the upper and outer fide of the leg, at the fide
of the knee. At one extremity there are feveral holes, for
the purpole of fewing a leathern ftrap to it, and at the other
there is a peg with a button. to which the ffrap, after having
been carried down under the knee, is attached. The rod
rifes upwards immediately behind the outer poiat of the an-
kle. Over the peg, which is inferted into the {crew-focket,
the rod is bent outwards, fo that its upper extremity flands
at the diftance of at leait an inch from the knee. When
therefore this extremity is preffed towards the leg, by draw-
ing the ftrap tight, the footis compelled to turnitfelf outwards,

After the ufe of thefe boots has been difcontinued, it will
be proper that the child fhould wear thoes with high quarters,
not faftened with buckles, but with ftrings, and with foles
higher at the outer than the inner fide. This inequality of
the fhoes may be gradually diminifhed with every new pair,
till the fole is perfectly even.

Mr. Briinninghaulen has defcribed another very fimple
and convenient machine, which, combined with the remedies
that have already been mentioned, may undoubtedly produce
the moft beneficial effets. It is made of ftrong tinned iron
or copper; and confilts of a fole formed according to the
fhape of the foot, with a margin half an inch high. From
this along flat piece of the fame iron plate proceeds up-
wards, along the inner fide of the leg, as far as the knee.
At the lower extremity of this plate a itrap is attached,
which paffes over the heel and the oppofite edge of the foot,
where it is drawn through an oblong flit, from whence it is
carried over the back of the foot, at the fide of the firft turn,
through a third fiffure, under the fole; and then through a
fourth fiffure, and at laft over the roots of the toes again to
the outer edge of the foot, where it is drawn through a fifth
it, and fecured by means of a {mall hook.

.

DIS

Tt is to be underftood, that the tarfus mult be drawa
cownwards and outwards, which this machine does by
means of the firft turn of the ftrap over the heel.. The me-
tatarfus muft be drawn iawards and backwards, which ig
performed by the fecond turn of the ftrap. Thefe two
turns of the rap muft be drawn the tighteft, and never
loofened, for which purpofe the ftrap is fecured by means
of two {mall hooks on the margin of the fole-plate. The
fourth turn paffes under the fole, in ordcr that the fifth may
draw the point of the foot a little outwards.

We bhall finally mention another mode of treatment, Te-
commended by Dr, Sommer, of Riga, of which a more
ample account is given in Loder’s ‘* Fuurnal fucr die Chi-
rurgic.”? Having bathed the foot, and rubbed it with
goole-greafe, the takes a piece of linen of the proper fizc,
with which he bandeges the whole leg, frem within to
without, and from the toes to the knee; after which
he ties a piece of ftiff fole-leather to the foot, in fuch a
manner that a ftrap, attached to that part of the leather
which lics on the inner fide of the foot, having been doubled
round, pafles over the back of the foot, and is drawn through
a hole on the outer fide of the fole; whilft another ftrap,
which is fattened clofe to the firft, after having alfo been
doubled round, paffes round the heel, proceeds over the flat
part of the foot, ard is drawn through a hole on the inner
margin of the fole ; and both ftraps are tied together below,
in fuch a manner however as not to comprefs the foot too
much. This beirg done, he applies, on the inner fide of
the leg, a wooden rod, with its two pegs at the bottom in-
ferted into two holes in the fole, after which he applies a
{trap under the knee, fomewhat loofely, in order that the
rod may rcmain moveable, which he tics together on the
outer fide of the rod. The {trap attached to the outer fide
of the {cle is then drawn through the rap on the rod juft
mentioned, and tied to another which is likewife attached
to the outer fide of the fole. Whei thefe firaps are drawn
tight, the wooden rod is pufhed downwards, and prefics
upon the fole, by which means the foot is at once extended,
turned outwarde, and retained in this pofition

Distortion of the Lye, is called tquinting, or ftrabifmus,
See Drpropia and SrraBismus.

DISTORTOR Oris, in Anafomy, one of the mufcles
of the mouth, called alfo zygomaticus. It is defcribed ia

the article DEGLtuTI TION.

DISTRACTION, in Medicine, fometimes denotes the
a€t of pulling a fibre, membrane, or the like, beyond its
natural extent : and what is capable of this enlargement, is
faid to be diftra@ile.

DISTRAIN, in Law. To Distrain, or Dijfrein, isto
attach, or feize on one’s goods, for the fatisfaction of a
debt. See the next article.

DISTRESS, Disrricrio, is the taking of a perfonal
chattel out of the poffeffion of the wrong-doer, into the
cultody of the party injured, to procure a fatisfaétion for
the wrong committed. The term difre/s is alfo, in our
law-books, appiied to the thing taken by this procefs, as
well as to the procefs itfelf. The moft ufual injury for
which a diftrefs may be taken is that of non-payment of
rents. (See Rent.) This was held as an univerfal princi-
ple, that a diftrefs may be taken for any kind of rent in
arrear; the detaining of which beyond the day of payment
is an injury to him that is entitled to receive it. Likewife,
for negleGting to do fuit to the lord’s court, (Bro. Abr.
title Diftrefs, 15.) or other certain perfonal fervice (Co.
Litt. 46.), the lord may diftrain, of common right. Alfo,
for amercements in a court-leet a diftrefs may be had of

common

DISTRESS.

common right ; but not for amercements in a court-baron,
without a {pecial prefcription to warrant it. (Brownl. 36.)
Another injury for which diftreffes may be taken, is where
aman finds beafts of a ftranger wandering in his grounds,
damage-feafant ; that is, doing him hurt or damage, by
treading down his grafs, or the like; in which cafe the
owner of the foil may diftrain them till fatisfaction be made
him for the injury fuitained. Liattly, for feveral duties and
penalties inflicted by fpecial aéts of parliament, (as for
afleffments made by commiffioners of fewers, flat. 7 Ann.
c. To. or for the relief of the poor, ftat. 43 Eliz. c. 2.) ree
medy by diftrefs ard fale is given: with regard to which it may
be oblerved, that fuch difrefies are partiy analogous to the
ancient diftrefs at common law, as being repleviable and the
like. (4 Burr. 589); but more refembling the common
law procefs of execution, by fejfing and felling the goods
of the debtor under a writ of fiert facias, which fee.

As to the things which may be diltrained, or taken in
diftrefs, it may be laid down as a general rule, that all
chattels perfonal are lable to be diftraiced, unlefs particu.
larly proteéted or exempted. Inftead, therefore, of men-
tioning the things that are diftrainable, it will-be more eafy
to recount the things which are not fo, with the reafon
of their parcicular exemptions. (Co. Litt. 47.) As every
thing which is difrained is prefumed to be the property of
the wrong-doer, it will follow that fuch things, in which no
‘man can have an abfolute and valuable property (as do,s,
cats, rabbics, and all animals ere naturé) cannot be diltrain-
ed. But if deer (which are fere natura) ave kept in a pri-
vate inclofure for the purpofe of fale or profit, this cireum-
flance reduces them to a kind of ftock or merchandize, that
they may be diftrained for rent. Moreover, whatever is in
the perfonal ufe or occupation of any man is, for the time,
privileged and protected from any diftrefs; as an axe with
whicha man is cutting wood, or a horfe while a man is rid-
ing him. But horfes drawing a cart, and alfo the cart,
may be diftrained for rent-arrere, if a man be not upon the
cart (1 Vent. 36.) ; and it hath been faid, thatif a horfe,
though a man be riding him, be taken damage-feafant, or
trefpafling in another’s ground, the horfe may be diftrained
and led away to the pound. (1 Sid. 440.) However, all
the authorities upon this point are collected together in
Hargr. Co. Litt. 475 and the clear refult of them is, that
fuch a diftrefs is illegal. Again, valuable things in the way
of trade hall not be liable to diftrefs: as a horfe ftanding
in a fmith’s fhop to be fhod, or in a comnion inn ; or cloth
at ataylor’s houfe; or corn fent to a mill or market. All
thefe are protected or privileged for the benefit of trade ;
and are {uppofed in common prefumption not to belong to
the owner of the houfe, but to his cuftomers. But, gene-
rally {peaking, whatever goods and chattels the landlord
finds upon the premifes, whether they, in fa¢t, belong to
the tenant or a {tranger, are diftrainable by him for rent ;
fer otherwife a door would be open to infinite frauds upon
the landiord; and the ftranger has his remedy by aétion on
the cafe agaiatt the tenant, if by the tenant’s default the
chattels are diltrained, fo that he cannot render them when
called upon. With regard to a ftranger’s bealts which are
found on the tenant’s land, the following diftinctions are,
however, taken. If they are put in by confent of the
owner of the beats, they are diltrainable immediately after-
wards for rent-arrere by the landlord. (Cro. Eliz. 549.) So
alfo if the ftranger’s cattle break the fences, and commit a
tre{pafs by coming on the land, they are diltrainable imme-
diately by the Jeflor for his tenant’s rent, as a punifhment to
the owner of the beatts for the wrong committed through
his negligence. (Co. Litt. 47.) But if the lands were not

fufficiently fenced fo as to keep out cattle, the landlord can-
not diftrain them, till they have been /evant and couchant on
the land; that is, have been long enough there to have lain
down and rofe up to feed ; which, in general, is held to be
one night at leaft; and then the law prefumes, that the
owner may have notice whither his cattle have ftrayed, and
it is his own negligence not to have taken them away. Yet,
if the Icflor or bis tenant were bound to repair the fences
and did not, and thereby the’ cattle efcaped into their
grounds, without the negligence or default of the owner;
in this cafe, though the cattle may have been /evant and
couchant, they are not diftrainable for rent, till a€tual notice
is given to the owner, that they are there, and he negle&s
to recover them (Lutw. 1580); for the law will not fuffer
the landlord to take advantage of his own or his tenant’s
wrong. There are alfo other things privileged by the ancient
common law ; as a man’s tools and utenfils of his trade, the
axe of a carpenter, the books of a fcholar, and the like ;
which are faid to be privileged for the fake of the public,

ecaufe the taking of them away would difable the owner
from ferving the commonwealth in his ftation. So, beafis
of the plough, averia caruce, and fheep, are privileged from
diftreffes at common law (ftat. 51 Hen. III. c. 4.) ; while
dead goods, or other fort of beafts, which BraGon calls
catalla otinfa, may be diftrained. But, as bealts of the
plough may be taken in execution for debt, fo they may be
for diftreffes by flatute, which partake of the nature of ex-
ecutions. (4 Burr. 589.) And, perhaps, the true reafon,
why thefe and the tools of a man’s trade were privileged at
the common law, was, becaufe the diltrefs was then merely
intended to compel the payment of the rent, and not as a
fatisfaGion, for the non-payment; and, therefore, to de-
prive the party of the inftruments and means of- paying it,
would counteraét the very end of the diltrefs (4 Burr. 588.)
Moreover, nothing fhall be diftrained for rent, which may
not be rendered again in as good a plight as when it was
Giftrained ; for which reafon milk, fruit, and the like, can-
not be diltrained ; a difirefs at common law being only ia
the nature of a pledge or fecurity, to be reftored in the fame
plight when the debt is paid. So, anciently, fheaves or
{tacks of corn cou'd not be diftrained; becaufe fome da-
mage muft needs accrue in their removal; but a cart loaded
with corn might ; as that could be fafly reftored.

But now by ftatute 2 W. and M. c. 5. corn in fheaves or
cocks, orloofe inthe ftraw, or hay in barns or ricks, or
otherwife, may be diltrained, as well as other chattels.
Laftly, things fixed to the freehold may not be diftrained,
as caldrons, windows, doors, and chimney pteces; for
they favour of the realty. For this reafon alfo corn growing
could not be diftrained; tillthe ttatute 11 Geo. Il.c. rg.
impowered landlords to diftrain corn, hops, grafs, or other
products of the carth, and to cut and gather them when ripe.
The goods of a carrier are privileged, and cannot be dif-
trained for rent, though the waggon containing them is
put into the barn of a houfe, or onthe road. 1 Salk. 249.

The next inquiry pertaining to this fubjeét is, how diftreffes
may be taken, difpofed of, or avoided ? The law of diitrefles,
{ays judge Blackttone, is greatly altered in late years. For.
merly they were regarded as a mere pledge or fecurity for
payment of rent or other duties, or fatistaction for damage -
done. And fo the law continues with regard to diftreffes of
bealts taken damage feafant, and for other caufes, not altered
by act of parliament ; over which the diftrainor has no other
power than to retain them ull fatisfaction is made. But
diftrefles for rent-arrere being found by the legiflature to be
the thorteft and moft effeAual method of compelling the pay-
meat of fuch rent, many beneficial laws for this perpofe

Da have

DISTRESS,

have been made in the left century ; which have much altered
the common law, as laid down by our ancient writers. In
difcuffing this part of the fubje@, it will be fuppofed that
the difrefs ismade for rent; and the differences between
fuch diftrefs, and that taken for other caufes, will be fpe-
cified. All diftreffles muft be made by day, unlefs in the
cafe of damage-feafant ; an exception being made in this
cafe, left the beatls fhould efcape before they are taken.
(Co. Litt. 142.) Whena perfon intends to make a dittrefs,
he muft, by himfelf or his bailiff, enter on the demifed pre-
mifes; formerly during the continuance of the leafe, but
now, ({tat. 8 Ann.c. r4) if the tenant holds over, the
landiord may diftrain within fix months after the determi-
nation of the leafe ; provided his own title or intere!t, as
well as the tenant’s poffeffion, continue at the time of the
diftrefs, If the leffor does not find fufficient diftrefs on the
premifes, formerly he could not refort any where elfe; and
therefore, knavifh tenants madea pratice to convey away
their goods and ftock, fraudulently, from the houle or lands
demifed, in order to cheat their landlords. But now (fat.
8 Anr. ce 14. 11 Geo. IL. c. 19.) the landlord may diitrain
any goods of his tenant, carried clandeftinely off the pre-
mifes, wherever he finds them within thirty days after, unlefs
they have been bona fide fold for a valuable confideration:
and all perfons privy to, or affilting in fuch fraudulent con-
veyance, forfeit double the value to the landlord. The
landlord may alfo diftrain the beatts of his tenant, feeding
upon any commons or waftes, appendant or appurtenant
to thedemifed premifes. The landlord might not formerly
break open ahoufe, to make adiltrefs, for that is a breach
of the peace. But when he was in the houfe, it was held,
that he might break open an inner door (Co. Litt. 16.
Comberb. 17.) ;_ and now (fat. 11 Geo. IT. c. 19.) he
may, by the afliftance of the peace officers of the parifh,
break open, in the day-time, any place, whither the goods
have been fraudulently removed, and locked up to prevent a
diltrefs ; oath being firft made, in cafe tbe a dwelling-houfe,
of a reafonable ground to fufpe& that fuch goods are con-
cealed init. Wherea man is entitled to diilrain for an entire
duty, he ought to diftrain for the whole at once; and not
for part at one time, and part at another. (2 Lutw. 1532.)
But if he diftrains for the whole, and there is not fufficient
on the premiles, or he happens to miftake in the value
of the thing diftrained, and fo takes an infuflicient diltrefs,
he may take a fecond diitrefs to complete hisremedy. (Cro.
Eliz. 13. ftat.17 Car. II.c. 7. 4 Burr. 590.) Diltreffes
muit be proportioned to the thing diftrained for. By the
ftatute of Marlbridge, 52 Hen. III. c. 4. if any man takes
a great or unreafonable diftrefs, for rent-arrere, he fhall be
heavily amerced forthe fame. Or if (2 Inft. 107.) the
landlord dift-ains two oxen for twelve-pence rent; the
taking of Joth isan unreafonable diftrefs; but if there were
no other diftrefs nearer the value to be found, he might
yeafonably have diftrained one of them; but for homage,
fealty, or fuit and fervice, as alfo for parliamentary wages,
it is (aid that no diftrefs can be exceffive. (Bro. Abr. tit.
Affife. 291. Prerogative. 98.) For as thefe diftreffes can-
not be fold, the owner, upon making fatisfaction, may have
his chattels again. The remedy for exceffive diftreffes is
by a fpecial a€tion on the ftatute of Marlbridge ; for an
aGion of trefpafs is not maintainable upon this account,
it being no injury at the common law. (1 Ventr. ro4.
Fitzgib. 85. 4 Burr. 590.)

When the diftrefs is thus taken, the next obje& of con-
fideration is the difpofal of it. For which purpofe the things
Giftrained mult in the firft place be carried to fome pound,
and there impounded by the taker. But, in their way thi-

ae

ther, they may be re/iuedby the owner, in cafe the diftrefs
was taken without caufe, or contrary to law: as if no rent
be due; if they were taken upon the high way, or the like ;
in thefe cafes the tenant may lawfully make refeue. (Co.
Litt. 160, 161.) But if they be once impounded, even
though taken without any caufe, the owner may not break
the pound and take them out ; for they are then inthe cuf-
tody of the law. (Co. Litt. 47.) See Pounn.

When impounded, the goods were formerly only in the
nature of a pledge or fecurity to compel the performance of
fatisfation ; and upon this account it has been held (Cro.
Jac. 145.) that the diftrainor is not at hberty to work or
ufe a diftrained bealt. And thus the law ftill continues with
regard to beafts taken damage-feafant, and diftrefles for fuit
or feryices ; which muft remain impounded, ’till the owner
makes fatisfaétion; or contelts the right of diftraining by
replevying the chattels. (See Reptevy.) This kind of
diitrefs, though it putsthe owner to inconvenience, and is-
therefore a pusifhment to him, yet, if he continues obftinate.
and will make no fatisfa€tion or payment, it is no remedy at
all tothe diftrainor. But for a debt due to the crown,.
unlefs paid within forty days, the diftrefs was always faleable
at common law. (Bro. Abr. tit. Diftrefs. 71.) And for am
amercement at a court-leet, the lord may alfo fell the diflrefs,
(8 Rep. 41.); partly becaufe, being the kiny’s court of
record, its procefs partakes of the royal prerogative, (Bro.
ubi fupra. 12 Mod. 330.); but principally, becaufe it is in
the nature of an execution to levy alegal debt. And, fo in
the feveral ftitute-diftreffes, already mentioned, which are
alfoin the nature of executions; the power of fale is likewife
ufually given, to efleGuate and complete the remedy. And
in hke manner, by feveral a€ts of parliament, (2 W. & M.
c. 5. SAnn.c.14. 4Geo.II.c.28- iz Geo. IIc. x9.);
in allcafesof diitrefs for rent, if the tenant or owner do
not, within five days after the diftrefs is taken, and notice
of the caufe thereof given to him, replevy the fame with
fuflicient fecurity , the diftrainor, with the fheriff or con-
{table, fhall caufe the fame to be appraifed by two {worn
appraifers, and fell the fame towards fatisfaétion of the rent
and charges; rendering the overplus, if any, to the owner
himfelf. And, by thefe means, afulland entire fatisfation
may now be had for rent inarrere, by the mere ad of the
party hirfelf, viz. by diltrefs, the remedy given at common:
law, end fale confequent thereon, which 1s added by a@ of
parliament. If any diftrefs and fale fhall be made, for rent
in arrear and due, when none is really due, the owner hail
recover double value, with full cofts. 2 W. Seff. 1.c. 5.

The taking of a diltrefs was formerly reckoned a hazard=
ous kind of proceeding, on account of the many particulars
that attended it: for if any irregularity was committed, it
vitiated the whole, and made the diftrainors trefpaffers ab)
initio. (1 Ventr. 37.) But now by the ftatute rr Geo. II.
c. 19. it is provided, that for any unlawful a&t done, the
whole fhall not be unlawful, or the parties trefpaffors ad)
initio ; but that the party grieved fhall only have an aétion
for the real damage fultained; and not even that, if tender
of amends is made before any action is brought. Blackit.
Comm. Book tii.

Distress, per/onal, is made by diltraining a man’s move-.
able goods, and feizing all the profits of his lands and tene-
ments, from the tefte, or date of the writ, for the defendant’s.
contempt in not appearing to an a@tion brought againft him
when he was fummoned, or attached ; and the iflues fo re-
turned by the fheriffs, are forfeited to the king, and eftreated
into the exchequer.

Disrress, real, is made on immoveable goods. It differs
from an attachment in this, that it cannot be taken by any

common

DIS

common perfon, without the compafs of his own fee s except
it be prefently after the cattle, or ether things are driven,
or borne off the ground, on purpofe to avoid diltrefs.

Dittrefs is alfo divided into finite and infinite. 7

Distress, finite, is that limited by law, how often it fhall
be made to bring the party to trial of the aétion; viz. once,
twice, &e.

Disrress, infinite, is without limitation, till the party
appears ; as avainit a jury, which retufes to appear upon
cértiticate of affife, the procefs is venire facias, habeas corpus,
and di/tre/s infinite. See Distrincas.

Laitiy, dilt:efs is again divided into grand diftrefz, by Fitz-
herbert called magna diflridio; and ordinary diftrefs.

Distress, grand, 1s that made of all the goods and chat-
tels the party nas within the county. :

DISTRIBUTION, the ac of dividing a thing into feve-
ral parts, in order to the difpeling each in its proper piace,
See Diviston.

Disreisetion, in Archite@ure. Distripution of the
plan, denotes the dividing, and difpenfing the feveral parts
and members, which compofe the pian of a buildizg.

Distaisurion of ornaments, isan equal, orderly placing
of the ornaments in any member, or compolition of architec-
ture. See OrNaMENT.

Disrrisution, in Law, the furplus of an eftate, or pur
autre vie, is diltributable by adminiftrators. See Apminis-
TRATOR.
~ For the ditribution of the eftates of inteftates, fee InTEs-
TATE.

Disraisutecon, in Logic, is a kind of divifion which dif-
tinguifhes an univerfal whole into its feveral kinds or {pecies.
The rules of good ciftribution are much the fame as thofe
of divifion.

DisrriguTion, manual, and quotidian, in LEcclefiaftical
Matters, denotes certain {mall fums of money, appoiited by
the donors or founders thereof, to be diftributed to fuch of
the canons of a chapter as are a¢tually prefent, and affiftant
at certain offices.

Distrisurion, in Painting, denotes the difvofition of
the objects and lights ina pifiure. See Crair-Opscure.

Disrripution,in Printing, the taking'of the form afunder,
' feparating the letters, and di/pofing them in the cafes again,
each in its proper cell.

Disraipurion, in Rhetoric, is a kind of pescriPTION;
ov a figure whereby an orderly divifion and enumeration is
made of the principal qualities of a febje@.

For example, He has underflanding to fee our faults, juf-
tice to reftrain them, and authority to punifh them. Their
throat is an open fepu’chre ; they flattcr with their tongues ;
the poifon of afps is under their jips ; their mouth is full of
curling and lies ; and their feet are fwift to fhed blood.

DISTRIBUTIVE, that difributes, from dis, afunder,
and fribuere, to give.

Disraisurive juffice, is that whereby we give every per-
fon what belongs to him. Sce Justice.

Distaisurives, in Grammar. See NumerAts.

DISTRICT, in Laz, the territory, or extent of jurifdic-
tion, ofajudge. A judge or officer cannot act out of his own
diltrict. See Junce, Di'triét alfo denotes the place where-
in a man has the power of diltraining ; or, the circuit, or
territory, wherein one may be compelied to appear.— Where
we fay, hors de fon fee; others fay, extra diflridum fuum.
Brit. c. 29.

DISTRINGAS, a writ dire&ted to the theriff, or other
officer, commanding him to diltrain one for a debt to the
king ; or for his appearance at a certain day. There is a
difiringas againit peers, and perfong entitled to privilege of

DIS

parliament, under ftat. 10 Geo. III. c. 50; by which the
effets (in law called the iis) levied may be foldto pay the
plaint'ff’s cofts, and it has been held that this ftatute ex-
tends to all writs of difringas.

In detinue after judgment, the plaintiff may havea difrin-
gas to compel the defendant to deliver the goods by re-
peated diltreffes of his chattels. (1Ro, Abr.737. Raft. Entr.
215.) See Disrress, Execution, Parviament, and
Process.

DistrinGas juratores, a writ dire@ted to a theriff, where-
by he is commanded to diftrain upon a jury to appear and
to return iffues on their lands, &c. for niou-appearance.
Where an iffue in fa@ is joined to be tried by a jury, which is
retained by the fherff in a pancl upon a venire facias for that
purpofe ; there goes forth a writ of difringas juratores tor
the fheriff to have their bodies in court, &c. at the re-
turn of the writ. (1 Lil! Abr. 483.) This writ ought to be
delivered to the fheriff in fuch time, that be may warn the
jury to appear four days before the writ is returnable, if the
jurors live within 40 miles of the place of trial; and eizht
days if they live farther off. (1d. 484.) There mzy be an
alias, or pluries diftringas jur’, where the jury doth not appear.
See Jury, and Tria.

DISTURBANCE, a fpecies of real injury, which is
ufsally a wrong done to fome incorporeal hereditament, by
hindering or difquieting the owners in their regular and law=
fal enjoyment of it. (Finch. L. 187.) OF this injury there
are five forts, viz. dilturbance of franchifis, ditturbance of
common, ditturbance of ways, difturbance of tenure, and dif-
turbance of patronage.

Distursance of franchifes happens, when a man has
the franchife of hoidiug a court-leet, of keeping a fair or
market, of free-warren, of taking toll, of feizing waifs or
eftrays, or (in fhort) any other fpecies of franchife whatfo-
ever; and he is difturbed, or incommoded in the exercife
of it. As if another by diftrefs, menaces, or perfuations,
prevails upon the fuitors not to<appear at any court; or
obitruéts the paflage to any fair or market ; or hunts in my
free-warren ; or refufes to pay me the accuftomed toll; or
hinders me from feifing the waif or eftray, whereby it efcapes,
or is carried out of my liberty :—‘n every cafe of this kind,
there is an injury done to the legal owner: his property is
damnifed : and the profits arifing from his franchife are di-
minifhed, ‘I’o remedy which, as the law has given no other
writ, he is therefore entitied to fue for damages by a {pecial
action on the cafe, or, in cafe of toll, may take a diftrefs, if he
pleafes. (Cro. Eliz. 558.)

Disrurpance of Common is any act, by which the right
of another to his common is incommoded, or diminifhed.
This may happ.a, where one, who hath no right of common,
puts his cattle into the land; and thus robs the cattie of -
the commoners of their ref{peétive fhares of the pafture. Or,
if ove who hath aright of common, puts in cattle which are
not commonable, as hogs and goats ; which amounts to the
fame inconvenience. But the lord of the foil may (by cuftom,
or prefcription, but not without) put a ftranger’s cattle into
the common. (1 Roil, Abr. 396.) ; and alfo, by a like pre-
{cription for common appurtenant, cattle that are not com-
monable may be put into the common, (Co. Lit. 122.) The
lord of the foil may alfo jultify making burrows in it, and put-
ting in rabbits, fo as that they do notincreafe to fo largeanume
ber as totally to deftroy thecommon. (Cro. Eliz. 876. Cro.
Jac. 195. Lutw. 108.) But, in general, in cafe the beatts
of a ftranger, or the uncommonable cattle of a commoner,
be found upon the land, the lord, or any of the commoners,
may diftrain them damage-feafant (9 Rep. 112); or the
comimoner may bring an action on she cafe to recover da--

; magesy,

DISTURBANCE.

mages, provided that the injury cone be confiderable ; fo
that he may lay his aétion with a per gued, or allege, that
thereby he was deprived’ of his common. But for a tri-
vial trefp:fs the commoner has no ation; but the lord
of the foil only, for the entry and trefpafs committed.
g Rep. 112. ;

Another diflurbance of common is by furcharging it;
or putting more cattle in it than the pafture and herbage
will fuftain, or the party hath a right todo. This injury
by furcharging can, properly fpeaking, only happen where
the common is appendant, 2r appurtenant (fee Common),
and, of courfe, limitable by law; or where, when in gro/s,
it is exprefsly limited and certain ; for where a man hath
common in grofs, fans nombre, or avithout flint, he cannot be
a furcharger. However, i this latter cafe, there mult be
left fufficient for the Jord’s own beafts (1 Roll. Abr. 399.);
for the lew will not fuppofe that, at the original grant of
the common, the lord meant:to exclud: himfelf,

The ufval remedies for furcharging the common are,
either by diftraining fo many of the beafts as are above the
number allowed, or elfe by an ation of trefpafs; both
which may be had by the lord; or, laftly, by a {pecial action
on the cafe for damages, in which any commoner may be
plaintiff. (Freem. 273.) But the ancient and moft effec-
taal method of proceeding is by writ of admeafisrement of
paflure. ‘See ADMEASUREMENT, Common, and Sur-
CHARGE.

‘There is another difturbance of common, when the owner
of the land, or other perfon, fo inclofes, cr otherwife ob-
ftruts it, that the commoner is-precluded from enjoying
the benefit, to which he is by law entitled. This may be
done, either by ere€tinz fences, or by driving the cattle off
the land, or by plcvghing up the foil of the common. (Cro,
Eliz. 198.) Or it may be done, by ere&ting a warren in it,
and ftocking it with rabbits, in fuch numbers, that they
devour the whole herbage, and thus deftroy the common,
In this cafe, though the commoner may not deftroy the
rabbits, yet the law looks upon this as an injurious difturb-
ance of hia right, and has given him his remedy by ation
agaioft the owner. (Cro. Jac. 195.) ‘This kind of difturb-
ance amounts to a dilleifin, and if the commoner chufes foto
confider it, the law has given him an offfe of novel difzifin,
againft the lord, to recover the pofftflisn of his common.
{F.N.B. 179.) Or it has given a wit of quod permuittat,
againit any itranger, as well as the owner ot the land, in
eafe of fuch a diterbance to the plaintiff as amounts to a
total deprivation of his common; whereby the defendant
fhall be compelled to permit the plaintiff to enjoy his com-
mon as he ought. (Winch. L. 275. F.N. B. 123.) But
if the commoner does not chufe to bring a real action to
recover {eifin, or to try the right, he may, (which is the
eafier and more ufual way,) bring an action on the cafe for
his damages, mitead of an afffe, or a quod permittat. (Cro.
Jac. 195.) There are cafes, indeed, m which the lord may
inclofe and abridge the common; for which, as they are no
injury to any cone, fo no one 1s intitled to any remedy. See
Common pur Canfe de Vicinage.

Dusrursance of Ways is very fimilar, in its nature, to
the lait, and principally happens, when a perfon, who hath a
right toa way over another’s grounds, by grant, or preferip-
tion, 1s obitruéted by inclofures, or otner obltacles, or by
ploughing acrois it ; by which means he cannot enjoy his
righc of way, or, at lealt, not in fo commodious a manner as
be might have done. It this be a way annexed to his eftate,
and the obitruétion is made by the tenant of the land, this
brings it to the {pecies of injury, called Nu/ance, which fee.
But if the right of way, thus obltru¢ted by the tenant, be

4

only in grofs, (that is, annexed to a man’s perfon, and un-
conneéted with zeny lands or tenements,) or, if the obftruGtion
of a way belonging to an houfe or land is made by a ftranger,
it is then, in either cafe, merely a diflurbance; for the ob-
ftruGiion of a way in grofs is no detriment to apy lands, or
tenements, and, therefore, dees not fell under the legal no-
tion of a nufance, which muft be laid ad xocumentum libers
tenementi, (FN. B. 183.) ; and.the obfirrGtioa of it bya
ftranger can never tend ro put the right of way in difpute ;—
the remedy, therefore, for thefe difturbances 1s not by effife,
or any real aGiion, but by the univerfal remcdy of aQion on
the cafe, to recover Gamages. Hale oa F.N. B. 183.
Lutw. ‘Tr. 119.

Disruruance of Tenure, is the breaking of that connec-
tion which fubliits between the lord and his tenant, and to
which the law pzys fo high a regard, that it wili not fuffer
it to be wantonly diffolved by the a& of a third perfon.
To have an eftate well tenanted, is an advantage that every
landlord muft be very fenfible of; and, therefore, the driving
away of a tenant from off his eilate is an injury of no {mall
confequence. So that if there be a tenant at will of any
lands or tenements, and a franger, either by menaces and
threats, or by uslawful diftreifes, or by fraud and cireum-
vention, or other means, contrives to drive him away, or in-
veigle him to leave his tenancy, this the law very jultly con-
trues to -be a wrong and injury to the lord, (Hal. Anal.
c. 40. 1 Roll. Abr. 108.), and gives him a reparation in
pees aguinft the offender by a fpecial ation on the
czfe. :

DisturBAnce of patronage is an hindrance or ob*ruGion
of a patronto prefent his clerk to a benefice. This injury
was diftinguifhed at common Jaw from another fpecies of in-
jury, called ufurpation, which fee. Ditturbers of a right of
advowfon may be thefe three perfons; the pfeudo-patron,
his clerk, and the ordinary : the pretended patron, by pre-
fentingto a church to which he has no right, and thereby
making it litigious or difputable; theclerk, by demanding
or obtaining inftitution, which leads to and promotes the
fame inconvenience ; and the ordinary, by refufing to admit
the real patron’s clerk, or admitting the clerk of the pre-
tender. Thefe difurbances.are vexatious and injurious to
him who hath the right; and therefore, if he be not want- °
ing to himfelf, the law (befides the writ of right of ad-
vowfon, which isa final and conclufive remedy) hath given
him two inferior pofleffory ations for his relief ; an AssisE
of darrein prefentment, and a writ of Quare impedit (which
fee re{pectively ), in which the patron is always the plaintiff,
and not the clerk, For the law fuppofes the injury to be
offered to him only, by obftruting or refuting the admifiton
of bis nominee ; and not to the clerk, who hath no right
in him till inftitution, and of courfe can fuffer no injury.
Befides thefe pofleffory ations, there may be alfo hada
writ of right of adyowfon, which refembles other writs of
right: the only difinguifhing advantage of which now is,
that it ismore conclufive than a quare impedit ; fince to an
ation of guaye impedit a recovery had iv a writ of right may
be pleaded in bar. There is no limitation with regard to
the time within which any aétions refp-Ging advowfons are to
be brought; at leaft none later than the times of Richard I.
and Henry III.; fer by flatute 1 Mar. ft. 2. c. 5, the
ftacute of limitations, 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2, is declared not
to extend to any writ ot right of advowfon, guare impedit, or
affife of darrein prefentment, or jus patronatus., And this upon
very good reafon; becaufe it may very eafily happen, that
the title to an advowfon may not come in queftion, nor the
right haye an opportunity to be tried, within two years ;
which is the longeft period of limitation affigned by the ftatute

ef

Dit

of Henry VITT. Ina writ of guare impedit, which is almoft
the only real ation that remains in common ule, and alfo in
the affile of darrein prcfentment, and writ of right, the patron
only, and not the clerk, is allowed to fue the ditturber.
But, by-virtue of feveral aéis of parliament (ftat. 3 Jac. I.
«5. 1W.& Mc. 16. 12 Ann, ft. 2..c 14, 11 Geo. II.
c..17.), there is one fpecies of prefentations, in which a
remedy, tobe fued in the temporal courts, is put into the
hands of the clerks prefented, as well as of the owners of
the advowfon: 2. e. the prefentation to fuch benefices, as
belong to Roman catholic patrens; which, according to
their feveral counties, are vefted in and fecured tothe two uni-
verlities of this kingdom, And particularly by the ftatute
of 12 Ann. ft. 2. c. 14. § 4. anew method of proceeding
is provided, viz. that, befides the writs of guare impedit,
which the univerfities as patrons are entitled to bring, they,
or their clerks, may be at liberty to file a bill in equity;
again{t any perlon prefenting to fuch livings, and difturbing
their right of patronage, or his cefui que truft, or any other
perfon whom they have caufe to {ufpett : in order to compel
a-difcovery of any fecret trufts, for the bencfit of papilts, in
evafion of thofe laws whereby this right of advowfon is vetted
in thofe learned bodies :. and alfo (by the flat. r1 Geo. IL,
c. 17.) to compel a difcovery whether any graat or convey-
ance, faid to be made of fuch advowfon, were made bond
fide to a proteltant purchafer, for the benefit of proteltants,
and for a full confidcration; without which requifites every
fuch grant and. conveyance of any advowfon or avoidance
isabfolutely null and void. This is a particular law, and
calculated for a particular purpofe : but in no cther inftance
does the common jaw permit the clerk himfelf to interfere
in recovering a prefentation, of which he is afterwards to
have the advantage. When the cierk is in full poffeffion of
the benefice, the law giveshim the fame poffeffory remedies
to recover his glebe, his rents, his tithes, and other ecclefi-
altical dues, by writ of entry, affife, ejetment, debt, or
trefpafs (as the cafe may happen) which it furnifhes to the
owners of lay property. Yet he fhall not have a-writ of
right, nor fuch other fimilar writs as are grounded upon the
mere right; becaufe he hath not in him'the entire fee and
right (I°..N. B. 40.); but he is entiticd to a fpecial remedy
called a writ of Juris ufrum, which fe. Black{t. Com
book aii.

DISTURBER, an appellation given by the law toa
bifhop who refufes or negle&s to examine and admit the

atron’s clerk without good reafon affizned, or notice given;
and he fhall nothave any title to prefent by lapfe; for no
man fhall take advantage of his own wrong. (2 Roll.
Abr. 369.) Alfo if the right of prefentation be litigious
or contelted, and an aétion be brought againft the bifhop to
try the title, no lapfe hall incur till the queltion of right be
decided. (Co. Litt. 344.) See Lapse.

DISVELOPED, in Heraldry, is wled much in the fame
fenfe with difplayed. ‘Tous colours, faid in an army to be
flying, are, in heraldry, faid to be dilveloped.

DISUNITE, inthe Manege, is ufed for a horfe that drags
his haunches, that’ gallops falfe, or upon an ill foct.. See
Gator.

DITCH, in Agriculture, fignifies a trench or opening cut
in the ground, mottly round the fences of fields, in order to
keep the hedge-plants free from ftagnant moilture, and at
the fame time prevent their being injured by cattle, &c.
They are however fometimes made large and wide, fo as to
form divifion fences, and act as drains to the adjoining lands.
See Fence,

Ditches are formed very differently in different fituations,
but the chief things to be confidered in, making of them, are

5p i i

the nature of the foil, and their being conftru@ed fo as to
convey off the water as expeditioufly as poflible.

In cafes where the under-ltratum or fub-foil is of the
fpringy kind, and the land of the hilly fort, it has been ad-
vifed, i order to prevent the danger of the {prings working
through under the banks, and thereby letting down the faces
of them, together with the layer of ‘plants into the ditches,
to make them in the direCtion of the hills, by which this in-
convenience is im a great meafure prevented,

In all low vale diltri€ts, where the lands lie flat, the ditches
fhould be deep, wide, and kept conftantly well cleaned out,
as from fuch fitwations being apt to be naturally too cold
and moift, every poflible endeavour fhould be had recourfe to
to free them from furface water, which Mr. Marfhail has well
remarked, ¢if it ftand only an hour upon the foil, or in
immediate contaét with it, adds more or lefs to its natural
coldnefe,’? ~

The forming of thefe forts of ditches is too much neg-
le&ted in many low parts of the kingdom, as the coarfe, rank,
rufhy herbage of the lands fufficiently fhews.

The earthy material. which is collefed in. cleaning out
many ditches of this nature, from its containing the putrid
recrements of different animal and vegetable matters, is found
to conftitute, when mixed, by frequent turning over, with
mild lime, and after this has been well blended, incorporating
a little dung with the whole mafs, an excellent manure for all
forts of light foils, either as a top-drefling or for being turned
into them.

Dircn, or Fofé, in the Military Art, is a very large exe
cavation made for the purpofe of preventing an enemy from
approaching the walis of a fortified place; and efpecially to
obviate any attempts which might otherwife be made, to fur=
prife by an efcalade. ;

In many inftances, the ditch furrounding the body of the
place may be compared to a {mall river; being from 25 to 5
yards in width, and ufually not lefs than eight or ten feet in
depth. Where fortrefles are buiit on the borders of large
running waters, the ditch is ufually filled by their influx,
through channels of mafonry,in which proper flood-gates, &c.
are fixed, fo as to I:t in the water at pleafure., -

Ditches may be either wet or dry: the former are beft =

calculated for the prevention of a furprife, and of defertion ;
but when the water is flaguant, the health of the garrifon may
be confiderably affeCted: add to this, that the revetement, or

facing, of the fcarp, and counterfcarp, are in general f{2p- -

ped and weakened by too long a-continuance of moifture.
Dry ditches fhould be well turfed .at the bottom, fo as to
afford a good palture, and to prevent the foil from cracking,

or being fun-{corched. Thefe afford a more ready communi -
cation with the outworks than wet ditches; the latter re -

quiring numerous bridge’s, which may be deftroyed by the
‘fhot from the beficgers’-batteries ; occafioning very ferious in~

convenience, and eventually fubje&ting the outworks.to cap- -

ture,

There is»frequently a {mall ditch made.in the middle of
the great fof/é which furrounds the body of the place; this
is called the cunette, or cuvette ; and tor the moft part may
be taken at 15 feet in breadth, by fix. or eipht in depth.
This ferves as the main channel, whereby the. water let in at
the fluices is made to flow uniformly at every face:or- front ;
and being lined with mafonry built perpend:cularly, forms a

confiderable check on all attempts to pafs. the ditch by ford. -

ing when the befiegers have been able to draw off the main
body of water therefrom. The ecunetfes, or minor ditches,
rarely pafs in front of the curtains, being principally formed
oppofite the faces of the baitions: they often contain large
Supplies of excellent fifth; and in AGa are fometimes ren-

dered,

DiT

cred, ina manner, impaflable, owing to the number of allt.
gators they contain, and which are maintained for the pur-
pofe of deterring the garrifon from defertion, and from the
clandeftine acquirement of fpirituous liquors. For further
particulars regarding the dimenfions, ufes, defences, &c. of
the ditch, we refer the reader to-the head of Fortirica-
TION ; in which it will be found a prominent feature.

Ditcu-water. See WarTer.

DITCHING, in Agriculture, a term fignifying the prac-
tice of forming hedge and ditch fences. It lkewife im-
plies the operation of making up or cleaniog out thefe forts
of fences.

DITFORT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, belonging to the abbey of Qued-
lingburg ; 4 miles N. E. of it.

DITHMAR, or Dizruumar, in Biography, a Ger-
man prelate and hiftorian, was the fon of Sigefrid, count of
Saye, and born in the year 976. Having embraced the
monattic life, he was made bifhop of Merfburg, by the em-
peror Henry II. in tor8; and he died in ro25, in high
reputation for fanétity. His Latin chronicle, containing,
in feven books, the hiltory of the emperors Henry I. Otho
I. Li. IJ]. and Henry I]. has been feveral times reprinted,
and is accounted a faithful narrative. Moreri.

Ditrumar, Justus-CHRIsTOPHER, an eminent jurift
and antiquary, was born, in 1677, at Rottenburg in
Heffe, and after having diftinguifhed himfelf by his ftu-
dies under his father, who was fchool-mafter and minifter
in his native town, he removed to the univerfity of Marpurg,
where he applicd to theology and the oriental languages,
and thence to Leyden. He afterwards travelled in Germany
and Holland, as preceptor to one of the fons of the preti-
dent Van Danckelmann, and by the intereft of that family
he became profeffor, firft of hittory, and then of the law of
nature, at Frankfort on the Oder, where he alfo delivered
leGtures on the management of the domains and public
finances. We died at Frankfort in.1737. Some of the
moft important of his learned works, which are numerous,
are Gregori VII. Pontif. Vita,’? 8vo.; “ Hittoria Belli
inter. Imperium et Sacerdotium,”” Svo.; “f Delineatio Hif-
torie Brandenburgenfis,” 4to.; “ Chytrei Marchia Bran-
denb. ad noftra tempora continvata,” Svo.; ‘* C, Corn.
Taciti Germania, cum perpetuo et pragmatico Commenta-
rio;? * Differt. de abdicatione regnorum, aliorumque
dignitatum illuftrium,”? gto. “ A ColleGion of Differta-
tions on various fubjeéts of public and natural law and hif-
tory,”’ Svo.; and “ An Introdu@ion to Political Economy,
-gith a catalogue of the beit books on the fubjedi,”” Svo.
which is a popular work in Germany, and ufed in feveral of
the univerfitics. Morert. ,

DITHYRAMBIC, fomething that relates to the dithy-
rambus. We fay, a dithyrambic verfe, dithyrambic poet,
dithyrambic heat, &c. A compound dithyrambic word, Mr.
Dacier obferves, has fometimes its beauty and force. Some
moderns call compofitions which are in the talte of an ode,
only not diftinguifhed into ftrophes, and confifting of all
kinds of verle indifferently, dithyrambic odes.

Dithyrambic poetry owes its birth to Greece, and the
tranfports of wine. It favours ftrongly of its original; as
admitting of no rules, but the faliies of a fiery imagination,
And yet art is not quite excluded; but delicately applied
to guide and reftrain the dithyrambic impetuofity, and only
indulge it in flights that are pleafing. In effect, what our
poets fay of the ode, is more true of the dithyrambic than
of the ode, that its diforder is an effe@ of art.

Dithyrambic poetry muft have required dithyrambic me-
lodies ; and we are told that this Greek fong, in honour of

‘in Dalmatia.

pe i a

Bacchus, was fung in the Phrygian mode, and partook of
all the fire and joviality, which the god to whom it is ad=
drefl-d infpires. Roufieau, with a Sardonic {mile, fays,
« We mult not talk with the modern literati on this fub-
je&, who are always fo wife and guarded, who cry cut
againit the riot and diforder of dithyrambics. It is cer-
tainly very indecorous to “get drunk, particularly in honour
of a divinity; but I had rather be drunk myfelf than have
no other proof of my wifdom and.fobriety, than that which
meatures with cold and infipid reafon, the aGtions of a man
inflamed with wine.

“© Take love, and wine, from focial and convivial fongs,
and what remains but fatire and politics? no great ftimu-
lants to good humour or good fellowfhip.”

Dithyrambics and nomes were equally hymns fung in ho-
nour of the gods. The nomes were for Apollo, as the
dithyrambics were for Bacchus.

The abbé Vatry, in an excellent memoir on the origin
and progrefs of tragedy, Mem. de Litt. tome xv. fays,
that all the etymologies of the term dithyrambic are fo
forced, that he is firmly of opinion the word is not Greek,
and that both the name and thing were brought from
Egypt with the worfhip of Bacchus; for the Grecke are by
mo means agreed concerning the perfon who firft made them
acquainted with Bacchus; fome affirming it to have been
Cecrops, fome Melampus. and fome Orpheus ; but all unite
in deriving the worfhip of this god from the Egyptians.

The learned Redi’s dithyrambic poem, entitled ** Bacco
in Tofcano,”? is one of the moft fpirited and pleafing pro-
duGtions in the Italian language ; and the notes with which
the author has illuftrated his verfes, abound with learning,
{cience, and hiftorical information.

DITHYRAMBUS, AjdupauCos, in the Ancient Poeiry,
a hymn in honour of Bacchus, full of tranfport, and poeti-
cal rage.

The meafure, which is what diftinguifhes this kind of
poetry, is faid to have been invented by Dithyrambus, a
Theban ; but Pisdar attributes it to the Corinthians; and
the modern etymologiits furnifh us with another origin of
the word. :

In effe& the verfe might be called thus frem the god it
was confecrated to, who himfelf was named Dithyrambus ;
either on account of his having been brought twice into the
world, according to the fable of Semele and Jupiter, or by
reafon of his having triumphed twice; from ois, twice; and
SeiauGos, triumph. Be this as it will, the ancients, we are
told by Ariftotle and Horace, gave the appellation dithy-
rambus to thofe verfes wherein none of the common rules or
meafures were obferved; much like thofe called by the
French vers libres, by the Italians verfi {ciolti, and by the
modern Greeks politici, a name they yave to profe, which
thefe verfes refemble more than poetry.

We have now no remains of the dithyrambi of the ancient
poets, fo that we cannot fay precifely what their meafure
was; all we know is, that it is very bold and irregular.
The poets not only took the hberty to forge new words for
the purpofe, but they made double and compound words,
which contributed very much to the magnificence of the
dithyrambus.

Horace has fometimes imitated them. Dacier, F. Com.
mire, and fome other modern writers, have compofed Latin
pieces of all kinds of verfe, inditferently, according as the
fubjeG& and words prefented themfelves, without any order,
or diftribution into itrophes, and eall them dithyrambi.
See Pinparic.

DITHONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Illyria,
Pliny.

DITKIR.

mT T

DITKIRCHEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of the Lower Rhine, in the ele&torate of Treves,
on the Lahn; 17 miles W. of Wetzlar. ;

DITMANING, a {mall town of Bavaria, with an old
vaftle on the river Saltze.

DITMANSDORF, a town of Germany, in the arch-
duchy of Auftria; 2 miles S. of Schrattenfaal.

DITMAKSH, or Dirmarscu, one of the fubdi-
vilions of the duchy of Holftein, belonging to Denmark,
between the rivers Elbe and Eyder. ‘Together with Hol-
ftein Proper and Stormar, it was formerly called Nordalbin-
gia, or Saxony beyond the Elbe. It is about 35 Englith
miles long, and fcarcely 20 broad.

This country was anciently under the government of the
“earls of Stade, who held it as a fief of the empire. Ru-
dolphus, the laft of thefe earls, baving been murdered by
the inhabitants of Ditmarfh, in 1144, the county of Stade
-devolved to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, who, in 1148,
marched againft the infurgents, but having been put under
the ban of the empire, it was only in 1180 that Hartwig,
atchbifhop of Bremen, who took poffeflion of the county
of Stade, reduced the rebels to obedience. They foon re-
volted again, and fought the prote€tion of Waldemar, bifhop
of Slefwick; after which they renewed their allegiance to
the fee of Bremen.

The earls of Holftein frequently attacked Ditmarfh, but
were never able to conquer the country. Chriftian 1. king
of Denmark, received Ditmarfh from the emperor Frederick
Til. asa fief, to be incorporated with the duchy of Hol-
fein; but the inhabitants refufed their allegiance, and ap-
plied to pope Sixtus IV., by whofe decree they once more
fobmitted to the fee of Bremen, in 14:76.

Inthe year 1500, John, king of Denmark, waged an
unfuccefsful war againft Ditmarfh: but at length Fre-
derick II. and the dukes John and Adolphus of Holftein,
conquered this country in 1559, and divided it among
themfelves. In the year 1773, the whole province of Dit-
marth reverted to Denmark, by the exchange of the Weft-
phalian counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorft.

Ditmarfh is divided into South and North Ditmarfh.
The former confifts of Marfhland and Geeltland. The
Marfhland, or the Marches, extends along the banks of the
Elbe, and is proteéted by ftrong dikes and embankments,
The foil, which has been gained from the fea, is uncommonly
fertile, and is called koog or kog. The dikes are nineteen
feet high, and under the immediate infpeCtion of govern-
ment. They are kept at a very great expence. In the year
1634, the water wattied through the dikes, and {wept away
whole villages, with their churches, mills, cattle, aud fheep.
Fifteen hundred individuals perifhed in this inundation. The
Marfhland kas feven parifhes; its two principal places are
the towns of Meldorf and Brunfbiictel, which has a ferry
over the Elbe, not far from Hamburg.

The Geeftland is the higher part of South Ditmarfh, on
the fhore of the Baltic. It has five parifhes. Its moft re-
markable place is Hemmingftedt, where the inhabitants of
Ditmarhh gained that fignal viGtory over the Danes, in which
they took the famous Danifh banner, called the Dannebrog.

North Ditmarfh counts nine parifhes. Its principal towns
are Lunden and Heyde.

DITOMBIO, a river of Piedmont, which rifes two
miles N. E, from Orta, paffes through the Novarefe, and
divides into two rivers, the Albona and the Gogna.

DITONE, Dironvun, in Mu/ic, an interval comprehend-
ing two tones, a greater andalefs. See Inrervan, and
‘Tone. .

The word is formed of dis, ¢qvice, and royos, fone.

You. XII,

wil ©

The ratio of the founds that form the ditone is of 4 to 5»
or 4 = 197-2 + 4f-+ 17m, whichis the major third: and
that of the femi-ditone, of 5 to 6. IT. Parran makes the
ditone the fourth kind of fimple concords: others make it

the firft difcord, dividing the ditone into eighteen equal
parts, ©r commas, the nine on the acute fide go to the
Yelomon de Caux.

up the feptave, or

Ger- Key.

Ditone,.Greateft, is an interval whofe ratio is $4, = 208
E+ 4 f+ 18m, which is the difflonant major third of
Pi and alfo the comma-redundant major third, which
ec.

Dirone, Leaf, is an interval whofe ratio is 81,
1862+ 4f + 16m, which is the comma-deficient major
third, which fee.

DITONICO, Diaronrc, according to Zarfino, is the
pure and natural diatonic genus, or the diatonic of
Didymus; in which not one of the founds is in the
leaft altered; fuch is the ~plain chant of the church.
But the genus diatonum ditonicum of Ptolemy, which
coincides with the diatonic of Pythagoras, and refults
from that divifion of a monochord bearing the name of
Euclid’s feGtion of the canon, is exprefled by 33$ x 2
x 2 = 4. But thefe ancient fyitems have been juftly
laid afide fince the invention of a temperament, as being
unfit for the execution of mufical compofitions in feveral
parts. Smith’s Harmon. p. 33.

DITONICUM, Diatronum. See Genus.

DITRIGLYPH, in Architedure, the {pace between two
triglyphs. Se ‘lRictypH.

DITRIHEDRIA, in Natura! Hiflory, the name of a
genus of fpars. Ihe word is derived from the Greek dic,
twice, res, three, and ide, a fide or plane. The bodies of
this genus are fpars compofed of twice three planes, being
formed of two trigonal pyramids joined bafe to bafe, with.
out the intervention of any intermediate column. Of this
genus there are five known fpecies: 1. One with long and
pointed pyramids, found in the mines of Cornwall, and fome
other partsof England. 2. One with long and broad py-
ramids, found loofe in the fiflures of the alabafter quarries of
Blanckenberg, in Germany. 3. One with fhort and broad
pyramids, found in the mines of Rammelfberg. 4. One
with extremely broad depreffed pyramids, found in the ala-
balter quarries at Blanckenberg, and fometimes in the mines
of Goffelaer, in Saxony. 5. One with fhort, but fharp-
pointed pyramids, found very frequently in the mines of the
Harte Foreft, and fometimes on Mendip Hills with us.
Hill’s Foffils, p. 218,

DITTANDER, in Botany. See Lepipium.

DITTANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Spain, in
the Tarragonefe territory, placed by Strabo on mount
Orofpeda. ‘They were a colony of Celts,

DITTANY, in Botany. See Oricanum,

Dirrany, Baflard. See Margusium.

Ditrany, White. See Dicramnus.

DITTEAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in
the province of cicada in length above 12 mile,

: and

eT

and nearly as much in breadth; populous and well built;
the houfes being of ftone, and covered with tiles. It is
furrounded bya ftone wall, and furnifhed with gates.
At the N. W. extremity is a large building, with one large
and fix {maller cupolas, formerly the refidence of the rajah ;
but the prefent rajah has built a palace for himfelf, feated
on an eminence without the town, onthe S.E. fide, and
commanding a view of the country. Clofe to this hill is
a pretty extenfive Jake. The inhabitants are robuft and
handfome, and prefent the appearance of opulence and con-
tent ; but they bear the character of a warlike people. The
diftri& yields a revenue of nine or ten lacks of rupees annu-
ally, fubje& to the payment of a tribute to the Mahrattas,
the amount of which varies with their power to exaét it.
Af. Refearches, vol. vi. p. 22.

DITTERBACH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim ; feven miles S. E. of Politzka.

DITTERS, Cuarces, in Biography, the favourite, fays
Gerber; of the German nation, was born in 1730. He be-
gan his career as a mufician by the violin, as a performer on
which inftrument he was admitted into the imperial chapel
at Vienna; and when he followed the emperor Jofeph to
Frankfort, on his eleGtion of king of the Romans, he eclipfed
all his rivals. At that time he bore his family name of
Ditters; but in 1770, the emperor, asa reward for his merit
and talents, elevated him to the rank of nobility by the
title of Ditterfdorf, and at the fame time appointed him
ranger of the forefts in his Silefian domains. On his ar-
rival in Silefia, the prince bifhop of Breflau nominated him
direStor of his chapel, cr choral band, and from that time
he refided alternately in Silefia and Vienna. In 1792, he
lived in a fplendid manner on his own property in Auftria,
which was very confiderable.

In 1772, we heard his mufic performed at Vienna among
the beft compofers of that period; and at Bruffcls his fym-
phonies were in the higheft favour at this time, and per-
tormed under the direction of that admirable direétor of the
band, M. Fitzthumb, which we heard with very great plea-
fure. Few of Haydn’s fymphonies were then known, and
Vanhal and Ditters were at the head of German fym-
phonitts.

Of the works of Ditters, which are uncommonly nume-
rous and excellent, not more than eight or ten have been
printed. And thefe were not chofen for their fuperior merit,
but becaule copies had been more eafily obtained by the
. editors. The fifteen fymphonies, compofed from his feelings
on reading the metamorphofes of Ovid, are to be excepted ;
for thefe he not only led with univerfal applaufe at Vienna,
but alfo by general intreaty, attended himfelf to their pub-
lication. In 1780, a new fource of applaufe was opened to
him by fetting words to mufic. ‘The oratorio of Efther,
6°O fia la Liberatrice del popolo Giudaico nella Percia,”
compofed by him, was performed for the benefit of the
widows and families of muficians. But his moft admired
German work “ Der Door und der Apotheker,”’ was per-
formed in the Vienna theatre, in 1786. Two years after
this, he fet and publifhed, at Vienna, three other operas.

DITTLEMEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia; 3
miles S. of Infterburg.

DITTO, in Books of Accounts, written contra&tedly D°.
fignifies the fame, viz. as the preceding article.

The word is corrupted from the Italian deito, the faid ;
as in our law phrafe ‘‘the faid premifes,” meaning the fame
as were aforementioned.

DITTON, Humpurey, in Biography, an excellent
mathematician, was born at Salifbury in the year 1675.
His father was a zealous non-conformift, but fufliciently

DL

candid and liberal to acknowledge merit wherever it might
be found, and accordingly placed the fon under the care 0
a clergyman of the eftablifhment, with whom he continued
till he was of an age to enter upon fome profeffion, At this
period he undertook the charge of a diflenting congregation
at Tunbridge in Kent, which he continued to ferve feveral
years, till he found the labour more than equal to his
ftrength. He then refigned the office of preacher, and, at
the advice of Dr. Harris and Mr. Whifton, devoted him-
felf entirely to mathematical purfuits. In this line he foon
acquired diftinétion, and was enabled to enrol among his
friends the firft men of the age, among whom was fir Ifaac
Newton. By the intereft and recommendation of this able
man, Mr. Ditton was elected mafter of the mathematical
fchool in Chrift’s hofpital, the duties of which he continued
to perform till his death, which happened in the year 1675,
before he had {carcely attained to the meridian of life, is
works are numerous, chiefly on mathematical fubjeéts; the
moft important was his treatife on ‘* Fluxions,”? which was
publifhed in 1706, and reprinted twenty years afterwards with
additions and alterations by Mr. John Clarke. His work.
on ‘Tbe General Laws of Nature and Motion,” was highly
applauded by men of the firft eminence in f{ctence and lite-
rature: it,was deemed a capital introduciion to the writings
of Galileo, Huygens, and fir Ifgac Newton. As a divine,
Mr. Ditton is known by * A Difcourfe on the RefurreQion
of Jefus Chrift,?? which has been feveral times printed, and
has been tranflated into foreign languages, In conjunétion
with Mr, Whifton, he laid before the commiffioners of the
board of longitude a method for the difcovery of that dif
ficult problem, which, being rejected, was the cavfe of fo
much uneafinefs and chagrin, as probably to haften his end.
Dr. Kippis, in {peaking of the treatife on the refurreGtion,
calls it a “* work of great value. According to the fafhion
of the times, it is written in the mathematical form, which,
perhaps, gives it too abftra& an appearance, but it would
well reward a diligent pernfai: as is the cafe with many
other good books, the memory of it is almoft overwhelmed
by the fucceffion of new publications. A perfon who fhould
apply himfelf tothe ftudy of the logic of probabilities, would
find his account in reading Mr. Ditton’s performance.”
Biog. Brit.

DITTY, a poem, a fong. This word, probably, is
derived from ditie, Fr. and the French from di@um, Lat..
a faying, a fentence, and not from dicht, Dutch.

In old French it implied an epiftle: ‘* Lectio Epiftole
beati Pauli Apoftoli ad Titum; Saint Paus envoie cheft
ditie.””? Shakefpear, Milton, and Dryden have repeatedly
given refpect and importance to this word.

Being young, I framed to the harp
Many an Englifh ditty lovely well,
And gave the tongue a helpful ornament. Hen. 1V.

Mean while the rural ditties were not mute,
Temper’d to the oaten flute ;
Rough fatyrs dane’d. Milton.

They will be fighing and finging under thy inexorable

windows lamentable ditties, and call thee cruel. Dryden,
DIU, in Geography, an ifland in the Indian fea, neat
the fouth coaft of the country of Guzerat, and not tar W-
from the entrance of the gulf of Cambaya, about three
miles long and one broad, with a town of the fame name,
that has a good harbour, fubjeét to the Portuguefe. The
town is {mall, but well built and fortified ; and in the pe-
riod of the profperity of the Portuguefe, and before Cam-
bay@ and Surat attained to reputation, it was a place of
8 great.

2

great,trade, and the port was always full of fhips, N, lat.
20° 45.’ FE. long. 70° 5/.

Div Point, a cape of Hindooftan, on the fouth coaft of
Guzerat. N. lat. 20° 43’. E. long. 69° 52’ 15.”

DIVAL, in Heraldry, the herb nightshade, a plant with
poifonous berries, looking like black cherries, ufed by fuch
as blazon with flowers and herbs inftead of colours and
metals, for fable, or black. See Sasre.

DIVALIA, in Antiquity, a feaft held among the ancient
Romans on the twenty-firft day of December, in ho-
nour of the goddefs Angerona; whence it is alfo called
Angeronalia.

On the day of this feaft, the pontifices performed facri-
fice in the temple of Voluptia, or the goddefs of joy and
‘pleafure, who, fome fay, was the fame with Angerona;
and {uppofed to drive away all the forrows and chagrins of
life.

DIVAN, a council-chamber, or court, wherein jultice
is adminiftered, in the eaftern nations, particularly among
the Turks.

Divan is an Arabic word, fignifying the fame with fopha
in the Turkifh dialect.

There are two forts of divans, that of the grand
fignior, called the council of ftate, which confifts of
feven of the principal officers of the empire. The grand
fiznior never gives audience to ambafladors, except on
‘Tuefday, on which day the divan is affembled :—this coun-
cil is held on the ground floor of a fquare tower, which
‘bears the fame name. The vizir, the great judges of Eu-
rope and Afia, the grand treafurer, &c. &c. fit on benches
round the hall; and above the feat of the vizir, facing the
entrance, is a little window, grated, and raifed about nine
or ten feet, from which the grand fignior may hear all that
paffles ; but where he cannot, as they wifh to have it believed,
either be affaffinated, or affaffinate. The other divan is that of
the grand vizir, formerly compofed of fix ordinary vizirs, or
pachas with three tails, whofe reputation for wifdom was
notto be equivocal. he vizir afked their opinion when he
thought it neceflary. To this council were likewife ad-
mitted the mufti and the two kodilefkers, when the law was
to be confulted. Sclim, however, foon after his acceffion
to the throne, compofed this council of twelve perfons, the
moft diftinguifhed by their office. The vizir and the mufti
are prefidents of it: the one in his quality of lieutenant-
general of the empire for temporal affairs: the other as vi-
car of the fultan for the interpretation and depofitary of the
laws. The other ten members are the siaya-bey, the reis-
effendi, the tefterdar-effendi, the tehélébi-effendi, the terfana-
émini, the tchiaoux-bachi, the two ex-rets-effendi, and two
ex-tefterdars-effendi: which fee refpectively. The captain-
pacha and the kiaya of the fultana-validai are called to the
extraordinary councils ; and although they are not ordinary
members of the council, they are confulted, and both of
them have the greateit influence in the deliberations, on ac-
count of the intereft which the former preferves with Selim,
and from that which the latter has obtained with the fultana
mother,

This council, unfortunately compofed of members that
are mutual enemies, jealous of each other, and more occu-
ped about their own iuterefts than the happinefs of the

ate, has been very far from accomplifhing the intentions of
Selim. Since its creation, the ftate of affairs has daily be-
come worfe ; the empire is menaced with a total diffolution ;
the finances are exhaufted ; and the danger which threatened
the government has a€tually occurred. See Turkey.

The divan at Aleppo is compofed of the bafhaw or pacha,
Mohafil or Difter-dar (tefterdar), Cady, Mufti, Nakeeb,

DIV

and Sarda, or aga of the Janizaries, who, by their office,
are members of this council ; and befides thefe it confifts of
the principal effendis and agas, together with the fhahbin-
der, or head of the merchants. ‘The divan is affembled as
often as emergencies require; a fummons being carried to
each member by the bathaw’s chaules, who are inferior
officers, carrying a fhort ftick ornamented with filver, and
employed in attendance at the gate of the feraglio for car-
rying meflages, &¢.: but this council regularly meets every
Friday at the feraglio. The effendis rendezvous firft at the
Mahkamy or great tribunal, whence they ride in proceffion
with the Cady. Bufinefs relating to the city and all parts of
the province is tranfaéted in the divan; the bafhaw always
affeGting to be defirous of obtaining exact information.
After the breaking up of the Friday’s divan, the bafhaw
ufually goes in ftate to the mofque, attended by moft of the
members.

The word is alfo ufed for a hall, in the private houfes of
the orientals. The cuftom of China does not allow the re-
ceiving of vifits in the inner parts of the houfe, but only at
the entry, ia a divan contrived on purpofe for ceremonies.
Le Compte.

The divan among the Turks is a common appellation for
an apartment in the feraglio, which is neatly fitted up, and
ferves for the reception of company, for occafional lodging
and repofe, or for the conducting of public bufinefs. (See
Seracuio.) All the houfes of the Turks of middle rank
at Aleppo have a divan, with a little garden or fountain
before it.

Divan-Becut, the appellation of one of the minifters of
ftate in Perfia.

The divan-beghi is the fuperintendant of juftice ; his place
is the laft of the fix minifters of the fecond rank, who are
all under the athemadaulet, or firft minifter.

To the tribunal of the divan-beghi appeals lie from fen-
tences pafled by the governors. «He has a fixed ftipend, or
appointment, of 50,000 crowns, that he may render juftice
gratis. All the ferjeants, ufhers, &c. of the court, are in
the fervice of the divan-beghi. He takes cognizance of the
criminal caufes of the chams, governors, and other great
lords of Perfia, when accufed of any fault, and receives ap-
peals from the daruga.

There are divan-beghis not only at court, and in the ca-
pital, but alfo in the provinces, and other cities of the em-

Ire.
: This officer is not confined by any other law or rule, in
the adminiftration of juftice, but the Alcoran, which alfo he
interprets at pleafure. He takes no cognizance in civil
caufes.

DIVANDUROJU, in Geography, the name of five {mall
iflands in the Indian fea, near the Maldives.

DIVE, a river of France, in the department of the
Vienne. It has its fource near La Grimaudiére, pafles by
Moncontour, Bafnueil, and falls into the river Thoué, below
Saint Juft, in the department of Mayenne and Loire. Its
inundations deprive agriculture of 50,000 arpens of excel-
lent foil. A canal has been commenced to drain this land ;
it is to extend from the mouth of the Dive to Saumur, a
length of nine miles, or 15 kiliometree, and will facilitate the
tranfport of provifions to Nantes.—Alfo, a river of France,
in the department of Calvados, which has its fource in the
fouth in the department of the Orne, flows almoft due
north, and after having received the waters of the Oudon,
Faifon, and La Vie, falls into the Englifh channel near the
town of Dives.

DIVER, in Ornithology. Several kinds of water-fowl are
known by this name in different parte of England, as for ex-

E2 ample,

DIV

ample, the Mearcus minutus is called the Jough diver;
and the Arca Atce, the fmall black end white diver.
A number of the Corymsus genus are allo called divers by
Enghih writers. :

DIVERBIA, Jai. a term in the Roman drama, im-
plying the different fpecies of cautileaa ufed by the inter-

-Joeutors on the ftage.

The Greek ‘ramas confifted of foliloquy, dialogue, and
chorus ; but as the chorus was never adopted in the Latin
comedy, it has been imagined, that fuch cantica, or folilo-
guies, as were full of featiment and paffion, had a different,
more elaborate, and refined melody and accompaniment let to
them than the diverbia, or dialogues; and that, like the cho-
yus of the Greek tragedy, they ferved as interludes, or a&
tunes. But we have been able to meet with no fatisfactory
proof of thefe cantica, or fongs being a part of the piece,
like the Greek chorus: for though Flaccus is mentioned as
compofer of the modes or melodies, to which ail the fix
comedies of Terence were fung, no notice is taken of a dif-
ferent mufic for the cantica, or even interludes, if fuch there
were, ufed betweeen the aéte. Some of the foliloqu'es in
Terence feem too fhort and trivial to be fung to different
mufic from the diverbia; and others, that are longer and
more fentimental, have no diftin@ion of veriifcation, like the
odes or chorufes of Greek tragedy, to point them-out as
cantica; but are all in the fame free Iambic verfe as the di-
verbia.

Donatus, who flourifhed three hundred and fifty years
after Chrift, tells us, indeed, that “‘ though the dialogues
were fpoken, the cantica were fet to mufic, not by the poet,
but by an able compofer.” ‘* Diverbia hiftriones pronun-
tiabat : cantica vero temperabant modis, non a poeta, fed a
perito artis mulices factis.” Scholia in Terent. We fhould
therefore rather imagine that thefe cantica of the Latin co-
medy were real intermezzi, or interludes, wholly detached
from the piece, and, perhaps, not only the produdtions of a
different compofer, but ofa different poct. That the Tibi-
cines exhibited between the aéts feems evident from a paflage
in Plautus, who makes one of his characters fay at the con-
clu4ion of the firft a& of the Pfeudolus, I muft go in: * Ti-
bicen vos interea hic deleCtaverit.””

The melody of ancient declamation being then only a fpe-
cies of recitative, could receive nothing but a poetical
rhythm, far lefs exact than one ftni&ly mufical ; exact, in-
deed, as to long and fhort fyllables, but as it approached
nearer to common fpeech than air, foit muft have been more
jax and incommenfurate as to time, than meafured melody,
fuch as conftitutes air at prefent. Long and fhort fyllables
are rigouroufly attended to in modern recitative, the words
are ftrongly accentuated, and yet the mufical meafure, or
time, is never attended to, or beaten. :

M. de Voltaire, fo much attached to the ancient drama,
and fo little to modern mufic, fays, we can no where find
fach an exa&t refemblance of the Greek ftage, as in the lta-
Jian opera. ‘* The Italian recitative is precifely the melo-
poeia of the ancients; and though this recitative is tirefome
in ill written pieces, yet it is admirable in good ones ; and
the chorufes in fome of them, which are interwoven in the
fubjeG, refemble the ancient chorus fo much the more, as
they were fet to a different kind of mufic from the recita-
tive ; for the ftrophe, epode, and antiftrophe, were fung by
the Greeks quite differently from the melopoeia of the reit

e play.”
Fé — eae continues M. de Voltaire, ‘that thefe
tragedies, fo bewitching by the charms of the mufic, and
magnificence of the decorations, have a defe& which the
Greeks always avoided ; a defect which has transformed the

er
oF

DIV

moft beautiful, and; in other refpeéts, the mof regular tra=
gedies that ever were written, into monfters : for what can be
more abfurd than to terminate every fcene by one of thofe de=
tached airs, avhich interrupt the bufinefs, and deftroy the is-
tereft of the drama, in order‘ to afford an opportunity to an
efieminate throat to fhine in trills and divilions, at the ex=
pence of poetry and good fenfe.”? Diifert. fur la Tragedie
Ancienne et Moderne.

The laft period of this quotation proves the impofiibility
of fatisfying all parties in theatrical difputes ; for thofe very
airs which are fo deiightful to lovers of mufic, and which
alone render an opera fupportable to them, are regarded
by the exclufive lovers of poetry as the only blemiihes in
this kind of drama, which render it inferior to the
Greek. However, notwithflanding the acknowledged me-
rit of particular fcenes of recitative in an opera, we are in=
clined to believe, 1f the airs were omitted, that the reader
ing this kind of fpe€tacle more Greeian, would neither in—
creafe the number of its admirers, nor enrich the managers
of the theaire.

DIVERGENCY. For the point of divergency or di-
vergence in Optics, fee Virtual Focus. ;
Divercency of Tune, in Mujic. M. Huygens and .M.
Sauveur long ago obferved, that no voice or perfe& inftru-
ment can always proceed or leap from one note to another
by perfe& intervals, without erring from the pitch at firlt
affumed, and hence it is, that temperaments in the melody are
unavoidable, where perfe€t harmony between the parts of 2
concert are attained, as Mr. Farey has obferved (Philofophi-
cal Magazine, vol. xxvii. p. 314). Mr. Maxwell, in his
‘s Effay on Tune,” has well confidered this kind of difagree=
ment, between the intervals in mufic, which render them un=
fit or incompetent, to the performance of perfe& melody
and perfe&t harmony at the fame time, and has denominated:
the effe@& which arifes from endeavouring to perform certain
melodies without falfe or tempered intervals, in varying the
pitch, as above obferved, the divergency of tune. See Har-

mony, and TEMPERAMENT.

Divercency of Meridians, in Geographical Surveying. In
proceeding from either pole of the earth towards the equa-
tor, the meridians will be found to diverge from each other,
and on proceeding the contrary way, to coverge, the law of
which has been confidered under the article ConverGENcy ~
of Meridians, which {ee.

DIVERGENT, or Divereine /ines, in Geomeiry, are
fuch whofe diftance is continually increafing. -

Lines which converge one way, diverge the oppoiite way.

DiverGent, or DiverGinG, in Offics, is particularly
applied to rays, which, iffuing from a radiant point, or
having in their paflage undergone a refraStion, or refleGtion,
do continually recede farther from each other.

In which fenfe the word is oppofed to convergent, which
implies the rays to approach each other; or to tend to a
centre, where being arrived, they interfe& ;. and, if continued
farther, become diverging.

Concave glaffes render the rays diverging; and convex
ones, converging.

Concave mirrors make the rays converge; and convex
ones, diverge. See Focus.

It is demonftrated, in Oprics, that as a diameter of a pretty”
large pupil does not exeeed tth of a digit; diverging rays,
flowing from a radiant point, will enter the pupil parallel, to
all intents and purpofes, if the diftance of the radiant from
the eye be 40,000 feet. Sce Licut and Vision.

Diveraine /Ayperbola, is one whofe legs turn their con-
vexities towards one another, and run towards quite contrary

ways. ;
DIVER.

DIV |
WIVERSIFYING, in Rébctoric, is of infinite fervice to

the orator; it is an accomplifhment eflential to his character,
and may fitly be called the fubje& of all his tropes and
figures. Voffius lays down fix ways of diverfifying a fubject.
x. By enlarging on what was briefly mentioned before.
2. By a concife enumeration of what had been infifted onat
length. 3. By adding fomething new to what is repeated.
4. By repeating only the principal heads of what had been
faid. 5. By tranfpofing the words and periods. 6. By
imitating them. Voff. Rhet. lib. v. p. 281, & feq.

DIVERSION, in Medicine, the turning of the courfe or
flux of humours from one part to another, by proper ap-
plications. : ;

Diversiox, among Military Meri, means the drawing
off the enemy’s attention, or caufing him to weaken fome
particular point, on account of either a real, or a feigned,
attack upon fome remote part. When an army is unable
to cope with another in the field, and retires behind intrench-
ments, or into fortified places, another army, though compa-
ratively {mall, attacking fome weak point in the enemy’s
rear, thereby caufing him to forego any advantage he might
have gained, or induciog him to detach a portion of his force,
will generally be productive of excellent effe@s. Diverfions
are, for the moft part, held in terrorem over fuch coafts as are
_ but weakly guarded, but from which the enemy would wil-
lingly fend reinforcements to fome other part ; or eventually
commence operations againft fome neighbouring ftate.
Therefore, when an army either collets in fuch a fituation
as fhould enable it to feize the opportunity afforded by the
enemy’s withdrawing his troops; or where an army, being
embarked, hovers along a coaft, fo as to keep him in a con-
ftant fufpence, the greateft aid is given: it is evident, that
in the latter cafe, the enemy muft confine himfelf entirely to
a defenfive fyftem, in lieu of quitting the coaft to reinforce
any other point. To illuftrate this more fully, let us fup-
pofe that an army were marching from Italy to join the
French in anattack upon Spain: a few thoufand men kept
hovering in tranfports along the coaft of Italy muft necefla-
rily prevent the intended co-operation ; becaufe, whenever an
opportunity might offer, the tranfports would difcharge their
troops; and, if circumftances fhould admit, would proceed
for reinforcements ; oy probably pretend to attack, or to
watch fome other point: thus would a real and a feigned
attack be carried on, in two different places, at nearly the
fame time ; diftracting and harafling the enemy fo effeCtually
as to make an effeCiuai diverfion in favour of fome diftant
army.

DIVERSITY. This differs from diftin@ion in this, that
the latter isthe work of the mind; but the former is, in
things themfelves, antecedent to the operation of the mind.
For things that are feveral, are different ; even though I do
not conceive them. See Distincrion.

The diverfity, or difference of things, therefore, arifes
from their effentialattributes. See Ipentrry.

Diversity, in Painting, confifts in giving every part or
figure in a picture its proper air and attitude. The ‘kilful
painter has the penetration to difcern the chara&ers of
nature, which vary in all men; whence the countenances
and geftures of the perfons he paints continually vary.

Diversity. of perfon, plea of, in Law. See Reprieve.

DIVERTICULUM, in Anatomy, a lufus nature or
preternatural formation occurring in the fmall inteftine. It
confifts of a piece of gut, feldom exceeding three inches in
length, having the fame ftruéture and fize as the reft of the
tube, opening by one end into the inteftinal canal, which it
joins at right angles, and terminating in a clofed or blind
extremity at the cppofite end, which is loofe in the abdo-

DIV

minal cavity. ‘That thefe diverticula are a natural forma-
tion, and do not confift of any morbid extenfion of the
coats of the intcftine, is proved by their being formed of
the fame tunics as the reft of the canal, They cannot caufe
any ill confequence. When protruded in a hernia, they
might mortify and even feparate in a piece of an inch or two
long, without affeGting the paflage of the foeces per anum.
They have been feen in the large inteftine, but are much-
more rare in that fituation. Reprefentations may be feen in
Ruyfch Thef. Anat. feptimus, tab. 4; and Sandifort
Mofeum Anat. Acad. Lugdun. Bat. tab. 107.

Diverticutum Nucki1; the opening through which
the round ligament of the uterus paffes. Nuck ftates that
the peritoneum forms a {mall canal here in the female,
bearing ' an analogy to the tunica vaginalis of the male,
and this is the part called diverticulum Nuckii. We do
not confider this to be the common ftru@ture ; but there is
fometimes a fmall and fhort canal of peritoneum over the
paflage of the round ligament, even in the adult fubjeét.

DIVERTISSEMENT, Fr. Entertainment, Engh In
the former it implies finging and dancing. With us the
term is generally applied to pantomime, as a pantomime en-
tertainment- But often at benefits, where all the theatrical
attractions poflible are thrown cut to excite curiofity, en
tertainments of finging are frequently ‘promifed in the bills
and advertifements, without {pecification,

DIVES, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the
department of Calvados, near the mouth ef the river Dive ;
12 miles N. E. of Caen. It is the chief place of acanton,
in the diftri& of Pont ?Evéque, with only 470 inhabitants :
but the canton contains 33 communes, and a population of
9888 individuals, on a territorial extent of 170 kiliometres.
Dives muft not be confounded with another town in the fame
department, called St. Pierre fur Dive, which fee.

DIVESTING, properly fignifies undrefling, or {tripping
off one’s garment, in contradiltin@tion from invefting.

In law, itis ufed for the a& of furrendering, or reline
quifhing one’s effects. By a contra& of donation, or fale,
the donor, or feller, is faid to be difleifed and divelted of
his property in fuch a commodity, and the donee, or pur-
chafer, becomes invefted therewith.. See INvEsTITUKE.

A demife is a general diveftiture, which the fathers and
mothers make of all their eff-4s, in favour of their children.

DIVIDEND, in Arithmetic, the: number given to be
divided ;. or that whereof. the divilion is made.

The dividend muft always be greater than the divifor,
The dividend contains the divifor as many times as the
quotient contains unit.

Divipenn of a bankrupt’s effate, is that part which is
diftributed to every creditor in proportion to his debt. See
Bankrupt.

Divivenn, in the Exchequer, is one part of an indenture.
10d0d. Toc. 11,

Divipenpn, in Zaw, is ufed for a dividing of fees in
perquifites between officers of courts, arifing from writs, Xc.

DivipEnp, in Commerce, the dittribution of the profits of
a fociety or joint-ftock company, to: the members thereof,
according to their refpective fhares inthe concern. The
divifion 1s moft commonly made at {tated periods, yearly or
half-yearly, and is occafionally raifed or reduced according
to. the gains or lofits during the preceding period. The
rate, at which it is to be made, is uluaily determined by a
gyneral. meeting of the proprietors or fhare-holdeis, the
refolution, or vote of fuch general meeting, being the au-
thority on which orders of payment, addreffed tothe trea-
furer, or fome other officer of the company, and called
dividend warrants, are ifluedto the refpective proprictors.

. 5 In:

e

DIVIDEND,

tn moft public companies, the general court, or meeting of
proprietors, is at liberty to declare whatever dividend they
think proper; in fome, as the Eaft India company, the
dividend cannot be increafed, except on certain conditions ;
and in others, 2s the London and Weft India Dock com-
panies, the dividend is reftri€ted to not exceed a certain rate
percent. per ann.

Dividend warrants are ufually payable on demand, and as
they contain an acknowledgment of receiving the fum ex-
preffed, they are liable to the ftamp duties on receipts.

Divivenp of the public funds, the annual inzereft paid by
government to the proprietors of the public debts. Tue
funds being properly the revenues on which the intereft of
the public debts is charged, the divifion of the refpective
fhares thereof to the public creditors, came to be confidered
inthe fame light, as the divifion of the profits of public
companies to their ftockholders ; both were annual payments
for money advanced; and when the intereft on the public
debts was made payable at the bank of England, the mode
of payment being exactly fimilar to the payment of the
dividends on bank ftock, the order of payment was called a
dividend warrant, and the intereft fpecified therein, became
commonly denominated the dividend.

The dividends on the public funds were formerly paid
‘quarterly at the exchequer, but they are now, with the
exception of a few life annuities, all paid half yearly at the
bank of England, and the South fea houfe, the money
being tranfmitted from the exchequer for this purpofe, a
few days before the dividends become due. Part of the
dividends become due on the 5th January and 5th July;
the others on 5th April and roth Oétober, and they are
ufually in courfe of payment, in about a week from thofe
days. For fome time previous to the days of payment, the
-transfer books are fhut, in order to make out the dividend
warrants, which being filled up inthe name the ftock ftood
in, when the books fhut, are, of courfe, only payable to
that perfon, or his attorney. Atthe bank of England, the
dividends are paid from nine o’clock till eleven, and from
one till three; but on the 3 per cent. confols, without any
Intervention, from nine o’clock till three. At the South
fea houfe, they are paid from nine till twelve o’clock.

The great augmentation of allthe public funds which hag
taken place of late years, has been attended with a confi-
derable increafe in the number of the proprietors thereof,
eommonly called ftock-holders, and as many of thefe perfons
are foreigners, or others refiding in diftant parts, or
perfons who do not choofe to make their relatives acquainted
with their property in the funds, it frequently happens, from
death, abfence, or other caufes, that dividends which have
become due, remain for a confiderabie time unreceived.
Thefe unclaimed dividends were at firft of but {mall amount,
but they have fince accumulated very confiderably, as will
appear trom the following extraét, from an account laid
betore parliament.

Bera iae

On 5th July 1739 1,090 15 42
1743 O(n 35. ge
1747 20,476 15 113
1751 64,421 5 4
1755 62,504 4 If
1759 102,075 4 112
1763 134,688 6 6%
1767 186,356 3 11%
1769 227,020) (Olm2=
4771 257,040 13 25
1773 253.855 10 OF
3175 292,551 7 8%

On sth July 1747 284,719 17 63.
1779 314,885 8 32
1781 340,1II 12 OF
1783 361.388 5 5k
1785 424,301 3 8}
1787 493144 15 3%
1789 547,306 16 65

In the year 1791, the magnitude of the fum thus remain-
ing in the hands of the bank, attraéted the attention of the
minifter ; and asit could not be pretended to be the pro-
perty of the bank, it was thought that the public might
have the ufe of the principal part thereof, fo long as it re-
mained undemanded. An at was accordingly paffed,
authorifing the company to advance out of the unclaimed
dividends in their hands 500,0o00/, for the public fervice,
with a provifion, that if the fum in their hands fhould be
reduced under 600,000/., the difference fhould be repaid
them.

In confequence of the publication of the names of the
proprietors of the dividends then unclaimed, a confiderable
part of them was received, and thus the fum advanced to go-
vernment became only 376,739/. 5 and, as from an omiffion
in framing the a&, no provifion had been made for making
up deficicncies to the public, as well as to the bank, when-
ever the whole fum of the unclaimed dividends might rife
above, as well aa whenever it fhould fall below the ftipulated
amount of 600,000/., the excefs beyond the 376,739/.
actually advanced, remained in the hands of the bank, and
was continually increafing.

Total amount of the unclaimed dividends at the follow-
ing periods immediately preceding the dividends payable ir

January.
1794, January gth = a a2
1795» gth == = 771,388"
1790, ——— gth - 814,112
1797, ————Ioth - 778,027
1798, ——u11th - $21,728
1799, ——— 12th ° $60,888
1800, ——— oth - 9345388
1801, gth - 973:451
1802, oth . 916,639
1803, ————1oth - 960,233
1804, ——— oth - 963,731
1805, ——— gth © 1,023,294
1806, —+~—— 7th - 1,008,631
1807, ——— 68th - 1,003,966
1808, 5th 1,047,895

The average balance in the hands of the bank, on this
account, having been in each year ftill greater than the
fums above ftated, a propofition was made in 1808, tbat
the company fhould advance out of the unclatmed dividends
the fum of 500,000/. for the ufe of the public, in addition
to the fum before adyanced purfuant to 31 Geo. III. c. 33,
and under fimilar conditions ; but with a provifion that the
amount of unclaimed dividends remaining in the bank
fhould not at any time be reduced below 100,000/. As no
objection could be made to this propofal by the bank, an
act was paffed, under which it was carried into effeat.

The total amount of unclaimed dividends on the annuities
payable at the South fea houfe, on the 31ft Dec. 1802, was
107,886 /. 155. 8d.

The dividends of the public funds were long confidered
as exempt from any mode of taxation; all the ats of pare
liament, by which the different loans have been eftablifhed,
having provided that the refpeétive annuities payable on
them ‘ fhall be free from all taxes, charges, and impofitions
whatfoever.”? They have, however, in common with all

other

DIV

other deferiptions of income, been made fubjeé& to the pros
perty tax, which is deducted even on the unclaimed di-
vidends,

Stealing any dividend-warrants of the Bank, South Sea
Company, Eaft India Company, or of any other corpora-
tion, is made felony, with or without benefit of clergy in
the fame manner as if the offender had ftolen, or taken by
robbery, goods to the value of the money due on fuch
dividend-warrants, Stat. 2 Geo. Il. c. 25.

Diviwenp, in the Univerfity, is that part or fhare, which
every one of the fellows equally divide among themfelves,
of their annual flipend.

DIVIDIVI, the name of a drug brought from the Ca-
raccas into Spain in 1769; and which, by experiments that
have been made upon it at Madrid, is found to be prefer-
able to galls in dyeing black.

DIVIDUAL, in Arithmetic, is ufed for that part of the
dividend diftinguifhed by a point in working by the rule of
divifion.

DIVINATION, rerum futurarum fcientia, the pretended
aét, or art, of foretelling future events. This art or
fcience, in which the pagans thought themfelves fure of
fuccefe, if they proceeded according to certain eftablifhed
rules, was founded in their fyftem of theology. They had
deified all the parts and powers of nature, and more efpeci-
ally the heavenly bodies ; afcribing to the latter not only
life and intelligence, but a fore-perceiving motion, anda
fovercign influence on every thing here below. They had
alfo other gods befides the objeéts of nature, viz. Dx-
mons, from whofe fubordinate miniftry and mediation,
divination, prophecy, and magic were fuppofed to proceed.
Ammian. Marcell. lib. i. c. 1. Herod. lib. ii. c. 83. Plato.
in Symp. in Epinomide, in Phedra, Porphyr. ap. Enfeb.
Prep. Evan. lib. iv. v. vi. & de Abftinentia, lib. ii. Jam-
blich. de Myfter. Apul. Apol. ld. de Deo. Socrat. Diogen.
Laert. in Vita Pythag. lib. xxxii. p. 514.

Farmer on Miracles, chap. iii. {eét. 3.
Enrausiasm, &c.

Divination, which is'as ancient as idolatry, and formed a
contiderable part of the pagan theology, proceeded origi-
nally from the Egyptians to the Jews, Greeks, and Ro-
mans; and was divided by the ancients into artificial, and
natural.

Divination, riijicial, is that which proceeds by rea-
foning upon certain external figns, confidered as indications
of futurity.

Divination, JVatural, is that which prefages things
from a mere internal fenfe, and perfuafion of the mind, un-
oe particular emotion or agitation, without any affiftance
of figns.

een in his book “ De Defe&tu Oraculorum,” allows
that demons might be appointed by the gods to prefide
over divination and oracles, and to be the guardians of the
temperature of thofe exhalations, to which they are af-
cribed; but at the fame time it is afferted, that the foul is
naturally endued with the faculty of divining, and that
certain exhalations of the earth were the means of exciting
the prophetic power or virtue. P. 418. D. and
p- 453. F.

Natural divination, again, is of two kinds: the one na-
tive, the other by influx,

The firft is founded on this fuppofition, that the foul,
which was thought to be a particle of the divine air or {pi-
rit, taken out from God, and to have exilted from eter-
nity, colleGted within itfelf, and not diffufed, or divided
among the organs of the body, has, from its own nature

See Proruecy,

and effence, fome fore-knowledge of future things...

DIV

Witnefs what is feen in dreams, extafies, the confines of
death, &c.

The fecond is founded on this, that the foul receives,
after the manner of a mirror, fome fecondary illumination
from the prefence of God, and other fpirits: and hence
proceeded oracles.

Divination, Artificial, is allo of two kinds: the one
arguing from natural caufes: fuch as the predictions of phy-
ficians about the events of difzafes, from the pulfe, urine,
&c. fuch are alfo thofe of the politician, “* O venalem urbem,
et mox perituram, fi emptorem inveneris !”’

The fecond proceeds from experiments and obfervations
arbitrarily inftituted, and is moftly fuperftitious.

Infinite are the fyftems of divination reducible to this
head ; by birds, the entrails of beafts, dreams, lines of the
hand, points marked at random, numbers, names, the mo-
tion of the fieve, the air, fire, the fortes Preneftinz, Vir-
giliane, and Homerice ; with numerous others, the prin-
cipal fpecies whereof, and their names, are: Pfychomancy,
or {ciomancy, which confifts in calling up the fouls or
fhades of the deceafed, to learn of them fomething required,
DaGyliomancy, performed by means of one or more rings.
Hydromancy, performed with fea-water. Pegomancy,
with fpring-water. Ornithomancy, or divining by the flight
of birds, which was the bufinefs of the augurs. Clido-
mancy, performed with keys. Cofcinomancy, with a
riddle, or fieve-Cledoni{m, by words, or voice. Extifpi-
fina, by the entrails of victims. Alphitomancy, or aleuro-
mancy, by flour. Keraunofcopia, by the confideration of
thunder. Capnomancy, by fmoke. Ale@ryomancy, by
cocks. Pyromancy, by fire. Lithomancy, by ftones.
Lychnomancy, by lamps. Necromancy, by the dead, or
their bones, &c. Oneirocritica, by dreams. Oofcopy, by
eggs. Lecanomancy, by a bafon of water: Gaftra-
mancy, by the belly, or by phials. Palpitation, faliffatio,
maruG, by the puifation, or motion of fome member.
Axinomancy, by a hatchet, or cleaver. Catoptromancy,
or cryftallomancy, by a mirror. Chiromancy, by the lines
of the hand. Geomancy, by the earth. Czromancy, by
figures of wax. Arithmomancy, by numbers. Belomancy,
by arrows. Sycomancy, &c. all defcribed by Ca:dan, in
his fourth book, De Sapientia; and under their proper arti-
cles in this dictionary.

All thefe kinds of divination have been condemned by
the fathers, and councils, as fuppofing fome compa with
the devil: though fome of them, as well as the heathen phi-
lofophers, contend for the fupernatural power and efficacy
of pagan divination and forcery. Eufeb. Prep. Ev. lib. vs
c.4. Aug. de Civ. Dei; lib. viii. c. 16. Farmer on Mira-
cles, bi fupra.

Fludd has fevera¥ treatifes on the different fpecies of divi-
nation: and Cicero has two books on the divination of the
ancients, in which the feveral kinds of it are explained ; and
which he refolves into many caufes very different from tat
of an immediate revelation from fome {piritual being. He
has expofed thefe feveral ats of fuperilition to ridicule ;
though his brother Quintus had endeavoured to fupport
them. To prove the univerfality of the praétice of divina---
tion, he fays, ‘‘ Are there any people who do not receive
either divination by art, e. g. that which is drawn from
infpedting the entrails of vi€tims; from the interpretation of
prodigies and thunders; from the ufc of anfpices; from the
practice of lots and aftrological predi€tions ; or natural di- .
vination, which is what they obtain by. dreams and by pro-
phecy ?”

It feems to have been one article in the creed of the an-
cicnt Britons, as well as of all the other nations of antiquity,

thas.

DIV

that the gods whom they worfhipped had the government of
the world, and the direction of future events in their hands;
and that they were not unwilling, upon proper application,
to difcover thefe events to their pious worfhippers. ( /E1.
Var. Hitt. J. ii. ¢. 31.) The gods,” fays Ammianus
Marcellinus (1. 21.) “ either from the benignity of their
own natures, and their love to mankind, or becaufe men
have merited this favour from them, take a pleafure in dif-
covering impending events by-various indications.”? This
belief gave rife to ailrology, augury, magic, lots, and an in-
finite multitude of religious rites and ceremonies, by which
deluded mortals hoped to difcover the counfels of heaven,
with regard to themfelves and their undertakings. (Plin.
Hitt. Nat. ]. xxx. c. 1.) We learn from Pliny, that the
ancient Britons were greatly addiéted to divination, and ex-
celled fo much in the praétice of all its arts, that they might
have given a leffon to the Perfians themfelves.

Having given a detail of the principal arts of divination, we
fhali obferve, that befides thofe which the Britons pradiifed,
in common with other nations, they had one of a very horrid
nature, which 13s thus defcribed by Diodorus Siculus (I. v.
c. 35.); “ They have a great veneration for thofe who dif-
cover future events, either from the flightof birds, or the
infpection of the entrails of victims, and all the people yield
an implicit faith to their oracles. On great occafions they
praétife a very ftrange and incredible manner of divination.
They take a man who is to be facrificed, and kill him with
one ftroke of a {word, zbove the diaphregm; and by obferving
the pofture in which ie falls, his different convulfions, and
the direGtion in which the blood flows from his body, they
form their prediétions, according to certain rules which have
been left them by their anceftors.””

In Holy Scripture, we find mention made of pine dif-
ferent kinds of divination: the firft performed by the in-
fpection of plants, ftars, and clouds: they are fuppofed to
be the practifers of this, whom Mofes calls 73575 meonen,
of WIN: anan, cloud, Deuter. chap. xviii. ver. 10. 2. Thofe,
whom the prophet calls, in the fame place, g7{}% meno-
chefeh ; which the Vulgate, and generality of interpreters,
render, augur. 3. Thofe who, in the fame place: are called
E\LIDID meca/beph ; which the Septuagint and Vuigate tran{-
Tate, a man given to ill pradices. 4. Such authors, whom
Mofes im the fame chapter, ver. 11. calls 44> bhober. 5.
Thole, who confult the fpirits called Python; or, as Moles
expreffes it in the fame book, Suix SIN, thofe who afk
queflions of Python. 6. Witches, or magicians, whem Motes
calls IVT) jedeoni. 7. Thofe who confult the dead, necro-
mancers. 8. The prophet Hofea, chap. iv. ver. 12. mentions
fach as confuit flaves, 959) bye ; which kind of divina-
tion may be called shabdomancy. 9. The laft kind of divi-
nation mentioned in Scripture is hepafo/copy, or the confi-
deration of the liver, See Ruaspomancy, Maaicians,
&e.

DIVINE, fomething that comes from or relates to God.
‘The word is alfo ufed figuratively, for any thing that is ex-
cellent, extraordinary, and that feems to go beyond the
power of nature, and the capacity of mankind.

In which fenfe, the compafs, telefcope, clocks, &c. are
faid to be divine inventions: Plato is called the divine au-
thor, the divine Plato; and the fame appellation is given ta
Seneca: Hippocrates is called the divine old man, divinus
Jenex, &c. ‘The Arabs give the appellation divine, rnoe
elahioun, to their fecond fe& of philofophers, confitting of
fuch as admit a firft mover of all things, a {piritual fub-
ftance, free from all kind of matter; in a word, a God.
By this name they diltinguifh them from their firft fect,
whom they call deherioun, or thabaioun, #.e. worldings, and

DIV
°
naturalifts, 2s admitting of no priaciples beyond the material
world, end nature.

The word $7398 elahiqun is derived from RON Alla,
God: fo that the elhaioun are the divines, or theologuss, ag
Caftellus renders it; or, fuch as own a God,

Divine Law. See Law.

Divine Service, Tenure by. See Tenors.

DIVINERS, in Myrhology, thofe who practifed divina~
tion. See Auspices and Avcours.

DIVING, the art, or a@ of defcending under water, to
confiderable depths, and abiding there a competent time.

In remote ages divers were kept in fhips to affift in railing
anchors and goods thrown overboard in times of danger ;
and by the laws of the Rhodians, they were allowed a fhare
of the wreck, proportioned to the depth to which they had
defcended in fearch of it. In war, they were often em-
ployed to deftroy the works and fhips of the enemy. Wher
Alexander was befieging Tyre, divers fwam off from the
city, under water, to a great diftance, and with long hooks
tore to pieces the mole, with which the befiegers were en-
deavouring to block up the harbour. (Curtius, iv. 3. Are
rian de Exped. Alex. I. ii.) Thucydides (I. ii.) istorms us,
that the Syracufans performed the fame exploit.

The ufes of diving are very confiderable, particularly ia
the fifhing for pearls, corals, fponges, &c. See Corar and
Peart-fifhing. s

There have been divers methods propofed, and engines
contrived, to render the bufinefs of diving more fafe and
eafy. The great point in all thefe is to furnith the diver
with frefh air, without which he muit either make but a

cfhort ftay, or perifh.

Thofe who dive for fponges in the Mediterranean, help
themfelves by carrying down fponges dipt in oil in their
mouths. But confidering the fmall quantity of air that can
be contained in the pores of a fponge, and how much that
little will be contra€&ted by the preffure of the incumbent
air, fuch a fupply cannot long fubfift the diver. Forit is
found by experiment, that a gallon of air included in a blad-
der, and by a pipe reciprocally infpired and expired by the
lungs, becomes unfit for refpiration in little more than one
minute of time. For though its elafticity be but little al-
tered pafling the lungs, yet it lefes its vivifying f{pirit, and
is rendered effete.

In effet, a naked diver, Dr. Halley affures us, without
a {ponye, cannot remain above two minutes enclofed in-
water ; nor much longer with one, without fuffocating ; nor
without long praétice, near fo losg: ordinarily perfons be-
ginning to be fuffocated in about half a minute. Befides, if
the depth be confiderable, the preflure of the water in the
veflels makes the eyes blood-fhotten, and frequently occa~
fions a {pitting of blood.

Hence, where there has been occafion to continue long at
the bottom, fome have contrived double flexible pipes, to
circulate air down into a cavity enclofing the diver, as with
armour, both to furnifh air, and to bear off the preffure of
the water, and give leave to his breaft to dilate upon infp'-
ration ; the frefh air being forced down one of the pipes with
bellows, and returning by the other of them, not unlike to
an artery and vein.

But this method is impra€ticable when the depth furpafles
three fathoms ; the water embracing the bare limbs fo clofely,
as to obftru& a circulation of the blood in them; and withal
preffing fo ftrongly on all the jun€ures where the armour
is made tight with leather; that if there be the leaft de-
fe in any of them, the water rufhes in, and initantly fills
the whole engine, to the great danger of the diver’s life.

Divinc-dell, is a machine contrived to remedy all thefe

Incon-

DIVING-BELL ‘

neonveniences. The invention of the diving-bell, or Cam-
ana urinatoria, 18 generally affizned to the 16th century.
The firlt information we have refpecting the ufe of the div-
ing bell in Europe is that of Taifnier, quoted by Schottus
in his “* Technica Curiofa,” (1. vi. c.g.) He relates, that
at Toledo, in Spain, in the year 1538, he faw, in the prefence
of the emperor Charles V. and about 10,000 {pectators, two
Greeks let themfelves down under water, in a large in-
‘verted kettle, with a burning light, and rife up again, with-
out being wet. It appears that this art was then new to
the emperor and the Spaniards, and that the Greeks were
careful to make the experiment in order to prove the poffibi-
lity of it. After this period the ufe of the diving-bell feems
to have become flill better known. It is defcribed more
than once in the works of lord Bacon, who explains its ef-
feds, and remarks that it was invented to facilitate labour
under water.

In the latter part of the 16th century the diving-bell was
fometimes employed in great undertakings. When the Eng-
hth, in the year 1555, difperfed the invincible armada of
Spain, fome of the {hips were wrecked near the ifle of Mull,
on the weltern coaft of Scotland, and they were faid to con-
tain great riches. ‘This report occafioned feveral attempts
to procure part of the loft treafure. In the year 1665, a
perfon was fo fortunate as to bring up from the bottom
fome cannon, which, however, were not fuflicient to defray
the expences. Some years after attempts of the like kind
were renewed. In the year 1683, William Phipps, a native
of America, having formed a projz¢t for fearching a rich
Spanith fhip funk on the coaft of Hifpaniola, and having
obtained from Charles 1I. a fhip furnifhed for the under-
taking, fet fail; but being unfuccefsful returned in great
poverty, though with a firm conviétion of the praéticability
of his fcheme. Applying without effet to James II. he
raifed a fub{cription from private perfons, and the duke of
Albemarle, fon of general Monk, advanced a confiderable
fum to enable him to make the neceflary preparations for a
new voyage. In 1687 he determined to try his fortune once
more in a fhip of zoo tons burden; having previoufly en-
gaged to divide the profit according to the 20 fhares of which
the fubfcription confifted. After many unavailing attempts,
he at length fucceeded in bringing up, from the depth of
fix or feven fathoms, treafure amounting to 200,000/. fter-
ling, with which he returned to England. Of this {um he
himfelf got about 16, others fay 20,000/., and the duke of
Albemarle go,000/. Phipps received from his majefty the
honour of knighthood, was afterwards high fheriff of New
England, and died at London, greatly refpefted, in 1693.
In confequence of this fuccefsful adventure, the duke of Al.
bemarle obtained the governorfhip of Jamaica, in order to try
his fortune with other fhips funk in that neighbourhood;
but nothing further was found worth the labour-of fearching
for it. In Englard, however, feveral companies were formed,
and obtained exclufive privileges of fifhing up goods on cer-
tain coafts, by means of divers. The moft confiderable of
thefe was that which, in 1688, tried its fuccefs at the ifle of
Mull, at the head of which was the earl of Argyle. The
divers went down to the depth of Go feet under water, re-
mained there fometimes a whole hour, and brought up gold
chains, money, and other articles; which, however, when
colleéted, were of little importance. (Martin’s defeription of
the Wettern Iflands, Svo. 1716, Campbell’s Political Survey
of Britain, 4to. 1774.) ‘The following circumftance proves
that this machine was little known in the firft half of the
roth century. Among the figures that occur, without ex-
planation, in the olde edition of Vegetius on the art of war,
there is reprefented a method of catching fih with the hands,

Vor. XII,

at the bottom of the fea. The apparatus for this purpofe
conlits of a cap, fitted fo clofely to the head of the diver,
that no water can make its way into the cavity of it, ard

-from the cap arifzs a long leather pipe, the apening of which

floats on the furface of the water. If the perfon who drew
this figure had been aequainted with the diving-bell, he would
certainly have delineated it rather than this ufelefs apparatus.
Of the old figures of a diving machibe, that which ap-
proaches nearelt to the diving-bell is in a book on Fortifica-
tion by Lorini (Ven. 1609. fol.) ; who defcribes a fquare
box bound round with iron, which is furnifhed with win-
dows, and has a {tool affixed to it for the diver: but the
Italian does not appear to be the inventor of it. In 1617,
Francis Kefsler gave a defcription of his water-armour, in-
tended alfo for diving, but which cannot be ufed for that
purpofe. In 1671, Witfen taught, in a better manner than
any of his predeceffors, the conftruciion and ufe of the div-
ing bell; though he is much miftaken in faying that it was
invented at Amfterdam. In 1679, appeared, for the firlt
time, Borelli’s well-known work, “ De Motu Animalium,”
in which he not only deferibed the diving-bell, but alfo pro-
pofed another, the impradticability of which was evinced by
James Bernouill', (AGia Erudit. 1683, Decemb. and Bernon-
ili Oper.) But further and more important improvements
have been fince made in this machine by Halley, Triewald,
&c. 5; of which we fhall give fome account in the fequel of
this article. In this machine the diver is fafely conveyed
to any reafonable depth, and may ftay more or lefs time
under the water, as the beil is greater or lefs,

It is moft conveniently made in form of a truncated cone,
the {malleft bafe being clofed, and the larger open. It is
to be poifed with ‘ead, and fo fulpended, that it may fink
full of air, with its open bafis downward, and as near as
may be in a fituation parallel to the horizon, fo as to clofe
with the furface of the water all at once. ‘

Under this covercle the diver fitting, finks down with the
included air to the depth defired: and if the cavity of the
veffel can contain a ton of water, a fingle man may remain
a full hour, without much inconvenience, at the depth of
five or fix fathoms.

But the lower you go, ftill the more the included air
contraéts itfelf, according to the weight of the water. that
compreffes it ; fo that at the depth of thirty-three feet the
bell becomes half full of water: the preflure of the incum-
bent water being then equal to that of the atmofphere ; and
at all other depths, the {pace occupied by the compreffed
air in the upper part of the bell, will be to the under part
of its capacity filled with water, as thirty-three feet to the
depth of the furface of the water in the beli below the come
mon furface thereof. And this condenfed air, being taken
in with the breath, foon infinuates itfelf into all the cavi-
ties of the body, and has no ill effe&t, provided the bell be
permitted to defcend fo flowly as to allow time for that
purpofe.

One inconvenience that attends it is found in the ears,
within which there are cavities which open only outwards,
and that by pores fo fmall, as not to give admiflion even te
the air itfelf, unlefs they be diiated and diftended by a cone
fiderable force. Hence, on the firft defcent of the bell, a
preflure begins to be felt on cach ear, which, by degrees,
grows painful, till the force overwhelming the obitacle,
what conftringes thefe pores, yields to the preflure, and
letting fome condenfed air flip in, prefently eafe enfues.
The bell defcending lower, the pain is renewed, and after-
wards it is again eafed in the fame manner.

But the greateft inconvenience of this engine is, that the
water entering it, contracts the bulk of air into fo {mall a

12 compafis

DIVING-BELL,

eompafs, that it foon heats, and becomes unfit for refpi-
ration: fo that there is a neceffity for its being drawn up to
recruit it ; befides the uncomfortable abiding of the diver,
who is almoft covered with water.

To obviate the difficulties of the diving-bell, Dr. Halley,
to whom we owe the preceding account, contrived fome
farther apparatus, whereby not only to recruit and refreth

- the air from time to time, but alfo to keep the water wholly
out of it at any depth; which he effe&ted after the follow-
ing manner.

His-diving-bell, (fee Plate. Il. Hydraulics, fig. 18.) was of
wood, three feet wide at top, five feet at bottom, and eight
feet high, containing about fixty-three cubic feet in its con-
cavity, coated externally with lead, fo heavy that it would
fink empty, a particular weight being diftributed about its
bottom R, to make it defcend perpendicularly, and no other-
wife. In the top was fixed a menifcus glafs D, concave
downwards, like a window, to let in light from above;

. with a Cock, as at B, to let out the hot air; and a circu-
lar feat, as at LM, for the divers to fit on: and, below,
about 4 yard under the bell, was a ftage fufpended from it
by three ropes, each charged with a hundred weight, to
keep it fteady, and for the divers to ftand upon to do their
bufinefs.» The machine was fufpended from the maft of a
fhip by afprit, which was fecured by ftays to the ma‘t-head,
and was direéted by braces to carry it overboard clear of the
fide of the fhip, and to bring it in again.

To fupply air to this bell when under water, he had a
couple of barrels, as C, holding thirty-fix gallons each,
cafed with lead, fo as to fink empty, each having a bung-
hole at bottcm, to let in the water as they defcended, and
let it out again as they were drawn up again. In the top
of the barrels was another hole, to which was fixed a !eathern
pipe, or hofe, well prepared with bees-wax and oil, long

_ enough to hang below the bung-hole; being kept down by
a weight appended; fo that the air, driven to the upper
part of the barrel by the incroachment of the water, in the
defcent, could not efcape up this pipe, urlefs the lower end
were lifted up.

Thefe air-barrels were fitted with tackle, to make them
rife and fall alternately, like two buckets; being dire@ted
in their defcent by lines faftened to the under edge of the

bell; fo that they came readily to the hand of a man placed
on the {tage to receive them: and who taking up the ends
of the pipe as foon as they came above the furface. of the
water in the barrels, all the air included in the upper part
thereof was blown forcibiy into the bell; the water taking
its place.

One. barrel thus received and. emptied; upon a fiznal
given, it was drawn up, and at the fame time the other let
dewn; by which alternate fucceffion frefh air was furnifhed
fo plentifully, that the learned door himfelf was one of
five, who were all together in nine or ten fathoms depth of
water for above an hour anda half, without the lect in-
convenience ; the’ whole cavity of the bell being perfeGly
dry.

“All the precaution he obferved was, to be let down gra-
dually about twelve feet at a time, and then to ftp, and
drive out the water that had entered, by taking in three or
four barrels of freth air, before he defcended farther. And,
being arrived at the depth tended, he let out as much of
the hot air that had been breathed, as each barrel wou!d re-
place with cold, by means of the cock B, at the top of
the bell, through whofe aperture, though very {mall, the
air will rnfh with fo much violence, as to make the furface of
the fea boil.

Thus, he found any thing could-be- done that was’ res

quired to be done underneath. And by taking off the
ftage, he could, fora {pace as wide as the circvit of the bel!,
lay the bottom of the fea fo far dry as not to be overfhoes
therein, Befides, that by the glafs-window fo much lighe
was tranfmitted, that, when the fea was clear, and efpe-
cially when the fun fhone, he could fee perfe&tly well to
write or read, much more to faften, or lay hold of any thing
under him that was to be taken up. And by the return of
the air-barrel he often fent up orders written with an iron
pen on a plate of lead, directing how he would be moved
from place to place. pre

At other times, when the water was troubled and thick,
it would be as dark as night below; but in fuch cafes he was
able to keep a candle burning in the bell.

Dr. Halley obferves, that they were fubjeét to one incon-
venience in this bell; they felt at firit a fmall pain in their
ears, as if the end of a tobaccc-pipe were thruft into them ;
but after a little while there was a {mall puff of air, with a
little noife, and they were eafy. This he {uppofes to be oc-
cafioned by the condenfed air fhutting up a valve leading
from fome cavity in the ear, full of common air; but when
the condenfed air preiled harder, it forced the valve to yield,
and filled every cavity. One of the divers, in order to pre-
vent this preflure, ftopped his ear with a pledgit of paper ;
which was pufhed in fo far, that a furgeon could not extract
it without great difficulty.

The fame author intimates, that by an additional contri-
vance he has found it practicable for a diver to go out of
the bell to a good diftance from it; the air being con-
veyed to htm in a continued ftream by {mall flexible pipes,
which ferve him as a clue to dire&t him back again to the
bell. For this purpofe, one end of one of thefe pipes,
kept open again{t the preflure of the fea, by a {mall {piral
wire, and madetight without, by painted leather and fheep’s
guts drawn over it, being open, was fattened in the bell,
ag at P, to receive air, and the other end was fixed to a*
leaden cap on the man’s head, reaching down below his
fhoulders, open at bottom, to ferve him as a little bell,
full of air, for tim to breathe at his'work, which would
keep out the water from him when at the level of the great
bell, becaufe of the fame denfity as the air in the great bell.
But when he ftooped down lower than the level of the great
bell, he fhut the cock F, to cut off the communication be-
tween the two bells. Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. iv. part ii.
p: 188, &c. vol. vi. p. 550, &c. .

The air in this bell would ferve him for a minute ortwo;
and he might inftantly change it, by raifing himfelf above
the creat beil, and opening the cock F. The diver was
furnifhed with a girdle of lareé leaden weights, and clogs
of lead for the feet, which, with the weizht of the leaden
cap, kept him firmon the ground; he was alfo well clothed
with thick flannels, which being firft made wet, and then
warmed jn the bell. by the heat of his body, kept off the
chill of the cold water for a confiderable time, when he was.
out of the bell. °

Mr. Martin Triewald, F.R.S. and military archite&-to
his Swedihh majefty, contrived to conttru& a diving-bell-on
a finaller feale. and lefs expences, than that’ of Dr. Halley, .
and ‘yet capable of anfwering the fame intents and purpofes.
This bell, A B (fg. 19.) finks with leaden weights D,-D,
fufpended from the bottom of it. It is made of copper,
and tinned all over om the infide;- three itrony convex lenfes
G, G, G, only two of which, G, G, are feen, defended by the
copperslids H, H, H, illumioate this bell, The iron plate E
ferves the diver to ftand upon, when he is at work; this is
fufpended by chains F, F, F, two of which only are vifible,
at fuch a diftance from the bottom of the bell, that. when

he

: DIVING-BELL.

he flands upright, his head is jul above the water in the bell,
where he has the advantage of air fitter for refpiration, than
when he is much higher up; but as there is cccafion for the
diver to be wholly in the bell, and confequently his head in
the upper part of it, Mr. Triewald has contrived, that,
even there, after he has breathed the hot air a3 long as he
well can, by means of a fpiralcopper tube &c, placed clofe
to the infide of the bell, he may draw the cooler and frefher
air from the Jowermoft parts; for which purpofe a flex:ble
leather-pipe, about two feet long, is fixed to the upper end
of the tube at 4; and to the other end of the pipeis faftened
an ivory mouth-piece, for the diver to hold in his mouth, by
which to refpire the air from belaws We thallorly remark,
that as air rendered effete by refpiration, is fomewhat heavier
than common air, it muft naturally fubfide in the bell;
but it may probably be reftored by the agitation of the fea-
water, and thus become fitter forrefpiration. Phil. Tranf.
Abr. vol. vii, p. 634 or Defaugiiers’ Exper, Phil. vol. 11.
p- 220, &c.

A great improvement in the diving-hell was made by the
late Mr. Spalding of Edinburgh. ‘This conftruétion feems
defigned to remedy fome inconveniences of Dr. Halley’s,
which are very evident and of a very dangerous tendency ;
thefe are, 1ft, by Dr. Halley’s conftru€tion, the finking or
rifing of the bell depends qn the people who are at the fur-
face of the water. Asthe bell, when in the water, has a very
conliderable weight ; the raifing of it not only requires a
great deal of labour, but there isa poflibility of the rope
breaking, by which it is railed, and thus every perfon in the
beli would inevitably perifh. 2d. There are, in many parts
of the fea, rocks which le at a confiderable depth, the
fizure of which cannot poffibly be perceived from above.
There is danger that fome of their ragged prominences may
eatch hold of the edge of the bell in its defcent, and thus
overfet it, before any fignal can be given to thofe above,
which would infallibly be attended with the dettruétion of
the people in the bell: and as it muft always be unknown,
before trial, what kind of a bottom the fea has in any place,
it is plain, that without fome contrivance to obviate this
lafi danger, the defcent, in Dr, Halley’s diving-bell, is not
at all eligible. How thefe inconveniences are remedied by
Mr. Spalding’s new contrivance will be eafily underftood
from the following defcriptions. A BC D, (jig. 20.) repre-
fents a feétion of the bell, which is made of wood; €,¢ are
iron hooks, by means of which it is fulpended by ropes
QBEe, and Q AFe, joining at Q, as expreffed in the
fizure: c,c, are iron hooks, to which are appended leaden
weights, that keep the mouth of the bell always parallel
to the furface of the water, whether the machine, taken
altogether, is lighter or heavier than an equal bulk of
water. By thefe weights alone, however, the bell would
not fink; another is therefore added, reprefented at L, and
which can be raifed or lowered at pleafure, by means of a
rope pafling over a pulley a, and faftened to the fides of the
bell. As the bell defcends, this weight, called by Mr.
Spalding the balance weight, hangs downa confiderable way
below the mouth of the bell. In cafe the edge of the bell
as caught by any obftacle, the balance weight is immediately
lowered down, fo that it may reft upon the bottom; by this
means the bell is lightened, fo that all danger of over-fetting
itisremoved. From being lighter without the balance-weight
than an equal bulk of water, itis evident, that the bell will
rife as far as the length of the rop: affixed. By another in-
genious contrivance, Mr. Spaiding rendered it poffible for
the divers to raife the bell, with ail the weights appended to
‘it, even to the fusface, or to ftop at any particular depth,

as they think proper; and thus they would ftill be fafe, ever
though the rope defigned for pulling up tHe bell was broken,
For thia purpofe, the beli is divided into two cavities, both
of which are made as tight as poflible. Jul above the
fecond bettom EF, are {mail flits on the fides of the bell,
through which the water, entering as the bell defcends, ditf-
places the air originally contained in its cavity, which fites
out at the proper orifice of the cock H. When this is done,
the divers turn the handle, which ftops the cock, fo that if
any more air gets into the cavity AE FB, it could no
longer be difcharged through the orifice H, as before.
When this cavity is full of water, the bell inks; but when a
confiderable quantity of air is admitted, it rifes. IF, there-
fore, the divers have a mind to raife themfelves, they turn
the {mall cock I, by which a communication is made be-
tween the upper and under cavitics of the b-ll; the confe-
quence of this is, that a quantity of air immediately enters
the upper cavity, forces out a quantity of water contained
in it, and thus renders the bell lighter by the whole weight
of the water, which is thus difplaced. Jf a certain quan-
tity of air is admitted into the upper cavity, the bell will
defcend very flowly; if a greater quantity, it will neither
afcend or defcend, but remain ftationary : and if a larger
quantity of air be ftill admitted, it will rife tothe top. It
ig to be obferved, however, that the air that is jaft let into
the upper cavity muf be immediately replaced from the
air barrel, and the-air is to be let out very flowly, or the bell
wil rife to the top with fo great a velocity, that the divers
will bein danger of being fhaken out of their feats: but
by following thefe dire€tions, every poffible accident may be
prevented, and the people may defcend to very great depths
without the leaft apprehenfion of danger. The bell alfo
becomes fo eafily manageable in the water, that it may
be conduéted from one place to another, by a fmall boat,
with the greateft eafe, and with perfec fafety to thofe whe
are In it, :

Inftead of wooden feats ufed by Dr. Halley, Mr. Spalding
made ufe of ropes fufpended by hooks 4, d, 4, and on thefe
ropes the divers may fit without any inconvenience, There
are two windows made of thick {trong glafs, for admitting
hight to the divers. N reprefents an air cafk with its tackle,
and C P the flexible pipe through which the airis admitied
to the bell. In the afcentand defcent of this cafk, the pipe
is kept down by a {mall app<nded weight, as in Dr. Halley’s
machine: R is a {mall cock, by which the hot air is dif-
charged as often as 1t becomestroublefome. “Mr. Spalding
is of opinion, that one air barrel, capable of containing thinty
gallons, is fufficient for an ordinary machine.

Several other machines have been contrived, to anfwer the
purpofe of the diving bell, one of which, fig. 21, was in-
vented in 1753, by Rowe, efq. of which an account _
was publifhed in the Univerfal Magazine.

The engine is a trunk, or hollow veffel of copper or
brafs of fufficient ftrength to refilt the preffures of deep
waters, and dimenfions to contain the body of a man, fup-
pofed to enter therein, feet foremoft, at A A, bent at the
bearing of his knees at B, for the more convenient going
between rocks and great ftones. At a, and on the other fides,
are holes for his arms to pafs through, and a glafs for his
fight at 6: d reprefents a fleeve made of foft leather, lined
with fine cloth, exaétly to fit the diver’s arm, and faftened
to the body of the engine at a, where the arms come through,
which ‘is likewife defended by a foft quilting, to prevent
the arms from being hurt by preffure, and the fleeves from
being thru{t into the engine; A A reprefents a cover to
fit the head of the engine, faftened down with f{crews,

2 and

DIVING-BELL.

and leather between the borders, fo as to prevent leaking
in any depth of water ; D reprefents a plate of lead, to be
fattened before the engine in a ftraight line, paffing between
the arms, not only asa proper weight to fink the engine,
but at a balance thereto: whereby the diver will always be
kept in a proper poiture for working, and more fo by means
of a block or cradle, fuppofed to be faftened over the lead,
by which means the diver has not only the power of handling
what isat the bottom, but may acany time reft his arms
from work ; g is the engine rope by which it is let down
and hauled up again from the bottom, 4 ts called the life-line,
with a knot at 2, fo that the handle at f may always remain
at a due diltance for the diver to take hold thereof, in
order to give any notice tothe perfons above, as, by agree-
ment. by giving a certain number of puils or fudden twitches,
which are immediately felt by the perfon that holds the line.
The diver can tarry under water at leait half an hour at one
time, «without the help of pipes or any other air than what
the engine contains. At E and F are two brafs fcrews,
the caps of which are to be opened as foon as the diver
gets from the bottom to the water’s furface, in order to give
him freth air by help of a pair of bellows, blowing at the
latter, at which, whea the engine leaks, the water is pumped
out. In deep water, the diver is forced to make ufe of
a faddie oa his back, with a ridge touching the upper
part of the engine, whereby he can keep his arms at'a due
diftance out of the engine, which otherwife would be thruft
in, by the column of water prefling thereon, equal to the
weight thereof. ; f

H H isa rope, to which the diver faftens any thing which
is to be drawn up. :

It is well known, that the preffure of water increafes
with its depth ; and as water is a denfe body, a man cannot

defcend far in it without experiencing a very ftrong preffure,-

{fo that if a diver, whofe head is five feet below the furface,
attempts to breathe through a pipe, he finds himfelf inca-
pable of inhaling the air, onaccount of the preflure he fuf-
tains on his breaft. A man, therefore, to deicend to a great
depth, mult have his body and brealt free from the external
preflure of the fluid. In order to fecure him from this in-
convenience, C. H. Klingert of Breflau invented a fort of
harnefs made of {trong tin plate, in the form of a cylinder,
which goes over the diver’s head, and which confiits of two
parts, that he may conveniently thruft his arms through it
and put it on: allo, a jacket with fhort fleeves, and drawers
of ftrong leather. All thefe being water tight, and clofely
jointed round the body of the diver, fecure every part of him,
but his arms and legs, from the preffure of the water, which,
at the depth of 20 feet, will occafion no inconvenience to

thefe parts. : :
Fig.22, reprefents the diver covered with the harnefs,

and drawers. f Pep:

Figs. 23 and 2, is the cylinder, the diameter of which is
equal to the breadth of a man at the top of the hipbone.
It is 15 inches in height, has a globular top, and is made of
the ftrongeft tin plate. ; ;

In the infide of the cylinder, at a, tsa ftrong broad iron
hoop, to enable it to withftand better the preflure of the
water ; ard in the infide of the top there are two pieces of
a {trong hoop of the fame kind, placed over each other in the
form of acro(sat 4; a ftrong ring of brafs wire is foldered
upon the outfide ate, that the jacket may be faftened to it
with an elaftic bandage, to prevent it from flipping down-
wards; at dd are the, upper halves of the apertures for the
arms ; and é,¢, are holes to afford light, and into which the
syc-glafles are fcrewed: f is the opening into which the

mouth-piece of the breathing-pipe is ferewed, and g is an
aperture for looking through, as well as for the purpofe of
breathing when out of the water, and which, by means of
the cover / fufpended from it, can be fcrewed up before the
diver enters the water.

The lower part of the cylinder, which is alfo 15 inches
in height, is at 2, and & ftrengthened by iren hoops
on the infide, in the fame manner as the former. To
the lower hoop & are foldered four {mall rings, to which are’
fattened ftrong leather itraps, three inches in breadth, that
can be buckled acrofs over the fhoulder, and fupport
the whole machine; /,/, are the under halves of the apertures
for the arms; mis alfo a ring of brafs wire foldered to the
cylinder, which ferves to keep faft the jacket when buckled
on, and to fupport the upper cylinder dd, which flips
over the under one, and on that account the under one is a
little fmaller, fo as to fit into the upper one: there is a'fo
another fuch ring at z, in order to prevent the drawers from
failing down,

At o (fig. 26.) is a trong femicircular piece of iron, the
ufe of which is to prevent the drawers, when preffed by the
water, from touching the under part of the body, other-
wife the preffure, even at the depth of fix feet, would be ia-
fupportable. As it is not poffible to few the leather fo clofely
as to prevent water from forcing its way through the feams,
a {mall pump is fufpended at p for the purpofe of pumping
out the water, when it has rifen to the height of a few
inches in the lower cylinder. Four hooks, gq, g, q, 9, foldered
to the lower part of the cylinder, are for the purpofe of
fufpending weight from them.

The jacket r, (fig. 22.) with fhort fleeves that cover the
upper part of the arms, ferves to prevent the water from
penetrating through the joining of the cylinders where the
one is inferted into the other, as alfo through the holes for
the arms, as it is bound faft round both parts of the cylin=
der, and likewife round the arms. The cafe is the fame
with the drawers which are bound clofe round the knees.

Fig. 24. reprefents a brafs elaftic bandage, employed for
faftening on the jacket ; and which, when hooked together,
is {crewed falt by means of the {crew s, three inches in
length ; a brafs bandage is here ufed, becaufe leather is apt
to ftretch, and on that account might be dangerous.

Fig. 27. is the mouth-piece to which the pipes x, y, are
fattened, and which is fcrewed on at f (fig. 26.); tis the
{crew ; w the part which goes into the machine, and which is
takerrinto the mouth; wv the exterior part of it, in which
there is a partition qw, in order to feparate the pipes; and =
is an aperture that the airin the machine may communicate
with the pipe 7. :

The internal diameter of thefe tubes is three-fourths of an
inch Rhinlandifh, They confilt of ftrong brafs wire, 14 line
in thicknefs, wound into a fpiral form, and covered with {trong
leather. In order to fave expence, fix yards of the pipe
from the mouth-piece may be made in this manner, and the
reft of tubes of tin plate, three or four yards in length,
joined together with pieces of leather-pipe about a foot in
length, prepared in the firft manner.

The refervoir a (/ig. 22.) applied in fuch a manner that it
can be {crewed off, is for the purpofe of colleCting the
{mall quantity of water that might force itfelf into the
breathing pipe when long ufed, and which otherwife would.
bein continual motion, and render breathing difagreeable.

To prevent the leather from becoming hard, and to clofe
up its pores, fo that it may be rendered water-tight, the
following mixture was rubbed over it, viz. fix parts of wax,
two of Venetian turpentine, two of pitch, and two of mele.

ed

DIVING-BELL.

ed hog’g lard. Tt is alfo to be obferved, that the beft and
ftrongeft leather muft be ufed for the tubes, and {trips of
leather muft be fewed very ciofely on the feams of the jacket
and drawers.

If the machine be intended for diving to a great depth,
it muft be conftructed in as {trong a manner as poflible, and
the drawers mult be furnifhed with iron ribs in the infide,
fattened by means of hoops to the machine, as may be feen in
Jigs. 23,and 25, over which a net of {mall chain, or rong cords,
muft be hooked or tied to the hoops &, &, and aifo to the
hoops 2, 2, 2, 2, by means of the holes made in them for
that purpofe ; but thefe chains or cords in particular which
go behind, muft not be drawn too tight, that the diver may
be able to bend his body. .

Theribs, 1,1, (figs. 23 and 25.) are {crewed on the infide to
the ftrong iron hoops 4,2, but in fuch a manner as to be
moveable ; and as the ceotres ref on the hips, the diver can
move his legs backwards or forwards. ‘To thefe ribs the two
hoops, 2, 2, ere made faft by rivetting, and the two interior
ribs 4, 4, are faftened in the like manner. To the latter
mult be foldered, a circular piece, 6, 6, of the like radius
asthe part 0, which moves, as the diver walks backwards and
forwards on 0, by means of a groove, at the fame time that
the outer ribs move ; and onan account of thefe ribs, hoops,
&c. the preflure of the water upwards will prefent the lefs
impediment to the diver, as it can act only according to
the diameter of the {malleft hoop 2.3 and 2 3. j

The author gives the following inftruGion for ufing a
machine of this kin¢. When the diver, after being made
acquainted with all the parts of the machine, has put it on,
and fufpended from it the proper weights, let him enter
the water at any convenient place, and advance till it reaches
to his eyes, while the end of the pipe is held by a perfon on
the bank. Ifthe diver can then breathe with eafe, and if no
water forcesitfelf into the pipe, which mutt be left to float on
the water, he may proceed til it covers his head, having firft
taken the precaution to tie a {trong rope to one of his arms ;
after this he may ftop for fome time, and then gradually go

ceper and deeper, making fignals that he finds himfelf at
eaf-, by pulling the rope, or by {peaking throuzh the pipe.
If a man exercifes himielf in this manner for feveral days
fucceffively, ftili increafing his depth, he will foon be able to
dive boidiy, and to move under water with eafe and freedom :
when he withes to afcend, he need only unhook the weights,
which will drop to the bottom, and being then lighter
than an equal volume of water, he will rife to the furface.

To prelerve the weight from being lolt, a particular rope
muft be employed, which may be let down to the diver, upon
his making a certain fignal, and which he may falten to the
weight before he unhooks it.

By following thefe directions, a refolute man may be
taught, in the courfe of a few days, to dive to a moderate
depth, though, on account of various preparations and unfore-
feen difficulties, the author employed five whole weeks in
teaching one who was unacquainted with fwimming. This
man, named Frederick William Joachim, a hunt{fman by
profeffion, dived in the above apparatus into the Oder, near
Breflau, where the water is of confiderable depth, and the
eurrent ftrong, on the 24th of June, 1797, before a great
number of fpectators, and fawed through the trunk of a tree
which was lying at the bottom.

He fthewed alfo that he could have faftened funk bodies
to a rope, in order to be drawn up: and that, in cafe
any impediments fhould prevent the ufe of the faw, fuch
trunks might be hewn to pieces by an axe. It clearly ap-
pears, therefore, that two men, furnifhed with fuch appara-

3

tus, would faw to pieces large beams of wood lying at the
bottom of rivers, which are often a great obftruction, and,
on account of their fize, cannet be otherwife removed,

One part of the conftru€tion was attended with an
inconvenience which it may be proper to mention: it has
been already remarked, that a man, at the depth of five feet
under water, cannot breathe without the machine, and,
though one,.fuch as above defcribed, will defend the preffure
of water from his breaft and body, yet thongh it be furnifhed
with a pipe to breathe through, it will appear from what
follows, that this will be impoffible. The air which fur-
rounds the diver in this machine amounts to fomewhat more
than acubic foot. Now, if he inhales air through the pipe
{crewed to the machine, his body muft diftend a {pace equal
to the volume of air inhaled, confequently he compreffzs fo
much of the air that furrounds him in the machine; but as
this is impoffible on account of its too great refiftance, he
does not obtain air fufficient to fupport life, and is almoft ia
the fame flate as if furrounded by water.

To be convinced of the truth of this, let any one take a
cafk, equal in content to ore or two cubic feet, prefs his
mouth azainft the aperture of it, and try whether he can,
without difficulty, breathe back into it the air he has inhaled.
A larger {pace around the diver in the machine would make
breathing eafier, but would not afford him fufficient eafe to
labour. The interior air in the machine, therefore, muft
be conne&ted with the pipe deflined for breathing, io order
that it may be at freedom to dilate as his body is extended,
and it is only by a conftruGtion of this kind, as fhewn at x
in defcribing fig. 24, that a man can breathe while enclofed
in fo fmall a {pace. The author, at firft, had furnifhed his
mouth-piece with a valve, that the air might be again exe
haled through it, but this valve was fo ill conftrusted, that
it conveyed the exhaled air into the pipe deftined for breath-
ing. As he found that this was attended with inconveni~
ence, on account of the moifture which adhered to it, he
afterwards omitted the valve entirely.

The diver, therefore, muft fuffer the air inhaled through
the mouth-piece » to efcape through his noftrils into the
machine; and then the air in it will remain equally elaftic.
The next time he draws breath, the air in the machine
will be forced out from it at x by the diftenfion of his body.
By thefe means he will be able to breathe freely and eafily
for a long time, and thus the chief difficulty is overcome.
This account was firft publifhed at Breflau by Mr. Klingert,
and was tranflated and publithed in the Philofophical Maga-
zine, vol. iii. p. 59.

The famous Corn, Drebell had an expedient in fome re-
{pects fuperior even to the diving-bell, if what is related of
it be true. He contrived not only a veffel to be rowed
under water, but alfo a liquor to be carried in the veffel,
which fupplied the place of freth air.

The veffkl was made for king James ]. carrying twelve
rowers, befides the paflengers. it was tried in the river
Thames; and one of the paffengers in that fubmarine navi-
gation, then living, told it one, from whom Mr. Boyle had
the relation.

As to the liquor, Mr. Boyle affures us, he difcovered by
a phyfician, who married Drebell’s daughter, that it was
ufed from time to time, when the air in that fubmarine boat
was clogged by the breath of the company, and rendered
unfit for refpiration ; at which time, by unitopping the vef-
fel full of this liquor, he could {peedily rettore to the troubled
air fuch a proportion of vital parts, as would make it ferve
again a good while. The fecret of this liquor Drebell
would never difclofe to above one perfon, who himfeif

affured

DIV
Boyle’s Exp. Phyf, Mech.

afured Mr, Boyle what it was.
of the Spring of the Air.

Mr. Martin, in his ‘* Philofophia Britannica,’? men-
‘tions a complete apparatus contrived by an Englifnman,
conlifting . of ftrong thick leather, which contained half
an hogfhead of air, fo prepared that no air could efeape
through it, and conttru&ed ia fuch a manner that it
exaGtly fitted the arms and legs, and had glafs placed in the
fore part of it. When he put on this apparatus, he could
nat only walk on the ground at the bottom of the fea, but
alfo enter the cabin of a funk fhip, and convey goods out of
it at pleafure. The inventor is faid to have carried on this
bufinefs for more than 40 years, and to have acquired by it
confiderable property.

We have had many proje&s of diving machines, and
diving fhip:, of various kinds, which have proved abortive.

Divinc-Bladder, aterm ufed by Boreili for a machine,
which he contrived for diving under the water to great
depths, with great facility, and preferred to the common
diving-bell. The velica, or bladder, as it is ufually called,
is tobe of brafs or of copper, and about two fect in diame-
ter. This is to contain the diver’s head, and is to be fixed
toa goat’s-fkin habit, exa@ly fitting to the fhape of the
body of the perfon, Within this vefica there are pipes, by
mears of which a circulation of air is contrived; and the
perfon carries an air-pump by his fide, by means of which
he may make himfelf heavier or lighter, as the fifhes do, by
contracting or dilating their air-bladder: by this means, the
objeétions all other diving-machines are liable to are obviated,
and particularly that of the.air; the moifure by which it
is clogged in refpiration, and by which it is rendered unfit
for the fame nfe again, being here taken from it by its cir-
culation through the pipes, to the fides of which it adheres,
and leaves the air as free as before. Borelli Opera
Pofthuma.

DIVINI, Eustacuio, in Biography, an Italian op-
tician, who lived at Rome about the middle of the feven-
teenth century, was diftinguifhed for his great flcill in grind-
ing and fitting up telefcopic glaffes. At one period, the
telelcopes of Divini were fought after by aftronomers in
every part of Europe. Huygens, however, foon furpafled
him in that art, and by a glafs of his conftruction, difco-
-vered the ring of Saturn. This led to a controverfy be-
tween «the two philofophers, which was carried on during
the years 1660 and 1661. After-this, little more is known
of Divini. In 1663, he announced the invention of a new
combination of glaffes, to which he afcribed very important
advantages, but it is not at all known in what they con-
fitted. Moreri.

DIVINING-Rop. See Vircura Divinatoria.

DIVINITY, the quality, nature, and effence of God.

Tt is falfe that the atherits hold the nature of a divinity
to be a political invention of the ancient legiflators, to fe-
cure and enforce the obfervation of their laws: on the con-
trary, it is certain, the legiflators made ufe of that opinion,
which they found already impreffed on the minds of the

eople.

The firft divinities among the heathens feem to have been
the heavenly bodies, and efpecially the fun; which many
of their learned men and philofophers {uppofed to be ani-
mated and endowed with intelligence, or inhabited by in-
telligent beings. To this purpofe, Diodorus Siculus fays
(1. 2.); * Men, in earlier times, ftruck with the beauty of
the univerfe, with the fplendour and regularity which are
every where confpicuous, concluded, without doubt, that

-fome divinity prefided in them; and they adored the fun and .

I

DIV

moon under the names of Ofiris and Ife.’ Plato alfo, if
he be the author of the dialogue ‘ Epinomis,’’ obferves,
“* The firft inhabitants of Greece, as 1 conjeGture, acknow=
ledged no other gods but thofe which are at this very day
the gods of the barbarians, namely, the fun, the moon, the
earth, the ftars, and the heavens.’”? Moles likewife intimates
that thefe were objects of primary worfhip by cautioning the
Ifraclites againft being feduced by it. (Deut. iv. 19.) And
as this caution was delivered after their departure from
Egypt, fome have inferred that this kind of worfhip was
cither firft pra€tifed there, or introduced into that country at
an early period. Other divinities which the heathens wér-
fhipped were the elements of nature, probably from an ima-
gination that they were the habitations of fuperior intelli-
gences, or at lealt that they were under their dire&tion, and
fubject to their dominion and controul. It was ata very
early period that men, diftinguifhed as objects either of gra-
titude, efteem and admiration, on account of their talents,
virtues and exploits, or of apprehension and terror, were ad-
vanced to the rank of gods, and worfhipped by their deluded
votaries. In procefs of time divinities were feigned to exilt
appropriate to the different ages, profcflions, and aGions of
human life; virtues and vices were deified , the affeGions and
paflions had divinities eflizned them; and there were deities
who prefided over every part of the body, and over every
condition and ftage of human life. (See Damons ard
IboLatTry.)

Some have reduced the heathen divinities into three
claffes: the firft theological, reprefenting the divine nature
under divers attributes; thus Jupiter denotes the abfoiute
power of God, Juno his juftice, &c.

The fecond clafs of divinities are phyfical: thus /Eolus
is that power in nature, whereby vapours and exhalations
are colleGted to form winds, &c.

The laft are moral divinities. Thus the Furies are only
the fecret reproaches and ftings of conicience,

Diviniry is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with theology.

DIUIOHU, in Botany, a name given by the people of
Guinea to a f{pecies of plant, with which they ufe to ripen
or break boils, beating the leaves, and laying them on.

DIVIS, in Geography, a mountain of the county of
Antrim, Ireland, the roots of which extend to the neigh-
bourhood of the town of Belfaft. It is about 1582 feet
high, and is reckoned the highett land in‘ the county.

DIVISIBILITY, a paflive power, or property in quan-
tity, whereby it becomes feparable into parts; either actually,
or at jeaft meotally.

The {choolmen define divifibility ‘‘ capacitas coexten-
fionis cum pluribus ;”? a capacity of being co-extended
with feveral things: thus, a {taff four feet long is divifible,
becaufe it may be co-extended with four feet, or forty-eight
inches, &c. ;

This the Peripatetics and Cartefians univerfally maintain
to bean affeGtion; or property of all matter or body: the Car-
tefians, as holding the eflence of matter to confift in exten-
fion: for every part or corpufcle of the body being ex-
tended, has parts including other parts, aud confequently 13
divifible.

The Epicureans, again, hold divifibility to agree to every
phyfical continuum, as, without parts adjacent to parts,
there can be no continuity ; and wherever there are parts
fo adjacent, there mutt be divilibility. But they deny that
this affeGtion agrees to all bodies; for the primary cor-
pufcles, or atoms, they hold perfeétly infecable and indi-
vilible. .

The principal argument they allege is, that, from the divi-

ibility

BV ng
fibility of all body, and of every affignable particle of body

even after the repeated number of divifions, it follows, that
the fmallelt corpufcle is infinitely dévifible, which with them
jsan.abfurdity. For a body can only be divided into fuch
parts as it aétually contains, But to fuppofe infinite parts
for the {malleft corpufcle, fay they, is to fuppofe it infi-
nitely extended: for infinite parts placed externally to each
other, as the parts of bodies doubtlefs are, muft make an
infinite extenfion.

They add, that there is a great difference between the
divifibility of phyfical and mathematical quantities. For
every mathematical quantity, or dimenfion, they grant, may
be increafed and diminifhed infinitely, but phyfical quantity,
neither the one nor the other,

Anartift, dividing a continted body, arrives at certain
minute parts, beyond which he cannot go; thefe we may
eall minima artis. In like manner, nature which may begin
where art ends, will find bounds; which we may cail
minima nature , and God, whofe power is infinite, begin-
ning where nature ends, may fubdivide the minima nature ;
but he will at length come at certain parts, to which there
being no other parts contiguous, they cannot be taken away.
Thefe minute parts are atoms.

All we can fay on this fubjeétis, that onthe one hand it
is certain, every extended corpufcle mult have two fides, and
confequently is divifible ; for, if it had not two fides, it
would not be extended; and ifit had no extenfion, an affem-
blage of divers fuch corpufc’es would not compofe a body.
Andon the other hand, the infinite divifibility fuppofes an
infinity of parts in the minuteft corpufcle; whence it
follows, that there is no body, how {mall foever, but may
furnifh as many furfaces, or parts, as the whole globe of the
earth can; nay, and infinitely more; which, to fay no
worfe, is a ftrange paradox.

The infimte divifibility of mathematical quantity is thus
proved, and illuftrated by the mathematicians : fuppofe a
Jine AD (Plate VI. Geometry, fig. 81.) perpendicular to
BF; another at GH, at a {mall diftance from A, alfo
perpendicular to the fame line ; with the centres C, C,C,
&c. and diftances CC A, CA, &c. defcribe circles cutting
the line G H in the points ¢, e, &c. Now, the greater the
_ radius AC is, the lefs is the part eG; but the radius
may be augmented in infinitum, and therefore the part
e G may be diminifhed in the fame manner; and yet it can
never be reduced to nothing ; becanfe the circle can never
coincide with the right line BI. Confequently, the parts
of any magnitnde may be diminifhed in infinitum.

The chief objeétions againlt this doétrine are, that an
infinite cannot be contained by a finite; and that it follows
from a divifibility in infinitum, either that all bodies are equal,
or that one infinite is greater than another. ‘To which it is
anfwered, that to an intinite may be attributed the properties
of a finite and determined quantity ; and who has ever proved,
that there could not be an infinite number of parts infinitely
{mall in a finite quantity; or that all infinites are equal?
The contrary is demon(trated by mathematicians in innu-
merable inftances. We are not here contending for the
poflibility of an actual divifion in infinitum ; we only affert,
that however {mall a body is, it raay be ftill farther divided ;
which we imagine may be called a divifion in infinitum, be-
caufe what has no limits, is called infinite.

All that is fuppofed, in ftnct geometry, concerning the
divifibility of magnitude, amounts to no more than thata
given magnitude may be conceived to be divided intoa
~ number of parts, equal to any given or propofed number.
It is true, that the number of parts, into which a given mag-
nitude may be conceived to.be divided, is not to be fixed

DIV

or limited, becaufe no given number is fo great but a
greater may be conceived and afligned; but there is not,
therefore, any neceflity of fuppofing the number of parts
a@ually infinite ; and if fome bave drawn very abftrufe con-
fequences from fuch a fuppolition, yet geometry ought not
to be loaded with them. Mac-Laurin’s Fluxions, art. 290.
See ExTEnsIoN.

It is true that there are no fuch things as parts infinitely
fmail; yet the fubtility of the particles of feveral bodies is
fuch, that they very much furpafs our conception ; and
there are innumerabie inftancesin nature of fuch parts ac-
tually feparated from one another,

Mr. Boyle gives us feveral inftances of this. He {peaks
of a filken thread 300 yards long, that weighed but two
grains anda half. He meafured leaf-gold, and found by
weighing it, that fifty [quare inches weighed but one grain:
if the length of an inch be divided into 200 parts, the eye
may diftinguifh them all; therefore there are in one {quare
inch 40000 vifible parts and in one grain of it there are
2000000 of fuch parts; which wifible parts no one will
deny to be farther divilible.

Again, a whole ounce of filver may be gilt with eight
grains of gold, which may beafterwards drawn into a wire
thirteen thoufand feet long.

In odoriferous bodies we can ftill perceive a greater fub-
tility of parts, andeven fuch as are aétually feparated from
one another ; feveral bodies fcarce lofe any fenfible part of
their weight in along time, and yet continually fill a very
large {pace with odoriferous particles.

The particles of light, if light confifts of real particles,
furnifh another furprifing inftance of the minutenefs of fome
parts of matter. A lighted candle placed on a plane will
be vifible two miles, and confequently all a fphere, whofe
diameter is four miles, with luminous particles, before it has
loft any fenfible part of its weight. And as the force of
any body is direétly in proportion to its quantity of ‘matter
multiplied by its velocity; and fimce the velocity of the
particles of light is demonftrated to be at leaft a million of
times greater than the velocity of a cannon ball, it is plain,
that if a million of thefe particles were round, and as big as
a {mall grain of fand, we durft no more open our eyes to
the light than to expofe them to fand {hot point-blank from
acannon.

By help of microfcopes, fuch obje&ts as would otherwife
efcape our fight, appear very large: there are fome {mall
animals fcarcely vifible with the beft microfcopes; and yet
thefe have all the parts neceflary forlife, as blcod and other
liquors. How wonderful muft the fubtility of the parts be,
which make up fuch fluids! (See AnNimMALCULEs.) Whence
is deducible the following theorem :

Any particle of matter, how {mall foever, and any finite
{pace, how large foever, being given; it is poffible for that
{mall fand, or particle of matter, to be diffufed through
all that great {pace, and to fillit in fuch manner, as that
there fhall be no pore in it, whofe diameter fhall exceed
any given line; asis demonftrated by Dr. Keil. Introdu&.
ad Ver. Phyf.

DIVISION, thea& of feparating a whole into the parts
it contains. ¥

If the whole be compofed of parts reaily diftin@, called
intugral parts, the divifion made thereof is properly called
partition; as when ahoufe is divided into its apartments.
Ifthe whole be compofed of parts, called fuwbjeétive; that
is, if the whole be only one common term, the fubje&s
comprifed inthe extent whereof are the ‘parts, the divifion
thereof is what we properly call divifion ; fuch is the divifion
of a genus into its {pecies, &e,

Diyisrew,

DIVISION.

Divistos, in Algebra, or Species, is performed by re-
ducing the dividend and divifcr into the form of a fraGtion :
this fraGtion being the quotient.

Thus, if a 5 were to be divided by cd, it mult be~placed

ab be as .
——, and that fra€tion is the quotient; though others

cd

choofe to write it thus, cd) ab, orc d: ab, orab ce d;
which lat mark ~ is the moft common charaéer for
divifion.

To perform the work of divifion.algebraically, thefe rules
are tobe obferved: 1. When the dividend is equal to the
divifor, the quoticnt is unity, and muft be placed in the
quotient, becaufe every thing contains itfelf once.

2, When the quotient is expreffed fra€tion-wife {as in
fimple divifion) if the fame letters are found equally re-
peated in each member of the numerator and denominator 3
caft away thofe letters, and the remainder is the quotient :

ab abe
thus, —(; and = (c, &c.

3. When there are any co-efficients, divide them as in
common arithmetic, or divide them by any common meature,
and to the quotient annex the quantities expreffed by
360ab

45

4. The general way of divifion of compound quantities,
after ranging them according to the dimenfions of one of
their letters, is like the ordinary way in common arithmetic,
re{pe& being had to the rules of algebraic addition, fubtrac-
tion, and multiplication ; as alfo that the like figns give +,
and unlike — in the quotient; taking care to divide every
part of the dividend by its correfponding divifor (that ts,
that whofe letters thew it of the fame kind with the other),
So prevent a fraGtion, which would otherwife arife: thus,
a+bjaat+ab—ca—chla—¢

aatab

thus,

letters: thus, (G35 7a.

fo)
—ca—ch
—ca—cb

———

fc)

That the fame reafon for like figns giving a pofitive and
anlike 2 negative quotient, does hold in divifion, as in mul-
tiplication, is clear from confidering the nature of divilion
(which is only refolving the thing into its parts) ; confe-
quently, fince every dividend 1s nothing elfe but the produ
of the divifor and quotient multiplied by each other, the
quotient mutt confit of fuch figns, which could produce
the dividend; therefore, if the dividend be divided by a
quantity, that has a fimilar fign with it, the quotient muft
be politive; if by a quantity having a difimilar fign, the
quotient mutt be negative. It may be a general rule in
compound divifion in algebra, always to place fuch a letter
in the quotient, as will, when multiplied into the divifor,
produce the dividend; for that is always a rectangle under
ghe divifor, and the quotient: as for example,

zz — 16) z° — 824 — 12422 — 64 (zi + 82% + 4.

z° — 1624

——-

824 — 1242%
824, — 1282%
42% — 64
Azz — O4

Los

e In fome cafes the quotient will form an infinite feries, and
then it is ufual to fet down the laft remainder with the di-
vifor under it.

Division, in Arithmetic, is the laft of the four funda~
mental rules, being that whereby we find how often a Icfs
quantity is contained in a greater; and the overplus. Divi-
fion, in reality, is only a compendious method of fubtra&tion ;
its effe@ being to take a lefs number from another greater
as often as polfible ; that is, as oft as it is contained therein.
There are, therefore, three numbers concerned in divifion:
1. That given to be divided, called the dividend. 2. That
whereby the dividend is to be divided, cailed the divitor.
3. That which expreifes how often the divifor is contained
in the dividend; or the number refulting from the divifion
of the dividend by the divifor; called the quotient.

There are diverfe ways of performing divifion, one called
the Englith, anotherthe Flemifh, another the Italian, another
the Spanifh, another the German, and another the Indian
way, all equally jut, as finding the quotient with the fame
certainty, and only differing in the manner of arranging, and
difpofing the numbers.

We have likewife divifion in integers; divifion in frace
tions; and divifion in fpecies, or algebra.

Divifion is performed by feeking how often the divifor is
contained in the dividend; and when the latter confifts of a
greater number of figures than the former, the dividend
mult be taken into parts, beginning from the left, and pro-
ceeding to the right, and feeking how often the divifor is
found in each of thofe parts.

For example, it is required to divide 6759 by 3. I firft
feek how oft 3 is contained in 6, viz. twice; then, how oft
in 7, which is likewife twice, with one remaining. This 1,
therefore, is joined to the next figure 5, which makes fifteen,
and I feek how oft 3 in 15; and laftly, how oft 3 ing.
All the numbers expreffing how oft 3 is contained in each
of thofe parts, 1 write down according to the order of the
parts of the dividend, that is, from left to right, and feparate
from the dividend itfelf, by a-line, thus.

Divifor. Dividend.’ Quotient.
3) 6759 2253

Tt appears, therefore, that 3 is contained 2253 times in
6759; or that 6759 being divided into 3 parts, each part
will be 2253. If there be any remainder, that is, if the
divifor repeated a certain number of times is not equal to the
dividend, what remains is wrote over the divifor fraGtion-
wife. Thus, if inftead of 6759 the dividend were only 6758,
the quotient will be the fame as in the former cafe, except
for the laft figure 8: for 3 being only contained twice in 8,
the laft number in the quotient will be 2; and as twice 3
is only 6, there remains 2 of the dividend: which I write
after the quotient, with the divifor underneath it, and a line
to feparate the two, thus:

ite aB0 ys OFS9., ie (Ste:

If the divifor is a digit, the divifion may be eafily per-
formed without fetting down any thing but the remainders.
Again, if the divifor has cyphers in the firlt places towards
the right hand, thefe may be cut off, provided that an equal
number of figures be cut off from the right of the dividend ;
and when the divifion is finifhed, we obtain the integral
quotient ; then to the remainder annex all the excluded
fizures of the dividend, and fubjoin the whole divifor. Thus,

8loo) 3678)54 (459 integral quotient,

Rem. 654, and the fraGional part of the quo-
tient 13 654 :
800

Moreover,

DIVISION,

Moreover, if the divifor is the produ& of two or more
digits, which may be ealfily difcovered, divide firft by any
one of thefe, and then divide the quotient by the other, and
fo on; the laft quotient is that required; and for the frac-
tional part, multiply the lalt remainder by the preceding
divifor, and to the produ add the preceding remainder ;
multiply this fum by the next preceding divifor, and to the
product add the next preceding remainder, and fo on till
you have got through all the divifors and remainders to the
firt. Thus, to divide 3428689 hy 126, divide by 3, 6, and
7, becaufe 3 x 6 x 7 = 126; the firft quotient is 1142896,
and the remainder 1; the fecond quotient is 190482, and
the remainder 4; the lalt quotient is 27211, and the re-
mainder 5, which multiplied by the preceding divifor 6,
produces 30, to which the preceding remainder 4 being
added, we have 34; this multiplied by the preceding or firlt
divifor, produces 102, and, the remainder 1 added, makes
103, the true remainder ; and the fraétional part of the quo-
tient is }23. For the divifion of concrete, or applicate
numbers, fee Repucrion.

Proof of Diviston.

Divifion is proved by muitiplying the quotient by the di-
vifor, or the divifor by the quotient ; and adding what re-
mains of the ‘divifion, if there be any thing. If the fum be
found equal to the dividend, the operation is juft, otherwife
there is a miltake.

Division, in Decimal Fraaions. See Decimat.

Division, in Geometry, or geometrical Division, is alfo

-ealled application ; the defign of which, when it is employed

about the conftru@tion of plain problems, is this: viz. a
reGtangle being given, as alfoa right line; to find another
right line, the reGangle contained under which, with the
right line given, fhall be equal to the rectangle firlt given.
Such effeGion, or con{truGion, is called the application of
a given reGtangle to a right line given; and the right line
arifing by fuch application, is called the geometrical quo-
tient.

This is found by the rule of three, by faying as the line
given is to one fide of the re€tangle, fo is the other fide to
the line fought.

Not unlike to which is Des Cartes’s way of working di-
vifion in lines, by fcale and compafs: thus, fuppofe ac
(= 6), were to be divided by ad ( = 3) (Plate VI. Geometry

fig. $2.) make any angle at pleafure, and therein fet off
firtt ad (=3) the divifor, and then on the fame leg, au,
= to unity; then on the other leg of the angle fet ac
( = 6) the dividend, and join dc, and to it through z, draw
ub parallel to dc, which ‘hall cut off a6 the quotient
fought ; for as ad: aw::ac: ab; that is, asthe divifor: is
to unity:: fo is the dividend: to the quotient: on which
proportion depends all divifion,

Division of a word, in Grammar, is a difcourfe explain-
ing the latitude, or comprchenlion of a word : the latitude,
when the word is univerfal; as when the genus is divided
into fpecies, and differences ; the comprehentfion, when the
word is ambiguous, as faurus, bull; which fometimes denotes
a conftellation, fometimes a beaft, and fometimes a moun-
tain. °

Division by Logarithms. See Locarirum.

Division, in Logic, is the feparating any thing into di-
verfe parts or ideas. See DistrisuTion.

The {choolmen define it a difcourfe, explaining a thing by
its parts; in which it approaches nearly to the nature of ade-
finition, whofe charaGter is to define a thing by its parts.

Divifion, we have faid, is a diftribution of a whole, &c,
But there are two forts of wholes, as above exprefled,

Vou. XIL.

The firft is what confifts of integral parts; as the human
body, which contains diverfe members. F

The fecond is properly no other than an abftra& idea
cominon to more things than one, as the univerfals; or a
compound idea comprehending the fubitance and its acci~
dents, or at leaft moft of its accidents,

The whole admits of a triple divifion. 1. When the ge~
nus, or kind, is divided by its fpecies or differences ; as when
fubftance is divided into body and {pirit ; or into extended,
and thinking.

2. When any thing is divided into feveral claffes, by op-
polite accidents; as when the ftars are divided into thofe
which fhine by their own light, and thofe that only reflect a
borrowed light.

3. When the accidents themfelves are divided according
tothe fubje&tsin which they inhere; as when goods are di-
vided into thote of the body, the mind, and fortune.

Vhe laws of divifion are, 1. That it be fuil and adequate,
that is, that the members of the divifion entirely exhauft the
whole thing divided ; as when all numbers are divided into
equal, and unequal.

2. That the members of the divifion be oppofite; as
equal, and unequal: corporeal, and not corporeal; extended,
and thinking.

3. That one member of the divifion be not contained in
another, fo as the other may be affirmed of its though, in
other refpe€ts, it might be included without any fault in the
divifion: thus extenlion, geometrically confidered, may be
divided into a line, furface, and folid ; though the line be in-
cluded in the furface, and the furface in the folid.

4. The divifion muft not be made into too many, or too
general parts. Laiftly, the members, unlefs the fubject re-
quire it, are not-to be too unequal; asif the univerfe were di-
vided into heaven and earth.

Division of Mathematical Inflruments.
MENT. E

Division, ina Military Acceptation, fignifies any portion
of an army under a feparate commander, deriving his autho-
rity from fome immediate fuperior. The term, when pro-
perly ufed, refers only to detachments from the main body,
which is not called adivifion, but ‘* the army’ itfelf: thus, if
feveral bodies attack’a country on feveral fides, without aét«
ing under the fame chiefs, they are not divifions, but armies ;
on the other hand, when various bodies are under one chief,
or have been detached from any particular army, they are
then termed~@ivifions. In regard to the extent of fuch di-
vifions, in point of number, we have no diftinguifhing term 5
that point being arbitrary, according to circumiftances.

When an army is brigaded, and that the entire of a brigade
is detached, it is ufual to retain that defignation ; becaufe it
exhibits more poiftedly to all within the range of operations
the extent of the force, which might elfe be often mifunder-
{tood ; whereas few perfons in a camp are ignorant of the
manner in which the various brigades are compofed. But
we often find in the fame camp, that two, or more brigades,
are formed into feparate commands for fubordinate general
officers, and are termed divifions: in fuch cafe the whole are
ufualiy portioned in that manner, and the commander in
chief retains no feparate command over either of them; but
occupies himfelf folely in the general concerns, and manage-
ment of the whole force under his command. The French
have a diftinguifhing rank in their fervice, viz. ‘‘ general of
divifion;” which, in every refpect, correfponds with the com=
mands of large bodies, under a commander in chief, in our
fervice ; though it often includes no more than two or three
regiments: in the latter inftance they muft be confidered

merely as brigadier- generals. s
1cR

See InstRu-

DIVISION,

When entire regiments are detached from brigades, with
their ufual proportions of artillery, &c. it is ufual, and much
the mott convenient, to retain their defignationa, according to
the numbers of the regiments refpeétively : it has even been
remarked, that fingle corps thus detached have behaved with
great gallantry ; towards which, in ail probability, the cir-
cumftance of being noticed as a fingle corps greatly, though
unconfcionfly, contributes ; whereaa, under the term divilion,
the reputation a regiment might acquire would be lefs fub-
je to general ditinction.

When companies are detached from a regiment, they are
included under the term divifion of the regiment; or three,
or four, or five, companies of the regiment + obferving, that
wherever the colours fly, that portion is called “ the regi-
ment ;” though poflibly the force remaining therewith may
be comparatively {fmall. But the colours are always under
the commandant’s own charge: they conilitute the head-
quarters.

The term divilion, in the formation of a regiment, always
relates to one of the portions, ordinarily eight or ten, into
which the corps is “ told off,” or divided, for firing in cquat
portions ; or for marching in column. In the frft intention,
it is ufual to “tell off the battalion companies into divi-
fions of equal ftrength; the grenadiers and light infantry
being lefs attended to, both on account of their being fo fre-
quently detached ; and becaufe, from being on the flanks,
they are not fo much under the ftri& neceflity of preferving
that exaé locality incumbent on the battalion companies.
In marching in column of divifions; which is by far the
moft pleafant to the foldier, and moft prompt for defence,
the companies are not fubjeét to occupy each others places
in the line,as they are in manceuvring on a parade, and require
lefs precifion in refpect to their extent of front. It is not,
however, always practicable to proceed by divifions, or, in
other words, by companies, on account of various roads: on
fuch occafions the company divides into halves, which are
called {ub-divifions, or into four, which are called platoons, or
into eight, which are called fe€tions. Many term a company
a platoon, and fome call the fourth part of the company a
{eG&ion. When two companies, or two divifions, a& within
the regiment under one commander, they unite under the
defignation of “grand divifions.”” ‘Therefore a battalion of
eight companies contains four grand divifions, eight divifions,
and fixteen fub-divifions. A column of divilions is the draw-
ing up of a battalion with all the divifions feparate from each
other, at diftances cqual to their refpe€tive fronts ; the one
divifion behind the cther, in regular fucceffion. Thus, when
a corps has wheeled to the right, or to the left, by divifions,
it prefents a column of divifions, of which the front will be
feen on that fide to which it wheeled.

From the foregoing it will be feen, that the term divifion
is, in many ref{peéts, arbitrary, or circumttantially appropri-
ate; the only inftance in which it appears fpecifically ap-
plicable being that we have defcribed, regarding the ‘6 telling
off” of a corps for firing or for marching. ‘Thus, when we
fay “a firing by divitions,” we mean that a regular fire was
kept, either from right to left, or vice verfé; or from flanks
to centre, or from centre to’flanks ; the feveral divifions firing
in fucceflion according to their fituation, and to the order of
firing. Under thefe terms military perfons always under-
fland, that the firing is fupported by the vollies of divi-
fions, in contradiftin¢tion to the firing in leffer portions, fuch
as by platoons, or fe¢tions ; in which cafe each divifion may
be confidered as a fmall battalion, having an order of fire
within itfelf, and a@ing quite independently, in that refpect,
from the reft of the corps.

Diyisioy, in Mu/ic, imports the dividing of the interval
of an o¢tave into a number of lefler intervals.

The ath and 5th, cach of them, divide or meafure the oce
tave perfeGtly, though differently. When the fifth is below,
and ferves as a bafs to the 4th, the divifion is called harmoni-
cal; when the 4th is below, the divifion is called authentic.

Befides the harmonical, and arithmetical divilion of the
oftave, the word frequently occurs in mufic: as the divifior
of the monochord, or divifion of a fingle ftring, into ratios by
humbers, or reducing by moveable bridges, a fingle ftring
to every kind of proportiom allowable in mofic. See Mo-
NOCHORD.

Point of Division in the time-table. See Porsr, and
TimeE-TABLE.

Division, in Melody, a rapid paflage of execution in afong.
(See Neuma.) In finging, many founds applied to one fy}-
lable conftitute a divifion, volée, reulade, yolata, paflaggio ;
and in playing upon an inftrument, a rapid fucceffion of
founds without a reft, or flow note, has generally the fame
appellation. Such as are chiefly pleafed with grave and:
fober mufic cenfure thofe flights as capricious, unmeaning,
and trivial. Others are however captivated by them, whea
executed with precifion, and regard them as proofs of the
compofer’s invention, and the performer’s abilities. And it
is perhaps a popular prejudice to imagine that all fuch in-
flexions are abfurd, and ill placed, even in a flow and plain=
tive melody. On the contrary, when the heart ts much
moved and affecied, the voice can more eafily find founds to
exprefs paffion than the mind can furnifh words ; and hence
came the ufe of interjeGtions and exclamations in all lan-
guages. It is nolefsa prejudice to affert that a divifion is
always proper on a favourable word or fyllable, without con~
fidering the fituation of the finger, or the fentiment he has
to exprefs.

Division dy Neper’s Bones. See Nerer’s Bones,

Divison, in PAyfics, or Divisio continu, is the fepara-
tion of the parts of a quantity ; whereby, what before was
one, is now reduced into feveral. See Conrinuity, and
Disso.urion.

This divifion is effeted by means of motion, without
which there can be no feparation of any continuum, or even
contiguum.

This motion is performed diverfe ways, by fraction, fcif.
fion, feGion, fiffion, refolution, dilution, maceration, difpcr=
fion, eflufion, diftraGtion, &c. .

Division of Powers. See Powers.

Division of Proportion. See PRoPoRTION,

Division of Ratios. See Ratio.

Division, in Rhetoric, the arrangement of a difcourfe un-
der feveral heads, to be {poken.to feparately. See Dispo-
SITION.

Division of Surds. See Surm

Division of Vulgar Fradions. See Fraction.

Division, in the Sea Language, the third part of a naval
army, or fleet ; or one of the fquadrons thereof, diftinguifh-
ed by a particular flag or pendant, under the command of
fome flag-officer. Or, in large fleets, the {quadrons are fub=
divided into three divifions, which, like the fquadrons, are
denominated the van, the centre, andthe rear. See Squan-
RON.

The white flag denotes the firft {quadron of France, the
white and blue the fecond, and the third is charafterized by
the blue. In England, the firft admiral, or the admiral of
the fleet, difplays the union flag at the main-top-matt-head ;
next follows the white flag with St. George’s crofs; and
afterwards the blue. The private fhips carry pendants of
the fame colour with their refpeCtive fquadrons at the mafts

: of

DIV

of their particular divifions ; fo that the laft fhip in the di-
vifion of the blue fquadron carries a blue pendant at her
mizen-top-maft-head.
three lines, according to their three divifions.

DIVISIONES, in Antiquity, certain perfents of money, oil,
Dread, wine, or the like, appointed by will to be difributed
annually among certain perfons or companies, and fometimes
to the people in general.

DIVISOR, the dividing number; or that which fhews
how many parts the dividend is to be divided into.

Divisor, common. See Common meafure.

Divisors, /nvention of, denotes the inveltication of all
thofe quantities by which any given quantity, fimple or
‘compound, may be divided without a remainder. If the
quantity whofe divifors are fought be a fimple quantity, di-
vide it by its leaft divifor, and then the quotient by its leaft
Givifor, apd fo on till you come to a quotient that is not
farther divifible : you will thus have all the prime numbers
or divifors by which the quantity propofed can be divided:
then multiplying thefe prime divifors two and two together,
find as many different produéts as you can this way ; then
find as many more produdts as you can by multiplying them
three and three together, and fo on; and thefe produéts, fo
found, will be all the compofite divifors, of which the given
quantity will admit. £. G. Let it be required to affign all
the divifors of the number 60. Frirlt divide 60 by its leaft
divifor 2, and then the quotient 30 by its leaft divifur 2, and
the quotient 15 by 3, whence will refult the quotient 5, in-
capable of any farther divifion. Having obtained all the
prime divifors of the number 60, viz. 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, or leav-
ing out 1, becaufe it is a common divifor of all numbers, 2,
2, 3a5i3 multiply thefe together, AB, ZEN 125 29S BT SGeks
3 X 5, and you obtain other divifors, 4, 6, 10, 15; then mul-
tiply them three and three together, and you will have other
divifors, as. 2 X 2 X 3, 2 x 2X5, 2 X 3'x 5, that is,
42, 20, 30; and laitly multiply them all four together, and
you will have the divifor 2 x 2 x 3 x 5, or 60. Again,
let it be required to find all the divifors which will divide
the quantity 21a45 without a remainder. Divide 21456
by 3, and the quotient 7add by 7, and the quotient a4 by
a, and the quotient 24 by 4, and you will at laft obtain
the prime quotient 4; confequently the prime divifors of the
quantity 21a44 are 3, 7, a,4, 6: thefe multiplied two and
two together will give 21, 34, 3), 7a, 75, ab, and bb;
multiply them three and three together, and you will have
21a, 21b, 3ab, 3bb, 7ab, 7b), abb; multiply them four
and four together, and you wil have 21a, 216), 3abd,
sath; multiply all five together, and you will have the
quantity itfelf that was at firft propofed, viz. 21abb.

If a quantity, after having been divided by all its fimple
divifors, remains {till acompound quantity, and tbere be any
fufpicion that it will admit of fome compound divifor, range
its feveral members according to the dimenfions of fome
letter init; then fubftitute for that letter three or more
terms of this arithmetical progreffion 3,2, 1, 0, —I, —2;
then place the numbers refulting hence over-againft them,
together with all their divifors both affirmative and negative;
or if the negative divifors be not aétually put down, they
are at leaft to be underftood ; laitly over-againft thele divi-
fors put down all the decreafing arithmetical progreffions
that can be made out of them, proceeding from the higheft
to the loweft rank, as is the cafe with the terms of the pro-
greffion 3, 2, 1, 0, —1, —2; but the difference of the
terms of the progreffion made out of the divifors mult be
either unity, or fome other number that will divide the high-
eft power of the dividend propofed : ifany fuch progreffion
can be found, take that term which ftands againft o in the

Naval battles are ufually ranged in

DEV

firt progreffion, 1,0, —1, &c. and dividing it by the com-
mon difference of the progreffion, join the quotient with its
proper fign to the letter according to the dimenfions where-
of the dividend was difpofed, and you will have a quantity
with which a divifion is to be tried. E.G. Let the quantity
whofe compound divifor is fought be x? —xx — rox +6,
Here fubftiruting the terms 1,0, —I for x fucceffively, we
find the refulting numbers to be — 4, 6, 14; placing thefe
together with their divifors, over-againft the re{pective terms
of the progreflicns whence they anfe, they will ftand in the
following order:

I 4 Ty 2) 4. +4
ro) (6) Wigs, Bsus OG; +3
a, T4 1, 2, 7, I4.- +2

Then becaufe the higheft power of the dividend, viz. x*,
admits of no numeral divifor but unity, we find among the
divifors an arithmetical progréffion, whofe common difference
is unity, and whofe terms decreafe after the fame manner as
the terms of the firft progreflion 1, 0, — 1 5 and of this fort
of progreffion we find among the divifors only one, viz.
4, 3,23 the number 4 being one of the divifors that ftand
over againft 1, the number 3 one of thofe over-againit o,
and 2 over-again{t — 1 : of this progreffion 4, 3, 2, we take
the number 3 that ftands over-againft o, and joining it with
the letter x, we try a divifion with the quantity x + 3, and
find that it fucceeds; for x} — xx — 10x + 6, being di-
vided by x + 3, gives xx — 4x + 2 fora quotient, with-
out any remainder.

If no divifor can be found this way, we may conclude
that the quantity propofed admits of no compound divifor
of one dimenfion: neverthelefs, it may fti.l have a divifor
where the indeterminate quantity arifes to two or more di-
menfions. : ‘

If the quantity propofed does not rife to above three di-
menfions, and admits of a compound divifor of two, it muft
neceffarily have another divifor of one dimenfion, which
being found (as above) and dividing the quantity propofed,
the quotient will be the other divifor; but if it mifes to
above three dimenfions, and hath no divifor of lefs than two,
fuch a divifor muft be found by the following method. Let
x be the indeterminate quantity of whofe powers the quan-
tity propofed confifte, then fubftituting the terms of this
progreffion 3, 2, 1,0, —1, — 2, fucceflively for x», and
putting down over-againft them the numbers refulting, to-
gether with all their affirmative divifors, as before, the ne-
gative ones being underltood: multiply the fquares of the
terms of the progreflion by fome numeral divifor of the
higheft term of the quantity propofed, which we will call ¢,
and put down the produis ge, 4e, Ie, 0, Ie, 4¢ over-
againft the terms of the progreflion. This done, {ubtract _
thefe produts from all the divifors of their re{pective ranks,
both affirmative and negative, and put down the remainders
in the fame ranks under their proper figns; then try if, in
paffing from the higheit to the loweft rank of remainders,
you can find an arithmetical progreffion of any fort, whe-
ther increafing or decreafing : if one or more fuch progrei-
fions can be found, put them down over-againit the terms of
the firft progreffion, and then examine them one after an-
other thus: let (in any of thofe progreffions) + g be the
term that ftands over-againft o in the firlt progreflion ; then
fubtraGing this term, -+ g. from the next above it in the
fame progreffion, let the remainder be +- f; then the com-
pound quantity, with which the divifion is to be tried, will
beexx + fx +g. But if no diviforcan be found this
way, try another divifor of the co-efficient of the highelt
term of the quantity propofed for e, and fo proceed till you

G2 have

DV

have paffed over all the affirmative numeral divifors of the
highe!t term; and then if no compound divilor can be
found, it will infallibly prove that the quantity propofed admits
of none. £.G. Let the quantity propofed be x? — x3 —
sxx+12x+6. Here fubftituting the numbers 3, 2, 1,
©, — 1, — 2 fucceflively for x, we find the numbers refult-
ing to be 39, 6, 1, — 6, — 21, — 26; thefe, without ary
regard to their figns, together with their divifors, are to be
put down as ufuai; then multiplying the fquares of the
terms of the progreffion by 1, which is the only affirmative-
numeral divifor of x‘, the higheft term of the quantity pro-
pofed, and putting down the produéts 9, 4, I; 0, 1, 4,
over-againft the terms of the progreffion, we fubtra& 9
from all the divifors of its rank, both affirmative and nega-
tive, that is, from 39, 13, 3, I, — %s — 3. — 13) — 395 and
the remainders, viz. 30, 4, — 6, —8, — 10, — 12, — 22,
— 48, are placed over-againft g in the higheit rank; the
fame is done with the next number 4, with refpe& to the

RIV

divifors of its rank, and fo of all the reft: Then, the re«
mainders being examined, we find among them two arith-
metical progreffions pafling from the higheit to the loweft
rank, viz. 4, 2, 0; — 2, — 4, — 6, and —6, — 3, 0, + 3;
+ 6, 4-9, both which are put down over-againf the terms of.
the firlt progreflion 3, 2,1, 0,—1,— 2. Inthe former of
thefe,two progreflions we find the term — 2 ftanding over-
againft o in the firft progreffion; therefore g = — 2; this
fubtraéted from o, the next term above it in the fame pro~
greflion, gives + 2 for f; hence, fincee = 1, the divifor to
be tried, draws from this progreffion, will be xx + 2*—2.
In the other progrefiion we find the term over-againtt o to be
3, therefore g= 3; and this, fubtracted from o above,
leaves — 3 for f; therefore the divifor from this progreffion,
by which the divifion is to be tried, is xx — 3 x + 3. Both,
being tried, fucceed ; that is, if the quantity propofed be
divided by either of thefe divifors, the quotient will be the
other.

31 39. 39. 135 32 1. | 9] 3% 4:— 6, — 8; — 10, — 12, — 22, — 48 4,—6
2 6 6, 352s VE 2st Soe ee 6, — 73 =—u0 2S
1 I I I |o,—2 Q, o°
Oi Oi. 065 93s Seeks! Ossi \Bah2s Loc Us ea sa 8G Ser ee
— 1422) 2ry 75 35 Te} ¥.[20;)6, 25 On.— 2 — 45: 185-22. =A; ue Oe
— 2 | 26} 26, 135.2, Ie] 4] 22s 95 — 23 — 3, —15) — 0 — 17,— 30 =16;' 159

Thefe operations may (when neceffary) be contraéted a
little thus: let f, 9, 7; 5, t v, be the numbers refulting
fromthe pofittons 3, 2, 1,0, —I, —2; and as fuch let them
be put down over-againft them; then if the extreme num-
bers p and v be pretty large, or contain many divifors, “let
thefe divifors, as well as the remainders arifing from them,
be omitted, and try if you can fiad aa arithmetical progr<{-
fion, pafling through the remainders belonging to the inter-
mediate numbers g,r, 5, ¢3 if {uch a one can be found, let
the terms be 2f +g,ft+gag>—f+5 then it is plain
that in this progreffion, the next term above 2 f + g will be
3f +g, and the next below —f + g willbe — 2/+ 83
add the number, ge, to the term 3 f + g; and try whether
the number ge, + 3f/+8 will divide the number p; if it
does, then add alfo 4¢ to — 2 f + g, and try whether the
number 4¢ — 2 f + g will divide the number wv if this di-
vifion alfo fucceeds, you will then have as full a progreffion
to try with, as if the divifors and remainders of the extreme
numbers p and v had been put down; but if neither, or
but one of thefe divifions fucceeds, it fhews that the pro-
greffion thus found was accidental, and did not {pring from
any compound divifor.

If the quantity propofed be made out of the powers of
two different letters, fo as to have all its terms of the fame
number of dimenfions, inftead of one of the letters put unity ;
then Gnding (by the foregoing rules) a compound divifor,
if any fuch there be, fill up the deficient dimenfions of the
divifor by thofe of the letter that was before fuppreffed, and
you will have the divifor compleated. E. g. Let the quan-
tity propofed be 6y*— ay’ —21a’y*+ 3a’ y + 20 2%
every term of which confitts of four dimenfions, either of the
letter y, or of the letter a, or of both together. Here thea
fubftituting 1 for a, the former quantity will be changed into
6 yt —y> — 219° + 39 + 20, of which 3y + 418 a com-

dund divifor, found above. Now as 3y, the firft term of
this divifor, hath one dimenfion oi the letter y, and as the
other term 4 hath no dimenfion of any letter, one dimenfion
may be fupplied from the letter a, and the divifor will become
3y + 44.

Again, let the quantity propofed be x* —.ax? — 5 a? x? +
32a°x — 6a‘; this quantity, fubfituting 1 for a, becomes

xt —x3— 5x7 + 12x—6; of whichxx +2x—2 is a
compound divifor, found above; fupply the deficient dimen-
fions of this divifor from thofe of the letter a, fo that every,
term may have two dimenfions as well as the firft, and it’
will be xx + 2a@x—2aa. Newton’s Arithmetica Unie
verfalis, c. 7- § 2. Apud Opera ed. Horfl. tom. 1. p. 40,
&c. Saunderfon’s Algebra, book ix. pt. 3. vol. ii. p. 647,
&e.

DIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia, fitu-
ated at the foot of mount Olympus, about 7 ‘tadia from the
gulf of Theffalonica, according to Strabo: now called Sandia,
—Alfo, a town of the peninfula of mount Athos, upon the
Strymonian guf—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Crete.
(See D1a.)—Al{o, a town of the ifland of Eubcea; the fame
which Strabo calis «« Athene Diades,” placed by M.D’An-
ville upon the northera coaft of Euboea, S.W. of Oreus, and
oppofite, on the other fide of the fea, the Pelafgic gulf and,
the pafs of Thermopyize —Alfo, a town of Afia, in Cele
fyria; placed by Ptolemy between Pella and Gadera.

DIVO, a town of Spain, on the coaft of the country of
the Carifti, near Tritium, and E. of it.

DIVODURUM, afterwards called Medimatrici, and now
Metz, which fee.

DIVONA, now Cahors, a town of Aquitania Prima,
called Carduci, and belonging toa people of that name.

DIVORCE, from diverto, I turn away, a breach or diflo-
lution of the bond of marriage.

In our law divorce is of two kinds; the one total, a vine.
culo matrimonii; which alone is properly divorce ; the other
partial, a menfa & thoro; afeparation from bed and board.

The woman divorced a vinculo matrimonii receives all again
that fhe brought with her; the other has a fuitable feparate
maintenance allowed her out of her hufband’s effeds,
See ALimony.

The firit only happens through fome effential impediment, -
as confanguinity or affinity within the degrees forbidden,
precontract, impotency, &c. of which impediments the ca
non law allows fourteen, comprehended in thefe verfes.

«* Error, conditio, votum, cognatio, crimen, ~

Cultus, difparitas, vis, ordo, ligamen, honeftas,
Si fis affinis, fi forte coire nequibus,

DIVORCE,

Si parochi & duplicis defit prefentia teftis,
Raptave fit mulier, nec parti reddita tute,”
Tn this kind of divorce, the marriage is declared null, as
“having been abfolutely unlawful, ab initio, and the parties
are feparated pro falute animarum, and allowed to marry
again; the iffue of fuch marriage as is thus entirely dif-
fo.ved, are baflards, (Co. Litt. 235.)

Divorce a menfa ©& thoro diflolveth not the marriage,
becaufe it was juft and lawful ad initio; but for fome
fupervenient caufe, it becomes improper or impoffible
for the parties to live together; as in the cafe of intoler-
able ill temper, or adultery in either of the parties.
For the canon law, which is followed by the common law
in this cafe, has fuch refpect for the nuptial tie, that it
will not allow it to be unloofed for any caufe whatfoever,
that arifes after the union is made. And this is {aid to be
built on the divine revealed law ; though that exprefsly
afligns incontinence as a caufe, and indeed the only caufe,
why aman may put away his wife and marry another.
(Matt. xix. 9.) The civil law, which is partly of pagan
original, allows many caufes of abfolute divorce; and fome
of them pretty fevere ones: (as if a wife goes to the theatre
or the public games, without the knowledge and confent of
the hufband, Nov. 1r7.) but among them adultery is the
principal, and with reafon named the firlt. (Cod. 5. 17. 8.)
But with us in England adultery is only a caufe of fepara-
tion from bed and board ; (Moor 683.) for which the bett
reafon that can be given is, that if divorces were allowed to
depend upon a matter withio the power of either of the par-
ties, they would probably be extremely frequent; as was
the cafe when divorces were allowed for canonical! difabilities,
on the mere confeffion of the parties (2 Mod. 314), which
is now prohibited by the canons (Can. 1603. c. 100.)
However, divorces a vinculo matrimonii, for adultery, have
of late years been frequently granted in England, by a@ of
parliament. ;

Divorce is a fpiritual judgment, and therefore: is paffed in
the fpiritual court. Under the old law, the woman di-
vorced was to have of her hufband a writing, as St. Jerom
and Jofephus teftify, to this effect : “ I promife that here-
after I will lay no claim to thee ;’? which was called a bill
of divorce.

Divorce was allowed with great latitude both among the
Pagans and Jews. The Roman lawyers diftinguifh between
repudium and divortium, or repudiation and divorce ; making
the former to be the breaking of a contraét or efpoufal,
and the latter feparation after matrimony. Montefquieu
(Sp. of Laws, vol. i. p. 370.) thus diftinguifhes between
a divorce and a repudiation : the former, he fays, is made by
a mutual confent occafioned by a mutual antipathy ; while
a repudiation is made by the will and for the advantage of
one of the two parties independently of the will and ad-
vantege of the other. ‘This writer eftablifhes it as a gene-
ral rule, that in all countries where the laws have given to
men the power of repudiating, they ought alfo to give it to
women. Repudiation, he adds, feems chiefly to proceed
from a haftinefs of temper, and from the diétates of fome
of the paffions; whereas divorce appears to be an aflair of
deliberation. Romulus enaéted a fevere law, which fuf-
fered not the wife to repudiate her hufband, but gave the
man the liberty of repudiating his wife, either upon poifon-
ing her children, counterfeiting his private keys, or for the
crime of adultery ; but if the hufband on any other occa-
fion put her away, he ordered one moiety of his eftate for
the wife, and the other to the goddefs Ceres ; befides an
atonement to the gods of the earth, They might then re-

pudiate in all cafes, if they were willing to fubmit to the
penalty. (Plut. in Rom.)

The firft inftance of a divorce that occurred at Rome
was that of Spurius Carvilius Ruga, A. U. C. 523.
B. C. 231, who repudiated his wife, whom he much
loved, folely on account of her barrennefs; to which
he was determined by an oath which the cenfors
obliged him to take, to the end that he might give chil-
dren to the republic. It has been faid, that though he thus
acted through necedffity, and with the advice of his friends,
his condu&t was univerfally condemned, and rendered him
extremely odious. Montefquieu, however, fuggefts, that he
did not incur difgrace with the people for repudiating his
wife ; but they were offended by his oath to the cenfors,
that he would repudiate her on account of her fterility,
that he might give children to the republic. This, it is
alleged, was a yoke which the people perceived that the
cenfors were going to put upon them. Plutarch, in his
“© Roman Quettions,”’? maintains, that Domitian was the firft
who permitted divorces. The law of Romulus is confidered
by others as temporary and tranfient; and it has been
thought improbable that fuch a law, which gave tothe peo-
ple a right of repudiation for certain caufes, fhould have
{ubfifted for above 500 years, and yet that no one fhould
avail himfelf of it in that long interval of time. The tef-
timony of Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis, Valerius Maximus,
and Aulus Gellius, to the contrary, is thought to be very
improbable; more efpecially as the law of the Twelve Tables
ratifed in the year 451. B. C., and the manners of the Ro-
mans, greatly extended the law of Romulus. To what
end, it may be faid, were thefe extenfions, if the people
never made ufe of a power to repudiate ? Befides, if the ci-
tizens had fuch a refpeé& for the aufpices, as the authors
above-named pretend they had, fo that they would never
repudiate, how came the legiflature of Rome to have lefs
than they? and how came the laws inceflantly to corrupt
their manners ? Moreover, it is mentioned as #fa@, that Co-
riolanus, when he fet out on his exile B. C. 491, advifed his
wife to marry a man more happy than himfelf. The right
of the women to repudiate their hufbands fubfiled among
the firft Romans, notwithitanding the law of Romulus; and
it is weil known that this inititution was one of thofe which
the deputies of Rome brousht from Athens, and which
were inferted in the laws of the Twelve Tables. (See Ju-
venal, fat. ix. Martial. lib, 1. Ep. 41.) Cicero fays, that
the reafons of repudiation {prung from the laws of the
Twelve Tables; and we may, therefore, conclude, that
this law increafed the number of the reafons for repudia-
tion eftablifhed by Romulus. The power of divorce was
alfo an appointment, or at leaft a confequence of the law
of the Twelve Tables: for fromthe moment that the wife
or the hufband had feparately the right of repudiation,
there was a much flronger reafou for their having the
power of parting in concert, and quitting each other by
mutual confent. The law at firlt did not require that
they fhouid difclofe the caufes of divorce; though Juttinian
afterwards altered the law in this refpeét (Nov. IT.
c. 10.)

At Rome, barrennefs, age, difeafe, madnefs, and banifh-
ment, were the ordinary caufes of divorce, Juttinian after.
wards added impotence, a vow of chaitity, and the profefs
fion of a monaftic life, as valid reafons of divorce. The
caufes of the diflolution of matrimony have much varied
among the Romans; but the moft folemn facrament, the
confarreation itfelf, might always be done away by rites of
a contrary tendency. In the fir ages, the father of a fa-

DIVORCE:

mily might fell his children, and his wife was reckoned in
their number; the domeftic judge might pronounce the
death of the offender, or his mercy might expel her from
his bed and houfe; but the flavery of the wretched female
was, for along period, hopelefs and perpetual, unlefs he
aflerted for his own convenience the manly prerogative of
divorce.

At length, when the Roman matrons became the equal
and volustary companions of their lords, a new jurif{pru-
dence was introduced, that marriage, like other partner-
fhips, might be diflulved by the abdication of one of the af-
fociates. During an interval of profperity and corruption,
this principle was enlarged to frequent praétice and pernicious
abufe. Paffion, intereft, or caprice, fuggefted daily mo-
tives for the diffolution of marriage ; a word, a fign, a mef-
faze, a letter, the mandate of a treedman, declared the fe-
paration: the moft-tender of human connections was de-
graded to a tranfient fociety of profit or pleafure. Ac-
cording to the various cond:tions of life, both fexes alter-
nately felt the difgrace and injury: an inconftant fpoufe
transferred her wealth to anew family, abandoning a nu-
merous, perhaps a {purious. progeny to the paternal authority
and care of her late hufband; a beautiful virgin might be
aifmiffed to the world, old, indigent, and friendlefs; but
the relu€tance of the Romans, when they were prefled to
marriage by Augultus, fufficiently marks, that the prevail-
ing inititutions were leaft favourable to the males. A
fpecious theory, fays Mr. Gibbon, (Hift. Decl. and Fall of
Rom. Emp. vol. viii.) is confuted by this free and perfe&
experiment, which demonttrates, that the liberty of divorce
does not contribute to happinefs and virtue. The facility
of feparation would deftroy all mutual confidence, and inflame
every trifling difpute; the minute difference between an
hufband and a ftranger, which might fo eahly be removed,
might {till more ealily be forgotten ; and the matron, who
in five years can fubmit to the embraces of five hufbands,
mult ceafe toreverence the chaftity of her own perfon. In-
fufficient remedies followed with diftant and tardy fteps the
rapid progrefs of the evil. Auguftus adopted different
modes of repreffing or chaftiling the licence of divorce. ‘The
prefence of feven Roman witnefles was required for the va-
hidity of this felemn and deliberate a@; if any adequate
provocation had been given by the hufband, inltead of the
delay of two years, he was compelled to refund immediately,
or in the fpace of fix months; but if he could arraign the
manners of his wife, her guilt.orlevity was expiated by the
Jofs af the fixth or eighth part of her marriage portion.
‘The Chriftian princes were the firtt who {pecified the jut
caufes of a private divorce. Conftantine attempted to re-
medy the evil, which was very prevalent, by diminifhing the
number of cafes in which a divorce fhould be allowed, and
inereafing the penalty annexed to unjuft and needlefs fepara-
tion. Juftmian alfo introduced fome ufeful regulations and
retritions. Inthe mott rigorous laws, a wife was condemned
to fapport a gamefter, a drankard, or a libertine, unlefs he
were guilty of homicide, poifon, or fzcrilege, in which cafes
the marriage, as it fhould feem, might have been diffolved
by the hand of the executioner. But the facred right of
the hufband wasinveriably maintained, to deliver his name
and family from the dilzrace of adultery; the lift of mortal
fias, either male or female, wascurtailed and enlarged by
fucceflive regulations, and the obftacles of incurable impo-
tence, long abfence, and monattic profeffion were allowed to
refcind the matrimonial obligation. Whofo tranfgreffed the
permiffion of the law, was fubject to various and heavy pe-
nalties. ‘Che woman was {tripped of her wealth and orna-
ments, without excepting the bodkin of her hair; if a man

introduced a new bride into his bed, Aer fortune might be
lawfully feized by the vengeance of his exiled wife. For-
feiture was fometimes commuted to a fine; the fine was
fometimes aggravated by tranfportation to an ifland, or im-
prifonment in a monaftery; the injured party was releafed
from the bonds of marriage ; but the offender during life or
a termof years, was difabled from the repetition of nuptials.
The fucceffor of Juftinian yielded to the prayers of his un-
happy fubjects, and reitored the liberty of divorce by
mutual confent.

The common way of divorcing, was by fending a bill
to the woman, containing the reafons of feparation, and
the tender of all her goods which fhe brought with her ; and
this was called repudium mittere ; or elfe it was performed ia
her prefence, and before feven witneflzs, and accompanied
with the formalities of tearing the writings, refunding the
portion, taking away the keys, and turning the woman out
of doors.

The Grecian laws concerning divorces were different: the
Cretans allowed divorce to any man that was afraid of having
too many children. ‘The Spartans feldom divorced their
wives; and it was extremely {candalous for a woman to depart
from her hufband. The Athenians allowed divorce on very
{mall grounds, by a bill, containing the reafon of the divorce,
and appreved, if the party appealed, by the chief magiftrate ;
and women alfo were allowed to leave their hufbands on jult
occafions. Perfons divorcing their wives were obliged to
return their portions; otherwile, the Athenian laws obliged
themto pay nine obolia month for alimony. The terms
exprefling the feparation of men and women from each other
were different ; the men were faid ovorswrsy or aqoAeeny,
to difmifs their wives, but wives arodursw, to leave their buf=
bands. Port. Arch. Gree. vol. it. book tv. chap. 12.

Among the Jews, befides incontinence and adultery,
uglinefs, old age, or ill humour in a wife, were {fufficient
reafons for giving her a bill of divoree. Nay, even the
man’s own pleafure, or the repenting of his match, were
admitted as good reafons. Selden de Uxore Heb. lib. ii.
cap. 17.

Although divorce was permitted to the Jews, it had
never been pra¢tifed by any of the patriarchs, whatever might
have been the cafe among other nations. ‘The law relating
to if, is exprefled to this effed&t: (Deut. xxiv. 1, &c.)
‘© When a man hath taken a wife, and married her, and it
come to pafs that fhe finds no favour in his eyes, becaufe he
has found in her fome uncleannefs; then let him write her
a bill of divorcement, and give it into her hand, and fend
her out of his houfe. And when ihe is departed, fhe may
go, and be another man’s wife ; and if her fecond hufband
hate her, and write her a bill of divorce, or if he chance to
die, her former hufband fhall not take her again to be his
wife, after fhe is defiled, for that is an abomination to the
Lord.’”? Upon the interpretation of this law a queftion
has occurred, what is meant by the words, ‘* if he find any
uncleannefs, turpitude, or nakednefs in her?’ The Jews
are divided in their opinion about it. The Hebrew words,
which Dr. Geddes, in his tranflation, hath rendered “ fome
defe4,” 35 FVD, are by Montanus rendered audita-
iem wverbi—by our tranflators, fomething unclean. Sept.
arxnyoy wpeyye. Wulg. aliguam feditatem, and fo equiva-
lently Qnk. Syr. and both Arabs. But Tharg. [any
M7 Dy, /ome tranfgreffion; and this tranfgreffion 1s fuppofed
by Rabbi Sammai and his followers to be adultery. But
R. Hilicl and his party extend the 37 MT to
whatever may difpleafe the hufband. The opinion of the
Sammaites is untenable; for adultery was pumifhed with
death; but the opinion of the Hillelites appears to hee

axe

DIVORCE.

‘Jax. Tt was probably either fome very great bodily blemih,
or fome bafe immoral habit, that was meant by the legifla-
tor. The form of the bill of divorce was to this effet:
** Such a day, month, or year, I, fuch an one, of fuch a
place, upon, or near fuch a river, do, of my own freé con-
. fent and choice, repudiate thee, fuch an one, my late wife,
banifh thee from me, and reftore thee to thy own liberty;
and thou mayeft henceforth go whither, and marry whom
thon wilt: and this is thy bill of divorcement, ard writing
of expulfion, according to the law of Mofes and Lirael.’’
This writing was figned by two witnefles, and delivered in
the prefence of as many, at leaft. From this time, the wife
was as much at her liberty, as if fhe had been a widow;
only, in both cafes, fhe was obliged to flay, at leaft go days,
before fhe was married to another, leit the fhould prove
pregnant by the laft. It does not appear that women were
indulged by the law of Mofes with the privilege of divorcing
their hufbands upon the fame ground; unlefs in the cafe of
a virgin. betrothed by her parents before fhe was twelve
years of age, who might then refufe to ratify the contra&
which her parents had made, without giving any other rea-
fon than that fhe did not like the perfon defigned for her;
but this cannot be called a divorcement, becaufe there is no
marriage in the cafe. Jofephus, therefore, thinks (Ant.
lib, xv. c. II. xviil. 7, xx. 15.) that a divorce was fo far
from being permitted to women, that if the hufband forfook
his wife, it was not lawful for her to marry another, till fhe
had firft obtained a divorce from him. He adds, that
Salome, fifter of Herod the Great, was the firlt who took
upon her to repudiate her hufband, whofe example was foon
followed by others, mentioned by the fame author,
Divorce is allowed by the Mahometan law, as it was by
the Mofaic, with this difference only, that according to the
latter a man could not take again a woman whom he had
divorced, and who had been married or betrothed to another
(Deut. xxiv. 3, 4. Jerem. it. 1. Selden, ubi fap. 1. i.
c. 11.); whereas Mahomet, to prevent his followers from
divorcing their wives on every light occafion, or from an
inconftant humour, ordained, that if a man divorced his wife
the third time (for he might divorce her twice without being
obliged to part with her, if he repented of what he had
done), it fhould not be lawful for him to take her again,
until fhe had been firft married and bedded by another, and
divorced by fuch fecond hufband. (Koran. ch, ii. p. 27.)
This precaution has had fo good an effect, that the Ma-
hometans are feldom known to proceed to the extremity of
divorce, notwithftanding the hberty given them; it being
reckoned a great difgrace fo to do: amd there are few be-
fides thofe who have little or no fenfe of honour, that will
take a wife again, on the condition enjoined. (Seld. ubi. fup.
h. iii. c. 21. Ricaut’s Ottom. Emp. b. ii. c. 21.) It muft be
obferved, that though a man is allowed by the Mahometan,
as wellas by the Jewith law, to repudiate his wife even on the
flighteft difgult, yet the women are not allowed to fepa-
rate themfelves from their hufbands, unlefs it be forill ufage,
want of proper maintenance, negleét of conjugal duty, im-
potency, or fome caufe of equal import; but then the gene-
rally lofes her dowry ; which fhe does not lofe if divorced
by her hufband, unlefs fhe has been guilty of impudicity,
or notorious difobedience. (Koran, ch. iv. p. 62.) When
a woman is divorced, fhe is obliged, by the dire¢tion of the
Koran, to wait three months before fhe marry another;
after which time, in cafe fhe be not found with child, fhe
is at full liberty to difpofe of herfelf as fhe pleafes; but if
fhe prove with child, fhe mutt wait till fhe be delivered : and
during her avhole term of waiting, fhe may continue in her
hufoand’s houfe, and is to be maintained at his expence; it

7

being forbidden to turn a woman out before the expiration
of the term, unlefs ‘fhe be guilty of difhonelty. (Koran,
ch. 1. p. 26, 27. ch. 65. p. 454.) Where a man Givorces
a womn before confummation, fhe is not obliged to wait
any particular time (Koran, ch. xxxiii. p. 345.); nor is he
obliged to give her more than one half of her dower.
(Koran, ch. it. p. 28.) If the divorced woman have a young
child, fhe is to fucile it till it be two years old; the father,
in the mean time, maintaining her in all refpe€ts: a widow
is alfo obliged to do the fame, and to wait four months apd
ten days before fhe marry again. (Koran, ch. if. p. 27.
ch. 65.) Thefe rules are copied from thofe of the Jews,
according to wliom a divorced woman, or a widow, cannot
marry another man, till go days be paft, after the divorce or
death of the hufband: and fhe who gives fuck is to be
maintained for two years from the birth of the child ; within
which time fhe muft not marry, unlefs the child die, or her
milk be driedup. (Mithna. Gemara. Maimonides. Se'deu
ubi. fup. 1. ii. ce. 11. Liti,c. 10) See the Preliminary
Dife. to Sale’s Koran, p. 134.

According to Rycaut (State, Ottom. Emp. ch. xxi.) there
are among the Turks three degrees of divorce. The frit
only feparates the man and wife from the fame houfe and
bed, the maintenance of the wife being ftill continued: the
fecond not only divides them in that manner, but the huf-
band is compelled to make good her “ Kabin,’? which is
a jointere, or dowry promifed at henmarriage, fo as to have
no intereit in him or his eftate, and to remain in a free con-
dition to marry another. ‘Thethird fort of divorce (which
iscalled “ Ouch Talae’”?) is made in a folemn and more
ferious manner, with more rigorous terms of feparation ;
and inthis cafe, the hufband, repenting of his divorce, and
defirous of retaking his wife, cannot by the law be admitted
to her without firlt confenting and contenting himfelf to
fee another man enjoy her before his face, which condition
the law requires as a punifhment of the hufband’s lightnefs
and inconttancy. i

It appears from the preceding part of this article, that
the power of divorce, or of diflolving the marriage contra@,
was allowed to the hufband among the Jews, the Greeks, and
later Romans; and that it is at this day exercifed by the
Turks, as it is alfo by the Perfians. he late arch-
deacon Paley has inquired in his “ Principles‘of moral and
political Philofophy” (vol. i. p. 326, &c.) how far fuch a
nght is congrvous with the law of nature: and he obferves,
that it is mamfeftly inconfiftent with the duty which parents
owe to their children ; which duty can never be fo well ful-
filled as by their cohabitation and united care. It is alfo
incompatible with the right which the mother poffeffes, as
well as the father, to the gratitude of her children and the
comfort of their fociety ; cf both which fhe is almoft necef=
farily deprived by her difmiffion from her hufband’s family.
Where this objection does not interfere, the ingenious writer
is of opinion, that no principle of the law of nature is ap-
plicable to the queftion, befide thac of general expediency.
Reafons of expediency, he fays, amply juftify the policy ot
thofe laws, which refufe to the hufband the power of divorce,
or reftrain it to be for extreme and fpecific provocations ;
and upon the principles of our author, that is contrary to
the law of nature, which can be proved to be detrimental to
the common happinefs of the human {pecies. <A lawzgiver,
whofe counfels were direéted by views of general utility,
and obftruéted by no local impediment, would make the
marriage contraét indiffoluble during the joint lives of the
parties, for the fake of the following advantages.

Becaule, in the firft place, this tends to preferve peace and
concord between married perfons, by perpetuating their

commok

Dot Vv.

common intereft, and by inducing a neceffity of mutual
compliance ; and, fecondly, becaufe new objects of defire
wouid be continually fought after, if men could, at will, be
releafed from their fubfilting engagements. Conftituted as
mankind are, and injured as the repudiated wife muft
generally be, it is neceflary to adda ftability to the condition
of married women, more fecure than the continuance of
their hu{band’s affe@ion ; and to fupply to both fides, by a
fenfe of duty and of obligation, what fatiety has impaired of
paffion and of petfonal attachment. Upon the whole, the
power of divorce, poffeffed and exerciled by the hu{band,
is evidently and greatly to the difadvantage of the woman ;
and the only quettion appears to be, whether the real and
permanent happinefs of one half of the fpecics fhould be
{urrendered to the caprice and voluptuoufnefs of the other?
The fame objeCtions, which may be urged againft divorces,
as depending upon the will of the hufband, apply, in a
great degree, to divorces by mutual confent; efpecialiy
when we confider the indelicate fituation and fmall profpec
of happinefs, which remain to the party, who oppofed
his or her diffent to the liberty and defires of the other. The
law of nature admits of an exception in favour of the in-
jured party, in cafes of adultery, of obftinate defertion, of
‘attempts upon life, of outrageous cruclty, of incurable
madnefs, end, perhaps, of perfonal imbecility ; but by no
means indulges the fame privilege to mere diflike, to oppofi-
tion of humours avd inclinations, to contrariety of tafte and
temper, to complaints of coldnefs, negledt, feverity, peevifh-
nefs, and jealoufy ; which are dificult to be afcertained; and
if marriages were diffolved in confequence of fuch pleas, real
or pretended, the effe&t would be the iicentioufnefs of arbitrary
divorces. Milton’s ory is well knowr. Upona quarrel with
his wife, he paid his addreffes to another woman, and fct
forth a public vindication of his conduct, by attempting to
prove, that confirmed diflike was as jufta foundation for
diffolving the marriage contraét as adultery. But it may be
argued, in addition to the obfervations already made, that
if amarried pair, in aétual and irreconcileable difcord, com-
plain that their happinefs would be better confulted, by
permitting them to terminate a conneétion, which is become
odious to both, the fame permiffion, as a general rule, would
produce libertinifm, diflenfion, and imifery, among thoufands
who are now virtuous, and quiet, and happy, in their con-
dition; and it ought to fatisfy them to refle&t, that when
their heppinefs is {acrificed to the operation of an unrelenting
rule, it 1s facrificed to the happiaefs of the community.

The law of Mofes, as we have already feen, for reafons
of local expediency, permitted the Jewifh hufband to put
away his wife; but Chrift, the precepts of whole religion
were calculated for more general ufe and obferyance, revokes
this permiffion, and promulges a law, which was thencefor-
ward to confine divorces to the fingle caufe of adultery in
the wife. (Mait. xix. 9.) Nor is there any reafon to depart
from the plain and {trict meaning of the words ; though
{ome maintain, that divorce is no where permitted in the
New Teftament for adultery, but only a feparation. (See
Matt. xix. 9. Mark, x. 11. § Cor. vil. 27. ‘See alfo the
council of Florence, at the end, after the queftions propofed
to the Greeks. Tertull.de Monogam. cap. 9 & 10. Au-
guitin. de bono conjugio, et de Adult. conjug. See alfo
Aputtery.) The rvle laid down by our bleffed Lord was
new. It both furprifed and offended his difciples ; yet
Chrift added nothing to relax or explein it. :

Inferior caufes may juftify the feparation of hufband and wife,
although they will not allow fuch a diffolution of the marriage
contract, as would leave either party at liberty to marry again ;

for it is that liberty in which the danger and milchief of divorces

DI

confit, The law provides for feparation in extraordinary
cafes, and has conftituted a judicial relief from the tyranny
of a hufband, by the divorce @ menfa et thoro, and by the
provifion which it makes for the feparate maintenance of the
injured wife. St. Paul likewife diftinguifhes between a
wife’s merely feparating herfelf from the family of her huf-
band, and her marrying again. ‘ Let not the wife depart
from her hufband ; but, and if fhedo depart, let her re-
main unmarried.”? ‘The law of our country, as we have
already ftated it, conforms toour Saviour’s injunétions, by
confining the diffolution of the marriage contra& to the
fingle cafe of adultery in the wife; and a divorce, even in
that cafe, can only be brought about by the operation of an
act of parliament, founded upon a previous fenterce in the
ecclefiaftical court, and a verdi@& againft the adulterer at
common law; which proceedings taken together compofe
as complete an inveftigation of the complaint asa caufe can
receive. The rite of marriage itfelf comprehends an ex-
ception of thofe impediments which -jultify thofe fentences
of the ecclefiaftical courts that releafe the parties @ vincula
matrimonit. '

Pope Innocent I. in his decretal to Exuperius, declares
fuch as contra& a new marriage after divorce, adulterers ;
as well as the perfons with whom they marry. The occa-
fion of this decree was, that {uch marriages were then al-
lowed of by the Roman laws. ‘There is an exception, how-
ever, in cafe of marriage between two heathens, which the
decrees allow to be diffolved after the converfion of one of
the parties. And St. Paul fays the fame, 1 Cor. vii. 15.
Yet even in this cafe, 1. The marriage is not immediately
diffolved by the converfion of one of the parties, but they
may ftill live together, and even on fome occafions they
ought to do fo. Nor is it even diffolved by the feparation
of the infidel party; for if fhe be afterwards converted, he
is obliged to take back his wife. But the marriage is totally
diffolved by a fecond marriage of the converted party with
another perfon.

2. Though the party converted to the faith may, the mi-
nute of his converfion, legally feparate himfelf, and contra&
with another, a liberty the Chriitian law allows him, as in
jultice he is not deemed to owe any thing to an infidel; yet
charity frequently forbids fuch divorce, and feparation: as,
e. g. if the infidel confent to live with him, and do not mo-
left him in his religion ; if his faith be not at all in danger ;
if there be any hopes of converting her, or of gaining the
children ; if the feparation would prove a fcandal to the
heathens, and render Chriftianity odious, &c. See St. Paul,
1 Cor. vii. 13, 74. :

The fourth council of Toledo decrees, that in a country
where Chriftianity is the prevailing religion, the infidel party
mui{t be advertifed to become Chriltian; which if fhe refufe,
the marriage muft be diffolved.

The council of Trent prohibits divorce on any occafion
whatever. The papal dilpenfations, however, are a falvo
for this inftance of rigour.

DIUR, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, in Mauri-
tania Tingitania, according to Ptolemy ; it is called Viar by
Pliny.

DIURESIS, in Medicine, a free excretion of urine,
whether produced {pon:ancoufly by an effort of the confti-
tution, or artificially by the a€tion of medicines. Vogel
has conilituted a genus of difeafe under this term, including
the cafual, or periodical difcharge of urine, fymptomatic of
hytteria, &c. and diftiné& from diabetes. Gen. Morbor,
(Cle ii. ’

DIURETICS, in the Materia Medica, from da and 520%,

the

DIURETICS.

the urine, thofe medicines which promote the fecretion of
urine.

The fecretion of the urine may be promoted, either by
increafing the quantity of water in the mafs of the blood,
{fee Dinvenr) ; or, that remaining the fame, by introdu-
cing a matter which may be a fimylus to the feccrning vef-
fels of the kidnies, and excite them to increafed action.

If much liquid is taken into.the ftomach, and thence into
the mafs of blood, it mu neceffarily pafs off by one of the
excretions, perfpiration, or urine; and we commonly find,
indeed, that an increafe of the quantity of drink is attended
with a proportional increafe in the quantity of urine fecreted.
Accordingly this increafe of drink has always been confi-
dered as the chief of diuretics. There are, however, cere
tain fates of the body, in which it may be doubtful, whether
this means of increafing the fecretion of urine may be fafely
employed. It fometimes happens that the water of the
blood, inftead of pafling off by the excretions, is effufed
into fome of the cavities of the body, giving rife to the well-
known difcafe of dropfy: and in fuch a cafe it may be ful-
pected, that an increafe of the water in the blood, occafion-
ed by an increafe of drinking, may/augment the effufion
juft mentioned, and aggravate the difeafe. This fufpicion
has prevailed {9 much with phyficians, as to lead them in
fuch cafes to enjoin, as mech as poffible, an abftinence from
drinking ; and it is alleged that fuch an abftinence has, in
fome cafes, entirely cured the difeafe,

But the truth of this ftatement will perhaps not bear a
very rigorous inquiry; and it may be confidently afferted,
that fuch faéts are, at leaft, of extremely rare occurrence ;
and the numerous inftances in which fuch abftinence has
been attempted with little or no benefit, have led many
phyficians to recommend that it fhould not be attempted at
all. It is, infact, an extremely painful meafure, to refift the
urgent defire of drink, which commonly attends this diforder :
and as far as careful obfervation has gone, we believe it to
have been decided that the ufe of drink is fafe in dropfy ;
and that the quantity of urine voided, where it is permitted,
is ufually equal to the quantity of drink taken in. Some-
times it is even greater; efpecially when the drink is taken
tepid, or is mixed with materials, that are flightly ftimulant
to the kidnies, fuch as weak gin punch, &c.; for in what
ever way the kidnies are incited to aétion, that a¢tion fome-
times goes on, after the immediate {timulus has pafled off ;
while, on the contrary, the want of aCtion, whether from
abfence of the watery part of the blood, or other caufes,
itfelf conduces to a farther inactivity. Thus Dr. Cullen
affirms, ‘¢ I have frequently found that a very entire abfti-
nence from drinking, by diminifhing the quantity of urine
voided, allowed the fecretories of the kidnies to fall into a
contracted ftate, fo that the quantity of urine voided was
ftill farther diminifhed, and, as I judged, tended to increafe
the effufion, and thereby to aggravate the difeafe. In
other cafes I found, that when a quantity of drink was
taken in, a confiderable portion of it pafled by the kidnies ;
and when, as fometimes happened, the quantity of urine
voided was equal to the drink taken in, I concluded that
the giving fo much drink was a perfeétly fafe meafure.’’
Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 547. :

To illuftrate the matter {till farther, the fame intelligen
phyfician has remarked, that the water of the blood, carry-
ing the faline matters of it, is, by the nature of the animal
economy, determined to the excretions, and particularly to
the kidnies; and therefore, that drinks impregaated with
faline matters are naturally determined this way, rather than
by the preternatural effufions of dropfy. The fluid poured
out in thefe effufions is nearly infipid ; whilft, though the
watery part of the blood is by thefe withdrawn from the

Vou. XII.

fecretories of the kidnies, yet a great quantity of the faline
matter of the blood continues to pafs this way ; and there-
fore he had been led to give for drinks, not fimple water,
but always water impregnated with faline matters; and he
afferts, that water, fo impregnated, pafles more certainly to
the kidnies, than perfe@ily infipid liquors. Thus water
impregnated with vegetable acids is not only more grateful
to the patient than fimple barley-water, or watergruel, but
pafles always in greater quantity, in proportion to the liquid
taken ir. Inthe fame way fome other liquors are particu-
larly weil fuited for drinks in the dropfical ftate ; fuch as
fermented liquors of all kinds, when thefe are cither weak
in their quality, or taken pretty well diluted with water.
Even ardent fpirits, if largely diluted, and joined with a
portion of vegetable acid, have been found to ftimulate the
kidnies, and hence to make a proper part of the ordinary
drink. The milk of the non-ruminant animals, and the
produéts of whey and butter-milk from the other forts of
milk, efpecially when thefe prodvéts are in their moft acid
ftates, are ufeful as drinks in the diforders in queftion.

In a word, with refp<& to the propriety of taking drink in
dropfy it may be obferved, that whenever we perccive that
the quantity of urine voided is equal to the quantity of drink
for the fame time taken in, it is chvioufly fafe to allow as
much drink as the patient may delire ; and there is no doubt,
that, by fuch indulgence, the difcafe may be often entirely
cured. There are in fact many inftances of the cure of dropfy,
in this manner, on record; as the cafes publifhed by fir
Georze Baker, in the Medical Tranfaétions, and thofe quoted
by fir Francis Milman from feveral authors, and efpecially
the inftances given by that ingenious author from his own
experience ; fee his Treatife on Droply.. «From my own
practice,” Dr, Cullen jufily obferves, ‘ I always thought it
abfurd in phyficians to employ diuretics, while they enjoined
an abftinence from drink, which is almoft the only means of
conveying thefe diuretics to the kidnies: fo, whenever I
employ diuretics, I at the fame time advife drinking freely ;
and [ am perfuaded that drinking largely has often contri-
buted to the cures [have made.” Loc. cit.

The number of fubftances, which have been praifed by
different writers, as pofleffed of diuretic powers, or capable
of itimulating the ation of the kidnies, is very great, efpe-
cially from the vegetable world. Many of them, however,
are very ineflicacious 5 and it is the common imperfeGtion
of the whole of this clafs to be very uncertain in their opera-
tion: fometimes the more feeble diuretics will fucceed,
when the flronger have failed ; and often after every variety
of kind and combination has been tried, the fecretion of
urine remains unaltered. Digitalis, fquill, mercury, and
cryftals of tartar feparately or combined, are the moft effi-
cacious of the clafs; bu the alkalies both fixed and volatile, -
fome of the neutral falts, the nitrous ether, the terebinthates,
&c. are by no means ufelefs as auxiliaries. ‘There is, per-
haps, no clafs of medicines, in which a combination of two or
more fubftances, poffeffing fimilar powers, is fo frequently
important, as in that of the diuretics. Thus the ufe of potafs,
joined with bitter vegetables, is recommended by fir John
Pringle, as an efficacious medicine: and as the alkaline
fubltances may be often prevented, by purging, from reach-
ing the kidnies, fo their diuretic cffz<& may be often more
certainly fecured by giving an opiate at the fame time, ac-
cording to the practice of Dr. Mead. A combination of
the fquill, with digitalis, and fome of the lefs purgative pre-
parations of mercury, as the common blue pill, is occafionally
very active in its diuretic operation; and, in children, or in
old and feeble people, the union of the fpirit of nitrous ether,
or of other diuretic fubftagces, with the bark, or other
vegetable tonics, appears to be often very ferviceable.

H The

DiLU

The mode in which diuretic medicines effe& the removal
of dropfies is not fatisfa€torily underftood. The difcharge
of the water by the kidnies implies the previous abforption
of it, from the cavities into which it was effufed. Whether,
therefore the primary ation of diuretics is on the abforbent
fyitem, which takes up the feruin, and excites diurefis by
increafing the water of the blood, as itated with refpe@ to
Giluent drinks; or whether the diminution of the water of
the blood, in confequence of increafed ation in the kidnies,
may occafion an extraordinary aétion of the abforbents, to
fupply the deficiency, it is not eafy to determine. It is fufs
ficient, however, that we know the praCtical fad, that di-
uretics do, at the fame time, increafe the difcharge of urine,
and diminifh the watery effufions which conititute dropfy.

In afthma, dy{pnza, chrozic catarrh, and other -chrosic
diicafes of the lungs, diuretics afford relief; perhaps in con-
fequence of the balance between the halitus.of the lungs,
(as well as of the flin) and the urinary fecretion. * In om-
nibus morbis pectoris,’ fays Bagilivi, “ad urinam {peétan-
dum.”

It may be added that a {uppreffion of urine fometimes takes
place, particularly in children, from a flight weakrefs, or
temporary paralytis of the fibres of the bladder, which is
readily removed by the application of cold to the lower ex-
tremities, fo that the urine will fpeedily begin to flow, when
the patient is placed with his naked feet ona cold hearth, or
cold water is dafhed over his legs.

Diuretic Salt is the old name for acetite of pota/b, which
fee.

DIURIS,. in Botany, (from %s, double, and oven, a tail,
expreflive of the long lower leaves of the calyx hanging down
like two tails,) Sm. Tranf. -of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 222.
Swartz. Orchid. 58. t. 1. f. M. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 79.
Clafs and order, Gynandria Monandria. Nat. Ord. Orchidee.

Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth fpreading, of five leaves; the
three uppermott coloured, of which the central one is feffile,
fomewhat vaulted, the two lateral ones with claws, ovate ;
two lowermof elongated, channelled, linear-lanceolate,
pointing downwards, under the lip. Cor. Petals four, much
{maller than the calyx, lateral; the two outermoft obovate,
rather {preading ; two inner erect, acute, fometimes lobed.
Neétary an ovate convex pendulous lip, fhorter than the
calyx, withont a {pur, with two ereét teeth reaching from
the bafe to the middle of its upper furface. Stam. and Pi/.
Germeninfervior, oblong, fomewhat cylindrical, furrowed; ftyle
fhort, reverfed, pointed ; ftigma near the extremity, oblique.
Anther parallel to the ftyle, on the fide oppofite to the lip ;

its lid elliptical, with two parallel oblong cells. Peric.
Capfule of one cell, with many feeds.
Eff. Ch. Neétary a pendulous lip without a fpur. Calyx

of five leaves; the three uppermott coloured.
lateral. Style reverfed.

1. D. pundata. Sm. Exot, Bot. v.1. 13.t.8. Blue dotted
Diuris. “* Two lower calyx-leaves linear, thrice as long as
the lip; two lateral ones rounded, entire.’’—Native of New
South Wales, near Port Jackfon, in a good foil, flowering
from July to October. Stem about two feet high, clothed
with a few fheathing feale-like leaves. FVowers large and
handfome, about four in a loofe, upright, terminal fpike,
with linear channelled braéteas fhorter than the flowers. The
two lower calyx-leaves are green, an inch and half long ;
the reit, as weil as the lip and petals, are of a delicate lilac
hue, dotted, reprefented much too deep and too blue in the
figure of Exot. Bot. and the two lateral upper calyx-leaves
there alfo feemtoo pointed. 2. D. aurea. Sm. Exot. Bot.
v. I. F5.t. 9. (D. f{patulata; Sw. Orchid. 107.) Golden
Diuris.—** Two lower calyx-leaves lanceolate, not twice as
long as the lip ; two lateral oneselliptical, acute, with fhort

Petals four,

DIV

claws.’—From the fame country, where it bloffoms in
OGober. Root a double bulb, as in moh Orchifes. Stem
twelve or fourteen inches high, bearing one or two concave
fheathing fcales. Leaves one or two, radical, ere&, linear-
la Flowers from three to five in the fpike, but
half the fize of the la%, of a bright gclden yellow, their
claws ftained, and the lip fpotted, with red.. Two inner
peta!s lanceolate, entire, which in the former have a notch
on one tide. . 3. D. maculata. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 57.
t. 30. Willd, Sp. Pl. v. 4.79. Yellow Spotted Diuris.—
“ Two lower calyx-leaves lanceolate, twice as long as the
lip; two lateral ones rounded, obtule, with long ciaws.??—
Native alfo of New South Wales. It differs from the laft
in having a more ziz-gag flower-ftalk, and efpecially in the
three upper leaves of the calyx being rounded, all {potted
like the lip and outermott petals with blotches of red. The
two lower green calyx-leaves often crofs each other.

Thefe plants would be a very defirable acquilition to our
gardens, and perhaps.might be brought over alive if their
roots were taken up whie in flower, and replanted in pots
of dry fifted earth, being afterwards duly watered eccafi-
onally, according to the method recommended by Mr.
Crowe for European Orchidee; fee Sm. Introd. to Bo-
tany, IIo.

DIURNAL, from dies, day, in Affronomy, fomething
relating to the day; in oppofition to no¢turmal, which re.
gards the night.

Divurnat arch. See Arcu.

Divrnat circle. See Cixcre Diurnal.

Diurnau motion of a Planet, is fo many degrees and
minutes, &c. as any planet moves in twenty-four hours.

The Diurnat motion of the earth, isits rotation round its
axis, the fpace whereof conttitutes the natural day. See
Motion of the Eartu.

Divrnat is alfo ufed in {peaking of what belongs to the
nythemeron, or natural day of twenty-four hours. In
which fenfe it ftands oppofed to annual, menitrual, &c.

Divrnat, Diurnale, low Latin, a book containing thofe
canonical hours of the Roman breviary, which are to be faid
in the day time, namely, lauds, prime, terce, &c. in op-
pofition to the no€iurns which were appointed to be faid in
the night. ;

DIURNARY, Diurnartus, an officer in the Greek
empire, who wrote down, in a book for that purpofe, what-
ever the prince did, ordered, regulated, &c. every day.

DIUTURNITY, the long continuance or duration of
any being.

DIVUS, Diva, in Antiquity, appellations given. to men
and women who had been deified, or placed in the number
of the gods.

Hence it is, that on medals flruck for the confecration of
an emperor or emprefs, they gave them the title of Divus,
or Diva. For example: pivus JULIUS. DIVO ANTONINO
P10. DIVO PIO. DIVO CLAUDIO. DIVA FAUSTINA AUG. &C.

DIVY, in Geography, an ifland of the Eaft Indies, on the

scolate.

- coaft of Orixa, fouth-welt of Mazulipatam, which for-

merly belonged to the French. Itis formed partly by the
fea and partly by the river Crichena, which being divided
into two arms, {urrounds a country of about 75 miles in
circumference, and from 15 to 15 miles in diameter, and
difcharges itfelf into the ocean by means of two unequal
wftuaries, one of which, to the north-eaft of the ifland, is
called Ampfaldivy, and the other to the fouth-welt, which
is the real Crichena, but commonly called Chipler mouth.
(Herbin Statiftique de la France.) The benefit which
Frawce derived from this ifland is computed at 240,000 livres
per annum !
Divy point, a cape of Hindooftan, on the eaft-coaft se
the

DIZ

the circar of Condapilly, inthe bay of Bengal. N. lat. 15°
55/. E. long. 81° 20’.

DIXAN, a town of Abyflinia, feated cn the top of a hill
in the form of a fugar-loaf; furrounded by a deep valley like
a trench, and having a road that winds {pirally up the bill
till it terminates among the houfes. It is inhabited partly
by Moors, and partly by Chriftians, and is very well peo-
pled; ard the only trade of the place is that of felling chil-
dren» The Chrittians bring fuch as they have ftolen in
Abyffinia to this frontier town as to a fure depefit ; and the
Moors receive them there, and carry them toacertain mar-
‘ket at Mafuah, whence they are fent over to Arab‘a or
India. The priefts of the province of Tigié, efpecialiy
thofe near the rock Damo, are concerned in this infamous
traffick, and fome of them are licenfed to carry it on asa
fair trade, upon paying fo many firelocks for each dozen or
{core of flaves. The Naybe of Dixan receives fix patakas
of duty for each one exported. N. lat. 14° 57’ 55”. E. Jong.

0° 7' 30”.

DIXAIN, a topical divifion of the Vallais; which fee.

DIXBILLS, a poft town of America, in the county
of Suffo'k and ftate of New York; 290 miles N. E. of
Wathington.

DIXFIELD, a town of America, in the ftate of Maine
and county of Cumberland, on the north bank of Audro-
fcoggin river, having Jay onthe E. and Wilton N.; about
7o miles N. of Portlard.

DIXIEME, /*. the roth in Mufic, that is to fay, the
oGiave of the 3d, or 3d of an oftave.

DIXMONT, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Yonne; fix miles north of Joigny.

DIXMUDE, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Lys, chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Furnes,
with a population of 2521 individuals. It is fituated in a
fertile plain on the river Yoperlée; nine miles north of
Furnes and: Nicuport, and 24 eaft of Dunkirk, lat. 51°
2' 6", and remarkable for its excellent butter, which is
really of the very firft quality. The canton has 10 com-
munés and 15,256 inhabitants, upon a territorial extent of
1474 kiliometres,

DIXNEUVIEME, roth double oave of the sth in
Mufic. :

DIXON, in Geography, a town of America, in South
Carolina; 27 miles eaft-of Camden.

Dixon’s L£atrance, lies on the N. W. coaft of North
America, and is the paflage into the found between the
Main land and Wafhington’s or Queen Charlotte’s iflands,
from the north-weit. 1t feems to be what is calledin Ame-
rica Barrell’s Sound.

Dixon’s Springs, in Smith’scounty, Teneflee. Here is
a poft-office; 691 miles W. by S. from Wafhington.

DIXSEPTIEME, Fr. 17th double oftave of the 3d in
Mufic. Every founding body gives with its principal found,
its major 17th preferably to its immediate 3d, or roth, be-
caufe the 17th ts produced by an al:quot part of the whole
ftring, i.e. a sth part; whereas, neither #, which would
give the 3d, nor 2, which would give the soth, are aliquot

arts of a ftring. See Sounp, Inrervat, Harmony.

DIZABAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Irak ; 60 miles 5.S.E. of Amaden.

DIZIER, Saint, in Latin Sandi Defiderii Fanum, a
town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, chief
place of a canton in the diftri& of Wafly, with a popula-
tion of 5824 individuals. It is ftuated on the river Marne,
at the fpot where this river becomes navigable, 18 miles E.
of Vitry, 15 S. W. of Bar le Duc, 168 E, of Paris, lat.
48° 35’; and chiefly remarkable for feveral iron mines and

35
forges, and manufactures of calt-iron, linen-cloth, leather,

DNI

hofiery, and hats. The canton has 14 communes, a terri-.
torial extent of 172 kiliometres and a half, and 115449 in-
habitante.

DIZOSTOS, in Botany, a name given by fome of the
old Greek writers to the apios, or knobby-rooted fpurge :
it is fo called, becaufe of its having ufualiy two or three
flender and rufh-like ftalks, growing up from the roots,
which feem as if they were fit to be ufed as cords or band-
ages. See Apios.

DIZUM, or Ditsum, in Geography, 2 town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Weftpialia, and county of Ealt
Friefland; four miles S$.S.E. of Emden.

DIZZINESS, in Medicine. See VERTIGO.

DBMITREVSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, ia
the government of Jaroflavi, or Yaroflaf; 63 miles N.N.W.
of Jaroflavi or Yaroflaf.

DMITRIEV Svora, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Kurfk, on the Svopa; 20 miles N.N.W. of
Korfk, and 432 S.S.E. of Peterfburg. N. lat. 52° 5’.
Bojlongy ne 6%

DMITRIJA Rosrovsxkor, a town of Ruffia, in the
province of Ufting, on the Sula; r4o miles E.S.E. of
Uiting.

DMITROFSK, atown of Ruffia, in the government
of Ore}, feated on the rivulet Nerufer, falling mto the
Siof.

DMITROV, a town of Roffia, in the government of
Mofcow, feated on the {mall river Vakhroma, which, uniting
with the Seftra, forms the river Dubnia. The environs
are celebrated for yellow and white apples, which are fo
tranfparent, that the pips may be feen through the rind 5
32 miles north of Mofcow.

DNEPROVSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tauris, or Crim Tartary, on they Dnicper; 80 miles
S.S.W. of Ekaterinoflav. :

DNIEPER, Dwnierr, Nrereg, Danarris, the Bo-
ryithenes of ancient geographers, one of the largeft rivers
in Europe, has its fource in Ruffia, in the government of
Smolenfk, not far from thg mountains whence iffue the Duna
and the Wolga, and runs fouthwards through Lithuania,
the country of the Zaporog Coffacks, and that of the Nogai
Tartars into the Euxine or the Black fea, at Kinburn, near
Oczakow. It purfuesa courfe of about 1500 verfts through
the fertile provinces of Smolenfko, Mohilef, Tfchernigof,
Kief, and Ekaterinoflav. At Smolenfk it generally freezes
in November, at Krementfehuk in December, and at Kicf in
January. Its bed is partly fandy and ftony, and partly of
marle, The water, though calcareous, is not reckoned un-
wholefome. The iflands which the Dnieper forms in its
windings are extremely numerous. In many places it has
commodious ferries. At Kief there isa bridge of boats
1638 feet, or 546 fathoms in length ; this bridge is opened
at the breaking of the ice.

The Dnieper abounds with fifh, particularly fturgeon,
earp, and pike. It is navigable from Smolenfko to Kief:
but below this. town, at the diftance of 60 verits from
the influx of the Siera, down to Alexandroffkaia, thirteen
cataracts, caufed by a multitude of blocks of granite pro-
jeting into the river, impede its navigation. Empty
barks only can get over the catara@s at high water. The
cargoes are re-fhipped in other veflels, 70 verits lower down.

From the waterfalls, tothe mouth of the Dnieper, the
diftance of about 400 verfts, this river is navigable with per-
fect fafety. But at Cherfon there are only five to fix feet
water in the deepeft channel of the Dnieper, near the dil
gorging of allits branches into the Liman, which isa mar!iny
Jake about 6o verits in length and 10 in breadth. Mr. W.

Elton, afferts, however, that this bar is not very broad, and
H2 that-

DPOrk

. that to deepen it would not require more than 40.000),
fterling, according to the calculation of a Dutch-engineer.

The banks of the Dnieper, asfar as Kief, are covered with
thick forefts, which yield thofe fine mafts that are exported
from Riga. Below Kief the fhores are moitly bare; but
the contiguous provinces yield fuch an abundance of corn,
that as much might be exported from the Dnicper and Caffa
as would fupply almof al!-Europe.

The forefts which contain the beft mafts are fituated on
the Branfk river, which, together with feveral other
ftreamlets, as the Sofh, the Defna, the Soola, the Pfiol, the
Vorfkla, the Sammara, the Ingulatz, falls into the Dnieper.
Tooke’s View of the Ruffian Empire.

Dwizper. the Steppe of the, is one of the numerous vat
plains of Roffia, in the government of Ekaterinoflav, between
the Dnieper and the Bogue. It includes the Crimzan
Steppe on the left fide of the Doieper, and the whole fpace
which extends over the Donetz tothe Don, the fea of Azof,
and the Black fea; confequently the greateft part of the go-
vernments of Ekaterinoflay, Taurida, and a part of Voronetz,
Karkhof, and Kief. It is in general very dry and fandy,
has many falt lakes, and is as yet but littie inhabited, al-

though fome of its diftri&s feem fit to be adapted to paitur- -

age and agriculture. ‘Tooke’s View of the Ruffian Empire.

DNIESTR,» or Niesrer, a river of Poland, which
pafles by Halics, Choczim, Saroka, Rafzcow, Egerlik,
Bender, &c. and difcha:ges itfelf into the Black fea, at
Akerman. See NiesTer.

DO, in Mufe, a fyilzble fubflituted by the Italians to
ut in folemnization, as more vocal and fit for the exercife of
the. voice, for which wis the moft unfavourable of all the
vowels, and ¢ totally ftops all emiffion of found.

Do Law.—To do law facere legem, is the fame as to make
law, anno 23 Hen. VI. cap. 14. See Make.

Do, ut des and ut facias. See ConsiDERATION.

DOABEH, in Geography, a river of Afia, which changes
its name to Kameh, near Cabul.

DOAN, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hadra-
maut, the refidence of a {chiech; 25 days’ journey eaft
from Sana, and 11 from Kefchim; faid to be a larger and
more elegant city than Sara. ;

DOANA, in Ancient Geography. a pe ple of India, on
the other fide of the Ganges, placed by Ptolemy on the
river Doanas. The mouth of this river is referred by M.
D’Anville to the bay, in which was fituated the ‘town of
Berobe. Doanas isaifo the name of atown of India, on the
other fide of the Ganges; called Tana-Serim.

DOARA, an epifcopal fee of Afia, in Cappadocia.

DOARCON, or Dorarcon, or Oiargon, in Geography,
a river of Spain, which runs into the bay of Bifcay, near
port Paffaze.

DOBA, or Dasa, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Oman; 144 miles N.N.W. of Mafcat.

DOBARUA, or Dosarowa, a town of Abyfiisia;
120 miles E. of Siré.

DOBB’S Ferxy, a ferry on Hudfon’s river in America;
26 miles above the city of New York.

DOBBER, a town of Arabia; 36 miles N.W. of Sana.

DOBBERAN, a {mall town of Germany, in the duchy
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about ten miles N.E. of Roftock,
and two S. of the Baltic fea, had formerly a celebrated
monaltery founded in-1170, and re-built in 1186, in the
church of which are the tombs of two kings of the Obo-
trites, and of feveral princes of Mecklenburg. But it
has acquired far greater celebrity within the laft twenty
years as a watering place, the firf for” fea-bathing in Ger-
many. The bathing-houfe is charmingly fituated in a
wood on the fhore of the Baltic, about two miles from the

DONS

town, There are nine cold and one warm baths, and exccle
lent bathirg machines for thofe who wifh to bathe in the
fea. There are alfo good accommodations for invalids and
infirm perfons, who cannot walk or ride from Dobberan to
the bathing place. Dobberan itfelf has very good lodging
houfes, and two extenfive and well kept hotels, in which
the company dine together, as at the hotels of Harrowgate.
The duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin patronizes this efta~
blithment, and frequently dines with the company, which is
generally fele€&, and compofed of the firft families in the
north ef Germany. The fituation of the town is cheerful,
the climate falubrious, and tke place aifords all the amufe~
ments that are fought for in the beft watering places.
F. L. Roper’s Gefchichte ind Anecdoten von Dobberan in
Mecklenburg nebft einer Befchreibting der Beder tnd
des Badehatifes. Neu Strelitz. 1797-

DOBBS, a county of North Carolina.

Doses, Cape, a cape in Hudfon’s bay, at the S. fide
of the entrance of Wager’s river. N. lat. 65°. W. long. 86°

oO.
DOB CHICK, in Ornithology. See Dipaprer.
DOBELEGON, or Dosreun, in Geography, a fmalk
town of Roffia, in the government of Courland, in the pro-
vince of Semgailen, or Semigallia, with an old caftle.

DOBELN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and circle of Leipfic; 24 miles W.N.W. of Dref-
den, and 14 W. of Meiffen. :

DOBERA, in Botany. (Dober of the Arabians,} Juff.

425. Ciafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. -
uncertain. Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth, urceolate, with four fpreading
teeth. Cor. Petals four, twice as long as the calyx, li-
near-lanceolate, fomewhat {preading. Ne€tary of four ere&,
roundifh, abrupt. green, flefhy glands, betweem the petals
and ftamens, one third as long as the fiaments. Stam,
Filaments four, ere&t, awl-fhaped, united at their bafe into
a {quare tube ; anthers ered, lanceolate, as long as the fila-
ments. Pi. Germen fuperior, cylindrical, fomewhat fwel-
ling, half the length of the calyx; ftyle half the length of
the germen; ftigma capitate, of two lobes. Peric. Drupa
oval, flefhy, internally vifcid. Seed one, ovate-oblong,
fi-fhy.

En Ch. Caiyx four-toothed. Petals four. Neary of
four glands, betwixt the petals and famens. Drupa fupe-
rior, with one feed. :

D. glabra. (Tomex glabra; Forfk. Aioypt. Arab. 32.)
Frequent <t Surdtid, and called by the Arabians Dober.
It is, according to Forfkall, the only botanift who has feen-
it, avery large tree, with oppofite, ovate, ftalked, coria-
ceous, entire eaves, tapering at each end. Foqvers white.
Fruit eatable, an inch long, green, with violet-coloured
vilcid infipid pulp.

DOBERI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Macedonia,
in Pzonia, called Doberes by Herodotus, and probably
the inhabitants of the town called Doberos by Thu-
cydides.

DOBERSCHAU. anciently Dobrus, in Geography.a{mail,
bar very old town of Saxony, in the circle of Mbsinia, on
the river Spree ; -3 miles S. of Bautzen. It is mentioned
as a ftrong place in a document of the year 1228, which
fixes the limit betweén the kingdom of Bohemia and
Mifnia. :

DOBERSDORP, a torn of Germany, in the duchy of
Holfein ; 10 niles W. of Lutkerburg.

DOBERSPERG, a town of Germany, in the arch-
duchy of Aultria ; 4 miles N. of Bohmifch Waidrofen.

DOBERTIN, or Dossertin, a {mall town of Ger-
many, in the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Situated on

I a {mall

DOB

a {mall lake; 15 miles S. of Guftrow, with a Lutheran con-
vent for ladies, which poffeffes twenty-eight villages,

DOBLEN. See Donevenn.

DOBORBICA, in Ancient Geography, a ftrong town of
Illyria.

DOBOREVA, in Geography, a town of Bofnia; 28
miles S.S.E. of Serajo.

DOBOSNA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Minfk; 12 miles N.W. of Rohaczow.

DOBOY, a fmall American ifland in the Atlantic,
near the coatt of Georgia. N. lat. 31° 28’. W. long. 81°

Bile

DOBRA, a town of Tranfilvania; 20 miles W.N.W. of
Millenbach.—Alfo, a town of Servia; 17 miles W. of
Orfova.

DOBRADIEN. See Gurenrac.

DOBRAKOTZ, a town of Hungary; 19 miles S. of
Symontornya.

DOBRATA, a town of European Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Moldavia ; 40 miles W. of Jaily.

DOBRATICZ, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Brzefe; 6 miles S. of Brzefe.

DOBRAWI1Z, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflau ; 4 miles S. of Jung-Buntzlau.

DOBRE; a*town of Poland, -in the palatinate of Belez;
56 miles W.S.W. of Belez,

DOBRENIZ, a town of Bohemia, inthe circle of Ko-
nigingratz ; 8 miles S,W. of Konigingratz.

DOBRIANKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Mogilev; 116 miles S. of Mogilev. ‘

DOBRILOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Red Ruffia; 32 miles S. of, Halicz.

DOBRILUGK,. Dosertuc or Dobralug, a {mall
town of Saxony, in Lower Lufatia ; 15 miles from Luckau,
with an ancient cattle, which originally was a monaltery
founded in 1181. It has 800 inhabitants.

DOBRITZ, a [mall town of Saxony, in the circle of
Mifnia, not far from the town of Meiffen, or Mifnia; at
the foot of a mountain called the Hohe Eyfer, the top of
which has fome ruims of an old ca‘tle, known by the name
of Altenburg. This caftle is fuppofed to have been built in
1068, by Wratiflaus, king of Bohemia, and margrave of
Mifnia, and to have been deltroyed by the Saxons, who
refufed to acknowledge him for their ruler.

*DOBROFORT, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Belez ; 8 miles S. E. of Belez.

DOBROMIL, atown of Poland, in the
Lemberg! ; 32 miles S.W. of Lemberg.

DOBRONIVA, ‘a town and caftle of Hungary ;
6 miles N.I. of Schemnitz.

DOBRUSKA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 3 miles N.E. of Konigingratz.

DOBRZIN, or Dosrzyn, a {mall town of the grand
duchy of Warfaw, not far from the Viltula, fituated on a
rock ; 15 miles E. of Wladiflaw of Jungenleflau, in a dif-
tri of the fame name; in that part of Poland called Cu-
javia, which at the partition of that kingdom fell to the
lot of Pruffia; but by the peace of Tilfit has been tranf-
ferred to the king of Saxony.

DOBSHENA, a town of Hungary; 12 miles S.S.W.
of Kapfdorf.

* DOBSON, Witrtam, in Biography, an eminent painter
and engraver, was born at London in 1610; and having
recewed fome inftru€tion from Francis Cleyn, was indebted
for tfis principal improvement to fome pictures of Titian
and Vandyck, which he copied, retaining in fome degree
the manner of thefe two mafters. It is faid that his ade
vancement from an ob{cure condition was owing to the

palatinate of

_have furpaffed him.”

DOB

following circumftance: as Vandyck was pafling by a fhop
on Snow-hil, in London, he faw in a window a picture of
Dobfon’s painting, which ftruck him fo much, as to induce
him immediately to enqnire after the author. He foon
found him at work in a poor garret, refcued him from this
fituation fo unfuitable to a perfon of his diftinzuifhed merit,
and provided him with accommodations, correfponding to
his talents. He afterwards recommended him to king
Charles I., who took him into his fervice. and honoured
him with the flattering appellation of the Englifh Tintoret.
His profpe&ts of thus acquiring an eafy fortune were be-
clouded by his diffolute life, by which he ruined his coufti-
tution, and diffipated all his gains, fo that he was impri-
foned for debt and died in London, foon after his releafe,
A.D. 1646, at the age of 36, or, as Strutt fays, A.D.
1647, aged 37 years. ‘* I'he manner of this artiit is bold,
free, and {weet, with a charming tone of colour; and
although he was inferior to Vandyck in the gracefuinefs of
his figures, yet he gave life, dignity, and fentiment to his
portraits; and for truth, character, and refemblance, few
At Wilton there is a picture of the
*° Decollation of St. John” by Dobfon; and at Blenheim,
Northumberland Houfe, and the duke of Devorhhire’s,
there are feveral capital pi€tures of this matter. Pilkmgton
and Strutt. f
é DOBULA, in Jchthyology, a {pecies of Cyprinus; which
ee.
DOBUNI, in Ancient Geography, called by Dio Boduni,
ancient inhabitants of Britain, who were feated in the coun-
‘ties of Gloucetter and Oxford. Both the names of this
Bnitifh nation feem to have been derived from the low fitua-
tion of a great part of the country which they: inhabited :
for both Duva and Bodun fignify profound or low, in the
ancient language of Gaul and Britain. ( Baxt. -Gloff. Brit.)
The Dobuni are not mentioned among the Britith nations
which refifted the Romans under Julius Cefar; which was
probably owing to the diftance <of their country from the
{cene of action ; and before the next invafion under Clau-
dius, they had been fo much oppreffed by their ambitious
neighbours the Cattivellauni, that they fubmitted with plea-
fure to the Romans, in order to be delivered from that op-
preflion. Cogidunus, who was at that time (as his name
imports) prince of the Dobuni, recommended himfelf fo
cffetually to the favour of the emperor Claudius, by his
ready fubmiffion, and other means, that he was not ou!
continued in the government of his own territories, but had
fome other ftates put under his authority. (Tacit. Vit.
Agric. c. 14.) This prince lived fo long, and remained fo
fteady a friend and ally to the Romans, that his fubjects be-
ing habituated to taeir obedience in his time, never revolted
nor {tood in need of any forts or forces to keep them in Eb. :
jection. This is certamly the reafon why we meet with fo
few Roman towers and ftations in the country anciently in-
habited by the Dobuni. ‘
The Durocornovium of Antoninus, and the Corinium of
Prolemy, are fuppofed by antiquaries to have been the fame
place, the capital of the Dobua1, and fituated at Cirencefter
an Gloucefterfhire, where are many marks of a Roman
ftation. Clevum, or Glevum, in the 13th iter of Anto-
ninus, ftood where the city of Gloucefter now {tands; and
Abone, in the 14th iter, was probably fituated at Avinton
on the Severn. ‘The country of the Dobuni was compre-
hended inthe Roman province, Britannia Prima.
DOBYGUR, a fortrefs of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic =
14 miles S. of Velore. ‘This fortrefs, and alfo that of Gar.
natic-gur, lie in the ridge of hills on the welt of Arnee;
the latter bears about N. by W, at the diftance of about 3 :
miles from the former.
Do.

DLOLG
DO-CARMO, a town of South America, in the country

of Brazil. S. lat. 20° 20°. W. long. 26° 35/.

DOCE, or Frefh waler-river, a river of Brazil, which runs
into the Atlantic. S. lat. 19° ro’. W.long.. 25° 20!.

JOCEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
Leffler Armenia.

DOCELA, a town of Afia, in the Greater Phrygia.

DOCETA, from doxey. to appear, in Ecclefaflical Hiflory,
the followers of Julius Ceffianus, ose of the Valentinian fee,
towards the clofe of the fecond century, who revived a no-
tion that had been adopted by a branch of the Gnoltics,
again(t whom St. John, Tynatins, and Polycarp, had af-
ferted the truth of the incarnation. They believed and
taught, as their name imports, that the aétions end fuf-
ferings of Jefus Chrift were not in reality, but only in ap-
pearance.

DOCETTES, in Geography, a town of France, in. the
department of the Vofges; 24 leagues from Remiremont.

DOCHABAD, a diftri@ of Perfia, forming the weftern
boundary of the empire of Candahar, about 30 or 40 miles
to the eaft of Tunhiz.

DOCIMASIA, Aoxipesiz, from coxsuxdu, L try, In An-
tiguity, a cuitom among the Athenians, by which every man,
before he was admitted to a public employment, was obliged
to give an account of himtelf and his palt life, before cer-
tain judges in the forum; for if any man had lived a vicipus
and fcandalous life, he was thovght unworthy of the
meaneft office. Nor was this thought enough; for in the
firlt ordinary eflembly after their election, they were a feu
cond time brought to the tet; when, if any thing fcanda-
lous was found again{t them, they were deprived of their ho-
nours. Pott. Archeol. Grac. lib.ii, cap. 11. tom. i. p. 72.

Docimasis, or Docimafiic Art, is that part of praGical
chemiftry which relates to the analyfis of minerals, and to
all operations in metallurgy.

DOCIMASTICAL Experiments. See Assayinc.

DOCIMENUM Marmog, a name given by the ancients
to a {pecies of marble, of a bright and clear white, much
ufed in the large fumptuous buildings, as temples and the
hke. It had its name from Docimenos, a city of Phrygia,
afterwards called Synaia, near which it was dug, and from

’ whence it was fent to Reme. It was accounted little in-
ferior to the Parian in colour, but not capable of fo elegant
a polifh: whence it was lefs ufed by the ftatuaries, or in
other {maller works. The emperor Adrian ia faid to have
ufed this marble in building the temple of Jupiter, and
many other of the great works of the Romans are of it.
DOCK, in Agriculture, the-common name of a. well-
‘known plant, which is extremely troublefome as a weed in

pature and other lands, where the foil inclines to be deep,’

heavy, and rather molt. It is a plant which rifes with a
ftrong ftem to fome feet in height, fending forth large

broad leaves of confiderable length ; and which ftrikes down=

wards with a ftrong perennial tap-root, in a fomewhat fimi-
jar manner tothat of the carrot, by which means it becomes
firmly eltablifhed in the ground, without being liable to be
deltroyed, except by particular attention and trouble, It
ripens its feed quickly in great abundance, but which drops
about the foot of the plant, not having the means of being
difperfed to any great diftance. It has the fingular proper-
ty, that if the root be divided below the crown, the portion
which is left in the earth fends forth fhoots from almeft
any depth, provided it be not confined above, and have a
fuitable flate of the foil. Befides, where the upper part is
cut or torn off, the plant is capable of furviving, and of
fending forth new fhoots. Even when turned upfide down,
by the operation of the plough, it is found to recoil and
force its way again quickly to the furface. It is therefore

DOC

evident that the plough alone is not only incapable of pers
feétly eradicating this injurious plant, but that it often
tends to render it more prevalent, by breaking the root into
different parts, which readily efford new fhoots._ It is con-
fequently evident, that, in order to fully eradicate this nox-
ious weed, it 1s neceffary to go over the whole of the land
with the drawing iron, or fpade, fometimes before the bu-
finefs of plougking be attempted. By this means, and pro=
per attention ac the time of ploughing, to have the bottom
and other parts of the roots, which may have previonfly
efeaped, completely removed, thefe weeds may. be effecius
ally cleared from the eround. i

In meadow and palture lands they. may, however, be
{peedily removed by the careful ule of the docking-iron,
without having recourfe to the plough.

Tt is fcarcely neceflary to ohferve, that the ripening and
diffomination of the feeds of thefe plants, fhould be eff:Gu-
ally prevented, by their ftems being cut over in due time
by the fcythe, as in this way the multiplication of them
will be materially prevented. And the fowing of the teed
of this weed, with any fort of crop, fhould likewife-be cau
tioufly avoided. See Weens.

Dock is i:kewife a term applied to the trimming of the
buttocks and other parts of fheep; and allo to the cutting
off the tails of horfes. : .

Dock, in Botany. See Rumex.

Docx, Dacking, in Law, a means or expedient for
cutting off an eltate tail in lands, or tenements, by means of
a common recovery ; that the owner may be enabled to fell,
give, or bequeath the fome. s

Dock, in the AZanege, is ufed for a large cafe of leather,
as long as the dock of a horie’s tail, which ferves it fora
cover. The-French call the dock, troufiequeue. It is made
fait. by fraps to the erupper; and hzs leather thongs that
pafs between his thighs, and along the flanks to the faddle-.
{traps, in order to keep the tail tight, and to prevent its
whifkiog about.

Dock, among Sport/inen, is ufed for the flefhy part of a
boar’s chine, between the middle and the buttock.

Docks, probably from doyiov, receptacu/um, of dexouctr, T
receive, ave artiiicial bafons, or excavations, under different
denominations, formed for the convenience of receivirg fhips,
in rivers and harbours, for the purpofe of repairing, or for
loading and unloading their cargoes. out of the influence of
the tide. They are conftru&ed of brick, ftone, or Un:ber 5
with locks or flood-gates, pointed to or from the tide, to
keep the water in or out, as the objet and nature of the
docks require.

. Wet Docks ave for the reception of fhips to lie afloat while
loading or unloading, with gates pointed from the tide, to
keep the water in at low water. Locks are attached there-
to, with doubie gates, for the more eafy admiffion and egrefs
of fhipping, without lofing more water than neceflary ; and
to aid the operation of opening and fhutting thefe gates,
fluices are made within the fame, to regulate the water
within the lecks, until the fame level is produced within,
as without, fo that the gates may open with facility.

Dry Docks are of various kinds,

1. Bafons, or docks open to the tide, are called dry docks,
becaufe the veffels frequenting them ground at low water,
and lie dry on the ebb tide, and float again on the next rife,
of the tide, They are ufed at Liverpool as entrances to
the wet docks, and are frequented by coafters, and {mall
or light veffels, that do not injure by lying on'the fhore. _

2. Graving Decks, for repairing of fhips, are excavations
with flood-pates pointed towards the tide, to keep the water
out while {hips are under repair, Weflels are admitted at
high water, and the gates are fhut at low water; and when

the

DOCK S&S.

the repairs are completed, the gates are again opened before
the rife of the tide, and the veffel is on the flood hauled out
of dock. In fome countries, where there is little or no tide,
thefe docks are fo confructed, as to have the water within
forced out by pumps, or other mechanical operations, as in
Ruffia and other parts,

In fome places, as at Portfmouth, floating gates are
contrudted, in the form of a veffel, with each end like the
bow of a fhip, neatly fitted to the lock, and to work up or
down a groove in thelock with the tide, by pumping water
into, or out of the veffel, fuflicient to float or fink it, as oc-
cafion might require. A veflel of this kind was alfo ufed at
the London docks, to keep the water out while they were
making.

3. Slips for the buildiog of thips, may be claffed under
this bead. They alfo are excavations, floping and inclined
towards the tide, well framed and floored with timber, &c.
Ships, when built, are generally launched at fpring tives,
by driving away the fhoars and props which fupported them,
when they are eafily launched from off the flips.

Naval Docks —Port{mouth, Plymouth, Chatham, Sheer-
nefs, Woolwich, and Deptford, are the principal naval ‘arfe-
nals of Great Britain; where fhips of war of every defcription
from floops to fhips of the line of 130 guns, are built and
repaired, and when finifhed are turned out of dock: other
countries have fimilar eftablifhments.

Commercial Docks.—The convenience and advantages of
wet docks for the fecurity of fhipping and the difpatch of
bufinefs are become objets of great attention in many
countries for commercial purpofes. ‘The adoption of them
within this laft century has been no where more genetal than
in Great Britain. The docks now made and making, at Lon-
don, Liverpool, Hull, Briftol, Leith, &c. have contributed,
and will greatly contribute (combined with ‘our natural
advantages) to the increafe of our commerce, wealth,
and population. They have formed our great leading
ports into depots, and have given, aided by the extenfion of
the bonding fyftem, great facilities to commerce by fufpend-
ing, in many cafes, the payment of duties until goods are
taken out for home confumption. Docks, while giving pro-
te€tion, convenience, and difpatch to commerce, fhipping,
and revenue, happily link and unite, by means of rivers, roads,
and canals, our foreign with our domeftic commerce.

Liverpool Docks —The port of Liverpool, from the bad-
nefy of its harbour, the rapidity of the Merfey, and the fhift.
ing of its fands, was obliged, at an early period, to refort to
docks : for this purpofe an a& was pafled in 1708. What
neceflity firft diGtated, has fince been one of the principal
caufes of the town becoming, through the enterprifing {pirit
and induftry of its inhabitants, the fecond port in the

Dock Gates.
Docks. Long Broad. Area. | Stat. Mea. — —r--| Quay.
Broad. | Deep
No. Yards Yards. |Square Yds} A. R. P.| Feet. Feet. | Yards.
tr Old Dock ~- - - 200 70 to go 17,070 3 2 4 34 23 Be
2 Salthoufe - - - irregular. 22 420 4 oT 34 23 640
3 George’s - ° S 250 100 26,068 he aah We 38 25 670
4 King’s - - - - 290 go 25,650 Dae SHES) 42 25 715
5 Queen’s + - - - 270 130 33,600 6 93 34 fal “a | 780.
Bafons. 124,808 | 25° 2 26
6 Tothe Old Dock - - - - * - 19,298 3 3 34
7 ‘To George’s Dock - - - - - - 12,099 2) Be GO
8 To King’s and Queen’s Docks Hig lagi - 2 7

kingdom, for commerce, fize, and population. Inthe courfe
of ove century there have béece eftablifhed within that port,
five wet docks, three dry docks, and five graving docks,
independent of the duke of Bridgewater's dock, for canal
purpofes ; and a plan is now in execution for making two
additional wet docks, and enlarging Queen’s dock, which is
propofed to be conneéted with the Merfey by means of a
new floating dock, and a dry harbour bafon. Almoft all
thefe docks are, more or lefs, encroachments on the banks
of the river.

/ By the a& -paffed in 1708, authority was obtained to
make the firft dock and bafon for the fecurity of fhipping
and the loading and unloading of the fame. The manaze-
ment of the undertaking was invelted in the corporation
for the term of 21 years, which gave for this purpofe four
acres of land, and they were impowered to borrow the fum of
Gooo/, In 1717, the term was prolonged for 14 years, and
they were authorized to borrow 4coo/. more. In 1737,
the term was-further extended to 31 years, and powers
given to make an additional dock, to build a pier in the
open harbour, and to light the docks. The corporation oa
this occafion gave feven acres of land, and they were im-
powered to borrow 6coo/, In 1761, the commerce of
Liverpool was fo much increafed, and its fhipping had
become fo numerous, and fo enlarged in fize, that further
accommodation was wanting. The term of the corporation’s
management was again extended for 21 years, with powers
to make another dock, and to ere& a light-houfe for the
benefit of the port; for thefe purpofes they were authorifed
to borrow the fum of 25,000/., and to raife the further fum
of 2000/7. on the light-houfe duties. In 1784, the powers of
all the former ats were enlarged, and the term extended to
41 years, with liberty to make two additional docks and
piers, and to borrow tor this purpofe 70,000/; In 1799,
an act was paffed to alter and enlarge the powers of former
acts, and to render the docks and the port more commo-
dious and fafe; by which a further extenfion of term was
granted for 30 years. ‘The corporation again gave fome
lands, and they were impowered to make two additional
docks, and other docks; with hberty to raife the fum of
120,000/,, and to double the former tolls.

Under the authority of thefe various aéts of parliament
the feveral docks have been conftru€ted, and it has been found
that each fucceffive improvement, by affordinz adcitional
convenience to foreign trade, has been followed by its increafe,
and prepared the way for the further extenfion of this excel-
lent fyftem of accommodation at future periods. The names
and dimenfions of the docks are as follows, anda plan is
annexed on afcale of double the fize of the plan of the docks
for London. See Plate of Docks.

14,420 Bas
170,616 35 1 17 ao)
Theli

DOCKS

Thefe wet-decks are all for thips from foreign voyages.
The dry docks are for coafters, and other {mall and hght
veffels. There are five graving docks, which are from 390
to 490 fect long, and hold two or three veffels for repair, at
atime. No.g. The duke of Bridgewater has a dock et
Liverpool, cosneéted with his canal concerns, calculated to
ho'd 42 canal flats, of 50 tons, fuch as No. 10 in Plate of
Docks.

The docks are furrounded with convenient and {pacious
warehoules for the reception of goods; and a tobacco ware-
houfe capable of containing 7000 hogtheads.

The feveral docks are conneéted with each other by means
of tunnels or fluices under ground, for the purpofe of fcour-
ing them when they want cleanfing. This is effleGed by
letting the water off from any one of them, and opening the
fluices into it in different dire€tions ; while a number of men
with fhoveis throw the mud into the currents, which is thus
wafhed into the river, and in the courfe of about 12 or 14
days the dock is fufficiently cleared.

Accurate tide tables are kept, from which it appears that
the rife of the tide in the river is about jo feet at {pring
tides, at which times there are about 20 feet water at the
Sait-houfe dock gates, and two fect more at the other dock
gates.

The corporation make a'l neceflary regulations relating to
the docks; and the accounts of the receipt and expenditure
are annually examined and publifhed by commiffioners un-
conneéted with the corporation. Ships are here difcharged
by their own crews, but cooking on board is not permitted,
and all lights muft be put out at ftated hours.

‘It cannot be doubted that the docks have greatly encou-
raged the increafe which has taken place in the trade of
Liverpool, and by their future enlargement, or the formation
of additional ones, the port will readily accommodate the
future increafe of its commerce to any poffible extent. In
the year 1571, the inhabitants, addrefling queen Elizabeth,
ftyled the place the poor decayed town of Liverpool ; and in
fact, about that period it was only a httle fifhing town, having
12 barks, whofe tonnage amounted to 223 tons, and which
employed only 75 men. In the year 1805, the number of
Bnufh built ihips belonging to the port of Liverpool was
741, and their tonnage amounted to 111,227 tons: the ton-
nage of the fhips which entered the docks in that year was
463,482 tons.

Statement of the amount of the dock duties at different
periods: each year ending 24th. June.

Years. Ships. Duties.
eae usmnias
1755 Ss 2.417 13 It
1760 5245 2;330 0 7
1765 1930 3455 8 4
1770 2073 4,142 07 2
1775 | 229% 5354 4 9
1750 2261 Bi 528i EO
_ 1785 | 3429 S.41r 5 3
1799 4223 10,037 6 2%
1795 3948 9,368 16 4
1800 | 4746 | 23,379 13 0%
1805 4618 33,304 1g 1
1808 5225 40.688 0 0

The tonnage of the fhips which entered the docks in the
year ending 24th June 1808, amounted to 516,536 tons.

London.—W hen it is confidered that the port of London
commands about three-fifths of the commerce of the whole
kingdom, that it has frequently riding within it from 1300
to 1400 fail of vefféls ata time,.and in the courfe of the year

about 14,000; that from the year 1700 to 1792 its imports
had increafed from 4,785,538/. to 12,072,674/. and its ex-
ports from 5,387,787/. to 14,742,516/., it appears fur-
prizing that proper accommodations for its commerce fhould
have been fo long wanting. The legal quays, which were
only 1464 fect long, having remained the iame as at the time
of the fire of London, in the year 1666, were, with the aid
of the fufferance wharfs, totally inadequate to the increafe af
its commerce. The inconveniences arifing from the crowded
{late of the Thames at all times, but particularly at thofe
periods when fhips arrive in large fleets, were long felt and
complained of by all the principal merchants; and from re-
ference to the reports of committees, and other publications
on the improvement of the port of London, it appears that
different plans had been frequently fuggefted to extend che
convenience of the legal quays both above and below London
bridge. It was not, however, till the year 1793, that a plan
was firft projected for, making wet docks for the port of
London, in Wapping, the ifle of Dogs, and at Rotherhithe,
and the preference intended to have been given, in the firlt
inftance, to Wapping, from its vicinity to the city, the feat
of bufinefs, and to the cuitom-houfe; one end of the fpat
fixed upon being within a quarter of a mile of the Tower of
London, and the eaftern extremity of it about one mile.
The plan of docks meeting with approbation and encourage-
ment, they were circulated generally tovall the great leading
interefts in and out-of parliament, and to ail the principal
perfons connected with the commercial interett.

In 1794, a general meeting of merchants was convened, to
confider the great inconveniences of, the port of London,
arifing from the crowded {late of the river, and the confined
extent of the legal quays; when a committee was appointed
to confider of the beft mode of relief, who took into confi-
deration all the plans which had been fuggefted, when they
approved of the plan for making wet docksin Wapping with
wharfs and warehoufes on their borders, as the mot effeQual
means of remedying the evils of the port. In confequence
of this determination, Mr. Daniel Alexander, an ingenious
archite&t and furveyor, who had been making great alteva-
tions at Roghefter bridge, and who was converiant with ope-
rations conneGted with the tide, was dire€ted to make a fur-
vey, and prepare plans and eftimates fer forming docks at
Wapping, with the addition of a cut or caval leading to
them, from that part of Blackwall where the prefent Eait
India docks have been made, and 2long a line where the Weit
India docks have been fince formed. The plans and eftimates
were laid before a general meeting of merchants on 22d De-
cember, 1795, when they were unanimoufly approved, and a
fubfcription of 800,000/. was filled in a few hours, for car-
rying the fame into execution. A committce was appointed
to make application to parliament, who prefented a petition _
in January 1796, which was referred to a feieét committce of
the houfe of commons, who were directed ‘* to enquire into
the belt mode of providing fufficient accommodation for the
increafed trade and fhipping of the port of London.”

The application of the merchants experienced great oppo- _
fition both from the corporation of the city of London and
from private iotereits; and a great variety of plans and pro-
je&s were brought forward for the extenfion of the legal
quays above and below the bridge, and the improvement of
the river, with or without docks. This caufed much delay,
ut the neceflity of providing fome additional accommoda-
tion for the increafing multitude of fhips which filled the
river became every day more evident; and, upon a com.
parifon of the various plans for making docks in different
fituations, it was generally admitted, that wet docks might
be formed in various fituations at a much lels expeuce
than on the {pot fixed upon for the London docks at Wap-

ping,

DIO Gress.

ping, but that the fituation of the latter, from its vicinity to
the feat of commerce, would much more than counterbalance
the additional expence of their formation. Through the
great exertions and perfeverance of William Vaughan, ef-
quire, affifted by other highly refpe&able mercantile charac.
ters, the various obftacles to the plan of the London docks
were fucceflively overcome, and in Auguft 1798, the fub-
{cribers gave notice, that in the enfuing feflion of parliament
they meant to renew their application for forming docks at
Wapping, and in December following they petitioned for
leave to bring in a bill for this purpole. A few days after a
petition was prefented by the corporation of London, with a
view to fimilar objects, and by making a navigable canal or
paflage acrofs the ifle of Dogs from Blackwall to Lime-
houfe, purchafing the mooring-chains in the river, which
were moitly private property, and appointing harbour-maf-
ters to regulate the navigating and mooring of veflels in the
port; they alfo propofed to make wet docks in fome part of
the ifle of Dogs for the reception and difcharge of Weft In-
dia fhipping. ‘The latter part of the plan had however been
taken up by a number of Welt India merchants and planters,
who had formed themfelves into a company diftin& from the
fubferibers to the London docks, for the purpofe of forming
docks for the reception of the Welt India trade only, either
alone, or in conjunétion with the other improvements pro-
jefted by the corporation. The general conviction of the
neceffity of fome meafure of this kind was not fufficient to
produce a union of interefts in favour of either of the pro-
pofed plans; at length the committee of the houfe of com-
mons made a report, recommending the formation of wet
docks as the only remedy for the evils of the port, and that
they fhould be made both at Wapping and the ifle of Dogs,
but that the latter fhou.d be adopted firft.

The corporation of London and the Weft India mer-
chants forming a jundlion, the ad for making the Welt In-
dia docks pafled in July 1799. In the next feflion, on the
3oth June 1800, an aft was pafled for forming the docks at
Wapping, and another act has fince been pafied for making
docks at Blackwall for the Ealt India trade. Thefe feveral
undertakings, all ar:fing out of the original projeét of the
London docks, have been fince carried into execution, to the
great convenience of the commerce of the port of London,
and the permanent benefit of the fubfcribers, by whom the
large fums neceflary for accomplifhing them were advanced.
For fome particulars of the progrefs of their formation, fee
Tames river, under the article CanAts.

Weft India Docks. —The 2& for eftablifhing the Weft India
Dock Company, was pafled 12th July 1799. Their origi-
nal capital was 500,0c0l., which they were impowered to
increefe to 600,000/. This capital was, however, found in-
fufficient for completing the undertaking, and in 1802 the
company were authonfed to add 200,000/. to it, making
their capital 800,000/. which has been fince increafed to
1,200,000/, The dividends to be paid thereon to the fub-
feribers, are not to exceed 10 per cent. per annum, to which
rate they have already attained. .

The concerns of the company are under the management
of twenty-one directors, eight of whom are chofen by the
corporation of London, four of them being aldermen, and
four common-council men.

The works were begun 2d February 1800, and the firft
fhip entered the homeward-bound dock on 27th Auguft

1802. The homeward-bound dock, fee Plate N. fig. B. 1.
which is 2600 feet long, and 500 feet broad, is eftimated
capable of holding 300 fail of veffels of 300 tons and up-
wards each. The utward-bound dock, B 2, is 2600 feet long,
and 400 feet broad. ‘They both communicate by means of

Vou. XU.

locks at the end (next Blackwall) with a bafon of about
fix acres, with floping barks, which is conneéted with the
river by the entrance lock; and at the end next Limehoufe,
where there is another bafon of about two acres, built of
brick, through which all veffels go out, which have occation
to go into the river to repair. The two docks are feparated
and furrounded by ftrong walls.

The ufe of thefe docks is limited to the Weft India trade
for 21 years. "The company take the fhips under their fole
direGtion, of unloading and management from the moment
they enter the docks, difcharging the fame by their own
fervants ; when the crews are difmiffed, and neither cooking
nor refidence allowed on board any of the veffels while
they remain in the homeward-bceund docks, the gates of
which aae fhut every evening at ftated hours. A military
guard is ftationed without the docks day and night. The
diftance from the ftandard in Cornhi'), to the neareft dock
gates, is rather more than three miles, and to the further
extremity of the dock wall, about halfa mile more ; a con-
fiderable expence of cartage is unavoidably incurred, by the
fhips difcharging at this diftance, but there is an excellent
road both to thefe docks, and to the Eaft India docks.

Both the docks and warehoufes are handfome and {pa-
cious, the whole forming a noble and interefting obje@,
which muft imprefs every one with an idea of the vatt mag-
nitude of the branch of commerce, to which they are ap-
propriated. ‘The warehoufes on the north and wett fides,
are ten innumber, with partition walls up to, but not through
the roof, and are capable of cortaining 8000 hogfheads of
fugar each; on the fouth fide are extenfive warehoules
for rum. Thedocks were planned and excecuted by Wil-
liam Jeffop, efq. civil engineer, and the warehoufes by Mr.
Gwylt, furveyor and architec.

Under the Welt India dock a@, the corporation of
London were empowered to make a canal from Limehoufe
to Blackwall, of about three quarters of a mile in length,
to fave the navigation round the Ele of Dogs, which has
been completed,’ and may probably at fome future period
be converted into a dock. See Plate of Docks, fig. D.

London Docks.—The a& for ettablithing this company
was paff<d 2oth June 1800. Their original capital flock
was 1,200,000/., and they were authorifed to corrow, at
intereft, the further fum of 300,0c0/.; buta larger capital
being found neceffary for completing the undertaking, they
applied to parliament, in 1804, for leave to augment their
capital ftock by 500,0c0/.; and having fince obtained another
2& for the liberty of raifing a further fum of 500,co0/., the
total capital ftock the company are now authorifed to raife,
if it fhall be found neceflary, is 2,200,000/, . The dividends
to be paid thereon to the fubfcribers, are limited ta 10 per
cent. per annum. The management is vefted in 24 direGtors,
eleGed annually, of whom the lord mayor is ‘one.

The original plan of thefe docks (with the canal, which
had been abandoned) was fubmitted by the dire@tors to the
confideration of four civil engineers of the firft eminence
and refpectability, viz. Meffrs. Robert Mylne, Jobn Rennie, *
Jofeph Huddart, and William Chapman, and underwent fome
alterations by them. The dock and bafon, as altered by
them, were then executed under the dire&tion of Mr. Rennie,
and the warehoufes and wall by Mr. Alexander.

The dock, bafon, and warchoufes, which are compleated,
are of brick and ftone, are well defigned, in a chaite and
grand ftyle, and happily executed, producing a noble effe&,
The length of the dock, asin Plate of Docks, fig. A. 1. is 1260
feet long, and 690 fect broad, containing 20 acres, and the
bafon marked A. 2. as three acres, and the whole capable of
containing about 230 fhips ae tons burthen and upwards,

In

DOCKS.

In the act a power was preferved to makea fecond dock and
bafon to the eaftward, with an entrance at Shadwell, con-
taining an area of 14 acres, a3 denoted in the plan marked
A 3and 4. There are at prefent, onthe north fide of the
dock, five tacks of warehoufes furnifhed with party and
crofs fub-divifionary walls through the roofs, asa further
protection againit fire. On the fouth fide are other ware-
houfes, befides vacant fpaces left in different parts of the
premifes for additional warchoufes. On the ealt fide is the
tobacco warchoufe, planned to contain 24,0c0 hog fheads
of tobacco, and fpacious arched vaults underneath for wine
and tobacco.. The latter are now wholly appropriated to
wine, and hold many thoufand pipes. The whole building
ftands upon an area of near five acres, covering more ground,
under ove roof, than any public building or undertaking,
except the pyramids of Egypt. Its roof is light, airy, and
fimple, and adds greatly to the beauty and boldnefs of the
defign, and ftands unrivalled in architeGtural buildings of its
kind.

The company was required to complete the docks wichin
feven years, which was afterwards extended to twelve years.
On the 24th January 1805, they gave notice, by advertife-
ment, that the bafon at Bell-dock, and the dock communi-
cating therewith, and alfo part of the warehoufes, vaults,
and quays, were ready for the reception of fhips and landing
their cargoes, in confequence of which the dock was
opened for public ufe in- the following week.

All fhips laden with wine, brandy, geneva, and other
{pirits, tobacco, and rice, muft unload in thefe docks for
the term of twenty-one years; with all other veflels the ufe
of the docks is optional, excepting thofe from the Eaft and
Welt Indies. The fhips difcharge their cargoes under the
company’s cranes, by their own crews. In thefe docks,
cooking and refidence on board are allowed, but. no lights
are permitted after certain hours. ‘The whole is furrounded
by a wall, the gates of which are fhut at ftated hours.

There is a neat {wivel cait-iron bridge over the entrance
lock at Wappiog, and an excellent double fteam-engine
ereGted, which was ufed while the docks were making, to
catry off the water ; it is not now worked.

The rife of the tide at the entrance lock of the bafon,
is four feet lower than the dock itfelf.

Eaft India Docks —The a& for eftablithing the cSmpany

affed 27th July 1803. Their original capital was 200,c00/.
divided into fhares of 100/. each; and they were authorized
to increafe the capital to 300,c00/. if it fhould be found
neceflary. In 1806 they were impowered to add 100,000 /.
more to their capital, making with the former fum 400,0c0/.,,
nearly the whole of which has been raifed. ‘The dividends
to be paid thereon to the fub{cribers, are, a3 in the two pre-
ceding companies, limited to 10 percent. per annum. The
concern is under the management of 13 dirsGtors, who
mutt be holders of at lealt 20 fhares of the company’s ftock,
and four of them muft be diretors of the Eait India com-
pany.

The firft ftone of thefe docks was laid in March 1805,
and the firft fhip entered them in Auguit 1806. The di-
menfions of the dock for unloading inwards are r4to feet in
length, and 560 feet in width, containing about 18% acres:
the dock for loading outwards, which was a part of Mr.
Perry’s dock, is 780 feet in length, and 520 feet in width,
containing g4 acres. The extent of the entrance bafon,
which conneéts them with the river, 1s 23 acres; the length
of the entrance lock 210 feet, the width of the gates 48 feet
in the clear, and the depth of water at ordinary {pring-tides
24 feet. See Plate N. C, 1.2,

Thefe docks are appropriated folely to the reception of
Eat India fhipping, and the company undertake to deliver
the whole of the cargoes. No cooking, fire, or refidence on
board, are permitted in thefe docks, the gates of which are
fhut every afternoon at four o’clock. The diftance from the
Eaft India warechoufes being about four miles, the goods are
conveyed thither in caravans of a particular conftru€tion, by
an excellent road, towards the formation of which 10,000),
was contributed by the company.

Perry’s Dock at Blackwall, and.Greenland Dock on the op-
pofite fide of the river, were private property, having been
formed by enterprifing individuals, long before any public
accommodation of this kind extfted in the port of London.
The firft now forms one of the Eaft India docks; and
Greenland dock, hitherto appropriated to the purpofes of
the whale f&hery, has likewife been purchafed by a com-
pany.

The Surrey canal company have a dock at the entrance
of ein canal for {mall veflels, and have raifed a confiderable
caplial. ;

It affords a ftriking proof of the wealth and profperity of
the city of London to find, that in the courfe of about ten
years, there has been expended a capital of between four and
five millions in thefe great undertakings for providing accom-
modation and fecurity to its fhipping and commerce.

Hull Dock, is fituated on the Humber, and was formed
under the authority of an a& paffed in 1774. It is about
480 yards long, and 88 yards wide, containing nearly 10
acres, and will accommodate about 130 veffels at a time,
The original capital of the company confifted of 120 fhares,
which have fince been increafed to 180 fhares. It has been:
a moft profitable concern to the fubfcribers, as they have:
ufually made a large dividend; this, however, has varied very
confiderably : in the year 1806 they divided 72/. 155. 10d.

per thare ; but in 1807, after having admitted 25 new fharesy
the dividend was only 49/. gs. 1d. per fhare. The forma-
tion of another dock, with other improvements, has been
undertaken.

Brifiol.—Briftol, with a large trade carried on in an
inconvenient harbour from the great height of its tides, has,
at length, undertaken an extenfive plan, according to which
a very capacious wet dock is to be formed by damming up
the river Avon for about two miles of its length, and turning
the river into a new cut which has been formed to receive it.

Other ports, fuch as Lancafter, Grimfby, Dover, and Mar-
gate, &c. have their docks or piers for the fafety and
accommodation of the fhipping frequenting them.

At Leith. in Scotland, a large range of docks are making
on an extenfive {cale, which are to be capable of receiving
the men of war which may frequent that part of the coaft,
the old harbour having been found very inadequate: one of
the docks is already completed, anda dry dock is nearly fo.
From Leith being within one mile of Edinburgh, and the
{pirit of improvement prevailing in Scotland, there is every
probability of thefe docks.and the intended inclofed harbour
being executed on an extenfive and judicious plaw, and bee-
coming of much public utility.

On the continent, feveral ports, fuch as Havre, Oftend,
&c. have wet docks on an extenfive fcale, under various ree
gulations. :

Docx-Yards, are magazines of all forts of naval ftore,.and
timber for fhip-building ; the royal dock-yards in England,
are thofe at Chatham, Portfmouth, Plymouth, Woolwich,
Deptford, and Sheernefs. In time of peace, fhips of war
are laid up. in thefe docks, thofe of the firft rates moftly at
Chatham, where, and at other yards, they receive, from
time to time, fuch repairs as are neceflary.

Thefe

Dr Oy Cr:

Thefe yards are generally fupplied from the northern
crowns, with hemp, pitch, tar, rofin, canvas, oak-plank, and
feveral other {pecies. But as for malts, particularly thofe
of the largelt fize, they have been ufually brought from
New England. 5

The principal dock-yards are governed by a commiffioner,
refident at the port, who fuperintends all the mutters of
the officers, artificers and labourers, employed in the dock-
yard and ordinary. He alfo controuls their payments 5 ex-
amines the accounts; contraés and draws bills on the navy-
office to fupply the deficiency of ftores, and regulates what-
ever belongs to the yard, maintaining due order in the refpe@-
ive offices. : ;

DOCKEN, in Agriculture, a provincial term, fometimes
applied to the dock.

DOCKER, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of Lancatter, which runs into the fea five miles N,
of Lancafter f

DOCKET fometimes denotes a little bill tied to wares
or goods, and direéted to the perfon and place they are to be
fent to. :

Docket, or Dogget, in Law, is a brief in writing, on
a {mali piece of paper, or parchmert containing the purport
and effe& of a larger writing. The rolls of judgment are
docketted, when they are brought into the court of com-
mon-pleas and entered on the docket of that term; fo that
by fearching thefe dockets any judgment may be found, if
the attorney’s name is known (4 & 5 W. & M.c. 20.)
Decrees in chancery, and commiffions of bankruptcy, are alfo
docketted.

DOCKING Iron, in Agriculture, an implement of the
{mall fpade kind, contrived with a narrow long blade, fo as
to raife the root of the dock from the bottom.

DOCKOUM, or Doxxvum, a town of Holland, in the de-
partment of Friefland, fituated in a fertile country at the
mouth of the Avers, at a diftance of fix miles from the
North fea, with which it communicates by means of the
Dockum Diep, acanal through which the largeft veffels pafs
at hich water. It is 12 miles N. E. of Leeuwarden, with
which it communicates by a canal called the Ee, and 27
miles N. W. of Groningue. Lat. 53° 18’.

DOCLEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Illyria, in
Dalmatia; the fame with Dioclea.

DOCTOR, a perfon who has paifed all the degrees of a
faculty, and is empowered to teach or praétife the fame.

The title of doctor was firft created towards the middle
of the twelfth century ; to fucceed to that of mafter, which
was become too common and familiar.

The eftablifhment of the doétorate, fuch as is now in ufe
among us, is ordinarily attributed to Irnerius, who himfeif
drew up the formulary. The fir ceremony of this kind
was performed at Bologna, in the perfon of Bulgarus, who
began to profefs the Roman law, and on that occafion was
folemnly promoted to the doctorate, ¢ e. inftalled ¢ juris
utriufque doétor.”? But the cuftom was foon transferred
from the faculty of law to that of theology; the firft in-
ftance whereof was given in the univerfity of Paris, where
Peter Lombard, and Gilbert de la Potree, the two chief
divines of thofe days, were created doctors in theology,
‘© facre theologiz dofores,”’ -

Spelman takes the title of do€tor not to have commenced
till after the publication of Lombard’s Sentences, about
the year 1140; and affirms, that fuch as explained that
work to their fcholars, were the firlt that had the appella-
tion of doétors. :

Others go much higher, and hold Bede to have been
the firft dogtor at Cambridge, aud John de Beverley at

DOC

Oxford, which latter died in the year 721%, But Spelman
will not allow do&or to have been the name of any title or
degree in England till the reign of king John, about the
year 1207,

The firft obfcure mention of academical degrees conferred
by the univerfity ‘of Paris, from which the other univerfities
are fuppofed to have borrowed moft of their cuftoms and
inftitutions, occurs in A.D. 1215. (Crevier Hift. de Univ.
de Paris, tom, i.) And they were completely eftablithed
A.D. 1231. The high degree of eftimation in which they
were held is evident from the following circumftance. Doc-
tors in the different faculties contended with kuighte fer
precedence; and the difpute was terminated in many in-
itances by advancing the former to the dignity of knights
hood. It was even afferted, that a doftor had a right to
that title without creation.

To pafs doétor in divinity at Oxford, it is neceffary the
candidate have been four years bachelor of divinity. For
do€tor of laws, he muft have been feven years in the unis
verfity, to commence bachelor of law; five years after
which, he may be admitted do@or of laws. Otherwife,
in three years after taking the degree of mafter of arts, he
may take the degree of bachelor in law; and in four years
more, that of LL.L.D. which fame method and time are
likewife required to pafs the degree of do&or in phyfic.

At Cambridge, to take the degree of doétor in divinity,
it is required the candidate have been feven years bachelor
of divinity. Though in feveral of the colleges the taking
of the bachelor of divinity’s degree is difpenfed with, and
they may go out fer faltum. To commence doétor in laws,
the candidate muit have been five years bache'or of law, or
feven years mafter of arts. To pafs door in phyfic, he
muft have been bachelor in phyfic five years, or feven
years matter of arte. i

A dottor of the civil law, may exercife ecclefiaftical
jurifdiGion, though a layman, ftat. 37 Hen. VIII, cap. 17.
fet. 4. ¥ :

Docror, in Mufic. See Academical Decrees.

Docror of the Law, was a title of honour or dignity
among the Jews.

Tre Jews, it is certain, had doors long before Jefus
Chrift. The inveititure, #f we may fo fay, of this order, was
performed by putting a key, and a table-book in their
hands, which is what fome authors imagine our Saviour bad
in view, Luke xi. 52. where fpeaking of the doSors of
the law, he fays, ‘* Wee unto you, doctors of the law ; for
you have taken away the key of knowledge; you entered
not in yourfelves, and them that were entering, you hin-
dered.””

The Greek text of St. Luke calls them vous; and the
Vulgate “ legifperiti;” agreeably to which, our Englifh -
traoflators calithem “‘ lawyers.” But the French verfion
of ‘ doéteurs de la loi’? feems the moft adequate. In effet,
the word * lawyer,”’ ‘“ legifperitus,” is only found in St.
Luke, and St. Paul, Titus, ti. 13. And sousxos, in St. Mat-
thew, xxii. 35. is rendered by the Vulgate, “ legis doctor ;’”
though the Englifh verfion ftill retains the word * lawyer.”?

Thefe Jewith doétors are the fame whom they otherwife
call rabbins.

Doctor of the Church, a title given to certain of the
fathers, whofe dorines and opinions have been the mof
generally followed and authorized.

We ufually reckon four doétors of the Greek church, and
three of the Latin. The firft are, St. Athanafius, St.
Bafil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, and St. Chryfottom. The
latter are, St. Jerom, St. Auguftine, and Gregory the
Great.

la Ja

DO ¢

Inthe Roman Breviary, there is a particular office for the
doors. It only differs from that of the confeffors, by the
anthem of the Magnificat, and the leffons.

Docror is allo an appellation adjoined to feveral {pecific
epithets, exprefling wherein the ment of fuch as the {chools
owned for their maflers, confifted.

Thus Alexander Hales is called the ‘¢ Irrefragable Dac-
tor,” and the “ Fountain of Life,’? as mentioned in Pof-
fevinus. Thomas Aquinas is called the ‘ Angelical Doc-
tor;?? St. Bonaventure, the ‘ Seraphic Doétor;”? John
Duns Scotus, the Subdtile DoGor;’? Raimond Lully,
the ‘* Iluminous, DoGor ;?? Roger Bacon, the ‘* Admira-
ble Do&or;” &c.

Doctor, Ardacxzao;, in the Greek church, is a particu-
jar officer, appointed to interpret part of the {criptures.

He who interprets the gofpel, is called, «* Doétor of the
Gofpel ;” he who interprets St. Paul’s epiftles, *¢ Doétor
of the Apoftle;”’ he who interprets the plaims, ** Do&or of
the Pialter.””

Docrors, Chriffian, in Ecclefiafical Hiflory, were divided,
towards the clofe of the r2th century, into two clafles. viz.
thofe who were called by the various names of ‘ biblici,”
z. e. bible doors; ‘*.dogmatici,”’ and ‘¢ pofitivi,”” i.e. di-
daétic divines; and alfo ‘ veteres,”? or ancients; and the

DOD

cap. 7.) There are alfo other dodtrines of a religious nae
ture, which it is unlawful publicly to matntain and preach.
See BraspHemy, Common Prayer, Heresy, Trinity,
&e.

Docrtaine, Chriflian, Fathers of. See Faruers.

DOCUMENT, in Law, fome written monument pros
duced in proof of any fact afferted, efpeciallyy an ancient
one.

DODANIM, in Ancient Geography, the children of Ja~
van, mentioned in the book ot Genefis, and fuppofed by
fome to be the name of the firft inhabitants of Epirus, traces
of which they obferve in the name of Dodona, the moft
ancient of oracles; others fuppofe that they were an ancient
people called ‘ Pelafgi,”’? who formed a wandering nation,
and that the term Dodanim was formed of did, or ded, which
in the eaftern dialect denoted wandering.

DODART, Denis, in Biography, Do&or Regent of
the faculty of medicine at Paris, where he was born, in 1634,
exhibited early fuch traits of gemus and learning, that Guy
Patio, not in general very lavifh of praife, confidered him as
one of the molt learned men of his time; and in a letter to
a friend, he called him. Monftrum fine Vitio. Having, in
1660, taken his degree of doétor, he foon attained to dif-
tindtion in his profeffion, being the following year called to

& {cholaftics,”? who were alfo diftinguifhed by the titles of attend the princefs-dowager of Conti, and the princes, he
“‘ fententiarii,” after the “* Matter of the Sentences,’? and children, and fome time after he was appointed phyfician to
‘ novi”? to exprefs their recent origin. The former ex- the king, Louis X1V. In 1673, he was made a mem-
pounded, though in a wretched manner, the facred writings ber of the Academie des Sciences, and in compliance with
in their public {fchools, illustrated the doéines of Chrifti- their wifhes, he wrote a preface to the Memoires pour
anity, without deriving any fuccours from reafon or philo- fervir a ? Hifoire de Piantes,”’ publifhed folio magno by
fophy, and confirmed their opinions by the united tefti- the academy, in 1676. :
monies of feripture and tradition, (Sce Biste Doéors.) He employed fome labour in making chymical analyfes of
The Jatter expounded, inftead of the Bibie, the famous plants, with the view of acquiring a more intimate know=
«© Book of Sentences ;”? reduced under the province of their ledge of their medical virtues, agreeably to the opinions
fubtile philofophy, whatever the gofpel propofed as anob- that then fprevailed, but which further experience has
jeGt of faith, or rule of practice; and perplexed and ob- fhewn not to be well founded. He purfued his fiatical ex-
{cured its divine do@trines and precepts by a multitude of periments, to find the proportion that perfpiration bears to
vain queftions and idle {peculations. The method of the the other excretions, for more than thirty years. The re-
« {cholaftics” exhibited a pompous afpect of learning ; and fults firft appeared in 1699, in the Memoirs of the Academy.
thofe fubtle doétors feemed to furpafs their adverfaries in They were afterwards publifhed feparately, under the title
fagacity and genius; hence they excited the admiration of of ‘ Medicina Stattca Gallica.” In the courfe of thofe expe-
the ftudious youth, who flockedgin multitudes to their riments he found, that during the Lent in one year, he had
{chools, while the “ biblici,” or ‘ doétors of the facred loft in weight eight pounds five ounces: returning to his
page,”’ as they were alfo called, had the mortification to fee ordinary way of living, he recovered what he had loft ina
their auditories unfrequented, and almoft deferted. The very fhort time. He once purpofed writing a hiltory of
{cholaftic theology continued in high repute in all the Eu- mutic, but only finithed a memoir on the voice, which is
ropean colleges until the time of Luther. Mofh. E. H. publithed among the Memoirs of the Academy. He was of
vol. iii. p. 92, Svo. a grave difpofition, Fontenelle fays, pious and abftemious 5,
Docror’s Commons. See Correce of Civilians. and his death, which happened Nov. 5th, 1707, was much
DOCTRINE, from doceo, I teach, denotes in general regretted.
any thing that is taught, as a matter either of faith or prac- His fon, Claude-Jotn-Baptifte Dodart, following in the
tice ; and the term has accordingly been applied to a va- fteps of his father, was made doCtor in medicine in 1688..
riety of opinions, that have been adopted and inculcated in In 1718, he was appointed firlt phyfician to Louis.
philofopky, religion, &c. There are certain doétrines XV. The only work in which he was concerned, was.
refoeGting the political conftitution of Great Britain, the in editing ‘* Pomet’s Hiftory of Drugs,”’ with fome ufeful
aflerting and publifhing of which are made illegal by fta- notes. He died at Paris in 1730. Haller Bib. Eloy Di&..
tute. Thus, if any perfon malicioufly or advifedly effirm, Hift. General Biography. ie
that both, or either of the houies of parliament, have any DODARTIA, in Botany, (named by Tournefort in
legiflative authority without the king, fuch perfor fhail in- honour of Denis Dodart, M.D. a French botanift and aca-
cur all the penaltics of a premunire. (13 Car. II. cap. 1.) demician of bis time, author of a large thin volume of de-,
Alfo, if a perfon affirm and maintain, by writing or printing, {criptions of plants, with uncoloured plates, executed in the
that the king and parliament have no right to direét the very finett ftyle of the age of Louis XIV,) Tourn. Cor. 47..
facceffion of the crown, he is guilty of high treafon; during t. 478. Linn. Gen, 322. Schreb. 422. Willd. Sp. Fl.
the life of the queen and after her deceafe, fhall be guilty of v. 3. 355. Jufl. 119. Gaertn. t. 53. Mart. Mill. vy. 2.
a mifdemeanor, and forfeit his goods and chattels (13 Eliz. Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord..
cap. 1.); and if he maintains the fame doGrine by teach- Perfonate, Linn. Scrophularia, Jui. '
ing, ox advifed fpeaking, he Tia a premunire, (6 Anne, Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, tubular, ,
ae with

DOD DOD

with ten angles and five teeth, nearly regular, permanent, degree of M.A., was chofen preacher to the Magdalen
Cor. of one petal, ringent; tube cylindrical, deflexed, much hofpital, an inftitution that owed much of its early pvof-
longer than the calyx ; upper lip fmall, notched, afcending ; _ perity to his pulpit talents. In 1763, he obtained, through
lower f{preading, three-cleft, broader and twice as long, ob- ythe patronage of Dr. Squire, bifhop of St. David’s, the pre-
tufe, its middle fegment narroweft. Stam. Filaments four, *bendary ot Brecon, and by the fame intereft he was ap=
afcending towards the upper lip, but not folong; anthers pointed tutor to Philip Stanhope, efq. afterward earl of
{mall, roundifh, of two lobes. Pi. Germen fuperior, Chefterfield. In the following year he was chofen one of
roundihh ; ftyle awl-fhaped, the length of the corolla; ftigma his majefty’s chaplains, and foon after took his degree of
comprefled, oblong, obtufe, cloven into two cohering plates. LL.D. In 1772, he was aétive in the formation of a
Peric. Capfule globofe, of two cells, with a parallel parti- fociety for the relief of prifoners confined for fmall debts,
tion. Sveds numerous, minute. Receptacle convex, united and was in the fame year prcfented to the reGtory of Hock-
with the partition. liffe in Buckinghamfhire. Hitherto his charaéter was efti-

Eff. Ch. Calyx with five teeth. Lower lip of the corolla mable, and his exertions were always on the fide of hv-

twice as long as the upper. Capfule globofe, of two cells, manity ; but he now found himfelf involved in debts which
his regular income was unable to defray, The rectory of
St. George’s, Hanover {quare, fell vacant, and Dr. Dodd

with many feeds.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 883.
offered a bribe to the lord chancellor’s lady, if fhe would

1. D. orientalis. Mill. Ic. t. 127.
(D. orientalis, flore purpurafcente; ‘Tourn. Voy. v. 2. 144.

eum ic. Coris juncea aphyllos; Amm. Ruth. 34. t. 5.) obtain the prefentation of that living for him. Indignant
** Leaves linear, entire, {fmooth.’’—Diflcovered by ‘Tourne- at the bafe and infamous attack upon her probity, fhe com-
fort in his journey through Armenia towards Mount Ararat. municated the fa& to her lord, who traced the bufinefs to
He brought feeds to Paris, from whence the plant was dif- the true author, and had his name ftruck out with igno-
tributed among the curious, and it is ftill fometimes met miny from the lift of the king’s chaplains. Dr. Dodd, to
with in botanic gardens, though it has no charms to claim avoid the difgrace which muf attach to his condu@, went
general cultivation. Gmelin found it in the deferts of S'be- to Geneva, where he met with his pupil, who afterwards
ria very abundantly. The roof creeps extenfively. The prefented him with the living of Winge in Buckinghamhhire.
Sflem isa foot or two in height, much branched, bufhy, but In 1777, hecommitteda forgery upon his friend and patron;
has a naked appearance, from the {mallnefs of the leaves. by this he obtained a large fum of money, which he probably
A few violet-coloured flowers an inch long, refembling hoped to replace ere the deed was dete@ted. But the of-
fome Fujlicia, are {cattered here and there, on flender fimple fence was {carcely committed before the criminal was difco-
ftalks. vered, imprifoned, tried, ‘convicted, and, notwithitanding
2. D. indica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 883. * Leaves ovate, fer- every effort made in his behalf, executed at Tyburn. He
rated, villofe.””—Native of the Eaft Indies —The whole died with all the marks of fincere and deep contrition for
plant is clothed with fhort fhaggy pubefcence. Leaves the vices and follies of which he had been guilty, uttering
ovate, broad, bluntly ferrated; the floral ones fmaller, in expreffions of the moft bitter regret for the fcandal, which
the upper past of the branches. F/owers about the fize of by bis condu& he had brought upon his profeflion, and on
the former, yellow, with a hairy calyx. the religion of which he was a minifter. Fer a lift of his
DODBROOKE, in Geography, a parifh and market town works, which were very numerouss we refer to the Gentle-
in the hundred of Coleridge, Devonfhire, England, is chiefly man’s Mazazine for 1777, or to the Gen, Biog.
entitled to notice from being the firft place where White die’ | DODDED, in Rural Economy, a term often applicd to
was brewed, and for which the rector was entitled to a tithe fuch fheep as are without horns.
fhare. A {mall fum is now paid by each innkeeper in liew DODDER, in Agriculture, the common name of a
of it. Here is a charity fchool ; and.a market is kept every. troublefome weed in arable and other lands. See Binpe
third Wednefday ia the month: befides which there are WEED.
four quarterly markets in every year. It has alfo one fair Donner,’ in Botany. See Cuscura. :
annually. The living is a rectory, and the town contains DODDRIDGE, Puitip, in Biography, an eminent
84 houfes, with 608 inhabitants. nonconformilt minifter and tutor of the lait century, was
DODD, Wituiam, in Biography, a preacher of confis defcended ofan ancient and refpectable family in Devonthire.
derable note, was born in the year 1729, at Bourne in His great grandfather was an eminent merchant at Barntta-
Lincolnfhire, of which place his father was vicar. He.was ple; and he had a brother, John Doddridge, born at this
initiated in the learned languages at a private fchool, but place in 1555, who pafled through feveral eminent flages of
finifhed his ftudies at Clare-hall, Cambridge. In the year the law, in the reign of king James I., and at length be-
1750, he took his degree of B.A., and in the following came one of the judges of the court of king’s bench. This
year he married, and toon found himfelf deftitute of the learned judge publiftied a variety of works on the fubjeé&t of
means of fupport. It was not till 1753, that he was ad- antiquities and law, which did honour to his literary cha-
mitted into orders, when he quickly diltinguifhed himfelf as. ra¢ter and legal profeflion, and died in 1628. The grand-
one of the molt popular preachers of the metropolis. By father of our author was educated at Oxford, and ejected
his pulpit exertions, and by the publication of fermons and from the reCtory of Shepperton in Middlefex in 1662, by the
other pieces of a praGtical religious tendency, he acquired a. act of uniformity. His father was an oilman in London, and.
handfome income, which, however, was inadequate to the as the eldeft furviving branch of the family, was heir at law
flyle and manner of living in which he had embarked, as well to-a confiderableeltate, amounting to about 2000/. aeyear, .
probably to gratify his own vanity, as the inclinations of. but the bazard and expence attending a fuit for its recovery
his wife, who was faid to be wholly deftitute of thofe prin-. deterred him from undertaking it. His mother was the
ciples of economy which ought to characterize perfons in daughter of: Mr. Bauman, a minilter at Prague in Bohemia,
their rank of life. To augment his income, which was ne- who abandoned his friends and his country, where he had a
ver equal to his expences, he became the author or editor of confiderable eftate, about the year 1626, on account of hia
feveral works, which were purchafed with avidity, and which adherence to the proteftant religion. Our author was the

afforded Mr. Dodd large profits.. In 3757, he took his laf and twenticth..child of his father’s marsiage, and.was .
‘ born

DODD

born in London, June 26th, 1702. At his birth his life
was defpaired of, and he was regarded as dead; “but by at-
tention and care, the expiring flame of exiftence was che-

rifhed, and under the favour of Providence, his exiitence
’ 5) F

was prolonged for the benefit of the world. Hits conttitu-
tion, however, was always feeble ; and his life was wonder-
fully preferved for many years, confidering the affiduity with
which he profecuted the ftudies and fervices to which he
devoted it. ‘To his pious parents he was indebted for ear-y
inftruGtion in religion, and for thofe falutary impreffions which
were never erafed from his mind. His cleffical education
commenced in London and its vicinity. But being Jeft an
orphan in his 13th year, he was removed to a private {chool
at St. Alban’s, where he had the happinefs of commencing
an acquaintance with Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Samuel Clark,
the diffenting minifter of the place; to whofe isfrudtion
and patronage he was afterwards fingularly indebted. Hav-
ing lof his whole patrimony after his father’s death, the
protection of fuch a friend was of the greateit tmportance to
him ; as he was thus enabl:d to purlue the courfe of his
ftudies. In the year 1718, he left St. Alban’s asd retired
to the houfe of his filter, who was married to Mr. John
Nettleton, a diffenting minifer at Ongar, in Effex. In this
retirement, he deliberated on the courfe of life which he
fhould parfue. During this period of hefitation and fuf-
pence, he received offers of encouragement and fupport
from the duchefs of Bedfo-d, if he chofe to be educated in
one of the univerfities for the church of England; but as
he could not confcientioufly comply with the terms of con-
formity, he declined thefe offers with becoming refpe& and
gratitude. Others to whom he applied for advice diffuaded
him from purfuing the miniftry among proteftant diffenters,
and advifed him to devote himfelf to the pro‘effion of the law.
The latter profeflion was recommended to him with flattering
propofals ; but at the moment of deliberation, and jult be-
fore he had finally determined to accept thefe propofels, he
received a letter from Mr. Clark with generous offers of
affitance, if he chofe the miniftry upon Chriftan principles.
Thefe offers he thankfully accepted ; and after continuing
for fome months at St. Alban’s in the houfe of his benefac-
tor, he was placed, in O&ober 1719, under the tuition of
the reverend John Jennings, who" kept an academy for the
education of non-conformift minifters at Kibworth in Lei-
celterfhire. The advantages he enjoyed in this feminary were
very confiderable, and he improved them with the molt ex-
emplary ardour and diligence. In this fituation he paid
particular attention to claffical literature, and cultivated fuch
an acquaintance with the Greek writers, and alfo with the
beft authors of his own country, as feemed to form an eafe
and elegance of ftyle, which he otherwife could not have
attained.

In 1722, having obtained an ample teftimonial from a
committee of minifters, by whom he was examined, be com-
menced the exercife of his minifterial office, as a preacher,
and his firft fervices were acceptable to thofe’ who heard him.
His firft fettlement was at Kibworth, which he preterred,
becaufe it was an obfcure village and the congregation was
{mall, fo thathe could purfue his ftudies with little inter-
ruption. During his rcfidence at this place, from June 1723
to OGober 1725, he paid particular attention to his com-

ofitions, and he thus acquired a habit of delivering his
Fanaeses ufually with judgment, and always with eafe and
freedom of language, when he was afterwards, by a multi-
plicity of engagements, reduced to the neceflity of extem-
pore {peaking. It has been faid, that ourawchor excelied asa
preacher during this period. In the year 1725, he re-
moved to Market-Harborough, with a vjewto the bencfit

RIDGE.

which he expe€ted to derive from the converfation and ad-
vice of Mr.-Some, the excellent paftor of the congregation
imthis place, but he {till retained his relation ‘to the people
at Kibworth, and after the year 1727, when he was chosen
affiftant to Mr. Some, he preached alternately at Kibworth
and Market-Harborough. Durmg the interval that had
elapfed fince his entrance on the minifterial office, he received
feveral invitations from congregations mych more numerous
than that with which he firit fettled : and he was particularly
urged to undertake the paftoral charge of a large fociety of
diffenters in the city of London. But he determined to
adhere to the plan, which he had adopted, of purfuing his
{chemes of improvement in a more private refidence. When
he Jeft the academy, his tutor, Mr. Jennings, not long
before his death, which happened in 1723, advifed him te
keep in view the improvement of the courfe of lefures on
which he had attended; and this advice he affiduoufly re-
garded during his retirement at Kibworth. Mr. Jennings
forefaw, that, in cafe of his own death, Mr. Deddridge
was the moft ikely of any of his pupils to purfue and com-
plete the fchemes which he had formed, and to undertake
the condué of a theological academy. Mr. Doddridge’s
qualifications for the office of tutor were generally known
and approved, in confequence of a plan for condutting the
preparatory ftudies of young perfons intended for the mi«
nftry, which he had drawn up at the dcfire of a friend,
whofe death prevented his carrying it into effe&. This plana
was fhewnto Dr. Watts, who had then no perfonal acquaizt-
ance with theauthor; but he was fo much plealed with it,
that he concurred with othersin the opinion, that the perfon
who had drawn it up was beft qualified for executing it.
Accordingly he was unanimoufly fol:cited to undertake the
arduous office ; and after fome: hefitation, and with a very
great degree of diffidence, he confented to undertake it.
Availing himfelf of all the information and affiltance which
hecould obtain from converfation and correfpondence with his
numerous friends, he opened his academy at midfummer, in
the year 1729, at Market Harborough. Having continued
in this fituation fora few months, he was invited to accept
the paftoral office of a congregation at Northampton ; and
he removed thither in December 1729 ; and im March of the
following year, he wes ordamed according to the mode
ufually practifed among diffenters, It is needlefs to fate
the faithfulnefs and affcétion, the affiduity and zeal, with
which he difcharged, for more than twenty-one years, the
duties of his paftoral relation, or the condefcenfion and ten-
dernefs, with which he treated fome narrow bigots and weak
enthufiafts, who belonged to his church and who occafionally
exercifed his patience. It is fufficient to fay, that he en-
gaged, in a very high degree, the love and attachment of
his congregation ; and to adduce the teftimoney which he
bore to their charaGier, when he obferves, in his laft will,
« that he had fpent the moft delightful hours of his life in
aflifting the devotions of as ferious, as grateful, and as de~
ferving a people, as perhapsany minifter had ever the hap-
pinefs to ferve.””

Inthe year 1730, Mr. Doddridge entered into the matri-
monial relation, with a lady, who pofleffed every qualifica-
tion that could conduce to his happinefs, and who, after a
courfe of uninterrupted conjugal feicity, furvived him many
years. At the firft removal of the academy to Northampton,
the number of ftudents was {meall; but it increafed every
year; fo that, in 1734, it became neceflary to have a fated
affitant, to whom the care of fome of the junior pupiis was
committed. Thofe who wifh to acquaint themfelves with
the difcipline of the family and the order of the lectures,
will find ample fatisfation in the Biographia Britannica.

We

DODDRIDGE.

We hall only obferve, that the number of fludents was, one
year with another, 34; and that during the 22 years in
which this academy {ubfifted under the tuition of our author,
he had about 200 young men under his care, of whom 120
entered upon the miniftry, others occupied refpeCiable ita-
tionsin civillife. ‘The fyftem of education was liberal and
comprehenfive; and many received inftru€tion in this
feminary, who were members of the eftablifhment, and who
were allowed to attend the worfhip of the epifcopalian church.
On the abilities of the fubjeét of this article, and on the
high reputation which be acquired, both asa minifter and a
tutor, it is needlefs toenlarge. Of his talents asa writer,
his numerous works will fufficicntly enable the public to
judge. To enumerate them all would extend this article far
beyond its proper jimits; but we cannot forbear mentioning
a few of the moft confiderable. The firft diftin€& publication
of ourauthor was printed, without his name, in the year
1730, and entitled, “* Free Thoughts on the moft probable
means of reviving the Diflenting Intereft, occafioned by the
late Enquiry into the caufes of its Decay 5’? and it exhibits a
pleafing {pecimen of eandour and politenefs in controverfial
writing. In 1732 he publifhed ‘¢ Sermons on the Education
of Children,” principally defigned for the ufe of his own
congregation 5 and in 1735 ‘‘ Sermons to young People,”?
which were favourably received, and have pafled through
fevera] editions. In 1736 there appeared ‘* Ten Sermons on
the Power and Grace of Chrift,’? and ‘the Evidences of his
glorious Gofpel:’”? he three laft were afterwards printed
feparately, at the particular requeft of one of the firft dig-
nitaries of the church of England. In the courfe of this
year the two colleges of the univerfity of Aberdeen con-
curred in conferring upon our author the title of door in
divinity ; an honour which was never more fitly beftowed.
Tn 3739, Dr. Doddridge prefented to the public the firft vo-
lume of his valuable work, ** The Family Expofitor, or, a
Paraphrafe and Verfion of the New Teftament, with cri-
tical Notes, and a praétical Improvement of each Section.”
The fecond volume of this work was publifhed in 1740,
and concluded the evangelical hiftory ; andin the following
year, our author publifhed a volume of ‘* PraGical Dif-
, courfes on Regeneration.” Inthe years 1742 and 1743,
Dr. Doddridge publithed * Three Letters”? to the author of
a treatife, entitled, ‘ Chriftianity not founded on Argument.”
Thefe letters, which are written with the utmoft politenefs
and candour, met with very favourable reception, and
procured for the author the thanks of feveral perfons of dif-
tinguifhed rank and abilities. He alfo publithed, in 1743,
¢ The Principles of the Chriftian Religion, expreffed in piain
and caly Verte, and divided into fhort Leflons, for the ufe of
Children and Youth.” In this {mall tra, written with eafe,
plainnefs, and elegance, the author has too freely introduced
dottrines of a difputable nature, which has, in fome
degree, reftrained its circulation and diminifhed its ufefulnefa.
The fame objeGion has been urged by fome perfons againft
another more popular tra, publifhed in'1745, and entitled
“The Rife ard Progrefs of Religion in the Soul,’? illuf-
trated in a courfe of feriuns and practical addreffes, fuited
to perfons of every chara€icr and circumftance, with a
devout meditation and prayer added to each chapter. This
work was written at the requelt of Dr. Watts, and obtained
a very extenfive circulation, not only in this country, butin
America, and on the continent of Europe, where it was
tranflated into the Dutch, German, Danifh, and French
languages.
In the year 1747, our author publifhed ‘* Some remark-
able Paflages in the Life of the Hon. Colonel James Gar-
diner,” a work which was very generally aud very highly

commended, but in which, as fome have thought, and particue
larly his friend and biographer Mr. Orton, “ he too much
indulged the emotions of private friendfhip and affeGtion.”?
In the year 1748, appeared the third volume of ‘¢ The Fa-
mily Expofitor, containing the Acts of the Apoflles, with
additional Notes on the Harmony of the Evangelifts ;?? and
« Two Differtations,’? 1. On fir Ifaac Newton’s Syftem of
the Harmony ; 2. Oa * The Infpiration of the New Telta-
ment.”’ In this fame year Dr. Doddridge revifed the «* Ex-
potitory Works,” and othcr remains of archbifhop Leighton,
and tranflated his ** Latin Prele@ions.”? The lait work
pubiifhed by our author in his life time, was entitled * A
plain and ferivus Addrefs to the Matter of a Family, onthe
important fubjest of Family Religion,?? accompanied with
two pravers. Of the author’s grand work, “* The Family Ex-
pofitor,”? three volumes remained to be publifhed after his
death. It was a favourable circumftance, however, for the
public, that the author himfelf had finifhed the whole of the
copy, in fhort hand, a few flight notes towards the cons
clufion excepted, and that the larger part had been tranf-
cribed for the prefs. This was the cafe with the whole of
the fourth volume, which was publifhed in 1754, and con-
tained St. Paul’s epiftle to the Romans, and his firft and
fecond epiftles to the Corinthians. The two remaining vo-
lumes, viz. the fifth and fixth, were publifhed by Mr.
Orton in 1756. The greateft part had been tranfcribed by
the author himfelf ; and the remainder was tranfcribed either
by the editor himfelf, or by fome of the do@or’s pupils,
and the tranfcript was compared feveral times with the fhort-
hand copy. This is the moft valuable and the moft important
of all Dr. Doddridge’s publications ; and on this his literary
reputation chicfly depends. Many of his notes difpiay a fa~
gacious and judicious {pirit of criticifm ; and the practical
reflections are of general utility. The extent and permanence
of its fale evince the eftimation in which it has been held,
and in which it ie ftill held, as we may learn by the demand
for a 7thedition. Rapid as he was asa writer, and ready as
was his accefs to the various fources of information, this
work mutt have employed a very confiderable part of his
time, fo much occupied with numerous other engagementsy
as a minitter, a tutor, and an author ; more efpecially, as he
has every where interwoven the text with the paraphrafe,
and caretully dittinguifhed the former from the latter by the
italic charaéter. This tranflation has been extraGted from
the paraphrafe, and was publifhed in 1765, in two volumes,
12mo., with fome alterations and improvements by the
editor, together with an introdudtion, and a number of very
fhort notes. The laft work of Dr. Doddridge prefented to
the public, in 1763, 4to. by the Rev. Samuel Clark of
Birmingham, the fon of the author’s earlicit benefactor,
was “ Flis Courfe of Leétures on the principal Subjects of
Pneumatology, Ethics, and Divinity; with references to
the mott confiderable Authors on each Subject.” This
is a work, formed originally on the plan of the courfe
of lectures delivered by Mr. Jennings, the author’s
tutor, which, notwithftanding the objeétions that may be
urged againft the mathematical form in which it appears, in
the hands of a judicious leGturer, may be of great ufe; bat
it admits of continual improvement by the infertion of new
and appropriate references. A f{pecimen of this improve=
ment appears in the new edition of 1794, in two volumes
8vo. We fhould have mentioned a collection of Dr. Dod-
dridge’s hymas, publifhed by Mr. Orton in 1755, the fixth
edition of which appeared in 1788. Although their poeti-
cal merit does not rank high, they are well calculated to
anfWer the purpofe for which they were intended, in their
connection with particular texts of Scripture ; and though

3 lie

DODDRIDGE.

the numbers are not fo flowing and harmonious as thofe
of Dr. Watts, they are lefs exceptionable to mixed aflem-
blies than many of the hymns of the latter. But Dr. Dod-
dridge, independently of his hymns, has given evidence of
his poetical tafte and powers.

The excellent lines which he wrote on the motto to the
arms of his family, ‘dum vivimus vivamus,” are highly
commended by Dr. Johnfon, and reprefented as containing
one of the fineft epigrams in the Enghth language.

“¢ Live, while you live,’? the Epicure would fay,
«* And feize the pleafures of the prefent day.”
“¢ Live, while you live,” the facred Preacher cries,
« And give to God each moment as it flies,”’
Lord, in my views let both united be,
I live in pleafure, when I live to thee.

His talent at fatirical epigram appears in the followirg
lines, written on one of his pupils, a weak young man, who
thought that he had invented a method of fiying to the
moon.

«6 And will Volatio leave this world fo foon,
To fly to his own native feat, the moon ?
?T will ftand, however, in fome little ftead !
That he fets out with fuch an empty head.”

From the brief view we have above given of Dr. Dod-
dridge’s \ife and labours, it will fufficiently appear that his
application mnft have been inceflant, and that he could
allow himfelf little time for exercife and recreation. His
conflitution was always fecble; and his friends deprecated
the injurious effets of his unintermitting affiduity and exer-
tion. By degrees, however, his delicate frame was fo im-
-paired, that ic could not -bear the attack of difeafe. In
December 1750, he went to St. Alban’s to preach the fu-
neral fermon of his venerable friend and father, Dr. Clark.
The fervice was trying, and in the courfe of his journey
be caught a cold, which brought on a pulmonary com-
plaint, that made rapid progrefs, and which refilled every
remedy.

In the advance of the following {pring it was thought to
abate, and his friends flattered themfelves that his life would
be fpared. Notwithitanding the advice and remonftrances
of thofe who apprehended his death, and wifhed to prolong
_ his ufefulnefs, he would not decline or diminifh the employ-
‘ ments, in the acedemy and with his congregation, in which
he took great delight. At length he was obliged to fubmit;
and to withdraw from all public fervices to the houfe of his
friend, Mr. Orton, at Shrewfbury. Notwithftanding fome
relief which his recefs from bufinefs afforded him, his diforder

gained ground; and his medical friends advifed him to make
trial of the Briftol waters. The phyficians of this place af.
forded him little hope of lafting benefit; and he received
their report of his cafe with Chriftian fortitude and refigna-
tion. As the lat refort in his cafe, he was advifed to
pafs the winter in a warmer climate; and at length he was
prevailed upon to go to L'fbon, where he met with every at-
tention, which friendfhip and medical {kil could afford him.
But his cafe was hopelefs. Arriving at Lifbon on the 13th
of O&ober, the rainy feafon came on, and prevented his de-
riving any bencfit from air and exercife, and in a few days
he was feized with a colliquative diarrhea, which rap‘dly
exhaufted his remaining Rrength. He preferved, however,
to the laft, the fame calmneds, vigour, and joy of mind, which
he had felt and exprefled through the whole of his difeafe.
The only anxiety he feemed to feel was occafioned by, the
fitutation in which Mrs, Doddridge would be left upon

his removal. To his children, his congregation, and his
friends in general, he defired to be remembered in the mott
affeCtionate manner; nor did he forget a fingle perfon, not
even his fervant, in the effulions of his benevolence. Many
devout fentiments and afpirations were uttered by him
on the laft day but one preceding that of his death. At
length his releafe took place on the 26th of OQober, O. S.
about g o’clock in the morning ; and thongh he died in a
foreign land, and in a certain fenfe among ftrangers, his de-
ceafe was embalmed with many tears, nor was he molefted,
in his laft moments, by the officious zeal of any of the priefts
of the church of Rome. His body was opened, and his
lungs were found to be ina very ulcerated ftate. His re-
mains were depofited in the moft refpeciful manner in the
burying ground belonging to the Britifh faGtory at Lifdon.
His congregation ereéted in his meeting-houfe a handfome
monument to his memory, on which is an in{cription, drawn
up by his much efteemed and ingenious friend, Gilbert
Welt, efq. Dr. Doddridge left four children, one fon and
three daughters, and his widow furvived him more than 40
years. His funeral fermon was preached by Mr. Orton from
1Cor. xv. 54; and it was extenfively circulated under the title
of ‘«‘ The Chriftian’s triumph over death.”? His charaéter
is fo well delineated by one of his biographers, that we fhall
give it in his words. ‘* Dr. Doddridge poffcfled a quick
conception, a lively fancy, and a remarkable ftrength of me-
mory, to which were united an invincible refolution and
perfeverance in the profecution of his ftudies. It is not
furprifing, therefore, that his mind was furnifhed with a rich
ftock of various learning. His acquaintance with books,
ancient and modern, was vere extenfive ; and if, with regard
to the learned languages he could not be cailed a profound
linguift, he was fufficiently converfant in them to read the
moft valuable pieccs of antiquity with tafte and pleafure,
and to be able to illuftrate the force and beauty of the facred
writings in the {pirit of true criticifm. To hiftory, ecclefi-
aftical as well as civil, he had pzid no fmall degree of atten-
tion; and while from his difpofition he was led to cultivate
a tafte for polite literature in general, more than for the ab-
flrufer parts of fcience, he was far from being a ftranger to
mathematical and philofophical ftudies. But the favourite
object of his purfuit, and that, in which his chief excellence
lay, was divinity, taking that word in its largeft fenfe. As
a preacher, Dr. Doddridge was much efteemed, and very
popular. Like thofe of all other preachers, his difcourfes
poffeffed different merits and produced different impreffions,
according to the circumftances in which he was placed,
when he prepared, or when he delivered them. When he.
was enabled to beltow on them proper pains, he was per-
fpicuous in his method, natural and orderly in the arranges
ment of his fentiments, and corre& and cleyant, but fimple
in his language. And his manner of delivery was diftin-
guifhed by energy, a pleafiag varicty of modulation, and an
impreffive pathos. Of Dr. Doddridge’s moral and religious
charaéter, it is not eafy to fpeak in too high terms. His
piety was ardent, unaffected, and cheerful, and particularly
difplayed in the refignation and ferenity with which he bore
his affiGion. His moral condu& was not only irreproachable,
but in every reipe&t exemplary. To his piety he joined the
warmett benevolence towards his fellow-creatures, which was
manifefted in the moft ative exertions for their we:fare within
the compafs of his abilities or influence. His private man-
ners were polite, affable, and engaging ; which rendered him
the delizht of thofe who had the happinefs of his acquaint-
ance. No man exercifed more candour and moderation
towards thofe who differed from him in religious opinions. Of
thefe qualities there are abundant proofs in the extenfive

corre=

O43

eorrefpondence which he mainta‘ned, not only with his dif-
fenting- brethren, but with fome of the brizhteft ornaments,
both among the clergy and laity of the efablifhed church.
He was, indecd, fo folicitous to be upon friendly terms, as
far as poffible, with all men, however varying iu their fenti-
ments, that he has been accufed by fome of ufing a language
of compliance and accommodation in his correfpondence and
different conneétions, not eafily reconcileable with fincerity.
But how much foever we may difapprove of the ambiguity
of fome of the phrafes which he was accultomed to make
ufe of, wecan by no means admit that they warrant us in
attaching to his charaéter fuch au injurious fufpicion. On
a view of his whole life, we have no hefitation in fubfcribing
to the opinion of Dr, Kippis, that Dr. Doddridge was
not only a great man, but one of the moft excellent and
ufeful Chriftians, and Chriftian mivifters, that ever exifted.””

His reputation was fuch, and the refpect of perfons of all
parties and denominations for his various excellent qualities
was fo great, that in the clofe of his life, and in the fcene of his
laft decline, all feemed to vie in teftifying their folicitude for
his recovery, and their wifhes for his obtaining every accom-
modation, that would render his mind and hts circumftances
eafy. During his ftay at Briltol, previoufly to his voyage to
Lifbon, he received very particular expreflions of regard
from a clergyman of the eftablifhed church. When Dr. Dod-
dridge undefignedly threw out a hiut-of the principal reafon
which caufed him to demur about the voyage, and that was
the expence of it, this gentleman was both generous and
aGtive in promoting a fubfcription to defray the charges of
his voyage. Nathaniel Neal, efq. an eminent folicitor ia
London, was alfo very zealous in the management of this
bufinefs, which he conduéted.with fuch fuccefs as to be able
to inform the door, that inftead of felling what our author
had in the funds, he fhould be able, through the benevolence
of friends, to add fomething to it, after the expence of the
voyage was defrayed. As Mrs. Doddridge forfeited a confi-
deyable annuity, to which, as a widow, fhe would have been
intitled, by her hufband’s dying abroad, a fub{cription
was opened for her chiefly in London, and, in a great mea-
fure, under the diretion of Mr. Neal; by means of which a
fum was raifed, which was more than equal to the annuity
that had been forfeited. Many other expreffions of un-
feigned and affeétionate refpect for the worth, and memory,
and family of Dr. Doddridge, might be mentioned. Orton’s
Memoirs of the Life, &c. of Dr. Doddridge. Biog. Brit.
Gen. Biog. :

DODECACHORDON, Gr. The title given by Glari-
anus to the book, in which he propofes to augment the num-
ber of ecclefiaftical tones or modes of the Romifh church
from eight to twelve. This publication bred {chifm among
the writers on canto fermo, He pretended by thefe four ad-
ditional modes. to eftablith in their original purity the tweive
modes of Ariftoxenus, which, however, were thirteen; but
this attempt was confuted by John Baptift Doni, in his trea-
tife on the modes and genera.

The dodecacbordon, however, is not only a fcarce but a
valuable book, from the great number of curious compofi-
tions it contains of the moft eminent early contrapuntitts ;
particularly of the admirable Jufquin Du Prey, and his matter
Okenheim,

DODECACTIS, in Natural Hiffory, a name by which
Linkius, and fome other authors, have called a kind of aftro-
phyte, or branched {tar-fifh, which has ‘twelve rays, firft part-
ing from the body, and each of thefe finally divided into
many others.

DODECADACTYLON, in Anatomy, a name given by
fome of the old authors to the gut called the duodenum, from

Vou. XII.

DOD

ita being anciently fuppofed to be about tweive fingers-
breadth Jong.

DODECADIA, in Botany, (from dvadexx, twelve, in
allufion to the number of fegments in the parts of the flower,)
Loureir. Cochinch. 318. Clafs and order, Polyandria Mo-
nogynia. Nat. Ord. Sapote, Juff.?

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fpreading, in 12 feg-
ments, which are obtufe, and very fhort. Cor. of one petal,
bell-fhaped, witha fhort thick tube; limb in 12 acute hairy
fegments, longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments 305
thread-fhaped, inferted into the tube of the corolla, longer
than the lunb ; anthers roundifh. Pif. Germen ovate. in-
perior; ftyle awl-fhaped, longer than the fRamens; ftigma
fimple, Peric. Ber:y fmall, ovate, with (everal feeds.

Ef. Ch. Calyx inferior, in 12 fégments. Corolla in 12
fegments, bell-fhaped. Berry.

D. agres/is, a native of the woods of Cochinchisa, where
it is called Cay Cnong dang.

Loureiro, fram whom alone we have any account of this
plant, dcferibes it as a large tree with {preading branches.
Leaves alternate, ovato-lanceolate, entire, fmooth. Flowers
in axillary Gmple clufters, fmall, white. The author had
feen only unripe berries, and therefore could not correétly”
defcribe cither the cells or feeds. It does not appear on
what principle he refers this genus to the clafs Jcofandria,
inftead of Polyandria, to which it manifeftly belongs.

DODECAGON, from dwdsxa, twelve, and yavin, angle, a.
pie polygon or figure, with twelve equal fides and an-
giles.

If the radius of a circle OA DF (Plate VI. Geometry,
Fg. 83.) be fo divided into two parts that the rectangle under
the whole and the one part fhall be equal to the {quare of
the other part; then this laft part will be equal to the fide
CD of a regular decagon ABCDEF, &c. infcribed in
the circle; and that line whofe fquare is equal to the two
{quares of the whole, and of the fame part, will be equal to
the fide AC of a regular pentagon inferibed in the fame cir-
cle. For, draw the radii OA, OC, OD, OF; alfo draw
AD, cutting OC in G, and let AH be perpendicular to
OG. The trangle O DG, having the angle COD (=
ZDOF2>OAD)=ODA, is ifofceles: the triangle
AOG, having AGO (=GDO+4 DOG=2D0C)
= AOC, is likewife ifofceles; as is alfo the triangle CD G;
becaufe, CG D being = AGO, and CDG (CDA) =
FAD, the triangles AOG and CDG are equiangoular ;
confequently, CD, AO; CG, GO, being correfponding
fides, we have CG x AO (CG x CO) =CD x GO
= G0, becaufeGO= GD=DC, the fide of the de-
cagon, &c. Moreover, becaufe AG = AO, HG will be
= HO; and GC being the difference of the fegments
HO and HC, we have AC?— AO? =COxGC=
QG?’; and confequently A C* (ie. the fquare of the fide
of the pentagon) = A O? + OG*

Let CO= a, GO =x, then will CG =a—-x; and
by this propofition,ga—x X a= +*,and x* + ax = a’; and
refolving this quadratic equation, we fhall have x*+ ax

+fa =a" +ia = $a*; whencex+ia= VS a, and
a’ —ia. Let the radius abe = 1, and GO, or
the fide of a regular decagon infcribed in the circle is =
“3 —4. Hence it appears that the fine of 18° (or half
the fide of a decagon infcribed in the circle) is = 4/5 — +

na V5

1.11803398

=iV125 —F=

KCo — $= .5 5901099,

Ke, —.25 = .30961699, &e.
K f If

po D

If the fide of a dodecagon be 1, its area will be equal to
3 times the tang. of 75° = 3.x 2+ V3= 11.1G61524
nearly ; and, the areas of plane figures, being as the fqueres
of their fides, 11.1961524 multiplied by the fquare of the
fide of any dodecagon, will give its area, Hutton’s Mcnfu-
ration, p. 114.

To inferibe a Dodecagen in a given Circle. Carry the radius fix
~<¢imes round the circumtereuce, which will divide it into fix
equal parts, or form an hexagon (fee Hexacon); then bi-
fe& each of thofe parts, which will divide the whole into £2
parts, for the dodecagon, For another method, fee Penta-
Gon ; and fee alfo Huiton’s Menfuration, p, 26, &c. See
PoryGon.

Dials are fometimes drawn on all the fides of a dodecagon.
In Fortification, a place furrounded with twelve baitions 18
called a dodecagon ; fuch is Palma Novain Friuli, &c.

DODECAGYMNIA, in Botany, (from dwdexe and yur,
expreflive of 12 piftils or female organs in the flower,) an
order of the Linnean artificial fyftem, which occurs only in
the 11th clafs, Dodecandria, and the charaGter of which is to
have not lefs than 12 piltils, in fome inftances 15 or more, as
in the genus Sempervivum. It is extremely rare fora flower
to have more piltils than {tamens, and when that circumftance
does occur, the difproportion is very great, as in Myo/urus
and Ali/ma, both of which have feveral {core piltils to ahout
five or fix ftamens. Hence the order in queftion is not to be
found in any clafs with lefs than 12 ftamens.

DODECAHEDRON, from dwexx, twelve, and idpay
feat, in Geometry, one of tne regular bodies comprehended
under twelve equal fides, each of which is a pentagon. See
Bopy and Recuvar Bodies.

Or, a dodecahedron may be conceived to confift of twelve
quinquangular pyramids, whofe vertices, or tops, meet in
the centre of a {phere conceived to circumfcribe the folid ;
confequently they have their bafes and altitudes equal.

To find the Solidity of the Dodecahedron. Find that of
one of the pyramids, and multiply it by the numiber of bafes,
viz. 12; the product is the folidity of the whole body.
Or its folidity is found by multiplying the bafe into 3d of
its diftance from the centre, twelve times; and to find this
diftance, take the diftance of two parallel faces; the half is
the height.

The diameter of the {phere being given, the fide of the
dodecahedron is found by this theorem; the fquare of the
diameter of the {phere is equal to the re€tangle under the
aggregate of the fides of a dodecahedron, and hexahedron
infcribed in the fame, and triple the fide of the dodecahe-
dron. Thus, if the diameter of the fphere be 1, the fide
of the dodecahedron infcribed will be (,/$ —/ 4) > 25
confequently, that is to this as 2 to (/i— /4) and

the fquare of that, to the {quare of this, as 6:3 — v5.
Therefore the diameter of the {phere is incommen{urable to
the fide of an infcribed dodecahedron, both in itfelf and
its power.

If the fide, or linear edge, of a dodecahedron be s, its
furface will be 15 s? V1 +2 V5 = 20.6457788 s*: and
its folidity 5 s? Fuk 47 +21V¥5 = 7.66311896 8%.

40

If the radius of the {phere that circumferibes a dodeca-
hedron be +, then is

its fide or linear edge = eS 4

Poy

—-—- ———

its fuperficies

= 10orWv2—3 Vg» and
3 Lat —
its folidity poe 3+ V5.
30

The fide of a dodecahedron infcribed in a {phere is equal
to the greater part of the fide of a cube infcribed in the
fame fphere, and cut according to extreme and mean pro-
portion. If a line be fo cut, and the leffer fegment be taken
for the fide of a dodecahedron, the greater fegment will be the
fide of a cube infcribed inthe fame fphere. ‘The fide of the
cube is equal to the right line which fubtends the angle of
a pentagon, of the dodecahedron infcribed in the fame
{phere. (See Hutton’s Menfuration, p.253.) See Pory-
HEDRON.

DODECANDRIA, in Botany, (from dudsxecy twelve,
and op, a man,) the rrth clafs of the fexual or artificial
fyftem of Linnzus, containing fuch plants as have 12, or
from that number to. 15 or 19, feparate or diftin& ftamens,
in the fame flower with the piftil or piftils. It comprifes
fix orders, Monogynia, which is the moft numerous and vae
rious of the whole; Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Penta-
gynia, and Dodecagynia, which fee.

DODECAPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia
Minor, in Caria; called alfo Sciritis.

DODECAS, in Botany, (from dudexx, twelve, alluding
to the number of ftamens, which is rather an unufual one,)
Linn. Suppl. 36. Schreb. 316. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 841.
Joff. 323. Mart. Mill. Di@t. v. 2. Clafs and order, Dode-
candria Monogynia. Nat. Ord: Onagre, Jufl. and not
Myrti, as he has placed it.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, turbi-
nate, divided half way down into four ovate, fpreading
fegments. €or. Petals four, roundifh, feffile, inferted
into the calyx. Stam. Filaments 12, capillary, fhorter
than the calyx, inferted into the receptacle, according
to Linnzus; anthers oblong. Pi. Germen half fupe-
rior; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the ftamens; ftigma
obtufe. Peric. Capfule nearly altogether inferior, ovate, of
one cell, crowned with the fpreading permanent calyx, within
which the naked fummit of the capfule opens by four valves.
Seeds numerous, oblong, minute.

Eff. Ch. Calyx half four-cleft, fuperior, bearing the
carole: Petals five. Capfule of one cell, crowned by the
calyx.

1. D. furinamenfis. Sent by Dalberg from Surinam, in
{pirits, to Linnzus, who was in doubt whether to refer it to
Fuffiea, to which. it feems very nearly allied. The /lem is
fhrubby, with fmooth angular branches. Leaves oppofite,
obovate-oblong, obtufe, entire, {mooth, tapering at the bafe,
without ftipulas. FYowers {mall, on fhort, axillary, fimple,
folitary ftalks. Braéteas two under the calyx, which is obo«
vate, with a quadrangular tube. Linnzeus repeats that the
ftamens are inferted, not into the calyx, but into the recep-
tacle clofe to the germen, which is contrary to all the appa-
rent affinities of the plant.

DODECATEMORY, from dwexce, tavelve, and pspec,
part, the twelfth part of a circle.

The term is chiefly applied to the twelve houfes, or parts
of the zodiac of the primum mobile; to diftinguifh them
from the twelve figns.-

Dopecatemory is alfo a denomination fome authors give
to each of the twelve figns of the zodiac, becaufe they con-
tain a twelfth part of the zodiac a-piece.

DODECATHEON, in Botany, (from dudexe, tavelve,
and Sos, @ divinity, an old name for the cowilip, fuppoicd to

6 allude

\

«

DOD

allude to the 12 Cxfars, who were commemorated in the
circle of 12 flowers, or thereabouts, compofing its umbel.
The idea is rather far-fetched, and the Cefars, for the mott

art, were unworthy of any fuch elegant commemoration.
Ee cbiee this may be, Linnzus retained the appellation for
anew genus, akin to the cowflip, which had been called
Meadia, after Dr. Mead, a name which Linnzus, on the
reprefentation of the Englith botanifts of the day, rejeGted
as unworthy for generic, though he preferved it in the {pe-
cific, one.) American Cowflip, or Meadia. Linn. Gen. 81.
Schreb. 107. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.808. Juff.97. Gertn.
t. 50. Mart. Mill. Dig. v. 2. Clafs and order, Peatan-
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Preciz, Linn. Lyfimachie, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, half tive-cleft, per-
manent; its fegments reflexed, at length elongated, perma-
nent. Cor. of one petal, deeply five-cleft; tube fhorter
than the calyx; limb reflexed, its fegments very long, lance-
olate. Stam. Filaments five, very fhort, obtufe, inferted
into the tube; anthers projeGting, arrow-fhaped, approach-
ing each other in aconical form. Pi. Germen conical ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the ftamens ; ftigma obtule.
Peric. Capfule elliptic-oblong, of one cell, fplitting at the
top into feveral horny recurved fegments. Seeds numerous,
f{mall, inferted upon a central, elliptical, unconnected recep-
tacle,

Eff. Ch. Corolla wheel-fhaped, reflexed. Stamens in-
ferted into the tube. Caplule oblong, fuperior, of one
cell. Stigma obtufe.

D. Meadia, Curt. Mag. t., the only fpecies, is a native
of Virginia, from whence Bartram fent its feeds to Peter Col-
linfon, They were raifed in his garden at Mill Hill, and
the leaves proved fo like a lettuce, that he apprehended
fome miftake, till the beautiful flowers came forth. Bifhop
Compton, however, is recorded to have had this plant in his
celebrated garden in 1799, but it probably had fubfequently
difappeared. It is now not uncommon, being a hardy pe-
rennial, that bears our fevereft cold, and flowers in June.
It will notwithftanding bear forcing well, fo as to bloffom
three months earlier, though fome of its near allies, the
Primula, will not endure the leaft artificial heat.

DODO, in Ornithology. See Dinus.

DODOENS. See Doponeus.

DODON, in Ancient Geography, a fountain of Greece, in
Epirus ; fituated in or near the temple of Jupiter Dodonzus,
to whom it was confecrated. Steph. Byz. is of opinion,
that this fountain was the fource of the river Dodor. Pliny
and Mela alfo mention this fountain. Ancient naturalifts
affure us, that it had a property of rekindling torches, &c.
when newly extinguifhed ; which it is f{uppofed to have done
by means of fome fulphureous fumes exhaling from it, as we
flill find to be the cafe with a fountain in Dauphine, called
the “burning fountain.’ It is alfo faid to have extin-
guifhed torches, in which refpe€t its powers were not very
miraculous, fince plunging them into a place where the
fulphur was denfe, or into the water, would produce that
effea.

DODONA, a famous city of Epirus, placed by fome
writers in Uhefprotia, and by others in Moloffis; but Strabo
reconciles thefe difcordant opinions by informing us, that
anciently it belonged to Thefprotia, and afterwards to Mo-
loffis, for it ftood on the contines of thefe two provinces.
This city is faid to have been built by Deucalion, who, in
that univerfal deluge, retreated to this place, which, by rea-
fon of its height, fecured him from the waters; and hither
reforted to him all thofe who had efcaped from the inunda-
tion, With thefe* he peopled his new-built city, calling it

DOD

Dodona, according to fome, from a fea-nymph of that
name; according to others, from Dodon, the fon, or Do-
dona, the daughter, of Jupiter and Europa. At the fame
time, Deucalion 1s faid to have founded a temple, which he
confecrated to Jupiter, who is from thence ftyled Dodoneus.
Eufebius fays, (in Chron.) that Dodanim, the fon of Javan,
and grandfon of Japhet, (fee Dopanim) fir fetded in an
ifland of Rhodes ; and that fome of his detcendants, being
ftraitened there for want of room, paffed over to the conti-
nent, and fixed their abode in Epirus, where they built a
city, calling it Dodona, from their progenitor Iodanim.
The temple of Jupiter Dodonzus was the firft temple of
Greece: for the Eptrots were anciently reckoned among
the Grecks. But the oracle of Dodona feems to have fub-
fifted for a confiderable time before it, for Herodotus in-
forms us, that it was the moft ancient of all the oracles of
Greece. As to the origin of this oracle, it is faid, that two
pigeons, taking their flight from Thebes in Egypt, one of
them came to Libya; and the other having flown as far as
the fore! of Dodena in Chaonia, a province of Epirus,
alighted there ; and gave the inhabitants of the country in-=
formation that it was the will of Jupiter to have an oracle
in that place. This prodigy aftonifhed thofe who were
witneffes to it, and the oracle being founded, a great num-
ber of perfons reforted hither to confult it. Servius (in 3d
fEneid, v. 406.) adds, that Jupiter had given to his daugh-
ter Thebé thefe two pigeons, and communicated to them
the gift of fpeech. Herodotus, (I. i.) who judged rightly
that the fact, which gave rife to the inftitution of the oracle,
was couched under this fable, has invettigated its hiftorical
foundation. Phoenician merchants, fays this author, fome
time ago carried off two prieftefles of Thebes; fhe who was
fold in Greece took up her refidence in the forett of Dodona,
where the Greeks came to gather acorns, their ancient food;
there fhe erected a {mall chapel at the foot of an oak, in
honour of Jupiter, whofe prieftefs fhe had been at Thebes ;
and this was the foundation of that ancient oracle, fo famous
in preceding ages. ‘The fame author fubjoins, that the
woman was called the ‘* pigeon,”’ becaufe they did not un-
derftand her language, but foon becoming acquainted with
it, they reported that the pigeon fpoke.

In order to explain the ancient fables, it frequently hap«
pened that the Greeks, who were ignorant of the eaftern
languages, whence they were derived, invented new ones.
The learned Bochart thought that he had difcovered the
origin of that under our prefent confideration in two Phe-
nician, or Arabian words of a double meaning ; one of them
fignifying a pigeon, the othera prieftefs. The Greeks, al-
ways inclined to the marvellous, inftead of faying that a
prieftefs of Jupiter had declared the will of that god, chofe
to fay it in a fabulous way, that it was pronounced by a
pigeon. Whatever probability may be attached to the
conjecture of this learned author, there appears to be more
in what is offered by the abbé Salliar (Mem. Acad. Belles
Lett. t.v. p. 35.) who takes this fable to have been founded
upon the double meaning of the word rsAsmu, which figni-
fied pigeons in Attica, and feveral other proviuces of Greece,
while in the dialeét of Epirus it imported old women. Ser.
vius, (in 3 An. v. 166.) who fully comprehended the
fenfe of this table, miftoox the proper application, of it, by
changing the appellative ‘ Peleias’” into a proper name,
“© There was,”’ fays he, “in the foreft of Dodona, a foun-
tain from which water iflued with a-foft murmnring noife,
at the foot of an oak : an old woman, named Pelias, intere
preted this inarticulate found, and by means thereof gave
predictions to thole who came to confult her.’ In ancient

L 2 times,

DOD

‘times, the oracle of Dodona feems to have given its refponfes
-by the murmuring of the fountain already mentioned (fee
Dovon); but afterwards they had recourfe to other for-
malities; which we fhallexplain. In order to which we may
previoufly obferve, that near the temple was a facred grove
of ozks and beeches, which was fuppofed to be inhabited by
the Dryades, Fauni, acd Satyn, who, we are told, were
often feen dancing under the thades of the trees. Before
fowing was invented, when man lived upon acorns, thofe of
this wood were in great requeft, as appears from the follow-
ing verles of Virgil: (Georg. J. 7. v. 7.)
« Viber, et Alma Ceres, veftro fi munere tellus
Chaonium pingui glandem mutavit arifta,”’

Thefe oaks, or beeches, were faid to be endued with a
human voice, and prophetical fpirit ; for which reafon they
are called * {peaking and prophefying oaks.” What gave
occafion to this fiion was, that the prophets, when they
gave an{wers, placed themfelves in one of thefe trees, fo
that the oracle was thought to be uttered by the oak, which
was only pronounced out of its hollow ftock, or from among
its hollow branches. Some were of opinion, that the oracles
were delivered from the branches of the trees, becaufe the
prophetical pigeons are reported, by Herodotus, to have
perched upona tree (I. ii. c. 52. 55. 57)3 and the fcho.
liaft upon Sophocles tells us, that above the oracle there
were two pigeons. Others are inclined to believe, that the
oracles were uttered from the hollow ftock, becaufe the
prophetefs could beft be concealed there. Itis faid alfo,
that brazen kettles were ufed for announcing the oracles,
and they were no lefs famous than the fpeaking o2ks. Ac-
cordingly, they fufpended, as Suidas intimates, thefe kettles
in the air, near a itatue of the fame metal, which was like-
wife fufpended, with a lafh in its hand. This figure, being
agitated by the wind, ftruck againit the kettle that was next
to it, which communicating the motion to the reft, occa-
fioned a kind of clattering, which continued for fome time 5
and by means of this noile they formed predi€tions. ( Vef-
fii de Idololatria, li. c. 7.) As foon as the found of the
kettles ceafed, the women named Dcdonide, as Plutarch
infurms us, delivered their oracles, either in verfe, as appears
from the colle&tion made of them ; or by the lots, as Cicero
intimates in his books of divination. Hence fome have faid,
the foreft of Dodona took its name; dodo in Hebrew figni-
fying a kettle. From the fpesking oaks of this forelt was
deduced another fable about the mai of the fhip Argo, cut
in this foreft, which, according to Onomacritus, Apollo-
nius of Rhodes, and Valerius Flaccus, gave oracles to the
Argonauts. Van Dale, in his Hiftory of Oracles. after re-
marking that Suidas hath merely copied Euftathius, reports
the opinion of Arifotle and feveral other authors ; and takes
particular notice how much the ancients vary in their ac-
counts of this oracle; this variation being owing, without
coubt, to the care that was taken, not to allow th fe who
came to confult the oracle to approach too near it; fo that
they could only hear a confufed found, but couid by no
means judge whence it proceeded.

Dodona, in the period of its celebrity, was a populous
city; and became the fee of a bifhop, iuffragan of Nico-
‘polis. But in procefs of time it was fo completely deftroyed,
that it is not now poffible to afcertain its precife fituation.

DODONAEA, in Betany, (fo named by Linnzus, after
Rembertus Dodonaus, a celebrated botanift of the 16th
century. Plumier had previoufly dedicated a genus to his
honeur, which Linnzus referred to //ex.) Linn. Gen. ed.
te 541. Hort. Cliff r4q. Sylt. Veg. ed. 13. 299. Jacq.

DOD

Amer. tog. Schreb, 357. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 343. Juif.
375. Gaertn. t. 111. (Ptelea; Linn. Sp. Plred. 1. 118.
ed. 2.173.) Clafs and order, O@andria Monogyaia. Nat.
Ord. Terebintacets affine, Jeff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fpreading, of four ovate, deci~
duous leaves. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments eight, very
fhort; anthers oblong, curved, approaching each other, an-
gular, obtufe, of two cells, burtting longitudinally at their
outer edges, fometimes rough or briftly. Pi. in the fame
ora feparate flower. Germen triangular, the length of the
calyx; ftyle cylindrical, with three furrows, erett ; ftigma
three-cleft, fharpith, Per. Capfule triangular, inflated, of
three cells; the angles large and membranous. Seeds two
in each cell, roundifh. 7

Eff. Ch. Calyx of four leaves. Corolla none. Capfule
inflated, of three cells, with three wings. Seeds-in pairs.

1. D. vifeofe. Linn. Suppl. 218. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 343. (Aceri vel Paliuro affinis, &e.
Sloane Jam. v. 2. t. 162. f. 3.) Leaves obovato-lanceolate,
vifcid. Calyx-leaves elliptical, obtufe, almoft naked.
Flowers dicecious? Native of the Eaft and Welt Indies,
in fandy ground. A tree ten or twelve feet high, accord-
ing to Sloane, with fibrous deciduous bark. Branches round ;
when young unequally quadrangular. Leaves deciduous, al-
ternate, nearly feffile, obovate with a taper bafe, nearly entire,
bluntifh with a little point, about two or three inches long,
very glutinous, ef{pecially when young, deftitute of all pu-
befcence. S¥ipulas none. Flowers greenifn, in little ter-
minal, often branched, cluiters. Calyx-/eaves elliptical,
concave, afcending, ribbed, very nearly if not quite fmoothe.
Anthers not longer than the calyx, incurved, rather turgid,
fmooth and naked, tipped with a little hooked point.
Fruit we fufpe& always ona different plant, confilting of
inflated, membranous, winged, veiny capfules, about half
an inch in diameter. 2. D. /patulata. Leaves linear obo-
vate, vifcid. Calyx-leaves ovate, acute, naked. Flowers
dicecious. Brought by Mr. Archibald Menzies from the
Sandwich Iflands, where this fhrub grows on high movn-
tains as well as on the fea fhore. Itis fmallcr than the laft,.
with {mailer and differently-fhaped /eaves. The calyx is ef-
fentially different, its leaves being flat, horizontal, ovate
and acute. The anthers are fhort and turgids. The. fruit»
we have not feen. 3. D. anguflifolia. Linn. Supp). 218,
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 344. Thunb. Prod. 77. (Triopteris;
Brown Jam. igr. t. 18. f. 1.) Leaves linear-lanceolate,
vifcid. Calyx-leaves cllipiical, obtufe, fringed.—Native of
the Cape of Good Hope and of the Weit Indies. The
flowers appear to be dicecious. The narrow leaves and
fringed calyx diktinguifh it from the firlt fpecies. The fruit
is generally reddifh. Our Cape fpecimens are lefs vifcid,
and have narrower leaves, than the Jamaica ones, to which
laft Brown’s fynonym certainly belongs, and not to the
firft fpecies. Mutis’s plant from. Mexico, which he
thought a new genus, and named Pa/avia, is the fame as
Browne’s. 4. D. triquetra. Willd. Sp. Ph v. 2. 343.
Andr. Repos. t. 230. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, {mooth,
Ca'yx-leaves naked. Acthers linear, elongated. Flowers
deecious.—Common in New South Wales, from whence
the late Abbé Cavanilles obtained it and fent it tous. The
ciliptic-lanceolate, fmoath (not vilcid) /eaves, and the yel-
low anthers, five times as long as the calyx, mark it eff-n-
tidlly. Fruit on a feparate plant. Mr. Andrews unjuitly
lays the blame on profeffor Martyn for confounding this
with the firft fpccies; for the error is Forfter’s, whofe
D. vifeofa. Prod. 27, feems to include our firlt and feeond
fpecics as well as the prefent, and who furely did not much

attend

DOD

attend to the fubje&. 5. D. cuneate. Leaves wedge-fhaped,
obfcurely three-toothed. ~Calyx-leaves elliptical, obtufe,
fringed, reflexed. Flowers diccious.—Native of New
South Wales, from whence feveral fpecimens have been
fent, but we have not met with it in the gardens. All
the fpecimens we have feen are male. The branches are
flender and ftraggling. Leaves about an inch long, vifeid,
wedge-fhaped and very obtule, with three teetb, more or
lefs obvious, at the extremity. JVower-/lalks capillary.
Calyx reflexed, or rather revolute, expofing the fhort,_tur-
gid anthers. 6. D. eriocarpa. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, wavy,
hairy as wellas the fruit. Calyx-leaves elliptical, reflexed,
briftly.—Gathered by Mr. A. Menzies on the Alps of the
Sandwich Iflands. Its moft remarkable character confifts
in the hairy /eaves and fruit. The young branches alfo are
hairy. "Phe calyx is reflexed, but fearcely revolute, its form
Jike the laft, but its edges are hairy or briftly. We have feen
no anthers, the flowers being probably dicecious. 7. D. pinnata,
Leaves pionate, hairy. Aathers bri tly at the fummit.— Com-
municated by earl St. Vincent, who received it from New-
South Wales, It differs from all the foregoing in its pin-
nate /eaves, which are an inch or inch and half long, con-
fifting of fix or eight pair of little alternate, obovate,
pointed, entire, revolute leaflets, hairy all over, with an
edd one, their common ftalk interruptedly winged. We
-have feen only male flowers, which are tawny, with fpread-

ing, ovate, hairy ca/yx-/eaves, almott as long as the anthers. -

The latter are fingularly brillly at their fummits.

We have been more particular than ufual on the fpecies
of this genus, becaufe'they feem not to have been well
difcriminated by any botanift, and leaft of all by thofe who
have gathered them wild. This, however, will certainly
not be the cafe with Mr. R. Brown, who has probably
found more than have come to our knowledge, and who
cannot fail to illuftrate the fubje& much further. To us
the genus of Dodonwa feems almott, if not altogether, dice-
elous.. All the fpecies give out a ftrong yellow ftain on
the application of {pirits of wine after they are dried. Of
their ufes or qualities we are ignorant. Such as have been
introduced into the gardens are hardy green-houle fhrubs,
but have httle beauty to boat. S.

DODON EUS, Doponian, in Antiquity, an epithet
given to Jupiter, as adored or worfhipped in the temple of
Dodona, in a foreft of the fame name..See Dopona. It ap-
pears, both from Homer and Hefiod; that Japiter Dodonzus
was regarded as a Pelafgian divinity. Strabo, citing a paf-
faze from a writer named Suidas, intimates, that the oracle
of Jupiter had been tranfported from Theflaly to Dodona,
and that hence was derived the appellation of Jupiter Pclaf-
gian.

Dovonzxus, or Doporns, Rempertus, in Biogra-
ply, a learned phyfician and botanift, of a Weft Fricfland
family of good repute, was born at Mechlinin 1517. His
grand-father, long a magiftrate of great credit and authority
in Leuwarden, was named Rembertus Joenckema. The fon
of this man was called Dodo, or Dodonzus, whence the
grandfon obtained the name of Rembertus Dodonezus. He
became phyfician to the emperors. Maximilian II. and
Rodolph Il. Having been obliged during the civil wars
of his time to quit the imperial court, in order to take care
of his property at Mechlin and Antwerp, he refided a while
at Cologne, from whence he was perfuaded to return to
Antwerp, but foon afterwards he became profeflor of phyfic
in the newly founded univerfity of Leyden with an ample
ftipend. This took place in 1582, and he fultained the credit
ot his appointment by his lectures and various writings till
dzath put a period to his labours in March 1585, in the 68th

DOD

year of his age, Jt appears, by his epitaph at Leyden, that
he left a fon of his own name behind him.

Dodoneus ts recorded to have excelled in a knowledge of
the hiltory of his own country, and efpecially in genealogical
inquiries, as well as in medicine. His chief fame at prefent
refts on his botanical publications, particularly his Pemptades,
or thirty books of the hiftory of plants, in one volume folio,
publifned at Antwerp in 1583, and again in 1612 and 1616,
This is fill a book of general reference on account of the
wooden cuts, which are numerous and expreffive. Haller
reckons it ‘a good and ufeful work, though not of the firft
rate.” The author had previoufly pubtifhed fome lcfler
works in 8vo. ag frusum Hifloria, printed at Antwerp in
1552, including the various kinds of corn and pulfe, with

_ their virtues and qualities, often copied, as Haller remarks,

literally from ancient authors, who perhaps do not always
{peak of the fame plants. This work likewile is illuitrated
by wooden cuts. .

His Herbarium Belgicum firft appeared tn the German
language, in 1553, aud again in 15573 which lait Clufus
tranflated into French. From the French edition ‘‘ Henry
Lyte efquyer’? compofed his Herbal, which is pretty nearly
atranflation of the whole. It was pubhfhcd iv 1578, and
went through feveral fubfequent editions. This work, in its
various languages and editions, is accompanied by wooden
cuts, very inferior, for the moft part, to thofe in the above-
mentioned Pemptades. Haller records an epitome of Dodo-
nzus by William Kam, printed at London, in 4to. in 1606,
under the title of Little Dodcen. This we have never feen.

Dodonezus pubijfhed two 8vo. volumes of Jmagines or:
wooden cuts of plants, with a few remarks, which went
through feveral impreffions, but are now feldom ufed, being
fuperleded by his Pemptades. Some of the bett of thete
cuts were employed in his £/orum et Coronariarum Odorata-
rumque nonnullarum: Herbarum Hifloria, 8vo. publithed at
Antwerp, in 1569, an elegant little volume, refembling the
Svo. editions of Clufius; but all thefe figures are reprinted in
the Pemptades. :

Haller fpeaks with praifé of the figures in his woik on
Purging and Poifsnous herbs, barks and roots, Antwerp,
1574, 8vo. and mentions a little book on the Vine, &c.
without cuts, neither of which has come under our infpec-
tion. Melch. Adami, Vite Germ. Med. Haller. Bibl. Bot.

DODONIA, in dacient Geography, one of the names
formerly given to Epirus.

DODRA, in Roman. Antiquity, a drink prepared from
nine different ingredients ; which are enumerated by the epi
grammatilt in the following lise.

“ Jus, aqua, mel, vinum, panis, piper, herba, oleum, fal.”

Vide Aufon, Epigram 86.

DODRANS, in Aniiquity, a divifion of the as; - being
2 thereof, or nine uncie.

DODRED Wuear, in Agriculture, a name often pro-
vincially applied to fuch forts of this grain as are without
beards.

DODSLEY, Roeerrt, in Biography, was born in very '
humble life at Mansficid in Nottinghambhire, and without
the advantages of education was enabled to make a confi-
derable figure in the literary world. While young, he had
acquired the neceflary elements of reading and writing, and
when in the ftation of livery fervant to a lady of fafhion, he
publifhed by fubfcription a volume of poems, entitled, ‘* The
Mufe in Livery.’? It was received with much approbation,
and from the encouragement of this firft eflay, he proceeded
to drama, and produced the ‘ Toy-fhop,” Mapa ee se a

atire

DOD

fatire upon the prevailing follies of the times. By the in-
fluence of Mr. Pope it was brought upon the ftage, and
became very popular. By the profits arifing from this, aud
from his poems, he opened a book{eller’s thop in Pall-Mall,
where, by perfevering induftry and great good conduét, he
arrived at confiderable diftis@tion. His next produétions as
an author were, ‘* Tae King and the Miller of Mansfeld,”
a farce founded on the old ballad ftory of that name; anda
fequel, entitled, ‘ Sir John Cockle at Court.” Thefe,
though not fo much dittinguiihed by humour as by their
moral and fentimental tendency, were well received by the
public, who confidered Dodfley as under their peculiar pa-
tronage. A work which he publithed fogn after, obtained
for the avthor a larger fhare of celebrity; this was the
«© Economy of Human Life,” which at the time was fuppofed
to have been written by the earl of Chefterfield. Few
books in the Englih language have palled through more
editions. than this, and it is ttl regarded as one admirably
adapted to the perufal of young perions. In 1753, he of-
fered Mr. Garrick a tragedy, entitled *¢ Cleone,’? which was
refufed; but at the other theatre it was admitted, and amply
repaid the managers, as it long drew together very large
audiences. Two years afterwards Mr. Dodfley publifhed
his “ Sele&t Fables,” in three volumes, many of which are
original; and to the whole was prefixed an ‘* Effay on
Fable.” Mr. Dodfley is well known as the editor of the
« Preceptor,”” a work of much merit; of « A colletion of
Plays,” in twelve volumes, which has been re-publifhed by
Mr. Reid; and of “ A colletion of Poems, by different
Hands,” in fix volumes. ‘Uhis is reckoned one of the moft va-
luable publications of the kind. The exertions of Mr. Dodfley
as an author, an editor, and bookfeller, were crowned with
fuccefs; he acquired-a handfome fortune, and retired from
bufincfe. In retirement, as in aétive life, he was refpeed
and beloved: modett in profperity, grateful to his early
friends and patrons, and difpofed to beftow on others the
fame affiftance which he had himf=lf experienced. He died
of the goutin the year 1764. His works have been fince
publifhed, in two volumes, 8ve. Boog. Brit.

DODSON, Micwaet, a learned Englifh barrifter, and
biblical f{cholar, was born at Marlborough, in September,
1732. He was educated partly under his father, who was
a diffenting minifter, and partly at the grammar fchool of his
native town. Under the direGion of his maternal uncle,
fir Michael Fofter, one of the juitices of the court of king’s
bench, Mr. Dodfon was brought up to the profeffion of the
law. He was admitted of the Middle Temple in 1754,
and practif-d many years as a {pecial pleader with much re-
putation: in 1770, he was appointed one of the commif-
fioners of bavkrupts, an office in which he continued till his
death. In 1783, he was called to the bar, having declined
that honour till then, which savas intended to diminifh rather
than increafe his bufinefs, his habits never leading him to
defire practice at the bar.

As an author and editor, Mr. Dodfon was well known
fand highly diftinguifhed. In 1776 and 1792, he publifhed,
with additions, new editions of Mr. juftice Folter’s work,
entitled «« A report of fome proceedings on the Commiflion
for the trial of the Rebels in the Year 1746, &c. &c.’? And
in 1795, ke drew up a life of his uncle fir Michael, which
was prt din the fixch volume of the Biographia Britannica.
As-a biblical writer he publihed many papers in a work
entitled Commentaries and Effays,” and in 1790 he laid
before the public, as the refu't of many years fudy and deep
invelt gation, “A new tranflation of Taiah, with notes fup-
plemertary to thofe of Dr. Lowth, late bifhop of London,
and containing remarks on many parts of his tranflation and

DOD

notes by a Layman.” Mr. Dodfon enjoyed a life of unine
terrupted good health, till a few months before his death.
He died in O&tober 1799, aged 67 years. Mr. Dodfon’s
legal knowledge and dilcrimination were highly eftimated
by thofe to whom he was known, and who had occafion to
confer with him upon queftions of law. He was deliberate
in forming his opinion, and very diffident in delivering it,
but always clear in the principles and reafons on which it was
founded. His general knowledge of the laws, and his
veneration for the conftitution of his country, evinced his
extenfive acquaintance with the genuine principles of jurif-
prudence, and his regard for the permanence of the liberties
of Britain, His counfel, ca any and every occafion, was
founded in judgment, and communicated with difcretion,
fincerity, and kindnefs. He was mild in his manners, even
in his temper, warm in his affe€tions, and fleady in his at-
tachments. In matters of religion, he contended for the
rights of privace judgment in their molt extenfive fenfe. He
was himfelf a firm believerin the Chriftian religion ; holding
the unity of Godas the fundamental principle of rational
worthip, and regarding Jefus Chrift as a man, the delegated
and {pecial meffenger of the Almighty to declare his will to
the world.

DODWELL, Henry, was born at Dublin in the year
1641. His father lofing his property in the great Irifh re-
bellion, came to England in the year 1648, in order to obs
tain fome effeStual aflittance ‘rom his relations in London.
He foon left the metropolis for York, where his fon Henry
was educated. At an early age this youth was left an or-
phan, his father being carried off by the plague in Ireland,
whither he went to look after his eftate, and his mother fall
ing a vidtim toconfumption. He was now deltitute of almoft
all the common neceffaries of life; attached to books and
ftudy, but without pens and ink to prepare his exercife, and
frequently fubje¢t to much ill treatment from the perfon
who had undertaken to provide for him, on account of the
uncertainty of his ever being repaid his difburfements. Some
of his more prefling wants were fupplied by fir Henry
Siingfby, his maternal uncle, whofe fituation did not allow
him to do much for his nephew. At the age of 13 he was
taken under the prote€tion of another uncle, Mr. Henry
Dodwell, re€tor of Newbourn and Hemley in Suffolk, who
affifted the youth in his ftudies. He was afterwards ad-
mitted of Trinity college, Dublin, where he was very con-
{picuous for the diligence of his application and for his ex-
emplary piety, and was in due time elected fellow. In
1666, he quitted his fellowfhip, becaufe he could no longer
hold it without entering into orders, to which he objected,
thinking he’ might be more ufeful to the intereits of reli-
gion as a layman, than if he affumed the clerical profef.
fion. He now came to England, and refided fome time at
Oxford, for the fake of the advantages of a public li-
brary: he then returned to Ireland and commenced his
courfe of authorfhip. Of his numerous publications we can
notice but few : his firft piece wasa preface to a pofthumous
piece of Dr. Stearn, his late tutor ; it was entitled ‘ Prole--
gomena apologetica, de ufu dogmatum Philofophicorum.”
He then publifhed two letters of advice on theological fub-
jects, toa fecond edition of which he annexed “* A Difcourfe
concerning the Pheenician Hiltory of Saschoniathon,” which
he attempts to prove a forgery by Philo. Bublius.

In 1674, hecame again to England, fettled in London, and
became intimately acquainted with the moft l-arned and dif.
tinguifhed divines of the time; particularly with Dr. Lloyd,
afterwards bifhop of Worcefter; whom he accompanied to
Holland, when he was eppointed chaplain to the priucefs of
Orange. As a,writer he about this period attacked the Ro-

maa

DOD

man catholics, and foon after the proteftant diffenters, The
laft gave rife to a controverfy between Mr. Dodwell and the
celebrated Richard Baxter. Inthe year 1688, without any
application on his part, and as an honourable reward of lite-
rary exertions, he was eleCted Camden profeffor of hiftory by
the univerfity of Oxford. This honour he enjoyed but a
fhort time, as his notions of government would not permit
him to take the oaths of allegiance required by the leaders of
the revolution. Quitting hie profefforfhip, he wrote a de-
fence of his nonjuring principles, and other treatifes on to-

ics conneGted with it. In 1692, he publithed his Camdenian-

Cures, of which the fubjeéts are the authors who wrote the
hiftory of the Roman empercrs from the time of Trajan to
that of Diocletian. Soon after he loft the profefforfhip he
retired to Cookham, a village in Berkfhire, and there, or in
the neighbouring village of Shottefbrooke, he chiefly fpent
the remainder of his days. Here he married, and became
the father of 10 children.

In 1696, Mr. Dodwell drew up annals of Thucydides
and Xenophon, to accompany editions of thefe authors by
Dr. Hudfoa and Mr. Wells, which were afterwards feparately
reprinted at Oxford. In the year 1701, he publifhed, in
quarto, an account of the Greek and Roman cycles, which
was highly efteemed by Dr. Halley, and is the moft elabo-
rate of all Mr. Dodwell’s works, and was probably the re-
fult of his enquiries on the fubjects difcuffed during the
greate(t part of his life. Paffing over many other pieces of
this author we obferve that, in_1706, he publifhed a work
which expofed him to much cenfure, and difgufted many
who had heretofore been his zealous admirers. This was
entitled an Epiftolary Difcourfe, proving, from the fcriptures
and the firft fathers, that the foul is a principle naturally
mortal, but immortalized a€tually by the pleafure of God,
to punifhment or reward, by its union with the divine bap-
tifmal {pirit ; where it is proved that none have the power of
giving this divine immortalizing fpirit fince the apoftles, but
only the bifhops. Atthe end of the preface is a differta-
tion to prove, that * facerdotal abfolution is neceflary for
the remiffion of fins, even of thofe who are-truly penitent.”
This work met with powerful opponents, who expofed its
philofopliy and theology. The principal writers againit
Mr. Dodwell, on the occafion, were Mr. Chifhull, Mr.
Mills, afterwards bifhop of Waterford, Mr. Norris, and the
celebrated Dr. Clark. The author endeavoured to vindi-
cate himfelf in feparate treatifes, but by every candid, judi-
cious, and liberal mind, it was feen that his caufe was wholly
indefenfible. Mr. Dodwell died in 1711, in the feventieth
year of his age. Contemporaries knew his merit, and how
to eftimate his various talents: he was a man of much appli-
cation, extenfive reading, and pofleffed great learning. His
judgment and tafte have met with few admirers: he was
fond of ftrange and paradoxical notions; his religious fenti-
ments -were extremely narrow; and he entertained a fort of
fuperltitious reverence for the priettly character. His picty
was, however, undiflembled; his integrity unimpeached,
and his whole deportment unaffectedly humble and modett.
His moral condu& was eminently virtuous, and his benevo-
lence highly exemplary: he carried the principle of abfte-
mioufnefs to excefs, religioufly abftaining from almoft all food
three days ina week. Of Mr. Dodwell’s children two re-
quire a fhort notice, viz. Henry, the eldeft fon, who was
bred to the profeffion of the law, and took an aétive part in
the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Mavufactures,
&c. Asa writer he enlilted in the caufe of infidelity, and
attacked revelation in the difguife of a friend, and publifhed
a treatife, entitled “ Chriitianity not founded upon Argu-
ment,”” which was ably anfwered by Drs, Benfon, Randolf,

BO:

Doddridge, and Leland. The other fon, William, educated
at Trinity College, Oxford, rofe to fome confiderable pre-
ferment in the church, and publifhed many works, among
which was, * A Free Anfwer to Dr. Middleton’s Free
Enquiry,” for which he was prefented by the univerfity
with a diploma, in full convocation: —*' A Differtation on
Jephtha’s Vow,” and two volumes of fermons, one of which
we written in oppofition to his brother’s pamphlet. Biog.
ritan.

DOE, the female of the buck. See Cervusand Derr.

Dok, in Geography. See Dové.

DOEBELN, formerly Dozpettn, or Dobelen, a {mall
town of Saxony, ‘in the circle of Leipzic, fituated in an
ifland formed by the river Mulda, 30 miles W. of Drefden,
and 35 S.E. of Leipzic, with a population of 3500 indi-
viduals, and remarkable for its manufactures of woollen and
linen cloth, flannel, hats, and ftockings. In its neighbour-
hood are flate quarries, and a very good fuller’s earth,

DOEHLEN, a {mall town of Saxony, in the circle of
Mifnia, which holds part of the royal ftud, known by the
name of the Torgau ftud.

DOEL, a town of Fianders, on the Scheldt, oppofite to
Lillo.

DOEN, a town of European Turkey, in the province of
Bulgaria, on the Danube; 56 miles N..N. E. of Siliftria,

DOEMITZ. See Domirtz.

DOES, Jacoz Vanper, the Od, in Biography, a painter
and engraver, was born at Amfterdamin 1623, and after
having been a difciple of N. Moyart, travelled to Rome and
formed himfelf on the manner of Bamboccio. He excelled
in land{capes and animals. His temper was melancholy and
auftere, fo that he incurred the difpleafure of all his acquaint-
ance, and was deferted by them. He died at Amfterdam
in 1673. ‘ His tone is dark, but his compofition has dig-
nity, his figures are well defigned, and touched with fpirts,
and his animals, efpecially the fheep, are painted with equal
truth and delicacy.”? The etchings of this mafter from
compofitions of his own, ornamented with animals, are ex-
ecuted in a flight, free, mafterly ftyle. Pilkington by
Fufeli and Strutt.

Does, Jacop Vanper, the Young, was the fon of the
former, and born at Amiterdam in 1654. He was fuccef=
fively a difciple of Kareldu Jardin, Netfcher, and Gerard
Lairefle. He was a very ready defigner, and pofleffed a
lively imagination and good invention ; but the impetuofity
of his temper was fuch, that he deftroyed his compofitions,
if his pi€tures did not pleafe him in the progrefs of their
execution ; norcould the interpofition and remonttrances of
his beft friends avail for their prefervation. His death, A. D.
1693, at the age of 39 years, prevented his acquiring that
fortune and high reputation, which the fame of his abi-
lities and performances gave him reafon to expe&t. Pilk-
ington. ry

Does, Simon VAnper, the fon of the firlt of the artifts
above-mentioned, was bora at Amfterdamin 1653. Having
learned the art of painting from his father, and purfuing
the fame ftyle and manner in the choice of the fame fubjeés,
he travelled to Friefland and to England, and afterwards
fettled at the Hague. Notwithftanding the difficulties in
which the extravagance of adiffolute wife involved him, and
the depreffion of circumftances and {pirits which they occas
fioned, he perfevered in the exercife of his profeffion. On
fome occafions he painted portraits, refembling in their touch
and colouring thofe of the old Netfcher; but though his
works were much admired and fought after, he fell into
great poverty, and died in 1717 at the age of 64 years.
The works-of this artift are peculiarly pleafing ; and though

his

DOG

his figures want elegance, and his colouring inclines to the
yellow and light brown, yet his cattle are fo corre&, his
touch fo free and eafy, his dittacces and the forms of his
trees fo agreeable, his colouring fo tranfparent and delicate,
and his pattoral fubje@ts diftinguifhed by fo much nature
and fimplicity of rural life, that his works have been very
higlily efteemed, and have been fold for very large prices.
Tis artift has etched fome few {mall landfeapes, with ani-
mals, from his own compofitions. Pilkington, Strutt.

DOESBOURG, or Doessure, in Geography, a {mail
but well fortified town of Holland, in the department of
Gueldre, fituated at the confluence of the Old and New
Yilei, 12 miles S. of Zutphen, lat. 512 59! 30” The New
Yifel isalfo called Drufus’ canal. It isa cut made from the
Rhine near Arshem to the Old Yifel, by Drufus, fon-in-law
to Auguitus. (Bufching. 4to. vol. vi. p. 473.)

DOEVEREN, Water, Van, in Biography, a fkilfal
anatomilt and accoucheur, and profeffor of medicine, in the
univerfity at Leyden, publifhed, in 1753, “ Diflertatio de ver-
mibus in Jotcf nis hominum genitis,”” which was tranflated
into French in 1764. It contains a very accurate defcrip-
tion of the different {pecies of worms, and the molt, approved
method of treating the difeafes occafioned by them. “ Sermo
academicus de erroribus medicorum utilitate aon carentibus,”
1762, 4to. This has been much commended, as contain-
ing a fpecimen of ingcnious and acute argumentation.
But the molt valuable of his produétions, is his ‘ Obfervatt-
onum academicarum ad monttrorum hiftoriam, anatomiam,
pathologiam, et artem obitetricam precipue {pectantium.”
Groning. 1765, 4to. It contains obfervations on the
rupture of the biadder ina pregnant woman, and of the
uterus in the courfe of a difficult labour, of a polypus of
the uterus, fuccefsfully removed by ligature; a defcription
ofalamb, withtwo heads, and of a child born without a
head. Haller. Bib. Chir, |

DOFAR, in Geography. See Darar.

DOFFIR, a town of Arabia, in the country of Yemen;
z2 miles S. cf Chamir.

DOFRE, a town of Norway; 36 miles E. of Romf-
dael.

DOG, in Afronomy, a name common to two conftella-
tions, called the Greatand Little Dog ; but among aftrono-
mers, more ufually, Canis major, aad minor. See Canis
major FJ minor.

Dog, in Zoology, the firkt {pecies of the Canis tribe, the
C. familiaris of the Linnean fchool. Linneus was led to
believe that the dog might be dittinguifhed by the form and
fituation of the tail, which he obfervesis recurved and turned
tothe left: this chara@ter, it muft, however, be allowed, is
only partially diftinGtive ; it preponderages in many varieties
of the dog tribe, but is not always contftant.

It has been well obferved by Buffon, that the fervices of
this truly valuable creature have been fo eminently ufeful to
the domettic interefts of man in all ages, that to give the
hiftory of the dog, would be little lefs than to trace man-
kind back to their original {tate of fimplicity and freedom,
to mark the progrefs of civilization through the various
changes of the world, and to follow, attentively, the gradual
advancement of that order, which placed man at the head
of the animal world, and gave him a manifeft fupertority
over every partofthe brute creation. The dog, independent
of the beauty of his form, his vivacity, force, and fwiftnefs,
is pofleffed of allthofe internal qualifications that can con-
ciliate the affe@tions of man, and make the tyrant a proteior.
A natural fhare of courage, an angry and ferocious difpo-
fition, render the dog in his favage ftate a formidable enemy
to all other animals; but thefe readily give way to very

DOG

diferent qualities in the domeftie doz, whofe only ambition
feems the defire to pleafe. He is feen to come crouching
along, to lay his force, his courage, and all his ufeful talents
at the feet of his matter. He waits his orders, to which he
pays implicit obedience; confults his looks, and a fingle
glance is fufficient to put him in motion; he is more faith-
ful even than the moft boafted among men: he is conftant in
his affetions, friendly without intereft, and grateful for the
flighteft favours: much more mindful of benefits received
than of injuries oflered: heis not driven off by unkindnefs;
he ill continues humble, fubmiflive, and imploring, his
only hope is to be ferviceable, his only terror to difpleafe:
he licks the hand juft lifted to ftrike him, and at laft dif-
arms refentment by fubmiflive perfeverance ; more tratable
than man, and more pliant than any other animal, the dog
is not only fooninftru€ied, but even conforms himfelf to the
maiuners, movements, and habits of thofe who govern him.
He afflumes the very tone of the family in which he lives,
Like other fervants he is haughty with the great, and ruftic
with the peafant. Always eager to obey and to pleafe his
matter, or his friends, he pays no attention to ftrangers,
and furioufly repels beggars, whom he diftinguifhes by their
drefs, their voice, and their geftures. When the charge of
a houfe or garden is committed to him during the night, his
boldnefs increafes, and he fometimes becomes perfe@ly
ferocious. He watches, goes the rounds, {mells {trangers
ata diltance, aud if they {top or attempt te leap any barriers.
he inftantly darts upon them, and by barking, and other
marks of paflion, alarms the neighbourhood.

To conceive the importance of this fpecies in the order
of nature, let us {uppole that it never exifted. Without the
affiftance of the dog, how could men have conquered, tamed,
and reduced other animals into flavery? How could he {till
difcover, hunt down, and deftroy noxious and favage bealts ?
For his own fafety, and to render him matter of the wor!d, it
was neceflary to form a party among the animals themfelves, to
conciliate by carefles thofe which were capable of attachment,
and obedience, in order to oppofe them to the other {pecies.
Hence the training of the dog feems to have been the firft art
invented by man; and the refult of this art was the conqueft
and peaceable pofleflion of the earth.

The dog is one of thofe animals which have been fo long
retained under the protection of mankind, that the real origia
of the f{pecies remains in a ftate of uncertainty. Wild dogs
appear to be found in large troops in Congo, Lower Ethio-
pia, and towards the Cape of Good Hope. They are-faid
to be red haired, with flender bedies, and tails turned up
like grey-hounds. C*hers refembling hounds are of various
colours, have ereét ears, and are the fize of a large fox hound;
they deftroy cattle and hunt down antelopes, and other fuch
animals, as our dogs do the flag. They run {wiftly, have
no fixed refidence, and are very feldom killed, being fo crafty
as to fhun all traps, and of fo fagacious a nole as to avoid
every thing that has been touched by man. They go in
large packs and attack lions, tigers, and elephants ; and
among the fheep of the Hottentots they commntt terrific ra-
vages. Their whelps are fometimes taken, but as they
grow old become fo ferocious, that they cannot be dometti-
cated.

Modern naturalifts are not inclined to allow. that thefe
wild dogs conititute the true or real {pecies in a ftate of na-
ture, but that they are-rather the defcendants of dogs once
domefticated, and which have relapfed into a ftate refembling
that of primitive wildnefs. Some confider the wolf as the
parent fource from whence our numerous race of dogs ori-
ginally {prang. On this point it is remarked by Buffon,
that “ the wolf and the dog have never been regarded as the

fame

DOG.

ame Tpecies except by the nomenclators of natural hiftory,
‘who being acquainted with the furface of nature only, never
extend their views beyond their own methods, which are
always deceitful, and often erroneous, even in the moft ob-
vious fa&s. The wolf and dog, (he affirms,) cannot breed
‘together, and produce an intermediate race: their difpofi-
tions are oppofite, and their conftitutions different : the
wolf alfo lives longer than the dog; the former breeds but
once a year, but the dog twice or thrice. ‘Thefe diftinGions
are more than fufficiert to -demonftrate the two animals to be
of very different kinds. Befides, on a clofer infpe&tion, we
eafily perceive that even externally the wolf differs from the
‘dog in effential and uniform charaGers. The appearance
of the head and form of the bones are by no means the fame.
The cavity of the eye in the wolf is placed obliqueiy ; the
orbits are inclined ; the eyes {parkle and fhine in the dark:
inftead of barking the wolf howls; his movements, though
quick and precipitate, are more untform and equal : his body
is ftronger, but vot fo flexible : his limbs are firmer, his jaws
and teeth larger, and his hair coarfer and thicker.” Tis,
however, was the argument of Buffon, previous to the ce-
lebrated experiments made to produce a breed between the
dog and wolf, ard which being attended with the mof com-
plete fuccefs clearly proved the fallacy of his reafoning. It
-was foued that not oaly a breed could be obtained by
coupling thefe animals, but that the hybrids thus produced
were allo capable of producing offspring, an account of
which is amply detailed in the fupplemental volumes of Buf-
fon’s work. This does not, !neverthelefs, afford fufficient
evidence that thefe two animals derive their origin from
the fame fource; the like circum{tance being known
to take place between the horfe and the afs, the mules
of which have fometimes proved fertile, a fa&t very full
attefted of fome mules produced in New Holland. We
are not, therefore, juftified in fuppoling the fpecies to be
the fame from the circumitance of their coupling, and can
only conclude from fuch experiments that animals nearly
allied to each other, though really different, may fometimes
intermix. It is even more probabie that the origin of the
dog may be traced to the jackal than the wolf, but it muft
be alfo at the fame time allowed that nothing can be ad-
vanced with certainty on this fubje@t. That kind of domef-
ticated dog which is generally {uppofed to approach nearelt
to the primitive race 1s the fhepherd’s dog. Buffon propofes
# genealogical table of the different kinds of dog in which
this variety is placed as the apparent ftock.

Principal Varieties of Dogs.

Shepherd’s Dog, Canis domefticus of Linnaeus, & le Chien
‘de Berger of Buffon, is diltinguithed by its upright ears and
remarkable villofity of the tail beneath; and ftards at the
chead of the firft clafs of farm dogs. This breed of dogs is
faid to be preferved in the greateft purity in the northern
sparts of Scotland, where its aid is highly neceflary in ma-
naging the numerous herds of fheep bred in thofe extenfive
wilds. The fame variety is diffufed over moft parts of Eu-
rope, and is obferved in fome countries to be larger and
more robu‘t than in England. Mr. Bewick remarks, that
in thofe extenfive tra&s of land, which in many parts of our
own ifland are folely appropriated to the feeding of fheep
and other cattle, this fagacious animal is of the utmoft im-
portance. Immenfe flocks may be {een continually ranging
over thofe wilds, as far as the eye can reach, feemingly
without controul: their only guide is the fhepherd, attended
iby his dog, the conftant companion of his toils: it receives
his commands, and is always prompt to execute them; it
is the watchful guardian of the flock, prevents them from

Vor. XIL.

ftraggling, keeps them together, and conduéts them from
one part of their pafture to another: it will not fuffer any
ftrangers to mix with them, but carefully keeps off.every in-
truder, In driving a number of fheep to any diftant part,
a well-trained dog never fails to confine them to the road;
he watches every avenue that leads from it, where he takes
his ftand, threatening every delinquent, and purfues the
flragglers, if any one fhould efcape, and forces them into
order without doing them the leaft injury. If the herd{man
be at any time abfent from the flock, he depends upon his
dog to keep them together; and as foon as he gives the
well-known fignal, this faithful creature condu@s them to
his mafter, though at a confiderable diftance. The fame
writer mentions, as a remarkable fingularity in the feet of
the fhepherd’s dog, that they Bave one and fometimes two
extra toes on the pofterior feet: thefe toes appear to be def-
titute of mufcles, and hang dangling at the hind part of the
leg, more like an unnatural excrefcence than a neceffary ap-
pendage. The fame circumftance is alfo obferved in the
feet of the cur and the fpaniel, fo that it is not peculiar to
the firft-mentioned variety of the dog kind. Neither Lin-
neus nor Buffon {peak of thefe excrefcences.

Wolf Dog, or Pomeranian Dog, Canis Pomeranius of Lin-
nzus, is known by having the hair on the head long, the ears
erett, and the tail very much curved on the rump. Buffon
calls it Chicn-loup. It bears much refemblance to the fhep-
herd’s dog, but is larger.

Siberian, or Greenland Dog, \e Chien de Sibirie of Buf-
fon, Canis Sibiricus of Linneus. ‘This kind is nearly allied
to the preceding, and comprehends feveral cafual varieties
differing in ftrength and fize. Mott of the Greenland dogs
are white, but fome are fpotted, and fome black, and are
faid rather to howl than bark. The Greenlanders fometimes
eat their ficfh, and make garments of their fkins. But they
are principally ufed, both in this country and alfo in Kamef-
chatka, for drawing fledges over tke frozen fnow in winter.
Four, five, or fometimes fix, as circumflances require, are
commonly yoked to the fame fledge, and will readily carry
three perfons with their baggage, and thus perform a jour-
ney of fifty Enghih miles in a day. The dogs of Kamtl-
chatka, which, according to Steller, are calle? Ka/ha, are
ufuaily black or white: they are ftrong, nimble, and aétive,
and it is in fledges, drawn by thefe animals only, that travel-
ling 1s practicable, in that dreary country, during the win-
ter. A remarkable inflance of the expedition with which
this mode of travelling is performed, is mentioned by captain
Kinz, who relates, that during his flay in Kamt{chatka, a
courier with difpatches accompli{hed a journey of 270 miles
in lefs than four days.

Mof commonly thefe fledges are drawn by five dogs,
four of which are harneffed two abrealt, and the firth placed
asa leader. The reins being fattened to a collar round the
leading doz’s neck, are of little uft in direSting the pack,
the driver depending chicfly upon their obedience to his
voice, with which he animates them to proceed. Great
care and attention are beftowed in training up thefe leaders,
and which are of courfe efteemed more valuable according
to their fteadinefs and duciiity, and fetch from forty to fifty
roubles (about ten pounds fterling) each. The rider has a
crooked flick, anfwering the purpofe of both whip and reins,
with which, by ttriking on the {now, he regulateathe {peed
of the dogs, or ftops them at pleafure. When they are in-
attentive to their duty, he often chaitiles them by throwing
it at them. He difcovers great dexterity in regaining his
flick, which is the greateft difficulty attending his fituation,
for 1f he fhould happen to lofe it, the dogs immediately dif-
cover the circumttance, and never fail to {et off at full {peed,

es and

D (@) G.

aod continue to run till their flrength is exhaufted, or till
the carriage is overturned and dafhed to pieces, or hurried
down a precipice. Notwithftanding the ufefulnefs of thefe
dogs, they are neither of a very traGtable difpofition, nor re-
markable for their fidelity, and their treatment in Kamti{-
chatka, in particular, is ill calculated for fecuring their at-
tachment. Ia the winter they are fed {paringly with putrid
fifh, and in fummer are turned loofe to thift for themfelves,
tillthe return of the fevere feafon makes it neceffary for their
matters to take them again into cultody. When yoking to
the fledge they fet up a difmal yell, which ccafes on begin-
ning the journey, and then pives plece to filent fubtlety,
and a perpetual endeavour to weary out the patience of the
driver by their ftratagems, and againft which it is always
neceflary for him to be on the guard. But with all their
faults they are confidered as conflituting one of the great
conveniencies of life, by the inhabitants of the frozen regions
of Kamtfchatka. The Siberian, or Greenland dog, has
the ea's fhort and ere&, and the whole of the body covered
with long hair. They are ufuaily white with a black face;
they feldom bark, but make a fort of hideous how!. They
fleep abroad. forming a lodge in the fnow, and lying with
only their nofes above it. The Greenlanders are not kinder
matters to their dogs than the Kamtfchatkans; they leave
them to feed on mufcles or berries, unlefs they have made a
great capture of feals, when they treat them with blood
and garbage. They fometimes eat their dog», ufe their
fkins for coverlets, for clothing, or for bordering and feam-
ing their habits; and from their guts they make their bett
thread. They faften to their fledges from four to ten dogs,
and they travel over the ice, with a carriage, loaden with their
matter and five.or fix feals, 15 German, or 60 Englith miles
aday. Thefe dogs are excellent {wimmers, and will hunt
in packs the arétic fox, feals on the ice, and the polar bear,
in which latter chace they are fometimes ufed by the natives.
Iceland Dog, Canis Mandicus of Linneus, and called by
the Icelanders, according to Olafsen, Jiaar-hund. It 18
covered with long hair, except on the fnout, and the ears,
which are eret, and pendulous at the tip. :
Newfoundland Dog, a variety of large fize, and which,
from its fuperior ftrength, fagacity, and docile difpofition,
js one of thofe beit calculated for the fecurity of a houfe.
The feet of this kind of dog are more palmated than vufual,
and the animal is remarkably partial to the water. The
breed of Newfoundland dogs was originally brought from
the country of which they bear the name, where they are
extremely ufeful to the fertlers on thofe coafts, who employ
them as animals of burthen, to bring wood from the interior
of the country to the fea fide: three or four of them yoked to
a fledge will draw two or three hundred weight of wood piled
upon it for feveral miles with great eafe, In this fervice,
it is affirmed they are fo fagacious and willing, that they
never require a driver or perfon to guide them, but after de-
livering their loading, they return without delay to the
woods, and receive food in reward for their induftry. In
thefe parts they are accuftomed to feed principally on fifh,
which, either in a frefh or dried ftate, thefe animais are re-
markably fond of, From the ftru€ture of the feet, the
Newfoundland dog is enabled to {wim extremely fatt, dive
with eafe, and brirg up any thing from the bottom of the
water. : ap) : ;
Large rough water Deg, Canis aviarius aquaticus, Linn.
Canis fagax ad zquas, Aldrovandus, Grand barbet of
Buffon, Budel of Ridinger: a variety diltinguifhed by
its curly hair, which much refembles wool. ‘The webs be-
tween the toes are larger than in moit other dogs, which
fufficiently accounts for the eafe with which it {wims, and

renders it ufeful in hunting ducks and other water fowl,
Dogs of this breed are alfo frequently kept on board fhips,
for the purpofe of fending into the water after any {mall
article that may chance to fall overboard. .

Great Water Spaniel, is allo known by its curled hair, and
propenfity to the water. In point of form it is far more
elegant than the rough water dog, and its afpe& more fae
gacious and mild: the ears are long and pendulous, and
the hair beautifully crifped and curled. It is chiefly ufed in
difcovering the haunts of weter-fowl, and in finding- birds
that have been fhot in marfhy places.

Small Water-/paniel, called by Buffon le petit Barbet, 18
a variety clofely allied to the former, but of a {mailer fize,
and poffeffes the fame habits and difpofition.

King Charles’s Dog, a variety of the moft elegant kind,
and which is {uffictently known in this country, under the
appellation abovementioned. It is the canis brevipilis of
Gmelin, and the fame appareatly which Buffon calis Gredin,
Tne head is {mall and rounded, with the fnout fhort, and
the tail curved back ; its ears are long, hair curled, and
feet webbed. The celebrity attached to this breed feems to
arife chiefly from its having been the favourite companion of
Charles II., who, it is recorded, fcarcely ever walked
out without being attended by feveral of them. The
Springer, or Cocker, is a variety clofely allied to this kind.
The dog called Pyrame, by Buffon, is alfo a variety of the
fame, and is diltinguifhed by a patch of red on the legs, and
another over each eye.

Maltefe Dog, Canis melitzus, Gmelin; Canis melitenfis
hirfutus, Aldrovandus, and Bichon of Buffon, a variety with
long foft and filky hair appertaining to the {paniel kind,
very {mall, and of a white colour in general. This is one
of the molt elegant of the lap-dog kind, and iw fome varies
ties, as in the thock, is almoft concealed in the hair which
covers it from head to foot.

Lion Dog, the Gmclinian Canis leoninus, an animal of
{mall lize, baving the head and fore-part of the body covered
with fhaggy hair, while the hind-part is quite {mooth, ex-
cept a tuft at the end of the tail. ‘The Comforter is another
{mal! dog alited to this, and is a general attendant on the
ladies at the toilette, or in the drawing-room, but is of a
{napptth, il-natured difpofition, and very noify.

Pug dog, Canis fricator of Gmelin, and donquin of
Buffon, bas the nofe turned upwards, the ears pendulous,
and body fquare. Inits outward appearance this animal re-
fembles the bull dog in miniature: it was formerly very
common in England, but has of late years become {carce. ,
‘They are the principal breed of lap-dogs kept by the ladies
at Padua, and fome other parts of Italy. ‘The baflard pug-
cog, as its appellation implies, is a crofs breed between the
common pug-dog and fome other. ‘This latter is the roquet
of the French, Canis hybridus of Gmelin; and there are
likewife feveral other hybrid varieties of this kind of dog.

Maftiff, Canis moloflus of Linneus, Canis fagax fangui-
narius of Gefner, Baerenbeiffer of Ridinger. ‘This is the
fize of a wolf, very robuft in its form, and having the fides
of the lips pendulous. Its afpeét is fuilen, and its bark
loud end termfic, and he appears every way formed for the
important truit of guarding property committed to his care,
and as a houfe or yard dog may be perhaps more valuable
than the Newfoundland breed, which is more commonly kept
for this purpofe. Dr. Caius, who lived in the reign of
queen Elizabeth, and who has left us a curious treatiie on
Britifh dogs, informs us, that three of thefe animals were
reckoned a match fora bear, and four fora lion. From an
experiment however, made in the prefence of James I.,
as related by Stow, the lion was found an unequal match for

8

only

DOG.

only three of them. Two of the dogs were difabled by the
combat, but the third forced the lion to feek for fafety by
flight. The two dogs were fo much beaten and torn in the
confliét, that they foon died of thetr wounds; the lalt fur-
vived and was taken great care of by the king’s fon, who
faid ‘he that had fought with the king of bealts fhould ne-
ver after fight with any inferior creature.””

The maltiff, in itsspure ftate, ia feldom met with. The
penerality of dogs, diltinzutfhed by that name, are crofled
breeds between the maitiff and bull-dog, or the ban dog.

Bull-dog, is of the maitiff kind, and very nearly allied to
the former, but is {mailer, with a fomewhat flatter fnout,
and ftill more ferocious afpeét ; the lip, as in the former, pen-
dulous. This is reputed the fiercelt of all the dog kind ;
it is low in fature, but very ftrong and mufcular: the nofe
fhort, and the uxder jaw proje€ting confiderably beyond the
lowerone. Its courage in attacking the buil is well known :
its fury in feizing, and its invincible obftinacy ia maintaining
its hold, are truly aftonifhing : it always aims at the front,
and generally faftens upon the lip, or cther part of the face,
where it hangs in {pite of every effort of the bull to difen-
gage himfelf.

This is the kind of dog employed in the diverfion of bull-
baiting, an inhuman and difgraceful cuttom long praétifed in
this country ; but which of late-years has been gradually on
the decline, and.in many parts has been entirely laid atide.
As an inttance of the remarkable ardour of this breed of
dogs in attacking the bull, it is related by Dr. Goldfmith,
that fome years ago, at a bull bait in the north of Engiard,
when that barbarous cuftom was very common, a young man,
confident of the courage of his dog, laid fome trifling wager
that he would, at feparate times, cut off all the four feet of
his dog; and that after every amputation it would attack
the bull. Thecruel experiment was tried, and the dog con-
tinued to feize the bull as eagerly as if he had beea per-
fe&tly whole. The afpect of the buli-dog is altogether
ferocioufly brutal, and as he always makes his attack with-
out barking, it is dangerous to approach him alone without
the greatefi precaution.

The bull dogs of Great Britain were celebrated for their
ftrength and invincible courage in the early hiftory of the
country: even under the Roman emperors, while their forces
colonized this ifland, an officer was appointed, whofe fole
bufinefs it was to bred and tranfport from hence fuch as
would prove equal to the combats of the amphitheatre.
There may not, however, remain fufficient evidence on record
to decide, whether the maftiff or the bull dog was the breed
in fuch high requett : fome writers affirm it to be the mattiff,
others the bulldog. Linnzus feems to confider the mattiff as
the dog in queftion, and gives it the trivial name of anglicus
for that reafon. Aldrovandus calls it Canis bellicofis anglicus,
aud Ridinger Englifche Docke. The true bull doy, the
Linnzan cauis moloflus, nevertheleds, appears to be an indi-
genous breed in this ifland, and from their acknowledged
fuperiority in courage, though inferior in point of fize, may
perhaps be regarded more truly as the genuine Britith race
fo highly celebrated by the Latin hiftorians,

Ban-dog, a variety of this fierce tribe not often met with.
It is lighter, fmaller, more ative and vigilant than the maf-
tiff, but not fo powerful. Its nofe is {maller, its hair more
rugged, and the colour generally of a yellowihh grey ftreaked
with fhades of black or brown. It attacks with eagernefs,
but more commonly feizes cattle by the flank than in front.

Dalmatian ov Coach Dog, is an animal of great beauty, |

being of a white colour, elegantly marked on all parts with
numerous round black fpots.. ‘The native country of thie
breed is uncertain ; it is commonly termed the Danith dog.

Buffon calis it Brague de Bengal, but Pennant affiems that
it is anative of Dalmatia,a diltrict of European Turkey, It
is faid to have been known and dometticated in Italy for the
Jatt two centuries, and to be the common harrier of that
country.

This kind is ufually kept in genteel houfes 2s an attendant
on the carriage: its {cent 1s indifferent.

Trifo Greyhound, Canis Grains Hibernicus of Ray, and Le
Matin of Buffon. This is the largeft of the dog kind, and
in itsappearance the moft beautiful and majeltic. The breed
is peculiar to Ireland, where it was formerly of great ule
in deftroying the wolves, with which that country was much
infefted, but is now become extremely rate. In the third
volume of the Linngzan Tranfe@tions, is an account of
a dog of this kind communicated by Aylmer Bourke Lam-
bert, efq. who affures us that the breed is now become
nearly extin@ in Ireland ; thefe in the poffeffion of the earl of
Altamont (eight in number) beitg the only ones in the
country. The fpecimen defcribed by Mr. Lambert mea-
fured fixty-one inches from the nofe to the tip of the tail ;
but formerly they appear to have been of a much fuperior
fize, and in fhape more refembling a greyhound. Dr. Gold-
{mith affures us he hasfeen a dozen of thefe dogs, and in-
forms us that the largelt was about four feet high, or as
tall as a calf ofa year old. Thefe dogs are generally of a
white or cinnamon colour, and more robuft than the greys
hound, their afpect mild, and their difpofition gentle and
peaceable. It 1s faid that their ftrength is fo great that in
combat the maft)f or bull dog is far from equal to them.
They commonly feize their antagonifls by the back and
fhake them to death. Thefe dogs were never ferviceable
for hunting cither the ftag, the fox, or the hare: their chief
utikty wes in hunting wolves, and to this breed may be ia a
great meafure attributed the final extirpation of thofe fero-
cious animals in the woody diftriéts of Wales and England in
early times.

Scottifo Highland Greyhound, or Wolf Dog, is a large,
powerful, and fierce looking dog, with pendulous ears, and
its eyes half concealed among the hair; its body was ftrong
and mufcular, and covered with harth wiry hair of a reddith
colour mixed with white. This is the animal formerly ufed
by the chieftains of Scotland in their grand hunting parties.

Gaxehound, an animal fimilar to the greyhound ; and, like
that kind of dog, direéted in ite purfuit only by the eye.
This was formerly in great repute, but appears at this time
to be very imperfeétly known. It was ufed chiefly in flag
and fox hunting. ;

Greyhound, Le Levrier of Buffon, Canis grajus of Gmelin,
The greyhound is remarkable for the flendernefs of its form,
its elongated fnout, and extreme {wiftnefs of its courfe. It
is indeed efteemed the fleeteft of all the hunting dogs, butas
it wants the faculty of fcent, follows by the eye. Yormerly,
the greyhound was held in fuch efteem, that by the laws of
king Canute, it was enaéted that no one under the degree of
a gentleman fhould prefume to keep one. Buffon fuppofes
this to be the Irith greyhound rendered thinner and more
delicate by the influence of climate.

Italian Greyhound, called sby Ridinger Windf{piel, and
Levron by Buffon. This, hike the former, has the body
arched and the f{nout tapering, but its fize is only half that
of the common greyhound ; itis beautiful and delicate ani-
mal, and is not common in this country, the climate being
too rigorous for its conftitution.

Lurcher, the ufual attendant on the poacher in his illicit
pradtices, is a dog of {mailer fize than the grevhound, and
ftouter im proportion; its hair rough and commonly of a
pale yellowifh colour, and the afpeét of its vifage remarkable
fer

42

DOG.

for its futlennefs. As this dog poffeffes the advantage of a
fine feent, it is moft commonly emploved in killing hares and
rabbits during the night-time. When turned into the
warren it lurks about with the utmoft precaution, and darts
upontherabbits, while feeding, without barking or making the
leaft noifes and then conveys his booty in filence to bis matter,
who remains in waiting in fome convenient place to receive
it. The lurcher is fo deftrnGive to game as to be
generally profcribed, and the breed in confequence may there-
fore at no very remote period become extinct.

Naked Dog, a fingular variety, naturally deftitute of hair,
which is imagined to have originated in fome very warm
countries, Many have fuppofed it to be of the Englith bull
dog kind reduced and degenerated by the heat of the eaftern
climate. Buffon calls it Le chien Turc, and later writers
depending on his authority have hence defcribed it as a native
of Turkey, but erroneonfly, for in that part of the world it
appears to be altogether unknown. Sonnini, in the courfe of
his travels through the Ottoman empire, had an ample oppor-
tuvity of afcertainine this faa, and {peaks decidedly to that
effe@. On the fubje@ of dogs (obferves this writer) which
are in very great aumbers in the towns of Turkey, I
fhall remark, that we might feck there in vain that {pecies,
rather uncommon and without hair, which we call she Turkish
dog, and fometimes the naked dog. It is not in the tem-
perate climate of Turkey that dogs lofe their hair ; i: is not
even under the burning fky of Egypt, for thcfe feen in the
moft northern pait, which is dilinguifhed by the name of
Lower Egypt, are of the race of large greyhounds, deformed
by want, which are found in the other towns of Turkey ;
and thofe of Upper Egypt have jong hair, and fomewhat
refemble our fhepherd’s dog. M. Sonnini does not pretend
to fay from what country the Turkith dog originally came,
but allures us he never met with a fingle onein Turkey, nor
could he learn after much enquiry that it is at all known in
that country. I have even fome reafon to fufpeé (lays this
writer) that this is a diftinct and feparate {pecies, and the
fearcity of thefe dogs in Europe might lead us to prefume
that they area fimple accidental variety in a {pecies of
animals the race of which are inceffantly croficdand mingled;
a variety which may have been called Turkith dog, becaufe
having {carcely any hair they have fome refemblance to the
Turks, with whole ferupulous attention to eradicate their
hair every one is well acquainted. The author of the
{port{man’scabinet tells us, the bull dog, the naked or Turkifh
dog, and the Iceland dogs are faid to conftitute but one race,
which being removed from cold countries where the fur,
hair, or wool is always ftrong, into the warmer climates of
Africa and India, have loft their hair. The Turkifh dog, ic
is remarked likewife, is nothing but the {mail Danifh dog,
which having been tranfported to a much warmer climate
loft its hair, and was afterwards returocd to Turkey, and
propagated more carefully on account of his fingularity.
This opinion is, however, difcountenanced by the foregoing
oofervations.

Terrier, a {mall thickfet dog, of which there are two
kinds, one with the legs fhort, the back long, and mott
commonly of a black or yellowifh colour mixed with white ;
the other of more fprightly appearance, with the body
fhorter, and the colour reddifh brown or black. In both
the difpofition is nearly the fame; it has an acute {mell, is
generally an attendant on every pack of hounds, and is very
expert in forcing foxes and-other game out of their coverts.
Its determined hoftility againft rats, mice, and other animals
of the like defcription, renders it really ferviceable. The
terrier is well known to encounter the badger, whichis a
fosmidable animal, with great courage, and not often without

fuccefs, thovgh it feldom fails to meet with» fevere treats
ment in thofe engagements. ‘To the fox as well as badger
it is an implacable enemy, and purfues every kind of game-
fecreted in {ubterraneous retreats with more alacrity than>
any other of the dog race. The huntimen are exceedingly:
choice in their feleétion of terriers for a fox hunting eftablifhe.
ment ; their fize is not fo much regarded as ftrength, but

they mutt poffefs, as an indifpenfable qualification, the mol
invincible fortitude. The black, and black tanned, or
rough wire-haired pied are preferred; for it is obferved, that
thofe inclining to a reddifh: colour are fometimes in the clas
mour of the chafe. :

Turnfpit, a {piwited, aGtive, andinduftrious kind of dog;.
confidered once as an ind:fpenfable attendant on the {pity
which, by a peculiar contrivance, and the aid of its own ex:
ertions, it was enabled to turn at an even pace. This offce-
of the canine turnfpit has, however, been gradually fuper-
feded by the introdution of the ‘jack’? in this country,
except in fome particular places. It is fhill praGifed in
France and Germany. The turnfpit is diftinguifhed by
having the body long, the legs very fhort, and the tail curled
on the back ; its ufual colour is greyifh with black {pots
Gmelin has three varieties of this family. of dogs, one of:
which has the feet ftraight, another the feet curved, and
the third having the body covered with long curly hair
The terrier is the Gmelinian canis vertagus.

Beagle. The {malleft of thofe dogs which are kept-for
the pleafure of the chaee in this country, and which is em-=.
ployed chiefly in hunting the hare. ‘The huntf{man diftine -
guithes two or more diftiné varieties, as the *‘ rough beagie’?”
and ‘¢ {mooth beagle,’? &c. and each kind has its particular’
admirers. ‘Che beagle is remarkable for the exquifitenefs of-
its fcent, and the foft and mufical melody of its tone.

Harrier, avozher of the hunting dogs, clofely allied to the
beagle, and like that kind comprehending feveral varieties.
This is larger than the beagle, more nimble, and vigorous,
and better adapted to endure the labour of the chace. In.
the purfuit of the hare, it evincesthe warmelt ardour, and.
frequently outttrips the {peed of the fleeteft fportfman. A
hybrid breed between this and the terricr, is fometimes kept:
for hunting the otter, the dog produced. being a hound of-
great ftrength and adiivity. Stes

Fox-hound. The breeding and training of this kind of dog
is attended to with fo much care in this country, that it can
admit of no furprife to find them fuperior in ftrength, agility,
and f{wiftnefs, to thofe of every other partof the world;
the unrivalled excellence of the Britifh’ fox-hound is univere-
fally acknowledged. In choofing thofe animals, fuch as-
{tard high and appear light in their make are deemed pre-
ferable. The fox-hcund ts not limited to the purfuit of the.
fox only, but is infiru&ted alfo to bunt the Sag and other deer,
and are found equal to the mot arduous contefts of the chace..
It is affirmed, that the fox-hounds reared in this country:
Jofe much of their native vigour, on being tranfported inte-
any other climate. :

One of the moft remarkable inftances of the {peed and.
determined perfeverance of this kind of hounds, occurred.
many years ago in the north of England. A flag was
hunted from Whinfield park, in the county of Weftmoreland,
til) by fatigue or accident the whole pack was thrown outs.
except two fox-hounds bred by lord Thanet, who conti-
nued the chace during the greateft part of the day. The
ftag returned to the park from whence he had been driven,
and as his laft effort: leaped over the wall, and died as foon.
as he had accomplifhed it. One of the hounds ran tothe
wall, but heing unable to get over it, laid down and almoit
immediately expired:_ the other hound was found dead

7 about

DOG.

about half a mile from the park. The length of this chace
is unecrtain, but as they were feen at Red-kirks, near
Annan, in Scotland, diftant on the poft road about forty-fix
miles, it is conjetured, the circuitous courfe they took,
could not make the diftance ran Jefs than one hundred and
twenty miles. A chace of fix or eight hours has been fuf-
tained by thefe hounds on many occafions, but their fwift-
nefs cannot perhaps be more forcibly inftanced, than by
fome experiments that have been lately determined in the
fporting world. One efpecially fhould be noticed: about
the year 1795, Merkin, a celebrated fox-hound bitch, was
challenged to run any hound of her years, five miles over
Newmarket, giving 220 yards, for 10,000 guineas, and aga
run for trial, performed a race of four miles in feven mi-
nutes anda half. :

Old Englifb hound is diftinguifhed by its great fize and
ftrength : the body is long, with a deep chelt, its ears long
and {weeping, and the tone of its voice peculiarly deep and
mellow. It pofleffes the moft exquifite fenfe of {melling,
and can often difcover the fcent an hourafter the beagles
have given itup. Dogs of this kind were once common in
Britain, and are faid to be formerly much larger than at

refent. © ~

The Kiblle hound isa crofs breed between this and the
beagle.

Blood hound, a dog of larger fize than the old Englih
hound, more beautiful in its formation, and pofleffing {upe-
rior aGtivity and fagacity. The prevailing colour is reddifh
brown. ‘This fort of hound was held in high requeft among
our anceftors, and as it was remarkable for the moft exqui-
fite fenfe of {melling, was frequently employed in recovering
game that had efcaped from the hunter. It could follow,
with great certainty, the footfteps of a man to a confider-
able diftance, and was therefore of the utmoft utility in
thofe barbarous and uncivilized times, in tracing murderers
and other felons through the moft fecret coverts. Tn many
diftri&s, infefted with robbers, a certain number of thefe
hounds were maintained at the public charge, and in gene-
ral proved the means of difcovering the perpetrators of
crimes when every other endeavour failed of tuccefs, Upon
the Scottifh borders, where it was known by the name of
Sleu:h-hound, it was efpecially ferviceable.

The breed of this kind of dog is not very generally culti-
vated at this time. Some few are kept for the purfuit of
deer which have been previoufly wounded by a fhot to draw
blood, the feent of which enables the dog to purfue with
the greatelt certainty. During the American war numbers
of thefe dogs were fent to that country, and employed in
difcovering fugitives concealed in the woods and other fecret
places: they were in ufe alfo, for a fimilar purpofe, during
the late revolts in the Weft Indian iflands, and likewife in
Treland at the time of the laft rebellion. They are fome«
times employed in difcovering deer-ftealers, whom they in-
fallibly trace by the blood that iffues from the wounds of
their victims. They are alfo faid to be kept in convents
fituated in the lonely mountainous countries of Switzerland,
both as a guard to the facred manfions as well as to find out
the bodies of men who have been unfortunately loft in croff-
ing thofe wild and dreary traéts. As an in{tance of the
certainty with which the blood-hound purfues the objeé it
is required to feek, it is related by Mr. Boyle, that a per-
fon of quality, in order to try whether a young blood-
hound was well initruéted, caufed one of his fervants to
waik to a town four miles off, and then to a market town
three miles from thence. The dog, without feeing the
‘man he was to purfue, followed him by the fcent to the
above-mentioned places, notwithitanding the multitude of

market people that went the fame way, and travellers that
had occafion to crofs it: and when the blood-hound came
to the chief market-town, he paffed through the ftreets
without taking notice of any of the people there, and did
not quit the place till he had gone to the houle where the
man was refting himfelf, and whom he found fitting in one
of the upper apartments.

Spanifh Pointer, originally, as its name implies, a native of
Spain, bui long fince naturalized in this country. This dog
is remarkable for the aptnefs with which it receives in{truc-
tion, and is much more readily broke and trained to the {port
than the Englith pointer, but is lefs capable of enduring
fatigue. It is employed chiefly in finding partridges, pheas
fants, &c. either for the dog or gun.

Englifh Setter, a hardy, nimble, and handfome dog, pofs
feffed of an exquilite fcent and fagacity in difcovering va.
rious kinds of game, and which is upon the whole efteemed
one of the moft valuable of our hu@ting dogs.

« The Setter ranges in the new-fhorn fields,
His nofe in air ere; from ridge to ridge
Panting he bounds, his quartered ground divides
In equal intervals, nor carelefs leaves
One inch untried: at length the tainted gales

. His noftrils wide inhale: quick joy elates
His beating heart, which awed by difcipline
Severe, he dares not own, but cautious creeps
Low-cow’ring, ftep by ftep; at laft attains ~
His proper diftance: there he ftops at once,
And points with his inftru€tive nofe upon
The trembling prey.” Somerville,

Alco, a kind of dog defcribed by Buffon, and which jas
faid to be diftinguifhed by the {mallnefs of its head, and
pendulous ears, curved back, and fhort tail. The alco is
reported to be the original, or indigenous dog found by the
Spaniards in South Anierica, at the time of the difcovery of
that valt continent. It is fubjeét to two diftin@ varieties,,
one of which Hernandez calls Yizucinte porcotl: this alfo
bears, according to Fernandez, the name cf Michuacanens rs
the other is called Techichi. The former has the head white
in front, with the ears yellowifh, the neck fhort, the back
curved, and covered with yellow hair: tail white, fhort,
and pendulous, belly large and {potted with black, and the
legs white. The other correfponds pretty nearly with this,
but has a wilder and more melancholy air. The beit account:
extant of this kind of dog is not fo fatisfaétory av we
could wilh; and the following variety alfo appertains fo
nearly to the wolf tribe, that we cannot admit it among the
dog tribe Without expreffing fome doubt as to its propriety.

Dingo, or New Holland Dog.—1n this animal the {rout
is pointed, the ears erect, and the tail bufhy and pendulous ;. -
its ftature is that of the largeft fhepherd’s dog, and its co-
lour a reddifh dun brown, the hair Jong, thick, and ltraight.
It 18 capable of barking, though not fo readily as the Eu-
repean dogs, but f{narls and howls exactly like them, not-
with{tarding which, it has been reprefented as unable to.
either bark or {narl. Thofe which have been brought to
Europe evince a favage and untractable difpotition, altoge-
ther diftin& from that fhewn by the dogx race to the kind
familiarity of maa.

The above appear to contftitute the leading varieties of this
generous breed of animals; but of this let us be underitood
to {peak with hefitation, for it cannot be unkuown that
{carcely any two writers agree in this refpect. By fome
the diftingtive breeds or varieties of this race are multiplied
perhaps in a fuperfluous manner, while others condenfe
them within a fmaller compafs than is neceflary, It A

eed:

DOG.

ceed a taf of difficulty to mark the line of definition, by
which the varieties ouzht, in every inftance, to be divided.
The tranfitions dependant on croffing the breed, the influ-
ence of different climates, their employment, feed, and
training, all contribute fo materially to effet a change in
their appearance, as to offer innumerable, if not infurmount-
able, obitacles, to the eftablifhment of any fyftematic ar-
rangement that fhall be free from objection. How, indeed,
can we dwell on the permanency of diltinétive varieties in
dogs, when the ableft and moft experienced obfervers affirm,
that the fame breed, tranfported into different climates,
becomes fo diffimilar, as to be fcarcely, if at all, recogniz-
able. Thus, the bulldog, it is efferted, tranfported into
the north of Europe, is become the little Danifh dog, or
nurtured in the hotter regions of Africa, the naked dog;
and fimilar changes are obferved to be produced by change
of climate in other varieties. By crofling the breeds, like-
wife, we have varictiegginnumerable. Thus, it is believed,
that the Danith dog, ¥ Irith greyhound, and the common
greyhound of this country, though they appear fo different,
are but oneand the fame dog. The fhepherd’s dog, the Po-
meranian, the Siberian, the Lapland and Canadian dogs, are
alfo faid to conftitute only one kind: and the fame is ob-
ferved again of the hound, the harrier, the turnfpit, water-
dog, and even fpaniel. Among the crofs breeds, we may
inftance the bull-dog and little Dane producing the pug-
dog; the {mall Danifh dog and the f{pamiel, the lion dog;
and the little fpaniel, and the Icfler water-dog, the Maltefe
kind. Many other inftances might be adduced, were not
thefe efteemed fufficient to fhew that feveral of the fuppofed
primitive varietics are not really fuch, but depend on the in-
fluence of climate, and intermixture of the breeds.

Dr. Caius, an Englifh phyfician in the reign of queen
Elizabeth, has given the following fyftematical arrangement
of Britith dogs:

ff Terrier.
‘ Hounds. { Hare
Blood-hound.
Gaze-hound.
» Grey-hound.
Leviner, or Lyemmer.
Tumbler,

4
«

A A 4

= ¢ Spaniel.
Setter.
Water-fpaniel, or Finder.

I. The mof generous kinds.
dogs, Fowlers, Dogs of chace
=

{ spel gentle, or Comforter,

Lap

na

hepherd’s dog. ; f
aftiff, or Ban-dog.

<

Wappe. °
Turnfpit.
Dancer.

III. Mongrels. II. Farm-dogs.
Gees PAC mae

The law takes notice of a grey-hound, maftiff-dog, fpa-
niel, and tumbler ; for trover will lie for them. (Cro. Ehiz.

125. Cro. Jac. 44.) A man hath a property in a mafti£ ;
and where a maittiff falls on another’s dog, the owner of that
dog cannot juitify killing of the mattiff; unlels there was na
other way to fave his dog, as that he could not take off the
maitiff, &c. (i Saund. 84. 3 Salk. 139.) The owner of a
dog is bound to muzzle him if miichievous, but not other-
wile: and if a man keeps a dog that is ufed to do mifchief,
as by worrying fheep, biting cattle, and the like, the owner
mult anfwer for the confequences, if he knows of fuch an
evil habit. (Cro. 254.457. Stra. 1264.) By ttat. 10 Geo. III.
c, 18. ftealing of dogs incurs a forfeiture from 20/. to 30 /.
and charges of conviction for the firlt offence, or an imprifon-
ment for any time between fix and twelve months, at the
difcretion of two jultices ; and for a fubfsquent offence, of
not lefs than 30/. nor more than so/. and charges, or on
nonpayment, imprifonment for twelve to eighteen months,
and public whipping. Perfons alfo, in whofe cuftody dogs,
or their fkins are found, are liable to like penalties.

We fhall wave {peaking at any confiderable length on
the'many valuable qualities which fo eminently charaéterize
this valuable race of animals, in a general point of view:
thefe are too obvious to require demonftration, and have
abundant claim to the generous impulfe of our gratitude,
as well as pavegyric. ‘The dog is our fervant, but he is
alfo our companion and our friend, and who, by his vigilance
and attachment, more than amply repays the kindnefs we
beftow on him. But the good qualities of this animal,
though uniformly felt, are not invariably acknowledged. In
England the dog is cherifhed and protected, but there are
many parts of the world, not even to inftance the more un-
civilized ftates, where the condition of thefe ill-fated ani-
mals may juttly excite our commiferation ; countries ia
which the moit folid and beneficial advantages are derived
to fociety from their zeal and indultry, and in reward for
which they receive only the moft inhuman and ungrateful
treatment, deteftation, and contempt. It is, indeed, but too
generally in the cruel difpofition of man, to recompenfe the
molt important fervices of the brute creation with the
coldeft infenfibility and barbarity.

Notwith{tanding the extraordinary natural faculties of the
dog, it mult be allowed that much depends on his education,
and {uch is his docility as well as fagacity, that he rarely fails
to improve to the utmoft expetation of his tutor. ‘Fhere
are numberlefs inftances in which he mult have exceeded
every reafonable idea that could have been entertained of him.
Inflances of this kind muft be familtar to every reader, but
there are two or three anecdotes on record of fuch an extra-
ordinary nature, that we casnot refrain repeating them; they
feem to evince a degree of dexterity and talent fo much be-
yond the comprehenfion of the brute creation, that they cannot
prove irrelevant. It is recorded of a dog, belonging to a
nobleman of the Medici family, that he always attended at
its mafter’s table, changed the plates for him, and carried
him his wine in a glafs placed on a falver, without fpillinga
drop! This is furely a molt aftonifhing inftance of canine
fagacity, but its attainments were perhaps outrivalled by tke
dog who was taught to fpeak. The dog alluded to is mene
tioned by the French academicians ; it lived in Germany, and
could call in an intelligible manner, for tea, coffee, chocolate,
&e. The account is given by the celebrated Leibnitz, and
was briefly this : the dog was of a middling fize, and was the
property of a peafant in Saxony. AA little boy, the peafant’s
fon, imagined that he perceived in the dog’s voice an indif-
ting refemblance to certain words, and was therefore deter-
mined to teach him to fpeak diftin@ly. For this purpofe he
{pared neither time nor pains with his pupil, who was about
three ycars eld, when his learned education commenced ; and

at

E D OG,

at length he made fuch a progrefs in laneuage as to be able
to articulate no lefs than thirty words. It appears, however,
that he was fomewhat of a truant, and did not very willingly
exert his taleats, being rather preffed into the fervice of li-
terature, and it was neceffary that the words fhould be firft
‘pronounced to him each time before he fpoke. The French
academicians add, that.unlefs they had received the teftimony
of fo great aman as Leibnitz, they fhould {carcely have dared
to report the circumitance. This wonderful dog was born
near Zeitz, in Mifnia in Saxony.

There is not, perhaps, inthe univerfe, acountry in which the
dog enjoys a greater degree of uberty than in Britain, nor any
in whic the dificrent breeds in general are to be found in a
higher ftate of improvement: particular nations may boall of
their peculiar or local varieties, but we {peak general'y.

Dogs in many countries are fubjected to the feverett labour.
In Lapland and Siberia the dogs are compelled to convey
travellers over the ice and fyows of thofe inhofpitable reyions,
in return for a {i litary daily meal of the filthy offals of fifh,
Lcarcely fufficient to fupport life, and which they receive only
when the labour of the day is over. Nor is their fate lefs
fevere in Newfoundland, where the dogs of that country are
employed as animals of dranght for every fimilar purpofe.
In Holland, according to Mr. Pratt, there is not an idle dog
of any material fize to be feen in the whole feven provinces.
You fee them in harnefs at ail parts of the Hague, as well as
in other towns, tugging at barrows and little carts with their
tongue nearly {weeping the ground, and their poor palpitat-
ing hearts almoft beating through their fides: frequently
three, four, five, or fometines fix abreaft, drawing men
and merchandize with the {peed of little horfes. On paffing
from the Hague-gate to Scheveling, you perceive, at an
kour of the day, an incredible number loaded with fifh and
men, under the burden of which they run off at a long trot,
and fometimes at full gallop, the whole mile and half, which
is the precife diftance from gate to gate; nor on their re-
turn are they fuffered to come with their barrows empty,
being filled not only with the men and boys before mentioned,
but with fuch commodities as are marketable at the village.
This writer further adds, that it is no uncommon thing in the
middle of fummer to fee thefe poor patient, perfevering ani=
mals. urged and driven beyond their utmoft ability, till they
drop down on theroad. Thefe dogs in the fummer time are
occafionally brought down to the beach and bathed in the fea,
a practice calculated to prevent the diforders incidental to the
canine breed, and highly conducive to their bealth and vi-

our. The cuftom of employing dogs for the conveyance of
Heute carts of a peculiar con{lruction, has begun, within the
Jaft three or four years, to be prevaleat in the vicinity of our
own metropolis, but they are only dogs of the more robuft
kinds that are in ufe for this purpofe.

In the city of Lifbon an immenfe multitude of dogs are al-
lowed to wander in troops without any fettled habitation, or
owners, and which fubfift entirely on the offals, and offerfive
filth of every defcription, thrown from the windows of the
houfes into the ftreets at a certain hour of the night, ap-
pointed by the police. During the day.time thefe poor, dif-
gufting, and half-famifhed animals, zre {een lurking under the
door-porches, in alleys, ftables,,or ruined bnildings, from
whence they iffue in the evening, and perambulate the ftreets
in troops in queft of food. At fuch times it becomes ad-
vifable for paflengers to avoid as much as poflible approach-
ing them, as their hunger and confli€ts between each other
render them extremely ferocious, and, fhould they attack
them, would not fail to punifh their temerity for not keeping
atadiltance. Thefe canine fcavengers are not fanétioned
or protected by the law, but, as before intimated, are per-

mitted by the police, forthe fake of cleanlinefs, to-infet the
ftreets of Lifbon. Vhroughout Turkey, and other Maho«
metan countries, dogs are reared in confiderable numbers,
but are in general treated with harfhnefs and indifference,
In Kamtfchatkz, independently of the fervices which dogs
afford during a fhort and painful life, already mentioned,
their fins are worn as cloathing, and their long hair for or-
nament. In America, and-yarious other parts of the world,
the flefh of the dog is eaten, and is ‘to be found commonly
with other kinds of meat and game in the public markets,
In the Society iflands they are fattened with vegetables,
crammed down their throats, when they will not voluntarily
eat any more, as we cram turkies. They are killed by
flrangling, and the extravafated blood is preferved in cocoa-
nut fhells, and baked for the table. The ancients alfo reck-
oned a young and fat dog excellent focd, efpecially if it had
been caftrated. Hippocrates claffed it with mutton or pork.
The Romans admired fucking whelfss, and facrificed them to
their divinities ; a praétice then obferved by the Afiatic and
American favages, to enfure favour or avert evil; and the
Romans thought them alfo a fupper in which the gods them-
felves delighted.

Docs, Difcafes cf. Thefe animals are fubje& to a great
varicty of difcafes, even in a ftate of nature, and much more
fo when they are domefticated with man. In thefe latter
circumftances, we find them attacked with almolt as greata
variety of difeafes as man himfelf. As this is the cafe, it
will at once appear how very unfit a hunt{man, a groom,
or even a farrier, muft be to adminifter to the fick wants
of an animal, incapable of defcribing his difeafe, and rea-
dered tender by art. Mr. Blaine, who has direéted his pare
ticular attention to this fubjeét, has furnifhed us with the
following abftraét, or fummary of thofe difeafes, that are
moft prevalent, and that commit the greatelt ravages among
thefe animals, affuring us that the remarks here made are
the refult of a€tual and attentive obfervation. :

Afihma.—There is a kind of affeGion of the chef to
which dogs are fubje&, that in its appearances and effects
fo much refembles the human difeafe of this name, and is fo
little hike any other difcafe, that it may with great pro-
priety be called afthma. It has, however, this {pecife
difference from human afthma, that whereas this latter ate
tacks perfons of all ages, and under every peculiarity of cir-
cumftance, the canine a‘thma is hardly ever obferved to ate
tack any but either old dogs, or thofe who, by confinement,
too full living, and want of exercife, may be fuppofed to
have become difeafed by thefe deviations trom a flate of na-
ture. There are very few dogs that live much within
doors, or are accultomed to much confinement of any kind,
which at 5, 6, or 7 years old are not troubled with a
fhort dry diftrefling cough, which firtt fteals on them by
unperceived degrees, with a flight hufk and difpofition to
bring fomething up, gradually becoming more frequent, till
at laft it is almoft inceflant; producing a dry fonorous
cough, accompanied with mori cyes and continued efforts to
bring up a {mall quantity of frothy mucus. This gives
momentary relief, but the cough foon returns. After laft-
ing a longer. or fhorter period (fometimes for feveral years)
according to eircumftances, the dog has occafional fits, and
from the united effeéts of thefe, he is at laft cut off, either
by ftrangulation or emaciation.. In fome cafes the origin
of the complaint may be afcribed to a cold, but even in
thefe inflances the foundation has been previoufly laid by
too much confinement, or by the animal’s being too fat,
which laft circumftance is fo certain a caufe of it, that it
is hardly poffible to keep a dog very fat for any great
length of tkme, without bringing it on. .

This

DOG.

This cough is frequently confounded with the cough
that precedes, or accompanies diftemper, but it may be rea-
dily dittinguifhed from this by an attention to circumftances;
vas the age of the animal, its not affeGting the general
health, nor producing immediate emaciation, and its lefs
readily giving way to medicine.

Tbe Cure.—This is often very difficult, becaufe the dif-
eafe has in general been long negleG@ed before it is foffi-
ciently noticed by the owners. As it is in general brought
on by confinement, too much warmth, and over feeding ;, fo
it is evident the cure muft be begun by a fteady perfever-
ing alteration in thefe particulars. The exercife fhould by
no means be violent, but gentle and long continued. The
food muft be moderate, ard principally vegetable; and
without being expofed the dog fhould have plenty of free
air. As the want of pure air brings the difeafe on in mof
inftances, fo the accefs of it muft tend to remove it- The
former is fo certain, that it almoft invariably happens to
thofe dogs, who are permitted to fleep withinfide a bed,
even though tbey fhould bave in other refpeéts proper
treatment, as moderate feeding and plenty of exercife.
The medicines moft ufeful are alteratives, and of thefe oc-
cational emetics are the beft. One grain of tartarifed anti-
mony (i. e. tartar emetic) with two, three, or four grains of
calomel, is a very ufeful and valuable emetic.
is fufficient for a fmall dog, acd may be repeated twice
a week with great fuecefs, always with palliation. 7

Blindnefs —Dogs are fubje&t to almoft as many affec-
tions of the eyes as ourfelves, many of which end in blind-
nefs. In diftemper it is very common for a {mall abfcefs
to form immediately on the pupil of the eye; fometimes
this becomes fo large as to let out the whole contents of
the globe of the eye, in which cafe blindnefe is the inevit-
able confequence; but more frequently it heals and leaves
only an opaque {pot, and even this generally ina few months
difappears. In thefe cafes it is of more confequence to at-
tend to the difeafe than to the eye itfelf, which may be
imply wafhed with a mild wafh of Goulard. -

Blindnefs comes on frequently from catara€&t, which is an
opacity of the inner part of the eye within the pupil; moft
‘old dogs have partial catara&t, that is, the bottom of the
eye becomes milky and opaque ; but the cryftalline lens
does not harden or become wholely white. No treatment
yet difcovered will remove or prevent this complaint.

Score Eyes, though not in general ending in blindriels, are
very common among dogs. It is an aiicGtion of the eyelids,
ami is not unlike the {crophulous affe&tion of the human
eyelids, and is equally benefitted by the fame treatment :
an unguent made of cqual parts of nitrated quick-filver
ointment, prepared tutty and lard, very hghtly applied.
Dropfy of the eyeball is likewife fometimes met with, but
is incurable.

Cancer.—The virulent dreadful ulcer that is fo fatal
tn the human fubj<@, and is called cancer, is unknown
in dogs; yet there is very commonly a Jarge fchirrous
{weling of the teats in bitches, and of the tefticles (though
lefs frequent) in dogs, that as it fometimes becomes ulcerated,
fo itmay be charaéterized by this name. When bitches are
not permitted to breed, the milk they form, which they do
withcut being preznant, nine weeks after their heat, coagu-
lates in the teats, and becomes a fource of irritation, and
gradually a fchirrous {welling is formed, which increafes to
‘a very large fize; we bave feen them of feveral pounds.
Sometimes ulcers break out on the furface, which increafe
gradually, but do not appear to diftrefs the animal, or affect
ithe health in any degree equal to the apparent magnitude of
tthe complaint. In the early ftate of the difeafe difcutients

This dofe-

prove ufeful, as vinegar with falt. Campher and Spanitk
flies, with mercurial ointment, have fometimes fucceeded ;
taking care to avoid irritating the part fo much as to produce
bhifter. But when the {welling is detached from the belly,
and hangs pendulous in the fkin, it had better be removed,
and as a future preventive fuffer the bitch to breed.

Schirrous tefticles are likewife fometimes met with; for
thefe no treatment yet difcovered fucceeds, but the removal
of the part, and that before the {permatic chord becomes
much affected, or it will be ufelefs.

Colic. —Dogs are fubje& to two kinds of colic; one
arifing from -conftipation of the bowels, the other is of a
kind peculiar to dogs, apparently partaking of the nature
of rheumatifm, and alfo of fpafm. From a fudden or vio-
lent expofure to celd, dogs become fometimes fuddenly pa-
ralytic, particularly in the hinder parts; having great ten-
dernefs and pain, and every appearance of lumbago. In
every inftance of this kind, there is confiderable affeGtion of
the bowels, generally coftivenefs, always great pain. A
warm bath, external ftimulants, but more particularly ative
aperients, remove the colic. The future treatment will be
detailed under the head RuEumartism.

Colic, arifing from coftivenefs, is not in general violently
acute in the pain it produces; fometimes, however, it appears
accompanied with more fpafm than is immediately depend-
ant on the confinement of the bowels. In the former give
ative aperients, as calomel with pil. cochiz, i. e. aloetic pill
and glyiters; in the latter caftor oil with laudanum and
ether.

Cough —Two kinds of cough are common among dogs,
one accompanying diftemper, the other is an althmatic af-
feGtion of the cheft. See Asruma, and the next article.

Diftemper —This is by far the moft common and moft
fatal'among the difeafes of dogs. This alone deftroys by
thoufands more than all the other difcafes together: hardly
any yourg dog efcaping it. And of the few who do efcape
it in their youth, three-fourths are attacked with it at fome
period afterwards: it being a miftake that young dogs only
have it. No age ts exempt. We have feen repeated in-
ftances of it after ten, twelve, and even fourteen years of
age. It however generally attacks before the animal arrives
at eightecn months old. When it comes on very early the
chances of recovery are very fmall. It is peculiarly fatal
to greyhounds, much more fo than to any other kind of dog,
generally carrying them off by exceflive fcouring. It 1a
very contagiows, but itis by no means neceffary that there
fhould be contagion prefent to produce it; on the contrary,
the conftit:.tional liability to it 1s fach, that any cold taken
may bring it on: and hence it is very-common to date its
commencement from a-dog’s being thrown into water, or
fhat out ina rainy day, &c. &c. There is no difeafe that
prefents fuch varieties as this, cither in its mode of attack,
or during its continuance. In fome cafes it commences by
purging, in others by fits. Some have cough only, fome
walte, and others have moifture from the eyes and nole, withe
out any other a@ive fymptom.

Moit eyes, dulnefs, waiting, with flight cough, and
fickne{s, are the common fymptoms that betoken its ap-
proach. Then purging cémes on, and the moilture from the
eyes and nofe becomes from mere mucus, pus, or matter.
There is alfo frequently {neezing, with a weaknefs in the
loins. When the difeafe in this latter cafe is not ipeediy re-
moved, univerfal paily comes on. During the progreis of
the complaint, dogs have fome of them fits. When one
fit fucceeds another quick'y, the recovery is extremely doubt.
ful. Many dogs are carried off rapidly by the fits, or by
purging ; others wae gradually from the running from the

3 nofe

DOG.

nofe-and eyes, and thefe cafes are always accompanied with
great marks of putridity.

The remote caufe of the diftemper it is difficult to explain,
nor do the moft careful diffeGtions in every ttage of the com-
plaint afcertain more than that there is a general inflamma-
tion of the mucous membrane: but whether the true feat of
the difeafe is confined to ¢hat, membrane, and all the other
{ymptoms are the confequerces of it, or are real affeCtions
of the other parts, is an undecided point ; although it is
certain, that its firft appearance is an inflammation of the
pituitary membrane, and that this is one of the moft latting
as well as conftant fymptoms. ‘That this mflammatioa is
communicated from the membrane of the nofe to the upper
part of the gullet and windpipe, is evident by the {welling of
the glands of the throat, the tendernefs and dry cough;
and that this inflammation extends from thence to the fame
niembrane of the ftomach and inteftines is equally fo, pro-
ducing vomiting, coftivenefs, or purging. The diftemper
in dogs is thought to have one charaCteriftic in common with

’ the putrid fore throat in human beings, that it generally at-
tacks the weakelt ; children being the moft and women more
liable to it than men, and fo young hounds more readily
catch the diftemper than old ones. When at their walks, or
firft taken up from them, the diforder is confidered as moft
dangerous, and if one has the difeafe, they will all take it.
Mr. Beckford alfo coincides in the opinion that madnels, the
dog’s inflammatory fever, is lefs frequent than it was before
the dikemper was known.

_The Cure—In the early ftages of the complaint give
emetics, they are peculiarly ufeful. A large fpoonful of
common falt, diffolved in three fpoonfuls of warm water,
has been recommended ; the quantity of falt being increafed
according to the fize of the dog, and the difficulty of mak-
ing him to vomit. While a dog remains ftrong, one every
other day is not too much: the bowels fhould be kept open,
but aétive purging fhould be avoided. In cafe the complaint
fhould be accompanied with exceflive loofenefs, it fhould be
immediately {topped by balls made with’equal parts of gum
arabic, prepared chalk, and conferve of rofes, with rice
milk as food. ‘Two or three grains of James’s powder may
be advantageoufly given at night, in cafes where the bowels
are not affe&ted, and in the cafes where the matter from the
nofe and eyes betokens much putridity, we have witnefled
great benefit from balls made of what is termed Friar’s bal-
fam, gum guaicum, and chamomile flowers in powder: but
the moft popular remedy is a powder prepared and vended
under the name of Diftemper Powder, with inftru€tions for
the ufe of it. Dogs, in every ftage of the difeafe, fhould be
particularly wellfed. A fitton we have not found fo ufeful
as is generally fuppofed; where the nofe is much ftopped,
rubbing tar on the upper part. is ufeful, and when there is
much {tupidity, and the head feems much affeied, a blifter
on the top is often ferviceable.

Mr. Beckford mentioas a remedy for the diftemper, com-
municated to him by a friend, whofe hounds had found great
benefit from it; this was an ounce of Peruvian bark ina
glafs of port wine, takentwice a day. Norris’s drops have
alfo been given with fuccefs in the quantity of a large table-
fpoonful in an equal quantity of port-wine, three times a
day, leflening the quantity as the dog grew better.

Mr. Daniel (Rural Sports, vol. i,) informs us, that he
has witnefled extraordinary fuccefs from Dr. James’s pow-
ders, applied in the following manner: when the {ymptoms
of the diftemper are apparent, a /hird of one of the parcels
inclofed in the half-crown packets fhould be given, well
mixed up with butter; the dog to have plenty of warm
broth or milk and water, and if poffible, to be neara fire, or

Vou, XII,

hausa

be kept very warm; two hours afterwards another third
part is to be adminiltered. If neither of thefe fhould ope-
rate by vomiting or purging, at the end of four hours give
the remaining third. Should the two firft portions have
effe&, the remaining third fhould not be given until four or
fix bours (according to the quantity of the evacuation)
after the expiration of the four hours; in the mean while
the dog is to be encouraged to lap, and if he refufes, be
forced to take plentifully of the warm broth or milk and
water. Warmth and warm liquids will perfect the reco-
very : and as foon as the dog’s apprtite returos, he fhould be
fed (at firft {paringly) with animal food. The following
remedies have been recommended, and in fome cafes of the
diforder, have been effeGtual in its cure; viz. 14 gr. of ca-
lomel, and 5 gr. of rhubarb, to be repeated every other
Gay ;—4 gr. of turbith mineral, and 1 gr. of emetic tar-
tar, the dog having been firft bled ;—a tea-{poonful of je-
lap, half the quantity of grated ginger, a table fpoonful of
{yrup of buckthorn, made into a ball, or given liquid in
warm water, no milk but water-gruel being given to drink,
and the dog kept very warm:—gamboge, dragon’s blood,
and Jefuit’s bark, of each half an ounce, made into pills
the fize of a hazle nut ; one pill to be given every morning
to a full grown dog, till cured ; and to a whelp, three times
a week; the dogs having full liberty to run out. Dr. Dar-
win has given the following account of this diforder, and of
the method of counteraéting its malignity. In dogs, he fays,
the catarrh is generally joined with fymptoms of debility carly
in the difeafe ; the animals fhould be allowed to go about in
the open air, becaufe the air which they breathe paffes
twice, in in{piration and expiration, over the putrid floughs
of the mortified parts of the membrane, which lines the nof-
trils, and the maxillary and frontal cavities, and muft, there«
fore, be loaded with contagious particles. Frefh new milk,
and frefh broth fhould be given them very frequently, and
they fhould be fuffered to go amongit the grafs, which they
fometimes eat for the purpofe of an_emetic ; and if poffible,
they fhould have accefs to a running {tream of water, a3 the
contagious mucus of the noftrils generally drops into the wa-
ter, which they attempt to drink. Bits of raw flefh, if the
dog will eatthem, are preferable to cooked meat, and from
five to ten drops of tin¢ture of opium, according to the fize
of the dog, may be given with advantage when fymptoms
of debility are evident, every fix hours. If floughs can be
feen on the noftrils, they fhould be moiftened twice a day
with a folution of fugar of lead or of alum, by means of a
{ponge fixed on a bit of whalebone, or by a fyringe. The
lotion may be made by diflolving half an ounce of fugar of
lead, or of alum, ina pint of water.

Fits.—Dogs are peculiarly fubje& to fits, Thefe are of
various kinds, and arife from various caufes. In diftemper,
dogs are frequently attacked with convulfive fits, which be-
gin with a champing of the mouth and fhaking of the head,
gradually extending over the whole body. Sometimes aa
active emetic will itop their progrefs, but more generally
they prove fatal. :

Worms are often the caufe of fitsin dogs. Thefe deprive
the animal wholly of fenfe; he runs wild till he becomes
exhaufted, when he gradually recovers, and perhaps does not
have one again for fome weeks. Confinement produces fits
likewife. Whenever a dog has been long confined, or
coming into active exercife he frequently falls into an epi-
leptic fit. Thus, after long fea voyages, they are very com-
mon, and the fame with pointers and {paniels, particularly
the latter on their firft beginning to hunt.

Coftivenefs will produce fits fometimes.

Cold water thrown over a dog will generally remove the

M prefent

omen

prefent attack of a fit; and for the prevention of their fu-
ture recurrence it is evident, that the foregoing account of
caufes muft be attended te.

Trflamed Bowels.-—~Dogsaré very fubje& to inflammation of
theirbowels, from coltivenefs, fromcold,or from poifon. When
inflammation arifes from coftivenefs, it is in general very flow
in its progrefs, and is not attended with very acute pain, but
it is charaCterifed by the want ef evacuation, and the vo-
miting up of the food taken, though it may be eaten with
apparent appetite. In thefe cafes the principal means to be
made ufe of, are the removal of the conltipation by active
purging, clyfters and the warm bath. Calomel with aloes
forms the beft purge. But when the inflammation may be
fuppofed to arife from cold, then the removing of any: coi-
tivenefs that may be prefent is but a fecondary confideration.
This aGtive kind of inflammation is charaéterifed by violent
panting, tctal rejeftion of food, and conftant ficknefs.
There is great heat in the belly and great pain; it is alfo
accompapzied with great weaknels, and the eyes are very red.
The bowels fhould be gently opened with clyfters, but no
aloes or czlomel fheuld be madeule of. The belly fhould be
bliftered, having firft ufed the warm bath.

When the inflammation arifes from poifon, there is then
conftant ficknefs, the nofe, paws, and ears are cold, and there
is a frequent evacuation of brown or bloody ftools. Caftor

oil fhould be given, and clyfters of mutton broth thrown up,’

but it is {-ldom any treatment fucceeds.

Inflamed Lungs —Picurily is not zn uncommon difeafe
among dogs... It is fometimes epidemic, carrying off great
numbers. Its attack is rapid, and it generally terminates in
death on the third day, by a very great effufion of water in
the cheft. It is a complaint that exhibits but few varieties
in dogs, attacking almoft all alike, and terminating in a
fimilar manner in all. It is feldom that it is taken intime,
when it is, bleeding is ufeful; but it mult be liberally em-
ployed. A dog wil] bear to lofe in this inftance from three
ounces to fixteen, according to his fize. If the difeafe has
proceeded beyond the fecond dey, and bleeding is employed,
it produces generally immediate death. Blifters may be appli-
ed to the chef alfo.

Madne/s.—The late alarming prevalence of this complaint
among dogs, renders the contideration and defeription of it
interc{ting and important. Except the cccafional ob-
fervations of f{portfmen, or the curfory notices of the
fymptoms attendant on it by thefe who write on human
hydrophobia, nothing has ever been written on this head
that could give any clear idea of the difeafe. ‘he wri-
ter of this article has attentively cbierved, during its whole
progrefs, more than two hundred cafes; and has diflected near
an hundred bodies of dogs who have died of the malady ;
he prefumes, therefore. that he mutt be tolerably converfant
with the fubje&. There certainly is no difeafe more fre-
quently mentioned, none on which every one fuppofes that
dhe has clear notions, and yet on which fuch total igno-
rance prevails. Several cauies confpire to render this the
cafe: one is, that except at particular periods, perhaps
once in 20 years, to {ve a mad dog is a very rare occurrence:
another is, that the peculiar fymptom which characterifes
the complaint, brought on by the bite of the -mad dog, in
the human fubje&, has been applied to the difeafe in the
dog, and has occafioned it to be called by the fame name,
hydrophobia. ‘This, in the firft place, is a palpable mifno-
mer; for in no inftance does there ever exilt any dread of
water; on the contrary, dogs are in general very greedy af-
ter it. This, thercfore, has led perfons into a very fatal
error; for it being the received opinion that no dog was
mad who would drink water, many perfons have been

lulled into a dangrous fecurity. Another equally fatel preju-
dice has exiited in the minds of perfons relative to this
complaint, which is, that every mad dog muf neceflarily be
wild and furious ; and in every defcription I have ever read
of the complaint it has been fo defcribed ; but fo erroneous
is this, that in by far tke greater number of inftances there
is very little of that wild favage fury that is expected by
the generality of perfons, or that it is defcribed by the
majority of thofe who have attempted any delineation of
the difeafe.. Hence, as it is evident that the term hydrce
phobia, charaéicrifing the affeGtion in the dog, is a mif-
nomer, fo it is evident that the term madnefs is equally fo.
In no inftance have I ever obferved a total alienation of the
mind ; in very few have the mental faculties been difturbed.
The difpofition to do mifchief is rather an increafed irvita-
bility than abfence of fenfe, for in moft inflances, even in
thofe that are furicus, they acknowledge the mafter’s voice,
and are obedient. Sport{men diftinguifh two kinds of mad-
nefs, adumb and a raging; but the diftinGtion is not al-
ways very clear. The varieties in the difeafe are immenfe ;

it 1s hard to fay what is the firft fymptom that appears.

Mr. Meynell, of {porting celebrity, drew up fome remarks,
which appeared in the 19th vol. of the Medical Commen-
taries, and were at the time confidered as the bef account
that had appeared. In this paper, he fays, that lofs of ap-
petite is the firft fymptom; but this we by no means con-
fider to appear in many inftances the firft ; but a certain pe-
culiarity in the manner of the dog ; fome ftrange departure
from his ufual habits; and this peculiarity cannot be laid
too much ftrefs en, for it is almoft invariable, and a never
failing criterion of the complaint. Ina very great number
of initances the peculiarity confifts in a difpofition to pick
up ftraws, bits of paper, rag, threads, or the fmall<it ob-
jects that may lie ona floor; and this is indu{trioufly per-
filted in till the floor or carpet is a€iually cleared of every
{mall obje& ; this peculiar chara&teriitic 1s very common in
{maller dogs; others again fhew an early peculiarity by
licking the parts of another dog; in one initance the ap-
proach of the difeafe was foretoid, by our obferving a very
uncommon attachment in a pug puppy, towards a kitten,
which he was conftantly licking ; and likewife the cold nofe
of a healthy pug that was with him; an attachment to the
fenfation of cold appears in many cafes, it being very come
mon to obferve them licking the cold iron, cold itones, &e.
Some dogs. early inthe difeafe, will eat their own excrement,
and lap ther own urine; this is by no means uncommon,
and is a very ftroog fign of madnefs: an-early antipathy to
dogs and cats is very commonly obferved ; but particularly
to cats. This is almoft invariable; the progrefs of their
irritability is often very clear, the cats are the firft objets
of their anger, next ftrange dogs; as the difeafe advances
they do not {pare the dogs they are domefticated with,
and laftiy tke perfons around ; but, except in a moment of
irritability, they feldom abfolutely attack any human per-
fon. The irritability that induces them to bite is very
ftrong ; but is devoid of wildnefs, and is rather at leait
early in the difeafe. It is more like the peevifhnefs of a child
than any fury. We fpeak of domefticated dogs. In them,
in the majcrity of inftances, the fame gentlenefs, attachment,
and obedience, are obferved during the firft days of the dif-
eafe; by degrees, however, he gently fnaps at them, or
runs at their feet, as though in play, and wiil not bite, but
will take their hand or foot in his mouth; but a ftick held
even in this ftage is fure to excite his anger to a violent degree,
even againft thofe he is moft fond of. This is a very ftrong
fymptom, and almoft a certain criterion; throughout the
difcafe here is, neverthelefs, a wonderful impatience of cons

4 _. 4roul,

DOG.

troul, and the animal is with great difficulty frightened,
though in fome inftances we have obferved the meeknefs of
the temper laft wholly through the difeafe.

In moft cafes there is a very treacherous difpofition
obferved. A dog labouring under rabies, if called,
comes, wazs his tail, fhews every mark of fondnefs, per-
mits himfelf to be noticed, and feems pleafed with atten-
tion; but ona fudden he turns and fnaps. It is not every
dog that makes any noife under rabies. Some have a violent
inflammation of the mouth and throat, producing a total
inability to bark; this by fportf{men is termed dumb mad-
nefs: but where any noife is made, which occurs in two-
thirds of the cafes that happen, this very noife forms the
trueft character of the difeafe. and affords a mark fubject to
the fewelt varieties. - It confifts in a very remarkable fhort
how], or lengthened bark, for it partakes of both; and is
fo totally unlike any thing befides, that when once heard,
it can never be forgotten or miftaken. It more nearly re-
fembles the giving tongue of a heavy flow hound, and is com-
monly made with the head held upin theair. There is great
diltrefs apparent in the countenance, with a quick anxious
look; the eyes are always red, frequently fo inflamed as to
produce matter, and the fight, in fome inftances, becomes de-
ceptive, and they {nap at objets they fancy they perceive.
In moft there is'a remarkable tendency to carry ftraw about
in their mouths, and to fcratch it up under their bellies into
heaps. Whenever this is done, the bowels have been found
very highly inflamed after death. Gnawing is almoft inva-
riable with them; boards, chains, the veffel that holds their
food or water, is gnawed, or taken up and fhook to pieces.
In many the attempt to efcape is very great. This anxiety
to efcape isa very remarkable trait in the difeafe. It isnot
the effect of delirium, as is fuppofed, nor of pain ; on the con-
trary, when a dog has efcaped, he commonly returns home
again, unlefs worried and hunted. But it is, as it were, a
peculiar anxiety to propagate the difeafe, for he travels in-
duftrioufly feeking objeéts to bite. Horfes, cows, fheep,
but peculiarly dogs, he anxioufly feeks: much lefs fre-
quently dees he attack human perfons. Having tired him-
felf, unlefs he is molefted, he returns home. It is faid that
a.rabid dog will not turn out of his road to bite, but this
can only apply to the laft ftages of the difeafe ; for in the
middle ftage, which is when the mifchievous propenfity is
the ftrongeft, and when the dog is ftrong and active, he is
indultrious in feeking objets, in faét, it is his fole purfuit.
In no inftance is there any averfion to water, but on the con-
trary, the fever accompanying the difeafe makes the dogs very
dry, and they are continually lapping, though in fome in-
itances unable to {wallow. The complaint is generally ac-
companied with coftivenefs, and there is evident mark of
pain and uneafinefs in the bowels in almoft every inftance.
It is this inflammatory affe@tion of the bowels that makes
many of them paralytic, and faulter behind. We have fren
fome, from this fame caufe, have a con{tant tendency to fit
upright on the rump. We have diffected carefully nearly
one hundred cafes, in every flage of the complaint, and
under every variety of the difeafe, and fome appearances
have been found common to all. More or lefs, every in-
ftance fhews inflammation of the ftomach and bowels, toge-
ther with the lungs. But thefe are by no means in equal
degrees. In thofe cafes where there are much reftleMnefs,
quicknefs, violent panting, and much mifchievous tendency,
with almoft inceffant barking, the inflammation of the lungs
is found to be exceflive ; and the bowels, though never with-
out fome inflammation, are found lefs fo. But when there
is more mildnefs, when the dog appears affeéted in his loins,
when he eats much ftraw, dirt, or unufual fubftances, and

frequently brings up what be has taken down, then, on dif.
fection, it will be found that the ftomach and bowels are prin.
cipally inflamed. In what is termed dumb madnefs, the
ftomach and bowels are ftill the organs that fuffer moft, but
to this is fuperadded a peculiar affeGion of the throat and
mouth. In fome the throat alone is affeéted, producing a
difficulty of {wallewing, and a very odd deep choaking
noife ; in others the whole mouth is affeéted; the tongue is
inflamed to the end, nearly black. ‘The jaw drops, and
flaver runs fait from the mouth, and there feems almott a
total paralyfis of the parts. There is feldom much mif-
chievous tendency in this variety of the difeafe; on the con-
trary, fome are to the full as mild and as tra¢iable as at any
other time, and fhew not the {mailett difpofition to bite
throughout. We have feen the moft tender offices per-
formed in many inftances of this kind, not only with im-
punity, but with great expreffions of gratitude from the
manner of the fuffering animal. In thefe cafes the parts of
the mouth and throat do not fhew any aiteration of appear-
ance after death, further than a flight increafe of vafcularity-

In the wild kind there is a very flight rednefs in the vef-
fels of the brain. In almoft every initance the ftomach is
filled with the moft unufval fubftances, ftones, ftraw, coals,
wood, and whatever can be got at. It is a remarkable fa&,
but it has occurred to us fo often, that we are pofitive as to
its exiftence ; that if, in the progrefs of the complaint, aay
very great violence is offered to the animal, the difcafe feems
arrefted, and he lives many more days than he otherwife
would have done, judging from analogy. The duration of
the complaint is various: it feldom deitroys before the third
day, and few furvive beyond the feventh. ‘The average num-
ber die on the fourth or fifth day from the firft appearance
of the difeafe.

We know of no inftance of the complaint being cured,
nor have we in any inftance ever attempted any thing
of this kind, but we flatter ourfelves that we have been
fuccefsful in bringing forward a preventive. We claim not
the difcovery of this moft valuable and truly important re-
medy ; we only, by exertion, refcued it from oblivion, and
by a long courfe of well-conduéted experiments, have efta-
blithed the certainty of its efficacy. Out of more than 90
animals, as horfes, fheep, {wine, and dogs, one only has gone
mad to whom this remedy was adminiftered; and this failure
did not occur under our own immediate infpeQion; fo that
it might have been walted or brought up. This remedy was
detailed by us as early as laft December, 1807, in the Me-
dical Review of that month, where every circumftance rela-
tive to the original recipe is communicated. This remedy,

-as by us prepared, is as follows:

Take of the frefh leaves of the tree-box 2 ounces

of the frefh leaves of rue - 2 ounces

of fage - - - - ounce.
Chop thefe fine, and boil in a pint of water to half a pint ;
ftrain carefully, and prefs out the liquor very firmly: put
back the ingredients into a pint of milk, and boil again ta
half a pint; {train as before; mix both liquors, which forms
three dofes for a human fubjeét. Double this quantity is pro-
per for a horfe or cow. Two-thirds of the quantity is fuffi-
cient for a large dog ; half for a middling fized, and one-third
fora {mall dog. Three dofes are fufficient, given each fub-
fequent morning fafting ; the quantity directed being that
which forms thefe three dofes. As it fometimes pro-
duces flrong effets on dogs, it may be proper to begin with
a fmall dofe, but we hold it always prudent to increafe the
dofe till effe€ts are evident, by the ficknefs, panting, and
uneafinefs of the dog. In the human fubje&t, where this
remedy appears equally ra we have never witnefled
2 any

Dp O'G.

any unpleafant or aétive effects. About 4o human perfons
have taken this remedy, and in every inftance it has fuc-
ceeded equally as with animals: but candour obliges us to
notice that in a confiderable proportion of them, other means
were ufed, as the aval or potential cautery: but in
all the animals other means were purpofely omitted. ‘That
this remedy, therefore, has a preventive quality, is unquef-
tionable, and now perfectly eltablifhed; for there was not
the {malleft doubt of the animals mentioned either hav-
ing been bitten, or of the dog being mad who bit them, as
Rreat pains were in every inftance taken to afcertain thele
points.

The fymptoms of madnefs are concifely fummed up by
Mr. Daniel in tke following words: ‘ At firlt the dog
looks dull, fhews an averfion to his food and company, does
not bark as ufual, but feems to murmur; is peevith and apt
to bite flrangers; his ears and tail drop more than ufual,
aud he appears drow{y ; afterwards he begins to loll out his
tongue and froth at the mouth, his eyes feeming heavy and
watery : if not confined he foon goes off, runs panting along
with a dejeéted air, and endeavours to bite any one he
meets. If the mad dog efcapes being killed, he feldom
runs above two or three days, when he dies exhaufted with
heat, hunger, and difeafe.”” In Mr. Meynell’s account, al-
ready referred to, a diftin@ton is made between dumb mad-
nefs and raging madnefs: in the former, the nether jaw
drops and is fixed, the tongue hangs out of the mouth, and
flaver drops from it.’ In the latter, the mouth is fhut, ex-
cept when the dog {naps or howls, and no moifture drops
from it. It has been faid that this diforder is occafioned
by heat or bad food; but in Mr. Meynell’s account, com-
municated to him by a phyfician, it is afferted, that the
complaint never arifes from hot weather or putrid provifions,
or from any other caufe but the bite ; for however dogs have
been confined, however fed, or whatever may have been the
heat of the feafon, the diforder never commenced without
being able to trace it to that caufe, nor was it ever intro-
duced into the kennel, but by the bite of amaddog. Ac-
cordingly, this malady is rare in the northern parts of Tur-
key, more rare in the fouthern provinces of that empire, and
totally unknown under the burning iky of Egypt. At
Aleppo, where thefe animals perifh in great numbers, for
want of water and food, and by the heat of the climate,
this diforder was never known. In other parts of Africa,
and in the hotteft zone of America, dogs are never attacked
with madnefs.

It appears that the prevention of canine madnefs has been
attempted, even in the early ages, For this purpofe Pliny
recommends qworming of dogs, and from his time to the pre-
fent it has had, moft defervedly, fays Mr. Daniel, (ubi fu-
pra) its advocates. He tells us, that he has had various
opportunities of proving the ufefulnefs of this practice, and
recommends its general introduction.

Mange.—This is a very frequent difeafe in dogs, and is
an aflection of the {kin, either caught by contagion, or ge-
nerated by the animal. It is, however, not fo contagious as
is fuppofed. It becomes hereditary alfo. White dogs, and
thofe with ftrong wired hair, are peculiarly hable toit. It
has fome varieties, as red mange, which confifts in an uni-
verfal red f{cabby eruption over the whole body, having great
acrimony, and great ftubbornnefs. This mange is frequent
in fetters, pointers, and the larger kind of terriers.

The fcabby mange breaks out in blotches along the back
and neck, and is cemmon to Newfoundland dogs, terriers,
pointers, and fpaniels, and is the moft contagious. White
terriers, white {paniels, the white fhock, and, in fa&, almoft
all white dogs, are fubje&t to a variety that fhews itfelf by a

fimple rednefs and intolerable itching in the fkin, There is
a kind alfo that attacke the claws and toes of dogs. Canker
in the ear, and on the flap of the ear, is to be confidered as
an appendage to mange.

The cure fhould be begun by removing the firk exciting
caufe, if removeable, fuch as filth or poverty, or, as is more
general, the contrary, (for both will equally produce it,) too
full living. Then an application fhould be made to the
parts, coniifting of {ulphur, fal ammoniac, and tar-lime-water
will alfo affitt. When there is much heat and itching,
bleed and purge. Mercurials fometimes affit, but they
fhould be ufed with caution; dogs do not bear them well.

The following mixture has been recommended for rubbing
on any {pot as foon as it is perceived, viz. a pint of train
oil, 4a pint of oil of turpentine, 4 of a pound of ginger, in
powder, and 5 an ounce of gunpowder, finely powdered ;
to be mixed upcold. Previoufly to the anointing with this
preparation, fulphur made into a ball, with butter or hog’s
lard, may be given for two or three following mornings.
There are many other remedies prefcribed for this diforder.
When it is very bad, the affe&ted places fhould be anointed
with an unguent formed by mixing a pound of fulphur vivum,
4a pound of white hellebore, powdered, a quart of train
oil, and one pint of f{pirits of turpentine: or, half a pint of
white wine, half a pint of fpirits of turpentine, 2 ozs. of ni-
fre in powder, and one quart of very ftrong beer, may be
mixed and made milk warm, and then rubbed in with the
hand all over, taking care of the eyes, and dried in by a
fire; after which the dog fhould be put into clean ftraw.
Three times’ dreffing, it is faid, will cure, fhould the dog
be naked and in the worft ftate; or, atable fpoonful of
foot, two ditto of fulphur vivum, half a fpoonful of oil of
turpentine, and four ounces of hog’s-lard, mixed well, may
be ufed for anointing the part. When the mange is very
inveterate, white hellebore root, powdered, 6 0zs., fulphur vi-
vum, 2lb., black pepper, powdered, 2 ozs., oil of tartar per
deliquium, 2 0zs., {alammoniac, finely powdered, 1 0z. hog’s-
lard, tlb., and olive oil, $a pint, fhould be mixed well ; anda
moderate portion of the ointmentrubbed on the difeafed parts
every night and morning for /even, and if the mange be of
long ftanding, for nine days: and the firft morning when
the recipe is ufed, the_dog fhould take the following
purging ball, to be repeated twice, at the diftance of three
days ; viz. jalap in powder, 30 grs., calomel, 6 grs., ginger
in powder, 3 grs., conferve of rofes or hips, 4 dram, anda
few drops of fyrup of buckthorn, for aflilting to formthe in-
gredients into a ball, which is to be rolled up in a piece of
frefh butter. Two days after the lait ufe of the ointment,
the dog fheuld be well wafhed with foap and warm water.
The ingredients above fpecitied are adapted for a fox-
hound, pointer, or grey-hound; and for larger or fmaller
dogs, they may be increafed or diminifhed. Another mix-
ture confifts of half a pint of train oil, one ounce of falt-
petre, well powdered, four ounces of fulphur vivum, pow-
dered, fpirit of turpentine a table fpoonful, and the like
quantity of honey, which fhould be rubbed in by the hand
morning and evening. :

Two ounces of the beft gun-powder mixed with ftrong
white wine vinegar, until it becomes a thick falve, may be
ufed for anointing the affe€ted places, until the blood ap-
pears, and inwardly may be given as much ftone-brimftone,
powdered fine, as will lie upon a fhilling, daily, for ten
days : the brimftone to be mixed with butter or hog’s lard.

For the red mange, the’ following remedies are recom-
mended ; viz. 4 ozs. of quickfilver, 20zs. of Venice turpen-
tine, and rlb. of hog’s-lard, the quickfilver and turpentine
are to berubbed together until allthe globules difappear; and

an

D OG.

an ounce may be rubbed daily, for three fucceffive days, on
the parts affe@ed, andufed when the hair comesoff, or any red-
nefs appears, Alfo, 14 oz. of caffia filtularis, well cleanfed, 24
drams of ftavefacre, powdered, 24 drams of {cammony, pre-
pared in white wine vinegar, and four ounces of orl of olive,
fhould be tempered together and warmed a little, and given
to the dog in the evening, keeping him from food until
morning : he is then to be bled, and within two days after
anointed with the fellowing ointment, viz. 3lbs. of nut-oil,
iilb. of oil of cade, 2lbs. of oil of worms, and 3lbs. of
honey ; boil thefé together till half is confumed; then add

of refin and pitch or tar, of each 23lbs., and half a pound:

of new wax unwrought ; melt them, and then add i4lb. of
brim{tone, 2 lbs. of copperas well dried, and 12 ozs. of ver=
digreafe, which ftir together tillthey are cold ;. wafh the dog
well, before he is anointed, with falt and water, and dry
him before a fire ; his dict fhould be warm broth, in which
fhould be put a little brimftone. This procefs. followed for
a week will certainly cure.

Worms.—Dogs fuffer very much from worms, which, as
in moit animals, fo in.them, are of feveral kinds; but the
effe&s produced are nearly fimilar.. In dogs having worms
the coat generally ftares; the appetite is ravenous, though
the animal frequently does not thrive; the breath {mells,
and the ftools are irregular, fometimes loofe and flimy, at
others hard and dry; but the worft evil they produce, is
occafional fits, or fometimes a continued ftate of convul-
fion, in which the animal lingers fome time, and then dies;
the fits they produce are fometimes of the violent kind,
at others they exhibit a more ftupid charaGter, the dog be-
ing fenfelefs, and going round continually. The cure con-
fifts, while in this ftate, in ative purgatives joined with
opium, and the warm bath; any rough fubftance given
internally, a€ts as a vermifuge to prevent the recurrence.

Aloes, hartfhorn, the juice of wormweod, with fome
flour of brimftone being mixed together ; a piece of the fize
of a hazle nut, wrapped up in {weet butter, may be given
three or four times ina week and the dog fhould fait a few
hours afterwards. Thus, itis faid, the worm will be de-
flroyed. ‘The method of giving any bolus or pill to a dog is to
pull out his tongue, then put the bolus down his throat as
low as poffible, and when the dog draws in his tongue, the
medicine will flip down in fpite of his efforts to hinderit,
Pulverifed pewter, r dr. to grs., and ethiops mineral, 16 grs.
may be taken three times a day, with the interval of a day
between each dofe; the dog being kept warm and from cold
water. Whey or pot-liquor may be given him two or
three hours after, and fhould be continued inftead of meat,
whilft heis taking the medicine. It is beit given by mixing
it in butter, and making it into balls with a little flour.

To make hounds fine in their coats, ufe the following
drefling, viz lb. of native fuiphur, one quart of train oil,
one pint of oil of turpentine, and 2lbs. of foap. This nfed
three times in a year will keep them clean in their {lins.
In fome kennels this is applied once in two months; and, of
courfe, the oftner it is renewed, the cleaner will the hounds
look.

The worming of whelps is performed with a lancet, to
flit thethin fkin which immediately covers the worm; a
{mall awl is then to be introduced under the centre of the
worm to raife it up; the farther end of the worm will, with
very little force, make its appearance, and with a cloth
taking hold of that end, the other will be drawn out eafily;
care fhould be taken that the whole of the worm comes away
without breaking, and it rarely breaks unlefs cut into by the
lancet, or wounded by the awl.

Dog, Allegorical, the embiem of fidelity, on. which ace
‘ (

count it is generally reprefented at the feet of female Ratues
on the fepulchral monuments of the middleages; as a lion,
the type of courage, is placed at the ‘fect of the ftatues
of men.

Doa-draw, in the Fore? Law, a manifelt deprehenfion
of an.offender againft venifon in a foreft; when he is found
drawing after a deer by the fcent of a hound led in his hand;
or, where a perfon hath wounded a deer, or wild bealt, by
fhooting at him,. or otherwife, avd is caught with a dog-
drawing after him to receive the fame.

There are four offences in the foraft, noted by Manwood ;
wiz. ftable-ftand, dog-draw, back-bear or back-berond, and
bloody-hand. See Sraziefand, &c.

Doc’s-bane, in Botany. See Arocynum and Ascie-
PIAS.

Doc-Berry. See Cornus.

Doe’s Cabbage. See THericonum.

Doc-days. See Canicurar days.

Dog-f/h, Canis Galeus, in Ichthyology. See Squatvs
Galeus. *

Doc fifh, greater. See Squarus Canicula.

Doc fifa, lefer. See Souarus Catulus.

Doc f/f, picked. See Squatus Acanthias.

Doc fy, Cynomyia, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a {pes
cies of fly common in woods and among bufhes, and partiz-
cularly troublefome to dogs. It ufually feizes upon the:
ears, and it is in vain to beat it off; for it returns ina
moment, and cannot be prevented but by being killed. It
ftings very feverely, and always raifes a blifter in the part.
It fomewhat refembles the flat black fly, fo troublefome to
cattle. It has no trunk. bit has two teeth, much refem-
bling thofe of the wafp. Its wings are always placed fo
clofe upon its body, that they are not feen. There are two
kinds of it, one larger, and found in woods, and the other
common in hedges. ;

Doa’s head, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, on the
weft cozft. of the county of Galway, oppofite to the
ifland of Inifbotin, Ny lat. 53°33’. W. long. 10° 7’.
Beaufort.

Doc ifland, one of’ the f{maller Virgin iflands, near the
N.W. coatt of Virgin Gorda and E. of Tortola. N. lat.
18° zo’. W- long. 62° 55).

Does, ifle of, a {malltra& of low lend in the county of
Middlefex, oppofite to Greenwich ; where Togodumnus,
brother of CaraGtacus, is faid to have been killed in a battle
with the Romans, A. D. 46.

Although it 1s now converted to commercial purpofes,
the Ile of Dogs derived its name from being the depdt of the
fpaniels and grey-hounds of Edward III:; and this fpot
was chofen, becaufe it lay contiguous to his {ports of wood-
cock fhooting, and courfing the red deer, in Waltham and
the other royal forefts in Effex, for the more convenient
enjoyment of which he generally refided, in the fportiag
feafon, at Greenwich.

Doe ribbed Indians, a tribe of Indians, who inhabit the
environs of lake Ediande in the N. W. part of N. America,
and who are often at war with the Athapufcow Indians.
Both thefe tribes are retkoned among the moft favage of
the human race. They trade with the Hudfon-bay com~
pany’s fettlements. Edlande lake ‘lies N. of the Atha-
pufcow fea or lake, and nearthe Ar&ic circle.

Doe river, a river in the N. W. part of N. America,
which difcharges itfelf into the Slave river in N. lat. 59° 45’.
W. long. 111° 20°. At this flation the latter river is nearly
two leagues in breadth,

Doc-rofe, in Botany, a name for the common briar, or
hip tree. It is obfervable of fome kinds of this fhrub, that’

5 the-

DOG

the flowers {mell extremely {weet in the night, or very early
in the morning, but not at allin the day-time, ‘The reafon
of which feemsto be the fame as in all the noCiuolent plants,
of which there are feveral kinds, as fome of the geraniums,
and of the jafmines, &c. that is, that the fun exhales and
diffipates their odorous effluvia in the day-time, as foon as
they are expanded from the flower, but that in thefe cold
times the vapours are condenfed, and reach our nottrils in
“an agreeable manner. Phil. Tranf. N° 114.

Doa’s Rue. See Scroruuvaria.

Doe’s flones. See RCE

Doe’s-tail grafs. See Cynosurus.

Doo’ s-tail grafs, in* Agriculture, a name commonly ap-
plied by farmers to a well known fpecies of natural grafs,
the cynofurus criflatus, whichis ufeful in fheep paftures.

It is afort of grafs that grows in the moft-perfeét manner
in dry fituations, but which will nct thrive im very moilt
meadows. It is frequently found in dry, found, feeding
pattures. It flowers nearly at the fame period with the
meadow fefcue-grafs, but it is not very predutive of
foliage. Ithas been fuppofed that its benty appearance in
high poor moift paftures, has led to the notion of its being
but an indifferent grafs plant. But from its being particularly
abundant in mott of che richeft grazing paftures in different
partsof the kingdom, and conitituting in fome the chief
herbage, it would feem to be an ufeful grafs. Ass its flow-
ering ftems and heads are rarely confumed by cattle, its
feeds may be readily colleSed in cafes where the paltures are
fed; and as they are ingreat plenty this may be done by
children at the {mall expence of about one fhilling the pound.
Tt is contended that land may be laid down with this grafs
with fucee{s, provided proper attention be beltowed in having
the feed gathered when perfectly ripe, as it has been known
to fail on this ground. It isin high eftimation on the con-
tinent as apafturecrafs. But from the fibrous nature of
its roots not permitting their running down much into the
foil, there may be danger of its being deltroyed ia dry
fummer-feafons ; however, as it abounds fo greatly in the
beft paftures, and isa blade grafs which fhoots up the firft
after the land has been mown, its thick tufts may afford
much food for fheep in the time of {now and fevere weather,
during the winter feafon. It is obferved, that thofe who
arenot accuftomed to diftinguifh the difference of grafles
with any great accuracy, may defpife it as being of an im-
proper and ufelefs kind; but the fheep and the ox, who
mutt be allewed to be better judges, will foon convince them
of itsimportance, From the great rapidity of its growth,
it may be apt to get coarfe, if not cut down more quickly
than is often the cafe. The feed is ftnall and fine, but
may be obtained with much facility by pafling the ftem
through the hand, in arather tight manner.
ticular fituations, been provided at the low expence of fix-
pence the quart. See Grass. A

Doa’s teeth, in Anatomy. See Crantum and” seTH.

Doc’s tongue, in Botany. See CyNoGLossum.

Doe’s tooth, or Dog’s tooth violet. See ERyTHRONIUM.

Doe’s tosth fhell.. See DENTALIs. :

Doc-wood. ‘This wood, when put into water, is {aid to
ftupify filh there, fo that they are eafily taken with the hand.
It isufed in America for this purpofe 5 and the method is to
tie it to the ftem of the fifhing boat. Itis the wood of a
{pecies of cornus, which fee.

Doc-wood of Famaica. See EryTHRINA.

DOGA, in Antiquity, a large veffel into which the wine
was put when newly brought from the vintage.

DOGADO, in Geography, a part of the Venetian ftates,
in which isthe capital extending from the mouth of the

.
.

It has, in par-.

DOG

Lifonzo to that of the Adige, between the country of the
Friuli, the Paduan, and the Polcfin-de-Rovigno, including
the canals of Venice and the canals of Marano.

DOGE, the chief magiffrate in the republics of Venice
and Genoa. For the prefent ftate of thefe countries, fee
Venice and Genoa.

The word properly fignifies duke, being formed from the
Latin dux ; as dogate and dogado, from ducatus, duchy.

The dogate, or office and dignity of doge, is eleGtive: at
Venice, the doge is cleGted for life; at Genoa, only for two
years; he is addrefled under the title of Serenity, which
among the Venetians is feperior to that of highneis.

The doge is the chief of the council, and the mouth of
the republic : yet the Venetians do not go into mourning at
his death, as not being their fovereign, but only their firft
minifter. In effect, the doge of Venice is no more than
the phantom or fhadow of the majefty of a prince, all the
authority being referved to the republic. He only lends
his name to the fenate; the power is diffufed throughout
the whole body, though the an{wers be all made in the name
ofthe doge. If he gives any anfwers on his own account
they muf be very cautioufly expreffed, and in general terms,
otherwife he is fure to meet with areprimand. So that it
is abfolutely neceflary he be of an eafy and pliable difpofition.

Anciently, the doges were fovereigns; but things are
much altered; and at prefent, all the prerogatives referved
to the quality of doge, are thofe which follow: he gives
audience to ambafladors; but does not give them any
anfwer from himfelf, in matters of any importance ; only he
is allowed to anfwer according to his own pleafure to the
compliments they make to the fignory ; fuch anfwers being
of no confequence. The doge, as being firft magiftrate, is
head of all the councils ; and the credentials which the fenate
furnifhes its minifters in foreign courts, are written in his
name; and yet he does not fign them, but a fecretary of
{tate figns them, and feals them with the arms of the re«
public. The ambafladors dire& their difpatches to the
doge; and yet he may not open them, but in prefence of
the counfellors. The money 1s ftruck in the doge’s name,
but not with his ftamp, or arms. All the magittrates rife,
and falute the doge, when he comes into council; and the
doge rifes to none but foreign ambaffadors. .

The doge nominates to all the benefices in the church of
St. Mark ; he is proteétor of the monaftery delle Virgine ;
and bettows certain petty offices of ufhers of the houfehold,
called ** Commanders of the Palace.’? His family is not
under the jurifdiGtion of the mafter of the ceremonies; and
his children may have ftaff-officers, and gondoliers in livery

His grandeur, at the fame time, is tempered with a va-
riety of circumftances which render it burdenfome. He
may not go out of Venice, without leave of the council;
and if he does go out, he is liable to receive affront*, with-
out being entitled to demand fatisfaftion ; and, if any dif- -
order fhould happen where he was, it belongs not to him,
but to the podetta, as being invefted with the public autho-
rity, to compofe it.

The children and brothers of the doge are excluded from
all the chief offices of ftate. They may not receive any
benefice from the court of Rome; but are allowed to accept
of the cardinalate, as being no benefice, nor including any
jurifd'Gion, The doge may not diveit himfelf of his dig-
nity, for his eafe; and after his death, his condu@ is exa-
mined by three inquifitors, and five correftors, who fift it
with great feverity.

The ceremony of the reigning doge’s marriage with the
Adriatic fea by throwing a gold ring into it, which is prac-
tifed yearly at Venice on Alcenfion-day, is faid to have

taken

DOG
taken its rife in the year 1173 from the following cireum-
ftance. The fate of Venice,_having taken part with pope
Alexander ITI, againft the emperor Frederic Barbarofla,
who had obliged that pope to fly to Venice for proteétion,
made the emperor’s fon, Otho, a prifonerin a fea-fizht onthe
coaft of Iftria, and took the Admiral gally, with 48 other
fhips. Upon which the pope, coming to meet the doze

Sebaftian Zani, at Venice, prefented him with a gold ring,

in teftimony of his gratitude, faying, * Take this ring, and
bind the Adriatie fea therewith to thee in wedlock ; which
ceremony youand your fucceffors fhall annually perform, that
Jateft pofterity may know you have acquired a dominion of
this fea by right of conque!t, and that as the wife is fubje&
to her hufband, fo is this fea to your republic.” Such are
the grounds of the mighty pretenfions of this republic to the
dominion of the Adriatic fea. “Yet fo wife a ftate as Venice
for a long time availed themfelves of this trivial circumftance
to their fubttantial‘advantage ; for in confequence of it they
aflumed the title of fovereigns of the Adriatic, and to be its
guard from pirates, and other invaders; and even to prohibit
the navigation of it to fuch nations as they difliked, and to
demand a tribute of all foreigh fhips failing upon it. Never-

thelefs, fo early as the 13th century, Ancona difpwted Vex

nice’s right to this exclufive privilege, which is quite obfo-
Jete in our days.

Key fler (Travels, vol.iv.) has given the following account
of this fplendid ceremony. On Afcenfion-day, about 10
o’clock in the morning, the fignal being given by adifcharge
of great guns and ringing of bells, the doge, or in cafe of
his illnefs, the vice-doze, goes on board the bucentoro or
bucentaur, (fee Bucenraur,) and accompanied by feveral
thoufand barques and gondolas, a great number of gallies
finely onamented on this occafion, and the f{plendid yachts of
foreign ambailadors, is rowed out to fea, about 200 pzces, be-
tween the iflands of St. Erafmo and II Lido di Malamocco.
“The patriarch, (who, on this day, according to ancient cultom,
in commemoration of the fimple diet of the primitive clergy,
is entertained in the Olivetan convent, in the ifland of St.
Helena, with chefnuts and water,) and feveral of the dignified
clergy, eome on board the Bucentaur, and prefent the dogeand
fignorta,as they pafs, with artificial flowers or nofegays, which,
at their return, they make prefents of to their acquaintance.
‘The doge, at his fetting off, and again on his return, is fa-
luted by the cannon of a fort en the Lido, of the caftle on
the ifland of Erafmo, and with the {mall arms of the foldiers,
who are drawn up along the fhore of Lido. An eminence
on this ifland affords a diftinét view of this pompous procef-
fion, and of the vaft number of boats, &c. which cover the
furface of the water and make a brilliant appearance. In
the mean time feveral hymns.are performed on board the
Becentaur, -by the band of mufic belonging to St. Mark’s
church, and feveral prayers appointed for the occafion are
read or fung, till the doge has paffed the two forts of Lido
and St. Erafmo; and then he proceeds a little further to-
wards the Lido fhore, the ftern of his barge being turned to-
wards the main fea. Here the patriarch pours into the
{ea fome water which has been confecrated with fome parti-
cular prayers, and is faid to have the virtue of allaying ftorms,
and the fury of the waves. After this the doge drops a

old ring into the fea through a hole near his feat, at the
ame time repeating thefe words, ‘* Defponfamus te mare,
in fignum veri perpetuique dominium ;” 7. e. ** We efpoule
thee, O fea, in token of our perpetual dominion over thee.”
The doge on his return goes afhore at the ifland of Lido,
where he hears mafs performed by the patriarch in St. Ni-
cholas’s church. In the evening the principal members of
the council, and all who attended the doge in the Bueen-

DOG

taur, are entertained at the doge’s palace, where the defert,
which reprefents gondolas, forts, &c. is expoled the whole
day to the admiration of the populace.

DOGGER, in Sea Language, a rong veffel with two
malts, ufed by the Dutch, &c. for fishing in the German fea,
and on the Degger-bank. On the main-malt are fet two
fquare-fails ; on the mizen-matt a gaff fail; and above that a
top-fail —Alfo, a bow-fprit with a {prit-fail, and two or
three jtbs. ;

Doccerr-bank, in Geography, a very extenfive fand-bank
in the German ocean, between the coalt of England and
Germany. It ftretches S.E. and N.W. beginning about
12 leagues from Fiamborough-head, and extending near 52
eagues towards the coalt of Jutland. Between the Dogger
and the Well-bank, to the S., are the filver pits of the Ma-
rinus, which fupply London with cod; a fith, which loves
the deep water near the banks, while the flat fith delight in
the fhallows.

Doccer-ffe, in our Statutes, feems to be fifh brought in
the fithing-veffels called doggers to Blacknefs-haven, &c.
anno 31 Edw, IIT. flat. 3. cap. 2.

Doccer-men, fifermen, belonging to dogger-fhips, 25
Hen. VIII, cap.'4.

DOGGERS, in the Englith dium Works, a name given
by the workmes to a fort of ftone found in the fame mines
with the true alum-rock, and containing fome alum, though
not nearly fo muchas the right kind. ‘The county of York,
which abounds greatly with the true alum rock, affords alfo
a very confiderable quantity of thefe doggerss and in fome
places they approach fo nearly to the nature of the true rock,
that they are wronght to advantage. See ALuM.

DOGGS, machines of iron for burning wood on.—Alfo,
hooks fixed in large timbers, for drawing them with horfes,

DOGGET. See Docker.

DOGLIANTI, in Geography, a mountain of Bofnia; 12
miles N. of Verajo. <

DOGMA, Avyyx, a maxim, tenet, fettled propofition, or
principle ; particularly in matters of religion or philofophy.

DOGMATICAL, fomething relating to a doétrine, or
opinion.

In common ufe, a dogmatical philofopher is one who af=
ferts every thing pofitivcly ; in oppofition to a {ceptic, who
doubts of every thing. See Docmatism.

A dogmatical phyfician is he, who, on the principles of
the fchool philofophy, rejects all mediciual virtues not redue
cible to manifeft qualities.

DOGMATICI, Doemarisrs, a fe& of ancient phyfi-
cians, called alfo logic, logicians, from their ufing the rules
of logic and reafon in fubjects of their profeffion.

They laid down definitions and divifions, reducing dif.

eafes to certain genera, thofe genera to fpecies, and furnith.
ing remedies for them all ; fuppofirg principles, drawing con-
fequences, and applying thofe principles and confequences to
the particular difeafes under confidération ; in which fenfe
the dogmatifts ftand contradiftinguifhed to empirics and me-
thodifts.
_ The dogmatifts were thofe who brought phyfic into a form
‘and arrangement, like thofe of other {peculative {ciences ;
defining, dividing, laying down principles, and drawing con-
clufions ; and hence they had alfo the appellation of logici 5
qg.d. reafoners, They alfo applied themfelves to feck the
caufes of difeafes, the nature of remedies, &c.

Erafiftratus, a famous dogmatift, went fo tar, that, not con
tent to diflect dogs, and other brute animals, he begged con.
demned criminals of the magiltrates, and opened them while
alive, and fearched in their entrails.

_DOGMATISM, in it. primitive fenfe, meant no more
than

DOG

‘than the holding of fome particular tenet or fyftem of opi.
nions; and thus it was anciently applied to every fe& of
philofophers, except the Middle AcapEMy, and the Scep-
vies. Thus far dogmati{m is not only free from blame,
but even unavoidable ; becaufe, when a fubje& is extenfive
or complicated, it becomes neceflary to make certain combi-
nations of ideas, or to adopt thofe which have been made, with
regard to it, by others; that is, in other words, a fyftem.
But from the abule of dogmatifm, efpecially in religion, the
term has acquired a fignification very different from its ori-
ginal import. At prefent it feems to have three principal
fenfes. It fometimes fignifies the adopting of opinions with-
out any adequate evidence, or the maintaining of them with
Auch inflexibie rigidity, as excludes further information and
enquiry : fometimes it denotes that fond attachment to our
own fentiments, which induces us to confider them as the
infallible ftandard of right and wrong, and reject thofe of
others as criminal and abominable: at other times, it is ufed
to fignify that intolerant {pirit, which violenily wrefts from
others the rights of confcience, and impofes upon them our
own fentiments, in an arbitrary, and, as it is called, dog-
matical manner. In whichever of thefe fenfes dogmatifm be
coniidered, it is equally abfurd, as it is founded in prefump-
tion. No man can be without his opinions, and his fyftem ;

but thefe opinions, and this fyftem, may be profcfled with -

modefty, and maintained with candour, They fhould be held
as the refult of our beft inquiries, not as the di€tates of in-
fallibility. They may be maintained as recommended by
their fuperior evidence ; but others mult be allowed the fame
liberty we take to ourfelves, that of adopting fuch opinions
as.we like beft. Nothing but infallibility can juftify dog-
matifm ; and as dogmatifm refts on felf-conceit, whatever be
the fubje&t, this foundation of it is doubly confpicuons in re-
ligion, hecaufe the nature and fublimity of the objeét may
the more eafily expofe us to miftake; at the fame time that
its importance renders it more incumbent upon us to guard
-againft being deceived. Dogmatifm alfo leads to injultice,
as it violates the rights of con{fcience and of private judgment.
What Tacitus (when he fays, ‘‘ Rara temporum felicitas,
ubi fentire quz velis, et que fentias, dicere licet’’) deems the
chara@eriltic of times uncommonly happy, fhould belong to
very period, and to every fociety. To reftore this liberty
was one main end of the Chriftian revelation; but, fuch is
the perverfity of human nature, fuch its propenfity to dog-
matifm and {piritual tyranny, that the inftrument of deltver-
ance was again converted into an inftrument of flavery; info-
much, that fpiritual ufurpation, and the oppreffion of con-
{cience, have been carried to greater lengths among Chriflians
than perhaps they ever were in the Heathen world.
Dogmatifm, with regard to jts effeéts, obftructs religious
improvement, and thus deftroys the very eflence of religion ;
and it has, dire@ly or indir-@ly, produced all the corruptions
which have difgraced Chriftianity. Should it be afked, what
is the proper medium between dogmati{m and {cepticifm ?
This part of the queftion refers either to the beit way of
avoiding thefe ourielves, or to the mott effe&ual method of
difcouraging their prevalence in the world. With refpe& to
the former we may obferve, that the only fure prefervative
againft both a dogmatical and a {ceptical fpirit, is the know-
Jedge of the principles of pure religion, unfophifticated
by the comments and inventions of men, With regard to
the Jatter, great attention fhould be paid to the fludy of na-
tural religion, and of the f{criptures; in explaining which, a
diftin&tion ought always to be made between fundamental
doGtrines, and others which are either indifferent, or of
{mall confequence. Let thofe do€rines, which fcripture
unequivocally reveals, be laid down as fundamentals: —Iet

q77O71

every other be propofed with thofe marks of doubt with
which the word of God has charaéterifed them, by leavinz
them in a certain degree of fhade and ob{curity, and infilt-
ing upon them as littie 2s poffible. “The very words of
{cripture, tranflated as nearly as the genius of each lan-
guage will admit, fhould be ufed. Even with regard to fun-
damental truths, great care fhould be taken not to think of
impofing them violently upon others, or even to lo:d thofe
who reje€t them with opprobrious epithets. An excellent
writer obferves, in reference to this fubjeét, ‘ that Chrift-
fanity will never appear in its native luftre, till the molt per-
feG. unequivocal toleration be every where eftablifhed ; bee
caufe this alone will allow religion to exert its natural energy,
and enjoy the fame advantage with every other feience, aud,
by means of free enquiry, extra€ting frefh light and evidence,
bring it nearer and nearer to the ftandard of divine truth.’*
See on this fubjeét a diflertation, which obtained the gold
medal, by Dr. Brown, minifter of the Engiihh church at
Utrecht, afterwards profeilor of meral philofophy and eccle-
fiaftical hiftory in the univerficy of that city, and now prin-
cipal of the Marifchal college of Aberdeen, in “ Taylor’s .
Prize Diffettatiors,” vol. vii. ato. Haerlem, 1787.

DOGORGBUSH, in Geugraphy, a village, or as the pea~
ple of the country call it, a city, together with a diftrict, in
the government of Smolénfko, in Ruffia, feated on the
Dnieper. This ts bu‘lt upon a rifing hill, and exhibits, like
Smolenfko, though on a [maller fcale, an intermixture of
churches, houfes, cottages, corn-fields,and meadows. Some
of the houles, confruted at the expence of the emprefs
Catherioe, are of brick covered with ftucco, and appear like
palaces when contrafted with the meannefs of the {urround-
ing hovels.. This place was formerly a ftrong fortreis, and
frequent!y befieged during the wars between Ruffia and Po-
land. The remains of an old citadel are fill to be feen, and
the ramparts command an extenfive profpe& of a cham-
paign country, marked by meanders of the Dnieper, and
bounded by diftant little hills.

DOHALIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz; four miles N.W. of Konigingratz. ,

DOHNA, anciently Donyn, a {mall town of Saxony,
in the circle of Mifnia, on the river Muglitz, eight miles
of Drefden, remarkable for having been, during fix centuries,
the refidence of the earls or bourgraves of Dohna, who
were driven from it, in 1402, by the margraves of Mifnia.
It contains about 800 inhabitants, many of whom are
butchers, who, ever fince the year 1462, enjoy the privilege
of felling their meat on Wednefdays, Thurldays, and Satur-
days, at Drefden; but they mutt difpofe of it one farthing
cheaper per pound than the Drefden butchers.

DOIAGOI, an ifland of Ruffia, in the Frozen fea, at
the entrance of the ftraits of Vagatikoi. N. lat. 70° 5°,
E. long. 57° 14’. +

DOJAR, a town of Arabia, in the country of Yemen;

4 miles E. of Chamir.

DOIGTER, /r. the art of fingering upon keyed-inftru-
ments. M. Rameau has condefcended, in his lait work,
“Code de Mufique,” to place the young mufician’s
hand on the keys, and to regulate the fingers; but the
bufinefs feems to have been better done by Couperin, Roufe
feau excludes the ufe of the right hand, which is an erro<
neous precept: but the rules with which Duphlip has fur-
nifhed him are in general good. Rameau’s fingering is the
old French method, which has been long abandoned. Cou-

. s . . . .
perin’s fingering, inthe minority of Louis XV., 1717, was _
new and admirable, and has been often adopted by the beft
matters, among the reft, Emanuel Bach. See Fincerinc.

DOIRE, in Geography. There are two rivers of that

name,

DOL

namé, in that part of France which formerly was called
Piémont, and belonged to the king of Sardinia. The Ro-
man name of both rivers was Duria. The grande Doire was
ftyled Duria major, or Doria Baltea; the petite Doire,
Daria minor, or Doria Riparia. The French name is de-
rived from Doria.

The grande Doire, or Doria Baltea, is the moft confider-
able of the two rivers, and has given its name to a depart-
ment. It has its fource in the Alps, near the Little St,
Bernard, runs from N.W. to S.E., paffes by Aofta, the
caltle of Bard, Yvrée, and falls into the Po, above Cafal.
A canal of communication between the Doire and the river
Sefia, likewife in Piémont, has been lately opened ; it bepins
at Yvree, and ends at Verceil.

The petite Doire, Doria Riparia, has its fource at the
foot of mount Genevre, flows from welt to eaft, pafles b
Exilles, Chaumont, Suze, where it receives the Cenifelle,
and takes afterwards’afouth-eaft direG@tion towards Turin,
below which city it hkewife falls into the Po.

Doire, the Department of the, is the firft of the fix depart-
ments into which the whole principality of Piémont, in
Italy, which formerly belonged to the king of Sardinia,
bas been divided by the French, when it was annexed to
France, by a fenatus confultum of the 8th fruGidor, in the
tenth year of the republic, or the 26th of Auguft, 1802.
Jt comprizes the ancient duchy of Aofta, and what was
called the Canavefe. Its name is derived from the grande
Doire, Doria Baltea, (fee the preceding article,) and is
irrigated by that river, which divides it into two almolt
equal parts, and by the Orco, which has its fource on the
borders of the department of Mont Blanc, pafles by Lo-
cana, Cuorgne, Rivarol, and falls into the Po, not far
from Chivas. -

The department of the Doire is bounded to the north by
the new republic of Vallais; to the north-eaft by the king-
dom of Italy; to the eaft by the department of the Sefia;
to the fonth-eaft by the departments of Marengo and Ta-
naro ; to the fouth by that of the Po; to the weit by that of
the Mont Blanc; and to the north-weift by that of the Leman.
Its extent is of 47724 {quare kiliometres, about 200 {quare
leagues, or 935,000 arpens. ‘The foil, even in the vicinity
of the Po, is mountainous; but it is particularly northwards
of the valley of Aofta that mountains have been heaped, as
it were, one upon the other. Yet they feem only fecond-
ary mountains, formed by fragments detached from the
higher fummits of the Alps, as Mont Buanc, and the great
St. Bernard. Thefe mountains are covered with foretts,
peopled with bears, wolves, foxes, and white hares. Chei-
nut and wallnut trees thrive at the foot of the hills. On
the higheft Alps there are no trees. Marmots are found
among the rocks, covered with a f{canty grafs.

One of the higheft fummits of the Alps, the Mont Joux,
or Great St. Bernard, forms the boundary betweea the de-
partment of the Doire and the republic of Vallais, It has
at its top a celebrated convent of monks, founded by Ber-
nard of Menthon, for the benefit of travellers who have loft
their way. There is alfo an hofpital at the fummit of the
Little St. Bernard, over which paffes the road from the de-
partment of the Doire into that of the Mont Blanc.

The valley of Aofta, formed by an opening of the moun-
tains from eaft to welt, begins at the caftle of Bard, a little
above Ivrée, and ends in the eaft by Mont Jouet, at fome
diftance from Aofta. There is much hemp grown in this
department, which abounds befides in excellent paftures and
all forts of fruit trees, but chiefly chefnut and mulberry
trees, which are of great ufe for the rearing of filk-worms.
There is alfo fome corn and fome wine. The northern part

Vou. XII.

DOL

of the department is rich in mines of iron and-other metals,
and mineral fprings. It is even reported to poflefs fome
mines of gold, which are not worked, becaufe it is fuppofed
that their produce would be inconfiderable.

The department of the Doire has fome manufaGtures of
linen cloth, but its principal trade is with hemp and cattle.
It is divided into three diftriéts, Aofte, Ivrée, and Chivas ;
27 cantons, and 227 communes. The chief place of the
department is Ivré:; the other principal towns are Aofte,
Chivas, Caftellamont, Locana, Strambino. The whole po-
polation amounts to 224,127 individuals. or about 1121 in-
habitants per fquare league. The annual contributions to
the ftate are 951,159 livres, or about 4s. 4d. fterling for
each individual,

There are feveral remains of Roman architeture at Suze
and Aofte. Herbin. Statiltique de la France. j ‘

DOIT, in Commerce, the fourth part of a ftiver in
Holland.

DOITKIN, a kind of bafe coin of {mall value, prohi-
bited by the ftatute 3 Hen. V. cap. 1. Hence came the

brafe, “ Not worth a doiikin.”

DOKE, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to a
deep furrow.

DOKOWICHE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Belez; 28 miles N. W. of Belez.

DOL, a fmall town of France, in the department of Hle
and Vilaine, chief place of a canton in the diftri& of St.
Malo, with a population of 2787 individuals. It is fituated
in a marfhy country, but fertile in hemp, corn, and apples,
of which they make cyder ; fix miles from the fea, 16 miles
S. E. of St. Malo, 36 N.W. of Rennes, and 249 W. of
Paris. Liat. 48° 33/9’. The canton has an extent of 200
kiliometres, 8 communes, and 12,600 inhabitants.

DOLA, an appellation applied in Arabia, in the coune
try of Yemen, much in the fame manner as pacha in Tur-
key, excepting its being reftrided to a more narrow ftage.
He commands the forces ftationed‘in his province, regulates
the police, and colleG&s the taxes. From lucrative govern-
ments the dolasare recalled every two or three years, to pre-
vent their accumulating too much wealth. When the Imam
continucs a dola in office, he fends him a horfe, a fabre,
and robes. Ail are obliged to render an account, from time to
time, of their adminittration ; and when guilty of high mif-
demeanours, or convicted of malverfations in office, they
are punifhed by imprifonment, or by confifcation of their
property, but feldom capitally. Sometimes a dola, who
has been thus difgraced, is raifed from prifon to an office of
greater confequence than that of which he was divefted. In
every little town a fub-dola, with a {mail garnifon, confilting
fometimes of only five or fix foldiers, refide, to maintain ors
der. The dolas of confiderable governments are attended
by a “ bafkatib,” or controller, whofe bufinefs is to keep a
ftri& eye upon their condu&, and to inform the Imam of
what is going forward. Every city in which a dola refides
has alfo a Kadi, dependent on the chief Kadi of Sana.

DOLABRIFORM Lear, in Botany. See Lear.

DOLABRUM, among the Romans, a kind of knife
ufed in facrifices among the people. Vide Hift. Acad. Ine
fcript. tom. ii. p. 345.

DOLALYCZE, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in
the province of Novogrodek; 12 miles N.N. E. of No-
vogrodek.

DOLAN, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz; 4 miles W. of Gitfchin.

DOLANOVA, ariver of Ruffian Siberia, which rune
into theOka; 12 miles S. of Bratfkoi.

DOLBA,

DfO/L
DOLB ch Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Adi-

ng to re
Y, ‘Joun, in Biagrapl 7, an Englifh prelate of

abene, acces

DOLBE

ee Teele ‘was bora mi the year! 1625, at
Stonewick in Nor pear of which place his father

was rector. In 1636, he was admitted a king’s {cholar at
Weitminfter, aehce he was eleéted: to Chriftichureh col
lege, Oxf ford, in 1640, and admitted’a ftudent on queen
Elizabeth’s foundation. He feems to have been ada pted to
the troublefome times in which he lived ; for during the civil
wars, his attachment to the-caule of fe fovereign was fo
great, that he took up arms in his defence, and ‘ferved fuc-
ceflively, as enfign, captain, and mej or. Frequently he was
expofed to all the da ngers of wartare, and at the battle of
Marfton Moor he was dangeroufly wounded: and again in
the defence of York, his thigh was broken by a mufket-
ball, which occafioned him to be confined to his bed for
twelve months. When he faw che caule of the king was
abfolutely indetenfible and hopelefs, he returned to his col-
lege, where he purfued his ftudies with fo much ardour as if
determined to make up for the time which he had fpent, in
a fervice, though equally honourable, as he thought, yet
totally inappropriate to his intended profeflion. In 1647,
he took the degtee of M.A., and continued at college til
he was ejeéted by the parliamentary vifitors. He now became
the champion of the church as he had been the vindicator
of the king. He accordingly took orders in 1656, and in
the following year he married a miece of Dr., afterwards
arehbifhop, Sheldon, and from that period till the reitora-
tion of Charles II., he refided at Oxford, and in conjunc-
tion with Dr. Fell, and Dr. Alleftry, conftantly performed
divine fervice, and adminiftered the facraments according to
the liturgy of the church of England, at a private houfe,
whither many of the royahfts and eje&ed ftudents reforted
and formed a regular and numerous congregation. Upon
the reftoration of Charles, his zealand fufferings were not
forgotten: he was firft made canon of Chrift-church, Ox-
ford, and took his degree of dotor in divinity. He now
rofe in the church by rapid ftrides, aod was foon inftailed
dean of Wettminfter. In 1664, he was chofen prolocutor
of the lower houfe of convocation, and in a fhorit time was
appointed clerk of the clofet to the king, and, in 1666, he
was nominated to the bifhopric of Rochelter, which he was
enabled to hold with the deayery of Weftminfter. Ina few
years after he undertook the office of lord high aimoner, the
duties of which he performed with much benefit to the poor.
in 1683, he was tranflated to the archiepifcopal fee of York ;
this was the laft inftance of his preferment ;. in them al’, and
in every {tation of life, he conducted himfelf with prudence,
with integrity, and great zeal. He died of the {mall-pox in
1683. i the fixty-fecond year of his age. He is defcribed
by AM ithony Wood “as aman ofa Eee genercus, and no-
ble difpofition, and of a natural, bold, and happy elo-
quence.’ His powerful talents gave him great weight and
afcendauey in the houfe of lords. He had ftudied much of
our laws, cfpeciaily thofe relating to parliament, and was not
to be daunted by the arrogance of courtiers.and favourites.
In him, fays his biographer, we loft the greateft abilities,
the moft ufeful converfation, the moft faithful friendhhip,
and one who had a mind that praétifed the beft virtues, and
awit that was beft able toyrecommend them to others.
Biog. Brit.

DOLCE, Lupovyico, an ftalian writer, as born at Ve-
nice in 1508, ‘and paffed’ his life in purfuits of literature,
which afforded him a fcanty maintenance. He publifhed
many works in hiftory, grammar, philofophy, &c. and the
belles lettres. By fome of thefe he acquired a confider=

DOL

ble fhare of celebrity, though bis writings were not of the
firll or even of the fecoud rate. His ftyie was eafy and
clear, and he was equally ready at verfe as at profe. He
tranflated many of the ancient Roman poets, and fome of
Cicero’s pieces: his dialogue on painting, and his life of
Charles V. are his moft efteemed works. Hedied about the
year 1568.

Douce qua, in Geography, a {mail town of France, in
the department of the maritime Alps, which fermerly con-
ftituted the county of Nice, bordering upon the Mediterra-
nean fea, and belonging to the kings of Sardinia. It is
fituated in a fertile country, «bundant, particularly, in excel-
lent wine and olive oil; 6 miles N. of Vintimille.

Doce, in Mufic. See Dovux.

DOLCI, Carvo, or Carino, in Biography, an emte
nent painter of hiftory and portrait, was bern at Florence
in the year 1616, and was a difciple of Jacopo Vignali.
His firft attempt in a whole figure of St. John, when he
was only eleven years of age, was much approved ; and this
was fucceeded by the portrait of his mother, which placed
him in the higheft rank of merit. His flyle, which was new
and delicate, ‘procured him ample employment at Florence,
and in othercities of Italy. His works are diftnguifhed by
the peculiar delicacy of his compofitions; by a pleafing tint
of colour, improved by a judicious management of the
chiaro-{curo, which gave a furprifing relief to his figures,
by the graceful air of his heads, and by a placid repofe dif-
fufed over the whole. He tcok great pains in the execution
of his pi@ures, and he was fo flow, that his brain is faid to
have been affe€ted by obferving Luca Giordano difpatch
mere bufinefsin four or five hours, than he would have done
in as many months. Some of his pifures, particularly that
of St. Sebaitian, and another reprefenting the four evange-
lifts, are repofited in the Palazzo Cortini, and the Palazzo
Ricardi at Florence: and in the Pembroke colleGion at
Wilton, there is a fine pi€ture of the Virgin, ornamented
with flowers by Mario da Fiori. This artiit died at the
age of 70, in 1686. He left a daughter, Agnefe Dolct,
who imitated, without equalling her father, and furnifhed
many of the copies made from his numerous pictures. Pil-
kington by Fufeli.

DOLCIGNO, or Dutcicno, Ulcinium, Olchinium, in
Geography,atownof Turkey, in Europe,in Upper Albania, or
Arnaut, with a ftrong caflle, and a good fea port. It is the
fee of a Greek bifhop, and is fituated on the river Drin, or
Drino Nigro, not far from the ancient town of Dulcigne,
12 miles S. of Antiveri, and 24 S. W. of Scutari. Long.
19° 2’. Lat. 41° 54’. Its inhabitants, called Dulcignots,,
are noted for their maritime depredations.

DOLE, in 4griculture, a word frequently applied pre.
vincially to a long narrow flip of green land, left in arable
fields untouched by the plough: alfo, a piece of land ona
common or heath, of which only one particular perfon has a
right to cut fuel. It is often written doo/.

Dore, Joux, Dorzus, in Biegraphy, phyfician to the
landgrave of Hefle-Caffel, and member of the Imperial
Academy, was born at Géifniar in r651. He ftudied mes.
dicine firt at Heidelburg, and then vifited the univerfity at
Paris, then in Hoiland, and then in England, and, at length,
returning to his native country, he took the degree of dottor
in medicine, where he foon acquired a degree ‘of popularity
in his profeffion, which continued to him to the time of hia
death, which happened in 1712. His publications are,
“Encyclopedia Medicine Theoretico-practice,”’ 4to. an ules
ful compilation. It has been feveral times reprinted, and
was, for a long time, a itandard work, as containing nume= ~
rous ufeful practical obfervations. « Encyclopedia Chirur-

6 gica

DOL

gica rationalis,”” Francof. 1689, 4to. THe had feen invetee
rate head-achs cured by opening the temporel artery, a
liver weighing eight pounds, a very large calculus in the
gall-bladder, two bones, and a tuft of hair, found in the
ovarium of a woman, aphonia, or lofs of voice, fuper-
vening the {mall-pox, and at the end of fome wecks, fpon-
taneoufly cured, &c. * De furia podagrie lacte victa et mi-
tigata.””’ Amit. 1707. 12mo. This was tranflated into
Englifh by Stevens, and publifhed in 1731. The works of
Dolzus were collected, and publifhed together, “ Opera
omnia,” in two vo!s in folio, at Francfort, 1693, and repub-
Iifhed in 1703. Haller, Bib. Med. Praét.

Dore, Dola Sequanorum, in Geography, a handfome town
of France, in the department of the Jura, chief place of a
diftri&t, fituated in an agreeable and fertile cae on the river
Dovbs, 30 miles S.W. of Befancon, 33 S.E. of Dijon,
$4 N.W. of Geneve, and 270 S.E. of Paris. Lat. 47°
5/ 42. It has a population of 8235 individuals. Its canton
contains 17 communes, and 14,257 inhabitants, on a territorial
extent of 150 kiliometres.

D6'e has fome manufa&tures of hofiery and of hats. As
chief place of a diftri@ it has a fub-prefe@, a court of juf-
tice, aregifter office, andaranger. The foil of the dif-
trict is uncommonly fertile ; it produces abundance of corn
and fruits. There are iron ard copper mines, and quarries
of beautiful marble. Thofe of the village of Sampans
yield fine marble of a cherry colour with white fpots; that
of the village of Damparis is of a reddifh hue. Menfley has
a quarry of good mill-ftones.

The whole diftri& of Dole comprizes 9 cantons, 155
communes, 63,581 inhabitants, and a territorial extent of
1195 kiliometres.

Do te, one of the higheft fummits of the Mont Jura in
France, which ftretches from the Helvetian Alps to the
Vofges. It is 1650 metres, or 846 fathoms, above the level
of the fea.

Doce, in the Saxon and Britifh tongue, fignifies a part
or portion, moft commonly of a meadow.

Hence a!fo dole meadow ; a meadow wherein feveral per-
fons have fhares. See Darus.

The word ftill fignifies a fhare 3 a diftributing, or dealing
bf alms; ora liberal gift made by a great man to the people.

Doce, in the Law of Scotland, is wfed for a malevolent
intention; or, that malicious and wilful purpofe of the
mind, which in conformity with the dictates of nature and
reafon, and agreeably to the uniform current of authori-
ties, is neceflary to the guilt of every tranfgreffion. The
word is taken from the civil law term dolus.

Dole, in the law of Scotland, as well as in the civil law,
is an effential ingredient to conftitute an ation criminal.
In crimes wherein the will, not the event, muft be regard-
ed, no negligence can equal dole; unlefs the negligence be
fo extremely fupine, as not to be conceivable without imply-
ing dole.

Under dole are comprehended the vices and errors of the
will, which are immediately produétive of the criminal fac,
thongh not premeditated, but the effeét of fudden paffion.
In this refpect dole differs from what the Englifh law calls
malice. However both laws agree in this, that the bare
intention never brought forth into aét, is no crimes yet
giving counfel to perpetrate is criminal, if the fa&t is done
purfuant thereto.

Dore fifa, in our Statutes, feems to be that fifh which
the fifhermen, yearly employed in the North feas, do of
sullom receive for their allowance or fhares. Vide flat.

35 Hen. VIII. cap. 7.

DOL

Dore-flone, in Agrieutiure, a term often provincially ap-

sliced to a land mark, or boundsry ftone.

DOLET, Srepnen, in Biography, was born at Or-
leans about the year 1509, and fu tp. Gted by fome of be-
ing the natural fon of Francis I., but there feer ms little
foundation for the furmife. He received the early parts of
his education at Paris, and went from chat city to Pa
for farther improvement. Here he ftudied under, and ie
came a favourite pupil of Simon de Villeneuve, after
whofe death he engaged as private feerctary to John de
Langeac, ambaflador from France to the republic of ve e-
nice. At Venice he purfued the ftudy of the cleffics und
the inftruGtions of the celebrated Baptilta I Ss
learned languages feemed to be his favourite
early life he made large colleGtions with a-view of publ
on the fubje&. He rext turned his attention jarit-
prudence, and ftudied the law in conjun&i ion with the belies
lettres at Toulovfe. Here he prefid ed at the head of a lite-
rary fociety, and in that fituation delivered a ee
which involved him in aa unfortunate difpute. Thi
ried to fuch lengths, that he was difgraced, and be
the city. From this period, rankling, perhaps
venge, he was feldom free from contetts ; » and he provo ked
fo many enemtes, that his life was frequentiy in danger.
At Lyons, in defending himfelf, he had the misfortune to
kill his antagonift ; to avoid the penal confequerces he fled
to Paris, and threw himfelf on the clemency of Francis |,
who was the patron of learned men, and from whom he
received his free pardon. He then returned to Lyoas,
and became a printer and bookfeller, where he was active,
induftrious, and fuccefsful. His enemies were, however,
ever watchful of his condu& ; their animofity, and proba-
bly their jealouly of his faperior talents, magnihed all his
failings, and when he avowed lax opinions refpeéting reli-
gion, he was purfued by the clergy, arrefted, and thrown
Into prifon, from which he efcaped, through the intereft of
fome perfons of learning aud rank, andsjn the flate. But
he was {tillimprudent, and at length wearied out his friends,
fo that when he was arrefted in the year 1545, they did
not appear in his behaif; but abandoned him to the fury
of the inquifitors. By them, who never wanted evidence of
crimes, which they withed to impute to an enemy, he was con+
victed of atheifm, and condemned to be burnt, which fen-
tence was carried into execution in 1546, when he was
fearcely 37 years of age. Confidering his youth, he was
author of numerous works, the titles of which would cc-
cupy too large a {pace to admit of their being enumerated ;
many of them were curious, and on important topics.
Moreri.

Dorer, in Natural Hiflory, a word ufed by fome writers,
in Medicine, for red vitriol, cr colcothar of vitriol.

DOLG-Bore, in the Saxon Lacs, a recompence, amends,
or fatisfa&tion, made fora fcar or wound.

DOLGATA, in Geography, a bay of Rnffian Lapland,
inthe White fea. N. lat. 73° 25’. IE. long. 20° 14’.

DOLGANOVA,a en be ‘Raffian Siberia ; 32 miles
N.N. E. of Nertfchinfk.

DOLGELLY, or Dotcetven, a parifh and market
town of Merionethfhire, Wales, is feated in a deep
narrow valley on the feuthern bank of the river Avon,
over which is a good {tone bridge, and is nearly furrourded
with mountains. Its name is derived from its fituation na
vale once abounding with woods: Dol being of the fame
import with Dale in Englifh, and Gellen or Kellen a place
where much hazle grows. Its antiquity has not been no-
ticed. Camden fays, Roman coins of Trajan and Hadrian

2 were

to it

7

DOL

were found in his time, near a well called Fynnon-vawr. A
parliament was aflembled here, in 1404, by Owen Glyndwer,
who here afflumed the ftyle and claims of royalty.

The fummer affizes are held here; the houfes are chiefly
built of quartz, or lime-{tone, without mortar, {maller pieces
of the fame being forced into the interftices: few are higher
than two ftories, with pent-houfes in front upon poles, and
‘the ftreets are fo narrow as not to admit two carriages paffing
each other. ‘Thechurca is built of lime-ftone, and confifts
of atower, andaiarge nave. The feats are forms, and the
floor is paved with hme-ftone flags, a circumitance extraor-
dinary for Wales. The mode of perpetuating the remem-
brance of departed friends is exprefied in a whimfical way ;
the coffin plates, exhibiting the name, age, &c. of the de-
ceafed, are placed as memento mori’s again{t the walls and
other confpicuous parts of the church.

The town is improving in building and population; and
from the increafing trade in coarfe cioth, it promifes to be-
come no inconfiderable place. ‘That kind of woollen cloth
called Gwen, or Webs, itrong or high country cloth, oc-
cupies the inhabitants of the town and neighbourhood.
Every little farmer makes webs ; and fearcely a cottage is
found without aloom. A!l kinds of wool are indifcriminately
ufed; fleece, refufe from ftaplers, and even the fkin yards,
Some of the growers mannfaGure their own wool, and the
produce from this is the beft cloth. The webs run from fix
tofeven quarters wide, and are two hundred yards long,
divided into two pieces. In its rough flate, it may be pur-
chafed of the manufa@turer from one fhilling to three
fhillings per yard. The quality has varied, fince the ftaple
of wool has been better underftood, and it has rifen full 20
per cent. within tbe lait feven years. The webs ufed to be
carried to Liverpool or Shrewfbury to marxet ; but the Li-
verpool dealers now employ perfons on the {pot to purchafe
of the makers; and to affit the poorer manufaCturers with
money to carry on their trade ; as the Blackwell-hall factors
do many of the {maller clothiers in the weft of England.
Here, as in that covatry, much is made up by commrffion.
After undergoing the operation of fcouring, bleaching, and
milling, it is packed in large bales, and fent to Liverpool
and London ; and thence exporied to Germany, Roffia, and
the Welt Indies. Dolgelly is fituatcd 209 miles N. W.
Pa: London; hasa weekly market on Tuefdays, and fix

annual fairs. it contains, according to the late return, 630
houfes, and 2949 inhabitants. The living isa rectory.

Five miles from this town is the cataract of Dol y- Myllyn,
which falls from aheight of 35 feet into a large bafon,
whence it 18 precipitated, with a great noife, 20 feet lower.
Itis a peculiarly pidturefque f{cene.

Immediately to the S. E. of Dolgelly is the bafe of Cader-
Idris, a mountain of great altitude, and, from its rocks,
Jakes, botanical productions, &c. peculiarly interefting to
almott every {pecies of travellers. The ingenious Mr. A.
Aikin has farnifhed a concifeand fcientific account of this
lofty region; which has been given in this work, vol. v.
(Sce Caper-Ipris) And the Rev. I. Evans, in his
« Tour through North Wales.” gives a circumttantial de-
{cription of this mountain, with its dependent hills, vallics,
lakes, &c.

DOLGENSEE, a lake of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and Ucker Mark of Brandenburg, a little
to the north of Templin.

DOLHINOW, atown of Lithuania, in the palatinate
ef Wilna; 80 miles E. of Wilna.

DOLIANI, a fmall town of France, in the department
ef the Sture, which formerly_was a part of Piémont in

DOL

Italy. It has 4cooirhabitants, and is the chief place of a
canton in the diftri& of Mondovi. The canton contains five
communes, and 8294 inhabitants.

DOLICHA, in Ancient Geograthy, a town of Macedo-
nia, in the Pelafgiotide territory. Ptol.—Alfo, a town of
Aja, in the northern. part of Syria, which had been epifco-

al under the patriarchate of Antioch.

DOLICHE, atown of Afia, in Syria, fituated in the
mountains of Comagene, to the W. of the Euphrates and
near it, N. W. of Zeusma.

DOLICHODROMUS, in the Ancient Exercifes, one
who ran the length of a dolichos.

DOLICHOLITHOS, in Natural Hiflory, a name given
by fomeauthors toa fpecic:s of ftone, of a blackifh colour,
and the fhape of akidney-bean, found in great abundance
about Tyrol. and yielding a {mell on rubbing.

DOLICHOS, in Antiquity, a word ufed by different
writers in different fenfes. ‘he ancient phyficians under-
{tood by it long or projix, and uf-d it in this fenfe in their
defcription of difcafes. Others ufed it for the fruit cr pod
of the kidaey-bean. Suidas makes it fignify a race, or
courfe, of twelve {tadia} or of tweaty-four.

The dolichos, or long courfe, in the Olympic ftadium,
confifted of many diauli, or doublin2s of the courfe ; the
dolichodromi, when they came to the barrier, turned again
round the pillar erected at that end, in order to continue and
prolong their courfe. [n this exercife the courfe confifted
of 7. 12, or even of 24 ftadia, for thefe different meafures
are afligned to the dolichos by different authors. Accord.
ingly, befides agility and fwiftnefs, a great ftrength of body
and a long wind was neceflary for holding out through fo
long a courfe ; and befides, as the dolichodromi were ob-
liged to make many fhort turnings round the pillars ere&ted
at each end of the ftadium, the labour of the race was
confiderably increafed, and the aétivity and {kill of the racers
put to more frequent and feverer trials than in the fimple foot-
race and the diaulus ordouble fladium. But notwithftand-
ing the length of this courfe, and the {wiftnefs neceflary for
gaining the victory in the other two, irftances occur of
people, inwhom the two qualities of agility and #lrength,
which are feldom found together, were neverthelefs fo united
and fo eminent as to enable them to obtain the crown in all
the three races in one and the fame day.

_ Doxicuos, in Botany, (dcasyos, long, a name applied by
Theophreaftus to the French-bean, <uiaxé of Diofcorides, in
allufion rather to the length of its climbing item, than, as
fome have thought, to the dimenfions of its legumes. Some
{pecies or other of our genus Dolichos may have been the
plant of the above ancient writers, as probably as the Pha-
feolus, our French-bean. The fpecies of each genus are very
numerous, moftly efculent, and cultivated throughout the
warmer parts of the globe. In fuch cafes nothing can be
more difficult than to point out the precife plant intended
by any ancient author.) Linn. Gen. 372. Schreb. 494.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1037- Mart. Mill. v. 2. Juff. 356,
Gertn. t. 150. Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria.
Nat. Ord. Papitonacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jui.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, very fhort, with four
teeth of equal length, the uppermolt émarginate. Cor.
papilionaceous. Standard large, roundifh, notched, entirely
reflexed, furnifhed with two folid excrefcences, attached to its
lower fide near the bafe, which are oblong, parallel, and lon-
gitudinal, ferving to comprefs the wings. Wings ovate, ob-
tufe, the length of the keel. Keel crefcent-fhaped, com-
preffed, clofely fhut up at the lower edge, its top afcending.
Siam. Filaments diadelphous, one folitary, the other in nine

fegments,

DOL

fegments, the former curved at its bafe; anthers fimple.
Pif, Germen linear, compreffed; ftyle afcending; ftigma
bearded, running along the inner edge of the ftyle from the
middle to the extremity, the point of the ftyle being callous
and obtufe in front. Peric. Legume pointed, large, oblong,
of two valves, feparated internally into feveral cells by tranf-
verfe membranes (Gertner.) Sceds one in each cell, ellipti-
cal, moftly compreffed.

Eff. Ch. Stigma downy. Standard with two oblong pa-
rallel protuberances at the bafe, which comprefs the wings
beneath them.

Obf. Phafeolus differs from this genus in having its keel
fpirally twitted. In habit they are altogether fimilar.

Willdenow enumerates 53 fpecies of Dolichos, of which
42 are climbers, nine upright, and two fo ill deferibed by
Thunberg, that no one can tell to which of thofe tribes they
belong: we prefume, however, to the former.

The moft remarkable in that fe€tion are D. Lab/ab, the
Egyptian Kidney-bean, figured by Profper Alpinus, Pl.
JEgypt.t. 75. ‘* This,” fays that writer, * is a climbing
tree which grows as large asa vine. It lives for 100 years,
and is always green, bearing Jeaves exactly like thofe of the
common French-bean, and flowering both in {pring and au-
tumn. Its flowers fomewhat refemble thofe of the French-
bean, and produce long pods like very broad beans. The feeds
are fome of them black, others reddifh, exa€tly like French-
beans. The Egyptians ule them as pulfe, and they are very
pleafantly flavoured.” This plant is cultivatedin Egypt for
making bowers as well as for its feeds; but Hafelquilt
thought it not a native of the country, it being called there
European-bean. It is feen with us in the ftoves of the curi-
ous, but has not much to recommend it to notice. D. pur-
pureus. Linn. Sp. Pl. rozr. Sm. Exot. Bot. t. 74, is a
handfomer flower, and likewife perennial, foon filling the
ftove with its wide-extended branches. It is faid to be a
native of both Eaft and Weft Indies. D. pruriens. Linn.
Sp. Pl. rorg. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 172, 1s the celebrated
Cowhage, Cow-itch, or Stizolobium, ufed in the Welt Indies
asa vermifuge. It bears long magnificent cluters of violet-
coloured flowers. The legumes are denfely clothed with
rigid very pungent barbed briftles, caufing intolerable itching
in the fkin, but fwallowed with fafety, in the form of a bo-
lus, into the ftomach, where they act mechanically, fo as to
deftroy all kinds of worms. D. /carabeoides is fingular for
the appearance of its feeds, which refemble little two-horned
beetles, and are very well figured by Plukenet, Phyt. t. 52.
f.3. D. lignofusy Linn. Sp. Pl. 1022. Sm. Spicil. t. 2.
Curt. Mag. t. 380, is a pretty climber, bearing numerous
heads of rofe-coloured flowers, thriving well with very mo-
derate protection from our winters. It is found in many
different climates, and the beans ferve for food in India.

OF the upright kinds, D. Soja, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1023.
Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 145, anative of Japan and the Fatt Indies,
is famous for its feeds, a great article of food in China and
Japan. They are made into a kind of jelly or curd, ef-
teemed very nutritious, and rendered palatable by adventi-
tious feafoning; or they are prepared with falt, fo as to pro-
duce the liquid well known at our tables by the name of Soy.
‘The flowers of this {pecies are {mall and unornamental.

The greater part of the Dolichi are annuals, feveral of
them cultivated for their beans in the Eaft as well as Weft
Indies, South America, &c., and few collections of feeds
fent from China are without feveral different {pecies, They
are puzzling to the botanift, troublefome and uninterefting
to the cultivator of exotics, and fuperfluous to the kitchen-
gardener. ‘The roots of fome of the perennial kinds are
ftrongly purgative, diuretic, and emmenagogue.

BOT

Dotrcuos, in the Materia Medica, Cowhage, or Cowitch
The outfides of the pods of the dolichos are denfely covered:
with fharp hairs which penetrate the {kin when touched, and
caufe a moft exceffive and troublefome itching.

Advantage has been taken of this irritating quality to ex-
pel worms from the human inteftines, and it has been found
to be an anthelmintic of very confiderable efficacy. The
natural mucus which lines the whole alimentary canal pre-
vents any inconvenience which might arife from the irritation
of the cowhage on the ftomach or inteltines, but that mucus
is infufficient to prote& the worms from its irritating quality.
The dolichos is merely mixed up with fyrup or treacle into
the form of an cleétuary, and the ufual dofe is a tea-{poonful
to a young child, and more in proportion to an adult, given
in the morning fafting for three fucceflive days, after which
the inteftines are cleared by a brifk purgative. This medi-
cine may be given with great fafety in all conftitutions, as it
produces no Jenfible difturbance ; and as a proof that its ac-
tion is merely mechanical it may be addedy that neither the
tin¢ture nor decoétion of this plant has any perceptible ef-
fe& whatever on the conftitution.

In preparing the ele€tuary care fhould be taken not to get
any of the hairs on the tender parts of the face, as the irrita-
tion they produce is very fevere.

DOLICZA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Podolia; 26 miles N. E. of Kaminiec.

DOLIMAN, a kind of long caffock worn by the Turks,
hanging down to the feet, with narrow fleeves, buttoned at
the wrift,

The Turks, both men and women, wear drawers next the
fkin ; over that a fhift, or fhirt; and over the fhirt a doliman.
In fummer it is linen, or muflin ; in winter fattin or ftuff.

DOLIOCARPUS, in Botany, (from dodsos, treacherous,
and xaeros, a fruit, becaufe the berries, though beautiful, are
poifonous,) Rolander in Stockholm Tranf. for 1756. 261.
Schreb. 348. Juff. 433. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 2. (Cali-
nea; Jeff. 434. Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 556. t. 221.) Clafs
ae order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain,
Juff.

Gen. Ch, Cal. Perianth of five oblong, rounded, concave,
unequal, coloured, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals three,
roundifh, concave, plaited. Sam. Filaments numerous, ca-
pillary, inferted into the receptacle; anthers compreffed.
Pif, Germen fuperior, globofe; ftyle long, incurved ;
{tigma compreffed, flat, fomewhat cloven. Perc. Berry
globofe, crowned with the ftyle, of one cell. Seeds two,
coated, oblong, rounded, flat on one fide, convex on the
other. Schreber.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals three, plaited.
Berry fuperior, with two coated feeds.

Obf. Lamarck, t. 463, unites with this genus the Soramia
of Aublet, t. 219, to which Schreber was inclined, but in
his appendix 832 changes his opinion. The latter has five
petals and a folitary feed, but feems otherwife to agree with
Calinea.

The fpecies of Doliocarpus, as far as we have any account
of them, are,

1. D. Rolandri. Gmel. Syft. Nat. v. 2. 805. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 2.“ Stem upright. Leaves ovato-lanceo-
late, toothed. Flowersterminal.’? <A {tiff ere fhrub with
pendulous /eaves, found in Surinam. 2. D. major. ibid.
“Stem climbing. Leaves ovate, toothed. Flowers folitary
on lateral fimple ftalks.” From the fame country. The
Jlemis {lender and zig-zag, with {preading branches and leaves.
Flowers unpleafantly aromatic. Berries poifonous. 3. D.
Calinea, ibid, (Calinea feandens; Aubl. Guian. t. a21.)
‘Stem climbing. Leaves ovate, entire, Flowers in axil
A lary

(DIOXL

Jary bundles.” Native of Guiana. Siem twining, Towers
fmall, white, producedin April. Aubiet didnot fee the ripe
fruit.

DOLIONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Aria
Minor, in Myfia, placed by Pliny near the town of Cyzicus,
and inhabiting the territory called Dolionia, extending from
the river A&{epus as far as Rhyndacus and -the country of
the Dafcyliani.

DOLIUM, in Natural Hifory, the name of a genus of
fells called by fome conche globofa, and by the French,
tonnes, aud referred to the genus duccinum. ‘The chara€ters
are thefe: it is an univalve fhell, with a globofe, or round
belly, with a lax aperture, fometimes fmooth, and fome-
times dentated. he clavicle is either moderately umbo-
nated or deprefled; and the columella is in fome fpecies
{mooth, in others wrinkled. Some authors have called thofe
conche ampullacee; and they have had, at times, many
other names, but all tending to the fame fenfe, and expreffing
the globular figure of the body, which is the great cha-
raGer by which thefe are diftinguifhed from all other fhells.
See ConcHOLocy.

The Perfian fhell, fo much efteemed in cabinets, is a very
fingular one; but the globofe figure of its body evidently
refers it to this genus, though it differ in many other parti-

_culars from all the {pecies of it. Aldrovandus could not tell
what to make of the fhelis of this genus, but has thrown
them together at the end of his book: obferving, that
they feemed to be of the turbinated kind, but that they want
the turbo.

DOLLAR, or Datter, a filver coin, nearly of the value
of the Spanifh piece of eight, or French crown.

Dollars are coined in divers parts of Germany and Hol-
Jand; and have their diminutions, as femi-dollars, quarter-
dollars, &c.

They are not all of the fame fivenefs, nor weight. The
Dutch dollars are the moft frequent. The Danifh dollar,
called Slefwick and Holftein fpecie dollar, is a filver coin,
vith much alloy, which paffes for about 4s. 6d. fterling.
This coin has a general circulztion all over Slefwick and
Holitein, even including Hamburgh itfelf ; and is divided
into halves, quarters, &c. In the Levant they are called
aftaini, from the imprcffion of a lion thereon. See Coin
and Money.

DOLLART, in Geography, is a large bay between the
departments of Groningen and Fatt Friefland, in the kingdom
of Holland, formed by a confiderable tra&t of land which
was flooded over by the North fea, in 1277, when 33 vil-
lages were {wallowed up by the water. However, it gra-
dually recedes from the Eaft Fricfland fide: the Dollart
grows lefs every day, and the land which is gained is un-
commonly fertile.

DOLLENDORYF, a town of Germany, in Weftphalia,
and county of Blankenheim ; three miles S. E. of Bianken-
heim.

DOLLEREN, a river of France, in the department of
the Upper Rhine, which runs into the Iile, about two miles
N. of Mulhaufen.

DOLL’s Pornt, a cape on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Jamaica, betwen Welt harbour and Peake bay.

DOLLINGEN, or Doetiincen, a {mall town of Sax-
ony, in the EleGtoral circle, which has fome vineyards.
Pitch is made in its neighbourhood. It is fituated near a
Jake.in a large foreft.

DOLLOND, Jou, in Biography, an eminent optician,
who deferves to be recorded on account of his valuable im-
provement ia refracting telefcopes, was born in Spitalfields,

DIOL

London, June 10, 1706.' His parents, who'were French
proteftants, and who refided in Normandy, were obliged to
quit their country in confequence of the revocation of the
edi& of Nantes, in the year 1685, and to feek refuge in
England, in order to avoid perfecution, and to preferve their
religion.” Mr. Dollond, in the earlier-period of his life, was
employed at the loom; but ‘the turn of his mind being
always ftudious and philofophical, he devoted his Jeifure
hours to mathematical purfuits. Having the misfortune to
lofe his father when he was very young, he was under.a
neceflity of applying to bulinefs; but the bent of his mind
was even‘then apparent; fo that at the age of 15, before
he had an opportunity of perufing elementary treatifes of
{cience, he amufed himfelf by conitruéting fun-dials, draw-
ing geometrical figures, and folving probleme. His favourite
ftudies were fomewhat obftruéted by an early marriage and
an increafing family ; but though bufinefs demanded much
of his attention, he found time, by abridging his hours of
reft, to extend his mathematical knowledge; and he made,
under the difadvantages of his fituation, a confiderable pro-
ficiency in optics and aftronomy, for which he was previoufly
prepared by the knowledge of algebra and geometry, which
he had acquired in the earlier period of his life. Such were
the powers and the adtivity of Mr. Dollond’s mind, that,
without intermitting his philofophical purfuits, or relaxing

‘from the labours of his profeffion, he direGted his attention

to the ftudy of anatomy, and even of theology ; and acquired
fuch a knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages, as foon
enabled him to tranflate the Greek teftament into Latin.
It fhould at the fame time be mentioned to his honour, that
he retained and cherifhed juft fentiments of the wifdom
and goodnefs of the Creator, not only as they are exhibited
in the mechanifm of the human frame, but as they are mant-
felted in the revelation of his word. His religious princi-
ples feem to have been rational and liberal, and under a con-
viction of the importance and utility of focial worfhip, he
regularly attended, with his family, on the public fervice
of the French proteftant church, and occafionally joined ia
the worthip of the proteftant diffenters, admiring as preachers,
and efteeming as men, the nonconformift minilters, Benfon
and Lardner, well known to the world by their valaable
writings. ‘In his appearance Mr. Dollond was grave, and
the ftrong lines of his face were marked with deep thought
and refletion; but in his intercourfe with his family and
friends, he was cheerful and affeCtionate, and his language
and fentiments are diftin@ly recollected as always making a
flrong impreffion on the minds of thofe with whom he con-
verfed. His memory was extraordinarily retentive ; and,
amid the variety of his reading, he cou'd recolleét and
quote the moft important paflages of every book which he
had at any time perufed.”? For fome time Mr. Dollond,
and his eldeft fon, Mr. Peter Dollond, carried on their ma-
nufatures together in Spitalfields, but this employment did
not fuit either the expe€tations or the difpofition of the fon,
who, by means of the inftruétion of his father had acquired
very confiderable acquaintance with mathematical and phi-
lofophical fubjeéts, and who was weil appriled of the high
eftimation in which his father’s knowledge in optics was
held by profcffional men. He therefore determined to ap-
ply that knowledge to the benefit of himfelf and family ;
and, accordingly, under the direG@tions of his father, com-
menced optician. Succefs attended his efforts; and in the
year 1752 Mr. John Dollond joined his fon in this bufinefs,
He began with improving the combination of the eye-glafles
of refracting telefcopes; and at length produced fome of thefe
furnifhed with five eye-ylaffes. (See Phil. Tranf. vol. 45,
p- 108.) Soon after he made a very uleful improvement

ip

Or

in Mr, Sayery’s micrometer. (See Phil. Tranf. vol. 48,
p- 178.) In confequence of thefe commun‘cations, and Mr.
Dollond’s known {fcientific attainments, he enjoyed the
friend{hip and protection of the moit eminent mathematicians
and philofophers of that period. Thus countenanced and
encouraged, he profecuted his enquiries into a fubjeé& which
at that time not only interefted this country but all Europe.
To thofe who are acquainied with Mr. Dollond’s fubfequent
difcoveries it is needlefs to add, that this fubje&t was the
impvovement of the refracting telefeope. In this purfuit he
was perfevering and indefatigable ; and after a courfe of
well-conducted experiments, continued from the year 1757
to June 1758, he difcovered ‘the difference in the difper-
fion of the colours of light, when the mean rays are equally
refracted hy different mediums ;”’ and from this principle he
inferred, that the obje¢t-glafies of refracting teletcopes were
capable of being made without the images formed by them
being affected by the different refrangibility of the rays of
light. . (See Phil. Tranf. vol. 50, p..753-) In honour of
this difcovery he was prefented by the Royal Society with
fir. Godfrey Copley’s medal. Having eftablifhed a new
ptinciple in optics, he was foon able to conftru& obje&-
glaffes, in which the different refrangibility of the rays of
light was corrected, and the name of *“* Achromatic”? was
given to them (not by M. de la Tande, as we have ftated
from Dr. Hutton, under that article,) but by the late Dr.
Bevis, on account of their being free from the prifmatic
colours. Mr. Peter Dollond, in a paper communicated to
the Royal Society, ftated and vindicated, in the molt unex-
ceptionable and convincing manner, his father’s rizht to the
firit difcovery of this improvement in refraéting te!efeopes,
as well as of the principle on which it was founded. In fo
doing he has corre&ted the miftakes of M. de la Lande in his
account of this fubje€t ; thofe of M: N. Fufs, profeffor of
mathematics at St. Peterfburz, in his * Eulogy on Euler,”
written and publifhed in 1783 and thofe of count Caffini,
ip his “ Extraéts of the Obfervations made at the Royal
Odfervatory at Paris, in the year 1787.?? It muft appear
to every impartial and candid examiner, that Mr Dollond
was the fole difcoverer of the principle which led to the im-
provement of refracting telefcopes.. The improvement was
of fuch importance, that it refleéts great honour on the in-
veltigations of Mr. Dollond ; as it was of the greateft advan-
tage to altronomy, in the application of his refracting tele-
feopes to fixed infruments, and to. navigation in their con-
nection with Hadley’s quadrant. In the year 1761, Mr.
Dollond was elected fellow of the Royal Society; and he
was alfo appointed optician to his majefty; but he did not
long live to enjoy thefé honours. On the 30th of Novem-
ber, in the fame year, as he was reading a new publication
of M. Clairaut, on the theory of the moon, and on which he
hed been intently engaged for feveral hours, he was feized
with apoplexy, which immediately deprived him of {peech,
and occafioned his death a few hours afterwards. Mr. Dol-
lond left two fons and three daughters. ‘Whe fons carried
on the bufinefs of opticians in St. Paul’s church yard, after
their father’s death ; and one of them, viz. Mr. Jolin Dol-
lond, being fince dead, the furvivor, Mr. Peter Dollond,
already mentioned, who is well known as a philofopher and
artift, and much refpedted, continues it in partnerfhip with
his nephew, Mr. George Huggins, who has taken the name
of Doilond. Kelly’s Life of John Dollond, F.R.S. &e.
ed. 3. 1808. For a particular account of Mr. Dollond’s
difcoveries, fee Anerration, Diorrric Telefvope, Mr-
©ROMETER, QuapranT, and TELescors.

DOLLSTADT, a river of Pruffia, in”the province
of Oberland ; fix miles N.W. of Preufchmark.

DOL

DOLMAR, a mountain of Germany, in the citele of
Franconia, and county of Henneberg ; five miles fouth of
Schmalkalden.

DOLMATOF, atown and diftri& of Ruffia, in the
government of Perm, and province of Catharinenburg, or
Echaterinenburg, feated on the left fhore of the Iffer;
So miles S.E. of Echaterinenburg.

DOLMAYRAGC, a town of France, in the department
of the Lot and Gironne; three leagues north of Agen.

DOLNSTEIN, atown of Germany, in the circle of
Franconia, and bifhopric of Aichftat, on the Altmuhl; fix
miles weft of Aichttat.

DOLOMITE, in Mineralogy, chaux carbonatée alumi- -
nifere. Hatiy.

Its colour is white, with a flight tinge of grey or yellow.
It occurs in ma(s or foliated; its luftre is glimmering, be-
tween pearly and vitreous; its texture is fine-granular; its
fraGure is compa& uneven, pafling into imperfecily lamel-
lar. It breaks into irregular blunt-edged fragments. It is
tranflucent on the edges; may be feratched by fluor f{par,
and 1s often more or lefs friable between the fingers. Sp.
gr. 2.8. It is forthe moft part phofphorefcent in the dark,
by percuffion.

It is foluble in nitric acid, but flowly, and with little effer-

vefcence. Its component parts, according to Vauquelin,
(Journal des Mines. xvi. 77.) are,
Carbonated hme =) 0152)
Carbonated magnefia - 46.5
Oxyd of iron - Smeets}
Ditto manganefe SPP O25
99:25

It is found in various parts of the Alps, in beds alternating
with miciceous fchiftus ; and containing tremolite, orpiment,
and cupreous pyrites.

The firft analyfis of this fubftanee was made by Theod.
Sauffure, according to which, it confilted of about 88 fer cent.
of lime, with an excefs of carbonic acid, between five and fix
per cent. of alumine, and the reft magnefia and oxyd of iron,
This, however, has been fhewa by Vauquelin to be whally
erroneous, and the dolomite appears to bear the fame rela-
tion to bitterfoath and magnefian limeftone, as granular
limeftone does to calcareous {par and common limettone.

DOLONCA, or Dotonct, in Ancient Geography, a peo-
ple of Thrace, according to Herodotus, Steph. Byz., and
Solinus ; the latter of whom fays that they inhabited the vi-
cinity of the river Hebrus. They had been once matters of
the Cherfonefus.

DOLONOSKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffian
Siberia, in the government of Kolyvan, feated on the Irkutik,
16 miles weft of Semipolatnoi.

DOLOPES, in ducient Geography, a people who inha-
bited part of Theflaly and part of Epirus, between the
mountains that bore the name of Pindus. Thucydides fays,
that the Acbelous, which fprang in this mountain, tra-
verfed their country. They are fuppofed to have formed
one of the twelve nations, or diltriéts, which fent de-
puties to the council of the Amphictyons. Thefe people
poffeffed the ifle of Scyros; and they are faid to have been
a body of Corfairs who infefted the /8zean fea, and pillaged
the merchants that vilited their ports. When Cimon took
poffeffion of the ifland, he expelled them from it. Their
country in Theffaly was called Dolopia.

DOLPHIN, Detruinus, in <Affronomy. See Date
PHINUS.

Dorrury, in Ichthyology. See Derrninus.
This:

DOM

This fifh was confecrated by the ancients to the gods,
and called the facred fifh. Scarce an accident could happen
at fea, but the dolphin offered himfel€ to convey to fhore
the unfortunate. The ftory of Arion, the mufician, is re-
lated by Ovid, Fafti, lib. i}. ver. 113.

Dorpnin Fly, in Agriculture, a name frequently applied
to an infeét which is often very deftru€tive to bean and
other crops.

Dorpuin, Black. See Buack Dolphin.

Dotruin’s Sand, in Geography, an ifland in the {traits
of Magellan. S. lat. 53° 59’. W.long. 71° 41’.

Docpuins of a Cannon, in Gunnery, are the two handles
placcd on the fecond reinforce rings of brafs guns, refembling
the fifh of that name. They ferve for mounting and dil-
mounting the guns. See Cannon.

Dotpenin of the Mafl, in Sea Language, is a peculiar kind
of wreath, formed of a piece of worn hawler-laid rope, nearly
aslong as the circumference of the malt, which has an eye
{pliced in each end, and is pointed over the whole length.
It is lathed occafionally round the maft, through the eyes,
as a fupport to the puddening, whofe ufe is to fuftain the
weight of the fore and main-yards, in cafe the mgging or
ehains, by which thofe yards are fufpended, fhould be fhot
away in the time of battle.

DOLUS, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the
department of the Lower Charente, in the ifland of Oleron,

DOM, or Don, a title of honour originally Spanifh,
though ufed occafionally in other countries. (See Tire.)
It is equivalent to matter, fir; or lord, monficur, fieur,
mynheer, &c.

Gollut, in his Mem. des Bourg. liv. v. chap. 11, aflures
us, that the firft on whom the Spaniards conferred the title,
was dom Pelayo ; when, upon their being routed and driven
out by the Saracens, at the beginning of the eighth cen-
tury, they rallied again on the Pyreneans, and made him
king.

In Portugal, nobody is allowed to aflume the title of
dom, which is a badge or token of robulity, without the
king’s leave.

Dom is likewife ufed in France among fome orders of
religious, the Chartreux, Benedictines, &c.

We fay, the reverend father dom Calmet, dom Alexis,
dom Balthafar, &c. *

In the plural they write doms, with an s, in {peaking of
feveral. RR. PP. doms Claude du Ruble, and Jacques
Douceur.

The word is formed from the Latin domnus or dominus ;
of which it is an.abbreviature. Domnus is found in diverfe
Latin authors of the barbarous age. Onuphrius affures us, it
was a title firft given to the pope alone; then to the bifhops,
abbots, and others, who held any ecclefiattical dignity, or
were eminent for virtue and religion. At length it was
ufurped by the mere monks.

Some fay, the religious declined the title dominus out of
humility, as belonging to God alone; and aflumed that of
domnus, as expreffing inferiority, guafi minor dominus. In-
deed, the appellation domnus for dominus appears very an-
cient, if we confider the furname of Julia, wife of the em-
peror Septimus Severus, who is called on medals 1vu1a
DOMNA, for JULIA DOMINA.

Dom and Som, words ufed in ancient charters, fignifying
a power of judging, and fecurity of poflefling. Hence
dome’s men, who were perfons appointed to determine {uits
and controverfies between parties. See Day’s Man.

Dom-Book. See Domes-Day.

DOMA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Afia, in the

DOM

Indian fea, towards the mouth of the river Indus, accord.
ing to Arrian.

DOMAIN, the inheritance, eftate, or poffeffion of any
one. See DEMESNE.

Menage derives the word from domanium, written in the
barbarous Latin for dominium.

DOMAINE, in Geography. See Domene.

DOMAIZE, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Puy-de-Ddme; 21 miles S.E. of Clermont.

DOMART, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Somme, chief place of a canton in the diftri& of
Doullens, with a population of 1030 individuals. ‘The can-
ton has 22 communes and 11,745 inhabitants, on a territo-
rial extent of 1824 kiliometres.

DOMAT, Joun,in Biography, an eminent French lawyer,
was born at Clermont, in 1625, where he received the ele-
ments of learning, and was then fent to the college of
Clermont, in Paris: here he diftinguifhed himfelf by the
rapid progrefs which he made in various departments of lite-
rature. He fixed on the law as his future profeffion, and
practifed at the bar with reputation and fuccefs. He was
the intimate friend of the celebrated Pafcal, attended him in
his lait hours, and was entrufted with his moft important
papers. About his thirtieth year he obtained the office of
king’s advocate to the court of Clermont, which he held for
nearly thirty years. In the duties conne¢ted with this fitua-
tion he was diftinguifhed for juftice and integrity, zealous
for the interefts and comforts of the poor, and attentive to
the concerns of the hofpitals. Perceiving the confufion
which prevailed in the laws, he applied himfelf to the de-
velopement of their principles, and publifhed a treatife, en-
titled ** Les Loix Civiles dans leur ordre naturel ;’? this
appeared in three volumes 4to. which is highly efteemed as a
truly admirable and {cientific work. Domat died at Paris in
1696. An improved edition of his book was publifhed
in 1777, by M. de Jouy. Morert.

DOMAZLIZE, Domaziiza, or Taufs, Tuffa, in Ge-
ography, a {mall town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen, or
Pizen{ko, near the river or torrent of Cadburze; 27 miles
S.W.‘ot Pilfen.

DOMBACA, a fmall ifland, near the coaft of Ava, in
the bay of Bengal. N. lat. 17° 32’. E. long. 94° 35’.

DOMBES, Pacus Domsensis, formerly a province of
France, which is now a part of the department of the Ain.
Trevoux was its capital. Louis XV. had purchafed it of
the count d’Eu in 1762.

DOMBEY, Josern, in Biography,a French botanift and
traveller of much celebrity, was born at Macon, Feb. 22,
1742. Hewas brought up to the fludy of medicine, and
took the degree of doétor of phyfic in the univerlity of
Montpellier, He there imbibed, under the celebrated pro-
feffor Gouan, a tafte for natural hiftory, more efpecially for
botany. To this tafte he facrificed his profeffion, and all
profpeét of emolument from that fource. Content with a
{mall patrimony, he refigned himfelf to the charms of nature
in the fine country where he was ftationed. The fouth of
France, with its varied and extentive coals, its fertile plains,
and its wild and lofty mountains, was his firft theatre of ob-

_fervation. When the feafon of the year obliged him to re-
tire to his college, he returned to no ftudies but fuchas favour-
ed and improved his darling propenfity. Whatever time was
not devoted to that, wa given to the pleafures and diffipation
incident to his time of life, his gay ard agreeable character,
and the fociety with which he was furrounded. To this
diffipation he, perhaps, facrificed more than prudence could
juitify, and it was fortunate for his moral charaéter and
worldly intereft, probably alfo for his fcientific fuccefs, that

he

DOMBEY.

he removed to Paris in 1772, to improve his botanical
knowledge, under the tuition of the celebrated Bernard de
Yuffieu and Le Monnier, and to cultivate the friendthip of
fuch men 4s Thowin and Rovfleau. In 1775, he travelled
to Berne to vilit Haller, whofe bufy and important life was
drawing towards a clofe. While rambling over the Alps in
his return, he received a letter from his friend, ‘Chouin, in
Augaft 1775, informing him that M. Turgot had, on the
recommendation of Jufficu, chofen him to go to Perv, in
fearch of plants that might, with advantage, be naturaliz-d
in Europe. He returned inflantiy to Paris ; was prefented
to the minifter, and received his appointment, with a falary
of 3000 livres. Part of this was obliged to be mortgaged
to pay debts incurred by his youthtul prodigality, and he
was detained till the Spanifh court had given its confent to
the undertaking, which could net be procured till the
clofe of the following year, 1776. To the honour of
Dombey, it muft not be forgotten, that he devoted the inter-
mediate period to the moft fteady application, in order to
qualify himfelf for his great and delightful undertaking.
Indeed, if pleafure, or diflipation, could have drawn him
afide from fuch views, he would little have deferved his ap-
pointment, or his fub{equent fame.

On arriving at Madrid in November 1776, his ardour met
with feveral ungrateful checks in the folemn gravity and
mifplaced jealonfy of the Spanifh court, who encumbered
him with futile inftructions, and with four companioss, each
of whom had a falary of 10,cco livres. Thefe companions
proved, inthe firft inftance, of dittle ule, for though two of
them were botanical draught{men, and profefledly deftined
to his fervice, Dombey was never allowed even a copy of
the drawings they mace under his directions. - On the other
hhaad, be was obliged to expend his own falary in buying
paper and inftruments requifite for his undertaking. ‘That
falary had, indeed, been doubled, but it was ftill, even with
the economy he now practifed, inadequate. His courage,
however, failed him not. A new world was before him,
and nothing chagrined him exc: pt what delayed his voyage.
That voyage was happily accomplifhed in fix months, and
he arrived at Lima, April 8, 1773, where he obtained a
favourable reception from the vice-roy of Peru, Don Ema-
nuel de Guirrior, and from M. de Bordenave, one of the
canons of Lima, an old acquaintance of his friend Juffieu,

His firft botanical expedition towards Quito was not
without danger, from hordes of rur-away negroes, but it
afforded him an abundant harveft of {pecimens of plants, as
well as of antiquities from the fepulchres of the ancient
Peruvians. Thefe, with 38 pounds of platina, and a collec-
tion of feeds, he fent immediately to Europe. The feeds
were partly picked up, in thedry feafon, from the arid fands
around Lima, where they lay, blown about by the wind, or
fored up Ly ants, awaiting the autumnal fogs neceflary to
their germination ; for it never rains at Lima, He accom-
panied his collections with two manuleript treatifes of his
own, oneona difeafe, which he attributed to the immoderate
vfe in that country of the fruits of Capficum annuum, Phy/falis
pubefcens, and Solanum Lycoperficum; and the other on a
new but ufelels {pecies of Laurus, which ignorant obfervers
had reported to the Spanifh government as being the true
cinnamon ; a miltake which Dombcy found himlelf obliged
to rectify. He was employed by the vice-roy to analyfe
fome mineral waters in that neighbourhood. He afterwards
fettled for a time in the mountainous province of Tarma,
beyond the Cordilleras, and in May 1780, vfited Huanuco,
the extremity of the Spanh fettlements in that direction,
Tn the vaft and almuft impervious torelts beyond, he afcer-
tained the fact which had been reported of the Cinchona, or

Vor. XIL

Peruvian bark, being abundant there, though previoufly
fuppofed to grow at Loxa only. He determined alfo that
there were feveral {pecies of this valuable drug, all more or
lefs ufeful ia medicine. With thefe the botaniits of Europe
are now tolerably well acquainted. See Cincuona

To inveftigate the botanical riches of thef- foretts, fwarm-
ing with inf-&s, and filled with ftagrant peit-ferous vapours,
proved a labour of no lefs danger than difficulty. As the
trees there are moftly dicecious, it was found neceffary to
fell two of them, in order to obtein perfect fpecimens of
each fingle fpecies. Nor are the lofty climbers, which bind
thefe ancient woods into one entangled mafs, an inconfider-
able impediment to the progrefs of the botanieal traveller,
their fowers being no lefs inacceflible than thofe of the trees
which fupportthenr. But thefe favage regions foon became
more formidable to our travellers, in confequence of their
more favaye human inhabitants, 2co of whom were advan-
cing by night to plunder them, had they not efcaped by a
precipitate and perilous retreat to Huanuco. From thence
Dombey returned alone to Lima, where various difficulties,
attended by various refources, awaitedhim. The celebrated
Necker, tnen in power, had increafed his pecuniary income,
but it was flill not adequate to his wants. He had, more-
over, to encounter the {corn of the rich and ignorant, who
defpifed his knowledge, and the perfeeution of the bigotted
prieithood, who, by a natural inftint, dreaded it. Though
correct and wary in his moral and religious deportment, his
being a Frenchman was enough to excite their fufpicions,
and nothing but the public proteGtion of his king fecured
him from the fangs of the inquifitors. Here, however, his
medical knowledge proved of the greatcft ule. I: auz-
menred his income, and gained the re{pe& and favour of all
ranks, for even monks themfelves did not difdain to be cured
of their difeafes by a French philofopher, who was found
more fkilfwl than their more orthodox countrymen. Thus,
felf-interett fecured what fenfe and juttice could not obtain ;
and the fituatiorof our alventurer was {till further improved
by the favour which his agreeable-perfon and manners found
with the fair fex, to whofe aflemblies the young and lively
Trenchman was no unwelcome gueft. Even in the tociety
of Lima, Dombey met with fome enlightened and difin-
terefted characters, who could appreciate his merit, and
who rendered him, from time to time, the moft eflential
fervices,

Having fent off hisfecond colleGion to Europe, Dom-
bey returned to Huanuco in the end of December 1780,
though to the other difficulties of his fituation the defolating
plague of a civil war was then fuperadded. But this ap-
parent misfortune turned out to bis advantage. He rouled
the latent patrioti{m of the Spaniards by offers, not only of
money, but even of his perfonal fervices, to repel the infur-
gents. Though his pecuniary affiltance was very properly
declined, his zeal was publicly applauded by all orders of
people, andaccompanied by authentic documents of their
gratitude. When the infurreciion was quelled, Dombey
prefented to the public hofpital the fum he had offered to-
wards'the defence of the ftate.

He had, thortly after, tae mortification of hearing that
his fir colleGtion had keen taken by the Englith, and re-
deemed at Lifbon by the Spanifh government. Confe-
quently, that a very valuable part of it, theancient Peru-
vian vefes and a compleat drefs of one of the Incas, which
he had deitined for his own fovercign, had been prefented
to the Spasifh monarch by Profeflor Ortega, duplicates of
the dried plants and feeds only having been forwarded to
Paris. To this, as legally jut, he could not’ but fubmit;
but when complaints were tranfmitted to him, “ that the

herbarium

DOMBEY.

herbarium which he had made for the French king was
fapertor to that deftined for the king of Spain,” he ventured
to reprefent in his turn the injuitice of not fending to
France at leaft the duplicates of his drawings, and the vice-
roy of Lima fo far acceded to the propricty of his repre-
fentation, as to write accordingly to Europe; with what
fuccefs we know not.

Dombey in the mean while, leaving his more recent ac-
quifitions in fafety at Lima, undertook a journey to Chili.
This had always beena principal obje& -of his miffion; on
zccount of the nearer refemblance of its climate to that of
France, which rendered its vegetable productions more
likely to be ufefsal there. His journey was neceffarily at-
tended with vaft expence, but his chara¢ter was now fo well
known that he readily met with affitance. He arrived at
La Conception in the beginning cf 1782, where his adven-
turous deftiny had prepared for him far other cares and
purfuits than thofe of botany. The town was affli&ted with
a peftilential fever, and he was cautioned to avoid certain
infeGted houfes where it raged. Inttead of following this
advice, he devoted himfelf to the exercife of his medical
fkill, affitting the poor with the moit valuable charity of his
advice as well as with food and with medicine, and avoiding
fuch houfes only as were not infeéted. His example re-
ftored the public courage, andthe grateful people wifhed to
retain him, with a handfome ftipend, as their phyfician.
Nor were even more tempting attraCtions wanting to fix him
here for life. He was no longer pointed at as an heretical
fearecrow, for even the bifhop of La Conception endea-
voured to promote his union with a young lady of great
beauty and riches, on whom his merit had made impreflions
as honourable to herfelf as tohim. From motives of mif-
placed patriotifm he tore himfelf away, to purfue the primary
obje& of his life, an obje&t’ which wou'd have been bett
fulfilled by his permanent refidence in Chili, from whence
he might at leifure have communicated the fubfequent fruits
of his enquiries. Butthe lot of Dombey was cait in labour
and forrow, and hie greatelt mortifications were {till to come.
Having added greatly to his colleSion of drawings, fhells
and minerals, as well as of plants, while in Chili, and having
difcovered a new and molt valuable mine of quickiilver,
and another of gold, for the worthlefs and ungrateful go-
vernment whofe foolith jealoufies rendered almoft all his own
acquifitions finally abortive ; he revifited Lima to take his
paflage for Europe. A journey of 100 leagues among the
Cordilleras, made at hisown expence, had much impaired
his finances and his health, brut he refufed the repayment
which the country, in this inftance not unjuft, offered him,
faying that “« though he was devoted to the fervice of Spain,
it was for his own fovereign, who had fent him, to pay his
expences.” In Chili he difcovered the majeftic tree, of the
tribe of Pines, 150 feet high, now named atter him Dombeya,
of which the Norfolk-ifland pine is another fpecies. (See
Dompeyva,) While he itill remained at Lima, the labours
of arranging and packing his colleGtions of natural hiftory,
added to the fatizues he had already undergone, and the petty
jealoufies and contrarieties he experienced from fome of the
Spaniards in power, preyed upon his health and {pints ;
and under the idea that he might poffibly never reach Europe,
he wrote to his friend Thouin to take the neceffary pre-
cautions for the fafety of his treafures on their arrival ina
Spanifh port. He furvived however to undergo far greater
diltreffes than he had yet known. After narrowly efcaping
fhipwreck at Cape Horn, and being obliged to wait at the
Brafils till his fhip could be refitted, which laft cireumftance
indeed was favourable to his f{cientific purfuits and acquifi-
tions, he reached Cadiz on the 22d February 1735, with

all the feelings of tranfport which an approach to his native
country, a generous ardour to communicate hisknowledge
and to relate his adventures, anda defire to revifit the friends
of his earlier years, could excite in a mind like’ his. But
inltead of the reception he expeGed and deferved from the
natios he had chiefly benefitted, every Spaniard, from the
fubalterns of the cuftom-houfe to the miniflers of ftate,.
feemed Jeagued to mortify him, and to render his labour,
even for their own fervice, of no effeQ. He was not only
tormented with the moft pettifogging and difhoneft behaviour
concerning the property of his colieGtions, but thofe col-
le€tions were expofed, withont difcrimination or precaution,
to the rude and -ufelefs {crutiny of the barbarians at the
cultom-houfe, fo as to be rendered ufelefs, in a great meafure,
even to thofe who meant to plunder them. "The whole
were thrown afterwards into damp warchoufes, where their
true owner was forbidden to enter. Here they lay for the
plants to rot, and the ineftimable colleGions of feeds to lofe
their powers of vegetation, till certain forms of the grave
and faptent moft catholic court were gone through, which
forms, as it afterwards'appeared, tended chiefly to the ren»
dering their plunder ufelefs to others, rather than valuable-
to theirown nation. In the firft place, 2s much of thefe
treafures had fuffered by this ill-treatment, Dombey was
required to repair the injury from his own allotment, or from
thar of his mafter, the king of France. With this he could
not of himfelf comply ; bet an order was, for fome political
reafon, procured from the French court, and he was obliged
to fubmit. Hecou'd never, however, obtain that the feeds
fhould be committed to the earth fo as to be of ufe, and
hence the gardens of Europe have been enriched with
f{carcely half a {core of his botanical difcoveries, amon
which are the magnificent Datura arborea, the beautiful
Salvia formofa, andthe fragrant Verbena triphylla, or, as it
ought to have been cailed, citrea. Tins lait will be 2
*monumentum ere perennius’’ with thofe who ‘hall ever know
his biftory. What had been given hinr for his own ufe by
the vice-roy of the Brafils, underwent the fame treatment
as the reft. Finally he was required to fix a price upon the
fad remains of his colleGtions, which, as a great part was
French national property, it was obvious he could not do.
He remained at Cadiz without money and without friends.
His only-hope was that he might hereafter publifh his dif
coveries, fo as to fecure fome benefit to the world and fome
honour to himfelf. But this laft confolation was denied him.
Anxious to revifit his native land, he would have compounded
for his liberty with the lofs of all but bis manufcripts; but
the tyrants, in whofe hands he lay, would not Jet him depart-
till they had copied all thofe manufcripts, and bound him by.
a written promife never to publifh any thing tillthe return
of his travelling compamons. In the mean while thofe very
companions were detained by authority in Pern; and in
after times the original botanical deferiptions of Dombey
have, many of them, appeared verbatim, without acknow-
Iedgement, in the pompous F/ora of Peru and Chili, which
thence derives a great part of its value. Thus chagrined
and oppreffed, the unbappy Dombey funk into defpair, till,
no longer ufeful or formidable to his oppreffors, he was
allowed to return, with fuch parts of his culleGtions as they
condefcended to leave him, to Paris.

There the writer of the prefent article knew him in 1586:
He was no longer the handfome lively votary of pleafure,
nor even the ardent enthufiaftic cultivator of icience. The
leaden hand of tyranny had impreffed its own ftamp on
his countenance, and he had the fallow, filent, melancholy
afpeét of a deprefied and difappointed Spaniard. He chiefly
affociated with his faithful friends, Le Monnier and Thouin,

and

DOM

and in their fociety botanical converfe ftill retained its charms,
To the contents of his own colleétion, which, however injured
and diminifhed, was {till a very interefting one, he paid little
attention. Bound by his promife, his high fenfe of honour
would not let him make the proper ufe of it, but at length
he was induced to part with it to M. de Buffon, who nobly
exerted himfelf fo as to procure from government a penfion
of 60009 livres for Dombey, and 60,000 livres to pay his
debts. The herbarium was confided to M. L’herttier,
with orders to publith its contents. This was no fooner
known at Madnd, than intereft was made by that court to
defeat the meafure, and the court of Verfailles was not ina
condition to difpute, even fo unjatt, and politically unim-
portant areqvifition, from that quarter. Buffon had orders
to withdraw the herbarium, but L’heritier on the firft alarm
had taken it over to London, and the writer of this narra-
tive, with his lamented friend, Brouffonet, and his draughtf-
man Redouté, were alone entrufted with the fecret. Happy
and fafe in a land of liberty and fcience, L’heritier remained
about 15 months devoted to the profecution of his object,
chiefly under the hefpitable roof of his friend, fir Jofeph
Banks. But the diltrefled fate of his country obliged him
to return, and his own dreadful and myfterious murder
clofed the feene.

The unfortunate Dombey had long been at reft, bet not
without frefh previous toils, and aggravated fufferings. He
had determined to retire to a peaceful retreat at the foot of
Mount Jura, where he had a friend devoted to the love and
cultivation of plants. His pecuniary circumftances were
now ealy, and he refigned his fatal celebrity without regret.
He broke off all fcientific communication, except with
M. Pavon, one of his fellow labourers in Peru, and who
had all along been innocent of the execrable machinations
again{t his honour and his peace. He refufed a place in
the French Academie des Sciences, as well as a large pecu-
niary offer from the emprefs of Ruffia for the duplicates of
his colleCtion, faying, ‘* he was not in want of moncy, and
he had moft pleafure in diftributing his fpecimens amongft
his friends.” Even one of the Spaniih mimftry, relenting
when too late, offered him a large fum of money by
way of indemnification, which Dombey with due {pirit
ablolutely refufed. Refiding at Lyons for fome time
in his way towards Switzerland, he had the misfortune to
be prefeut during the fiege of that town. ‘That energy of
mind which neither vanity nor riches could recall into action,
revived at the fight of dillrefs and danger, and thofe who
were ready to perifh found the wonted afliftance of Dombey,
who fupplied their neceffities, and bealed their difeafes.
But he fickened at the fight of public miferies on every fide,
which he could not alleviate, and he procured a commiflion to
vilit North America, in order to purchafe corn from the United
States, and to fulfil fome other objets of public importance,
efpecially relating to fcience and commerce. A tempelt
obliged him to take fhelter at Guadaloupe, and that ill-fated
ifland was then in as diftrated a {tate as its mother-country,.
Having been fent out by the French republic, he was confe-
guently odious to the royalilt governor, and on being fum-
moned into his prefence, he rather preferred making his
efcape on board a veffel freighted by fome republican depu-
tres for Philadelphia. But before he could embark he was
feized and thrown into prifon. This violence excited a pub-
lic commotion in his favour, and the governor thought pro-
per to releafe him. In labouring to appeafe the tumultuous
mob, which threatened vengeance on his enemies, he was
thrown accidentally into the river, and the confequences
were nearly fatal to his life. When recovered he waited on
the governor, and though found innocent, was ordered to

DOM

quit the colony in the American veffel in which he came,
That veffel was no fooner out of the harbour, than it was
attacked by two privateers, and taken. Dombey, difguiled
as a Spanifh failor, was thrown into a prifon in the ifland of
Montferrat, where ill-treatment, mortification, and difeafe,
put a period to‘his hfe on the 19th of February 1796. It
muft ever be the regret and the fhame of an Eng ifhman
that a man like Dombey perifhed in a prifon where Englifh
laws were known. It has juttly been the pride of civilized
fociety in our days that {cience, being exclufively of no na-
tion, has fufpended even the horrors of war in favour of its
cultivators, but the horrors of war are much more com-
monly found to brutalize all nations in common. There
muft furely have been fome perfons at Monifcrrat who
could read and write; fome who, thouzh flave-dealers,
profcffed Chriftianity, but it was ail in this cafe, as in many
others, to very little purpofe ; for a man, the pride of his
{pecies, who went about doing good, and whofe whole hfe
was devoted to the fervice of ufeful {cience, perifhed un-
heeded among them! See Delewze’s Notice in Annales du
Mufeum d’Hiftoire naturelle, v. 4. 136, literally tranflated in
Sim’s and Konig’s Annals of Botany, v.2.474. Alfo An-
nual Regifter for 1796, Chronicle, 57. S.

DOMBEYA, in Botany, (named by Lamarck in honour
of his meritorious and unfortunate countryman whofe hiftory
is given in the preceding article. Lheriticr alfo gave the
fame name to a plant difcovered by Dombey, but which its
difcoverer had already publifhed under the appellation of
Tourretia. Cavanilles, who is followed by Willdenow, ef-
tablifhed a Dombeya, which feems not generally diftinét from
the old Linnzan Pentapetes. We therefore, as Schre-
ber and Mr. Lambert have done, follow Lamarck as the ori-
ginal and beft authority, though Juffieu has given our Dom-
deya the barbarous American name Araucaria.) Lamarck
Encyclop. v. 2. 301. Schreb. 704. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2.
Lambert Pinus, append. 87. (Araucaria; Juff. 413.)
Clafs and order, Disecia Monadzlphia. Wat. Ord. Coniftre.

Gen. Ch. Male. Cal. Catkin cylindrical, fomewhat ovate,
{pirally imbricated with numerous, fhort, woody /calés, each
terminated by a lanceolate, acute, coriaceous, tapering point,
concave beneath, recurved at the extremity. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments none, except the fcale of the catkin ; anthers
10 or 12, cluftering round each feale, linear, furrowed, the
length of the fcale, attached by their upper ends to the end
of the fcale, below its tapering point, and feparating at their
lower extremities when it is broken. 5

Female. Cal. Catkin large, roundifh-ovate, clofely imbri-
cated with numerous germens refembiing {cales. Cor. nome.
Pift. Germencblong-wedge-fhaped, a little compredled, taper-
ing at the bafe, dilated and thickened upwards; ityle none;
ftigma of two unequal valves, the inner one {mall and obtule ;
the outer very large, with a broad thick bafe, curved inwards
upon the {mall valve, and terminating in a linear, acute,
thin, afcending point, a!lmoft as long as the germeny
and bent in upon it ataright angle. Peric. none. Seeds
numerous, imbricated clofely fo as to form the cone, each
of them oblong, fomewhat cylindrical, obtufely quadrangular
towards the bafe, furnifhed at the fummit with a broad,
{patulate wing, or appendage, which is curved inwards and
upwards, and thickened at its margins. Shell coriaceous,
coloured, without valves, containing an oblong kernel,
flightly angular at its bafe. Receptacle without {cales,
downy, flightly cellular, cylindrical.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx the fcales of a catkin, embraced by
numerous feffile anthers, and tipped with a naked point. Co-
rella none.

Female, Calyx the pointed imbricated fcales of a catkin,

O2 each

DOM

each tipped with a ftigma,
fwelling bafe of cach f{eale.

1. D. chilenfis. Lamarck loc. cit, 301. t. 828. Mart. Mill.
Dia. v. 2. (Pinus Araucara; Molin. Chil. 182. Bafilaire ;
Daubenton in Mem: d’Agrviculture, ana. 1787, fafe. 4. 191.
t. 4.) Chili Pine. Adult leaves ovate,.imbricated, fharp-
pointed. Points of the cone-fca‘es awl-fhaped, nearly as long
ag thefeeds. Difcovered by Dombey in Chili. It forms
a majeflic pyramidal ever-green tree of flow growth, about
150 feet high, its run perfeGly ftraight and ereG, ite
branches Spreading horizontally in four direG@tions, and its
wood white, folid, but not fo proper for mafts as was at firit
expe&ed from the great height and ftraightnefs of the tree,
being rather brittle. Outer dark thick, furrowed, and
wrinkled, ike cork, Leaves clofely and fomewhat fpirally
imbricated, fefiile, an inch long, ovate, entire, concave, con-
aceous, rigid, {mooth, with a broad bafe and ftraight {pinous
point. Svipulas none. Catkins folitary, terminal. “Cones
ovate, thick, three or four inches long, compofed of innu-
merable fcales. whofe long aw!-fhaped points are curved in-
wards. In the hollow purplifh bafe of each feale is a foli-
tary, oval, eatable kernel, {carcely an inch long. 2. D. ex-
ec/fa. Lambert loc. cit. t. 39, 40. (Cuprefius columraris 5
Forft. Prod. 67.) Norfolk-ifland Pine. ~ Adult leaves
clofely imbricated, irflexed, pointlefs. Cone-feales. winged,
with very fhort points. Difcovered by captain Cook, in
his fecond voyage, on Queen Chariotte’s Foreland, New
Caledonia; alfo ia the sfle of Pines. It has fince been
found abundantly on Norfolk Ifland, from whence hving
plants have been brought into England, but as they will
not bear our climate, and foon overgrow our loftieft con-
fervatories, they can never be feen here in perfeétion.
This fpecies rifles to 150 or 220 feet in height, and is
from 12 to 30 feet in circumference, generally very ftraight,
and deftitute of branches to the height of 40, fometimes
6o, feet from the ground. According to Capt. Hunter, the
wood is feldom found ; very heavy when frefh, as it abounds
with a watery fap; its grain fhort and fpongy, the gum
which exudes from the bark is foluble in water, and not of
the nature of turpentine. That experienced naviyator etteems
this timber wholly unfit for the navy, thavgh very uleful for
building houfes. The leaves of this tree on the young
plant are awi-fhaped, fpreading every way, fomewhat im-
bricated, about half anioch long, feffile, {mooth. Cotyledons
four, whorled, equal, lanceolate, obtufe, near an inch and half
Jong. Aduit dranchesnumerous, cylindrical, obtufe, {preading
every way, covered with innumerable, clofely imbricated,
{Mile, ovate, inflexed, pointlefs /eaves, about a quarter of an
inch long. Cones almot globular, about fix inches in dia-
meter, formed of innumerable /cales, which are deciduous
when ripe. Tach of thefe /cales is dilated or winged at the
fides, and their tips are very short, though greatly dilated at
the bafe.

Domseya of Cavanilles. See PENTAPETES.

Domaeya of L’Heritier. See Tourreria.

DOMBROWAZ, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Lemberg; 60 miles S. W. of Lemberg.

DOMBROWKEN, a town of Proffia, in the province of
Natangen; 10 miles E. of Nordenberg.

DOME, in Archite@ure, is a roof or vault rifing from a
circular, elliptic or polygonal plan, with a convexity out-
wards, or a concavity inwards, in fuch a manner that all
the horizontal fe€tions made by planes will be fimilar figures
round a vertical axis.

Domes are denominated by the figure of the bafe on which
they are erected ; and are therefore called polygonal, cizcu-

Seed folitary in the coriaceous

DOM /

lar, or elliptic domes. Circular domes are of feveral kinds,
as fpherical, {pheroidal, or eilipfoidal, hyverboloidel, paras
boloidal, &c. Domes that rife higher than the radius of
the bafe are called furmounted domes; and thofe that rife.
lefs than this dimenfion, are termed diminilhed or furbaled
domes. Domes which rife from circular bafes are caliedi
cupolas.

Hiflory.

“With regard to the antiquity of domes, it does not ape
pear from authestic hiflory, that any of the anciest nations,
prior to the time of the Roman emperor Auguttus, were ac-
guainted with the ufe of the arch, and confequently not of
the dome. ft 13 probable that the arch was invented by the
Greeks; but that fpecies of it, called domes, feems to have
originated in Italy among the Romansior Hetrurians. The
oldeft dome that hiftory informs. us of, is that of the Pan.
theon at Rome, built in the reign of this emperor, and is.
flill entire. Its cavity is hemifpherical and enriched with
coffers, and terminates upwards in an aperture called
the eye of the dome. The exterior fide rifes from feveral
degrees or fteps not vertically, but in a floping dire€tion,
which is nearly a tangent to the feveral internal quoins of the
fteps ; and confeqnently prefeats to the eye a. truncated
fegment of a {phere much lefs than a hemifphere.

~The dome of the temple of Bacchus is alfo hemifpherical’
internally ; but without coffers. It is now covered exter«
nally with a common roof, which perhaps mizht have been
the original form, a form whichis allo to be feen. in the
roof which covers the dome of the temple of Jupiter in the
palace of Dioclefian at Spalatro in Dalmatia. Domes were-
of very frequent ufe among the Romans, as may be feen by
their coins, and in the remains of theirancient edifices. But
Greece, though the mother of architeéture, has not furnifh>
ed us with a fingle example of 2 dome, which may be faid.
to be built ; for that which covers the monument of Lyfis
crates is only a fingle ftone, and is therefore but a lintle,

In point of antiquity, the dome of Santa Sophia at Con-
ftantinople comes next in order. It was built in the reign
of the emperor Juftinian by Anthemius and Ifidorus; whom.
the emperor had fele@ed as the mott eminent of the Grecian
architeéts. As this church had been feveral times burnt, it
was determined that no combuitible materials fhould be em-
ployed in its fabrication. Anthemius had boafted to Jufti-
nian thae he would outdo the magnificence of the Roman.
pantheon, by fufpending in the air a much greater dome,.
For this perpofe he raifed four pillars on the angles of a
{quare,. diftant from. each other about 1F5 feet, and nearly
of the fame altitude. As this church was to be made in the
form of a crofs, and to be vaulted with ftone, it became
neceflary. to throw arches over the pillars, and to fill up the
four angular {paces between the archivolts, gradually forme
ing them.into a complete circle at the level of the four fum-
mits of the arches. Ulon this circular ring the dome, the
firlt ever erected upon. pendentives, was railed. The preffure-
of the eaftera and weltern arches was refifted by walls almof
folid, running longitudinally in a meridional dire&ion, twa.
from the north, and two from the fouth fides of the pillars,
to the diltance of about go. feet, forming tranfepts. It
was thought that the cylindrical walls covered with half
domes, which abutted on the eaftern and weftern arches,
would have made a fufficient refiftance to the preffure of the-
arches on the north and fouth; but this was not the cafe,
for the dome gave way towards the eaft, and after having
ftood a few months, it fell with the half dome on this fide..
Anthemius dying, Ifidorus, who fucceeded to the charge,
ftrengthened the eaftern piers by filling up certain voids, and

then

DOME,

then turning the dome a fecond time; but its preffure was
flill too great for the refiftance of the eaflern end, which was
now fo much fratured, that it gave way a fecond time before
its completion. Ifidorus finding {till that the puth was di-
rected eaftwardly, built {trong pillared buttreffes againit the
eaftern wall of a {quare cloilter, which furrounded the build.
ing, and thence buttreffes {panning over the void, and then
turned the domeathird time. But though every precau-
tion was taken to diminifh its gravity, both by procuring
light materials (which was pumice ftone), and by reducing
its thicknefs, the arches were fo much fractured, that the
architeét was under the neceffity of filling up the great ar-
cades, on the north and fouth, by other {maller ones in three
ftories. From thefe circumftances we find that profeffional
men of this age were not fo well acquainted with the princi-
ples of conftru@tion in dome-vaulting as thofe in modern
times, who perhaps. would have hooped or chained fucha
dome immediately over the arches and pendentives; and by
this means it might have been fecured by making its preffure
incline more towards the perpendicular, as was the praétice in
after ages, firflt by Michael Angelo in the vaftly more pon-
derous dome of St. Peter’s at Rome ; and then by fir Chnif-
topher Wren, in the interior dome and cone of Sr. Paul’s
cathedral. This dome of St. Sophia, which the Turks
have preferved, is nearly 113 French feet diameter.

The veneration with which the Chriftian world did, and
fill holds for this church, gave flimulus to the ere¢tion of
the dome upon the church of St. Mark at Venice, about the
year of Chrift 973, upona fimilar plan.

Shortly after the commencement of the eleventh century,
the dome of the cathedral church at Pifa was built after the
fame model.

The vaft cathedral of St. Maria dei Foire, at Florence,
wag begunin 1298 by Arnolfo Lufii, who died in two years
after. From the deceafe of this great man there was no
archite& to be found who would engage to execute the dome
with which the original architect Araolfo had intended to finifh
this edifice: in confequence of which it ftood for 120 years,
and then a convocation of archite&s was aflembled ; many
extravagant plans were propofed, but were all rejected.
Filipo Brunelefchi was at length chofen as the only perfon,
who could be entrulted with the enterprife. He carried on
the building, and completed the dome without difficulty,
in a manner truly worthy of his great reputation. ‘This
cupola is of an oftangular fhape, and of great elevation, far
exceeding in dimenfions any of the ancient Roman domes,
and only inferior to St. Peter’s in point of magnitude. It
is double, or formed of two vaults, with a cavity between:
it was erected without centering, and is only fupported by
the {pringing wall without buttreffes.

The church of St. Peter’s at Rome, the largeft temple
ever ereied, was begun by Bramante, A. D. 1513, and
carried on fucceflively by Raphael, San Gallo, and Michael
Angelo. The dome of this edifice, defigned by Michael An-
gelo, is nearly an ellipfoid on the exterior fide, It rifes ver-
tically from its bafe, and at the height of about 50 feet,
branches into two thin vaults, which gradually feparate as
they rife. They are conneéted together by thin partitions
dovetailed to each fhell ; by this means the whole is rendered
extremely light and ftiff. eat

St. Paul’s cathedral, London, conftru&ed by that gre.
architeét and mathematician fir Chriflopher Wren, was b e
gun A.D, 1685, and completely finifhed by 1710. Th
dome is of 18 iach brick work, and as it rifes every five
feet in the altitude, has a courfe of long bricks inferted
the whole thicknefs. ‘* The concave was turned upon a
centre, which was judged neceflary to keep the work even

and true, though a cupola might have been built without
a centre; but it was obfervable, that the centre was laid
without any ftandards from below to fupport it; and as it was
both centering and {caffolding, it remained for the ufe of the
painter. Every ftory of this feaffolding being circular, and
the ends of all the ledgers meeting as fo many rings, and
truly wrought, it fupported itfelf.”” ‘* Although the dome
wants not butment, yet for greater caution it is hooped
with iron in this manner; a channel is cut in the bandage
of Portland ftone, in which is laid a double chain of iron,
ftrongly linked together at every ten feet, and the whole
channel filled up with lead.’? The exterior dome is con-
ftruGted of oak timber, and fupported by a cone of brick
work, fpringing from the fame bafe with tke exterior
dome, and fupporting on its furnmit, or truncated end, a
beautiful ftone lantern, weighing 700 tons. This dome
rifes higher than a femicircle; the fides of its fection be-
ing ftruck with centres in the bafe line, and would meet
in an angle, if continued, in the axis of the dome.

It may, be proper to obferve, in this place, that all the
ancient Roman cupolas, on the convex fide, are a much
lefs portion of the {phere than the hemifphere; but thofe
from the completion of the building of Santa Sophia,
to the finifhing of St. Paul’s cathedral, are ali furmount-
ed domes, approaching in a certain degree to the propor
tion of fpires or towers, which were fo much affcéted in
the middle ages. Since the revival of legitimate Grecian
architeGiure by Stewart and others, the figure or con-
tour of the Roman dome has been again revived, particu-
larly when the other parts of the building are decorated
with any of the orders; indeed exterior domes of any de-
{cription are improper, when applied to the pointed ftyle of
architeGture, :

The prefent Pantheon at Paris, formerly the church of
St. Genevieve, is the conftru@ion of that diftinguifhed ar-
chitect Soufilot. Its dome is very lofty, and is fuftained
by four pillars arched over the cxofs parts. The angular
{paces are made good with pendentives, which terminate in
a circular ring: upon this ring is ere€ted the cylindrical
wall, which fupports the dome. In this refpeét it is fimi-
lar to St. Paul’s.

The dome of the Halle du Bled, at Paris, is an excel-
lent example of a wooden dome, it is more than 20 feet
diameter, and only one foot in thicknefs. See our princi-
ples of Carpentry.

Inthe interior of the great towers, over the interf: Qion
of the crofs, in our Gothic cathedrals, we find domes rif-
ing from a fqnare bafe, and generally pierced by two
windows on each of the four wails, which form beautiful .
groins with the merfeGion of the domic cciling within.

Spherical domes have this property, that they may be
interfected by cylindrical or conic vaulting in every direction,
and that the interfe€tion wi.l always be circles, provided that
the axis of the cylinder, or cone, tend to the centre of the
{phere. For every fection of a {phere made by a plane is
a circle, and every fection of a right cylinder, or cone, per-
pendicular to the axis, is alfo a circle. Let the {phere
be fo cut as to make a feGtion of an equal diameter to a
f{eG&tion of the cylinder or cone perpendicular to the axis ;
then the fection of the cone, or cylinder, being applied to
that of the {phere, fo that the centres of both may coin-
cide, the circumferences of the circles will alfo coincide,
and therefore on.y make one common line of meeting in
the fame plane, which is perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder, or cone: forthe right linc drawn from the centre
of the circle, which ts the feGion of the fphere, to the cen-
tre of the Jphere, is perpendicular to the plane of. this fec~

7 tion 5

DOME,

tion; and fince the axis of the cylinder, or cone, is alfo
perpendicular to the fame plane, the axis of the cylinder,
or cone, and the remaining part of the radius of the {phere,
will be in the fame ftraight line. From this it fellows,
when the axis of a cylindrical, or conic vaulting, is hori-
zontal, and tends to the axis of a {pheric vaulting, that
their mutual interfeGtion mult ‘be in the circumference of a
circle, the plane of which will be perpendicular to ‘the
horizon. Hence the beautiful interfections of {phero-cylin-
Gric groin, which are fo much admired in ovr principal
buildings, and which never fail to ftrike the mind, ard lead
it to an inveftigation. For to people who view fuch forms
of groins, it appears, at firlt fight, that the interfeGtion
will incline towards the vertical axis of the {phere at the
top ; but upon reflecting upon the properties of the {phere,
they will (con difcover that the interfection is ina plane per-
pendicular to the horizon. ie

From the above principle, any building having a poly-
gonal bafe, may be made to terminate in a circle, and to
faitain either a cupola or cylindrical wail; for if the tops
of the fide walls of the polygon are brought to a level, and
equal fegments of circies raifed on the top, meeting each
other in the lines of interfeCtion of the fides of the polygon,
the fegments being either femicircles, or lefs portions ; and
if the angular {paces between thefe circular headed walls be
made good to the level of the fummits of the arches, fo as
to coincide with the circumference of a circle, which is a
great circle of the {phere, they will terminate in a circular
ring at the level of the fummit of the arches, and be
portions of a phere, which our workmen call {pandrals,
and the French pendentives. Upon the circular ring a cor-
nice is generally laid, and on the cornice a cylindric wall,
or dome, of any defcription is raifed.

In the prattice of building, the figures of the plans of apart-
ments on which circular domes may be created are generally
{quares, or oGtagons, and the pendentives are generally equal
in number to the angles of the walls; but this is not ne-
ceflary, for arches may be thrown acrofs the angles to dou-
ble the number of fides of the polygon, and to preferve the
equal fides; then over the middle part of the walls may
be built equal, and fimilar arches, touching thofe acro{fs
the angles at yhe bottom, and having their fummits in the
fame level. Inftead of walls, piers may be carried toa
proper height upon each angle of the polygonal plan,
returning on each fide of the angle; then over every
two edjacent piers, on each fide of the polygon, let
archivolts be turned, and the fpandrals filled in to the level
of the fummits of the arches, or archivolts, as before, and
the termination wiil be a circle on the infide, as has been
obferved. ‘The under bed of the cornice is not always
Jaid on a level with the top of the archivolt ; but the {phe-
ric furface is fometimes continued another courfe, or two
courfes with brick or ftone work ; then over this a cupola
or cylindrical wall may be raifed. In this manner the piers
of the veftibule of St. Paul’s cathedral, London, have ar-
chivolis thrown over them, on each fide of the otagonal
plan, refting upon every two adjacent piers, forming cight
arcadcs below, then the fpandrals are filled in with {pheric
portions to the fummits of the archivolts ; upon this circu-
lar level is laid the entablature, which fupports upon its
cornice the whifpering gallery ; the cylindric wall is then
carried up to the bafe of the dome. St. Stephen’s church,
Walbrook, is a beautiful example of a dome, f{upported
upon eight arcades, the arches of which are futtained by
the fame number of ivfulated columns; the area of the
veltibule is fquare, but the columns are fo difpofed in the
des of it, as to form an equilateral and equiangular ottae

z

gon; the entablatare, fupported by the columns, is alfo
formed upon a fquare plan; the archivolts between every
two contiguous columns form on the plan an o€tagon ; and
the {pheric fpandrals, being made up to the level of the
fummits of the archivolts, form at laf a complete circle ;
on this circular level is laid the cornice, which is at laf
furmounted with the dome and lantern.

Plate VIL. exhibits the forms of various domes.

Fig. 1. fhews three different contours upon a fquare plan.
No. ris the plan: No. 2 a bell-formed contour, ofed in
turrets, upon a {quare plan, in the reigns of Elizabeth and
James [.: No. 3 a pointed contour; and No. 4 a femicir=
cular.

Fig. 2. reprefents various contours of domes upon an oc-
tagonal plan. No.1 is the plan: No. 2 an elevation with
a femi-elliptic-contour vpon the greater axis, the lefs being
vertical: No. 3 a femt-elliptic-contour upon the lefs axis,
which is the diameter of the circle of its bafe; and No. 4
an elevation, having its contour, or vertical feétion, pointed
at the fummit. The dome of the cathedral church of Sr.
Maria dei Foire, at Florence, is of this form; for all its
horizontal fetions are o¢tagons, and its vertical fection is a
pointed arch.

Fig. 3. reprefents five contours upon a circular plan.
No. 1 isthe plan: No. 2 the elevation, having a femicircular
contour, as is fometimes ufed in modern praétice: No. 3
an elevation, fhewing the contour of a fegment lefs thana
femicircle, a3 was the practice of the Romans; the dome
{pringing from the uppermott of a feries of fteps, or degrees,
and fometimes terminating with an eye at the top, as in the
Pantheon: No. 4 an elliptic contour, the bafe being the
longer axis: No. 5 an elliptic contour, the bafe being the
fhorter axis. Roofs with elliptic contours upon circular
plans, are properly denominated ellipfoidal domes, or fphe-
roidal domes, as in the two laft contours: No. 6 the pointed
contour, as employed in St. Peter’s, at Rome, and St. Paul’s,
London.

Fig. 4. reprefents domes of four different contours upon
acircular plan. No. 1 is the plan: No. 2 fhews the eleva-
tion of a parabolical contour: No, 3 the elevation of a hy-
perbolical contour: Nos. 4 and 5 elevations, having the’
contours of contrary curvatures on the fides: No. 4 bends
inwardly at the bottom, and No. 5 rifes vertically from its
bafe. The fides of thefe contours are convex below, and
concave above; the convex part being a much greater por-
tion of the fide than the concave part. Such forms may
be denominated Morefque, Turkifh, or Hindvo domes, as
being the practice of the Moors, Turks, and Hindoos.
The contour, No. 5, was introduced into England in the
reign of king Henry VII., and in conftant ufe in the time
of Henry VIII. Its ufe was in the crownings of tur-
rets, as in the oMagonal buttrefles of king Henry VIIths
chapel, and the towers of king’s co'lege chapel, Cambridge:
the turrets at the entrance into Chriit’s college, Oxford,
executed by fir Chritopher Wren, are furmounted with
domes of this form. The bell-formed contour, No. 2, jig. 1,
fucceeded to No. 5, jig. 43 examples of it may be feen at
Audley-end, in Effex, built in the reign of James T., and
in the tower of London.

No. 3, fig 1; Nos. 3 and 4, jig. 2; Nos. 5 and 6, fz. 3,
are all furmounted domes. Dowes with pointed contours,
confifting of circular fegments meeting in the apex, were
much ufed during the middle ages. ‘The forms exhibited
in No. 2, fg. 2; Nos. 3 and 4, fig. 3, are furbafed domes,
being lower than femicircles upon the fame bafe.

Fig, 5. fhews a complete hemifphere, or the centre of a
hemifpheric dome, If this hemifphere is cut by four verti-

cal

DO

eal planes, reprefented by the lines AB, BC, CD, DA,
the middle part will exhibit the form of jig. 6. No, 1, in
the fame pofition; No. 2 is one of the ends; and No. 3 one
of the fides: No. 4. fhews the fame figure as No. 1 in the
middle of four cylinders which are joined with it; the whole
forming the centre for ereGting a hemifpheric dome pierced
with four cylindrical vaults. The arches, or groins of the
aifles of the cathedral of St. Paul’s, are vaulted in this man-
ner; the cylindrical arches, tran{verfe to the length of the
building, being of greater diameter than thofe in the direc-
tion of the aifles,, form the pendentives double, No. 5 the
fide of the fame.

Fig. 7, a hemifphere joined to four equal cylinders, which
do not meet at the bafe, as in fg. 6. Tis fizure forms four
equal and diftinét pendentives, fuppofing the upper part
above the fummits of the arches cut off, or feparated by a
cornice at the fame place. No. 1 fhews the plan, or bori-
zontal proje€tion > No. 2 the elevation of one fide.

Plate VIII. fig. 1. No. 1 is the plan, and No. 2 the eleva-
tion of a dome invented by Mr. Bunce, and fo conftruéted
as to require no centering. All the abutting joints are con-
tinued in vertical planes without interruption; but the hori-
zontal joints of every two {tones break on the middle of the
{tone on either fide; therefore in the building every alternate
ftone of a courfe will proje&t upwards, and leave a recefs
for placing each ftone of the next courfe, and fo on to the
top, as fhewn by the figure. It is evident that as the build-
ing approaches nearer to the top, the intervals will become
more wedge-formed, and as the interior circumference is
lefs than the exterior, the {tones can only be inferted from
the outfide; and, confequently, if made fo exa& as juft to
fit their places, they cannot fall inwardly; this dome will
therefore require no centering. But though this manner of
joining the {tones may be convenient, as requiring no cen-
tering, yet it is more fubject to burt than one conftruéted
in the ufual manner, if not equilibrated, as every row of
flones, from the bafe to the top, form arches independent
of each other. However, in order to break the vertical
joints, the ftones may be cut and joined, as in fig. 2: No.1
thews the conneétion of the ftones next to the bottom, and
No. 2, at the crown.

Fig. 3. is the manner in which the feaffolding and center-
ing of a dome may be fupported without ftandards from
below. No. 1 is the plan of the bafe of the dome and cen-
tering: No. 2 the internal elevation, fhewing the manner
and form of the centering: No. 3 a fection of the dome,
fhewing the different ftages as they rife upwards; and No. 4
one of the flays, or brackets. Every bracket is fupported
on a corbel below, as fhewn at A, or the horizontal piece
BC may be houfed into the wall at C, but care fhould be
taken to ftrap it to the upright. It is evident, that when a
number of brackets, conftruéted as in No. 4, is placed
around the interior circumference, as at Nos. 1 and 2, and
fixed into the wail at the bottom, or top, as defcribed with
tranfverfe pieces, as at No. 1, fixed firmly to the tops of
the brackets, this combination of timbers cannot fall in-
wardly, becaufe of the wedge-formed fides which form the
polygea, and they are prevented from falling downwards by
the corbels at their bottoms, or from the houfings at the
ends of the horizontal pieces at the top. By this means the
fcaffolding may be made as durable and firm as if carried up
from the bottom; nothing more is required to complete it
than to cover the bearers with boards: "The centering, for
f{upporting the {tones or bricks, may be formed by thin pieces
of timber placed in vertical planes, in the manner of ribs, at
fuch diftances from each other that one may be oppofite to
the middle of a {tone or brick. The centering of the dome

M FE,

of St. Paul’s was probably executed in this manner. Fig. 4,
fhews a plan for another mode of {caffolding'a dome. Four
beams are let into the wall, fo as to forma fquare; and then
four others above thefe, in the fame manner diagonally placed;
the two upper four may be bolted to the lower four.

Plate VILL. a. fig. 1. Given the ichnography of a hemi-
{pheric dome, the direétion aod feGtion of a cylindroidal vault
interfecting the domic furface; to find the feat of the
interfection, and form of the boarding laid out in plano or
ledgement.

Let ABCDA be the plan of the dome, BEFAB
that of the cylindroid, and GFE the feion of the cy-
lindroid; divide the arch E GF into any number of parts,
and draw lines parallel to AF’, fo that each line may cut the
curve of the bafe of the dome in two points. On each of
thefe lines, terminated by the curve of the bafe of the hemi-
{phere, defcribe a femicircle. On the feveral points of the
bafe EF, where the feveral parallels cut it, defcribe gua-
drants of circles, with the length of each refpetive ordinate,
fo as to cut EF or EF produced on the fame fide with the
femicircles: from the points thus cut, draw lines again p2-
rallel to AF, fo as to cut each refpeGtive femicireje: from
thefe points_in the femicircles draw lines perpendicular to
each refpective diameter, fo as to cut it at the points
i, g,k,1,m,n,0, draw the curve Aigk/mnoB, which will
give the feat of the angle. The form of the boarding in
plano is thus found: let PQ, No. 2, be the perimeter of
the arch E G F, croffed at the feveral divifions interfeéted by
the chords, draw lines perpendicular to PQ, and make the
lengths of thofe lines refpeGively equal to the lengths of the
parallels contained between EF and the feat Azgh/mnoB-
of the angle; then a curve being traced through the points
fo found, will give the lengths and form of the boards which
cover the furface of the cylindroid, fo as to coincide with
the domic furface at theirends. If the axis of the cylindroid’
pafs through the centre of the hemifphere, only one-half of.
the lines will be neceflary to produee the feat of the intere
fe&tion of the grom, as at CD, and the boarding, as in
No. 3. In this manner the groins of the nave of St.-Paul’s
aré\formed by tke lunettes, or cylindroids, cutting each
{pheric furface from each window. No. 4 fhews the feGtion-
for bending round the feat Aigk/mnoB, fo as to coincide
with the common fetion of the cylindroid and the hemi-
fphere. This is found by making RS equal to the feat
Aighk/mnoB, and the ordinates equal to thofe of the arch:
FiGiE.

Given the ichnography of a dome of a hemifpheric form,
and the ichnography of a femi-conic-vault cutting the hemi-
{phere obliquely to find the feat of the groin end the form
of the boarding of the conic vault.

Let ABCDA (jig.2.)be the ichnography of the dome, and
CED be that of the conic vault, E being the vertex. Let
the cone be cut by any {2:&ion CGF perpendicular to its
axis, and divide the arch CGF into any number of equak
parts, from which draw lines at right angles to the bafe FC,.
‘Through each of thefe points in the bafe CF, and the vertex
of the cone E, draw lines cutting the ichnography of the
dome in two poists each ; on each of the lines intercepted
by the bafe of the-dome as a diameter, deferibe a femicircle,
Draw perpendiculars from the points in the line CF to,
the feveral lines drawn from E,.and the bottom of the
ordinates in CF, and make: each refpe€tive perpendicular
equal to each refpetive. ordinate-at the fame point. From
If draw lines through the ends of thefe perpendiculars to cut
each femicircle: from the points fo cut inthe femicircle draw
lines parallel to the perpendiculars; that is, perpendicu-
lar.to the bafes of the femicircles: then a line being traced

from

DOME.

from Cto D, through thefe points, gives the feat of the
angle.

Té the axis of the cone pafs through the axis of the he-
mifphere, the feat of the interfe@lion will be a flraight line,
as at AB.

Fig. 3. is the reprefentation of a pendentive dome
covering an area bonnded by a fquare-plan, No. 1 is
the plan the pendentives are here fhewn at AL No. 2
the elevation, Here the fpheric covering is the fame as if
penetrated by four equal femicylinders, the plane of each wall
being the fame as the ends of the femicylinders, termmating in
femicircles. In this reprefentation, the contour of the dome,
and the {-micircles whtch terminate the tops of the wall, are
concentric. At the fummits of the four arches a cornice
is generally carried round, th's is fhewn by the dotted line
EF. The {pheric portion above E F may be of any rota-
tive form whatever: it is here continued upwards with the
fame concavity as the pendentivcs, that is, 2 portion of the
fame {phere of which the pendentives are parts. GEC
and HED thew the parts of the {phere cut off by the
four walls.

Fig. 4. is the reprefentation of a pendentive dome, cover-
ing an o¢tazonal area, No. 1 is the plan, No. 2 the inte-
rior elevation.

Fig. 5. is the reprefentation of a faloon: No. 1 is the
plan: No. 2 the interior elevation. This is compoted of
three different geometrical folids: firft an oftagonal prifm
to the fpring of the arches: fecondiy, a portion of a he-
mifphere extending upwards a little above the fummits of
the arches, the dotted line fhewing the complete hemai-
fphere of which this is the portion ; and, thirdly, a cylinder
which is crowned with a hemifphere. This is the general
form of the faloon of St. Paul’s, and other modern churches:
the oGtayonal partsis generally decorated with pilafters: the
entablature of which feparates the prifmatic part from that
of the {pheric zone, and covers every defect at the tranfition
of thefe two different figures. An entablature or cornice is
generally carried round the upper part ofthe zone. ‘This is
the place of the whifpering gallery in St. Paul’s. The cy-
lindrical part f{urmountiug a high podeum is generally de-
corated with a pilaltrade, and pierced on the fides for win-
dows, as in this laft mentioned edifice.

The equilibrium and preffure of domes is very different
from that of common arching, though there are fome com-
mon propertics ; forin their cylindrical or cylindroidal vault-
ing of uniform thicknefs, if the tangent to the arch at the
bottom be perpendicular to the horizon, the vault cannot
ftand, nor can it be built with a concave contour in the whole
er in any part, and to equilibrate the arch whether its
fe&tion be circular or elliptical, fuppofing the intrados to be
given, the two extremes of the arch mut be loaded infinitely
high between the extrados of the curve which runs upwards,
and the tangent to the arch which is an aflymptote rifing
vertically from each foot or extreme of the arch. In hke
macner in thin domic vaulting of equal thicknels, if the
curved furface rife perpendicularly from the bafe, whatever be
the contour, it will burft at the bottom. Dome vaulting,
though agreeing in this particular with common vau't-
ing, differs effentially in feveral others, for in order to equili-
brate its figure, after the convexity has been carried to its
fuli extent of equilibrium around, and equidiftant from the
fummit on the exterior fide, the curvature may then change
into a concavity; for fince the interior circumference of the
courfes is lefs than the exterior circumference, and therefore
whatever be the preflure towards the axis the courfe cannot
fall inwardly without {queezing the ones into a Icfs compafs,
which is impoflible: they mul therefore be cruthed to

powder before fuch a vault can give way. Hence a vault
may be executed with a convex furface inwardly and concave
outwardly, and be fufliciently firm; but the flrongeit form
of a circular er rotative vault to carry a load at the top, is
a truncated cone; fuch has fir Chriftopher Wren adopted in
fupporting the ftone lantern and exterior dome of St. Paul’s:
with regard to the ftrength of this vault, it is impoffible to
conceive any force a€ting on the fummit that is capable of
putting it out of equilibrium: fince the preffure is commu-
nicated in the floping right line of the fides of the cone, and
perpendicular to the joints, the conic fides will have no ten-
dency to bend to one fide more than the other, (except
from the gravity of the materials towards the axia, but this
tendency is counteracted by the abutting verticle joints).
The cafe is very different in dome vaulting, fince the
contour is convex, there is a certain load which, if laid
on the top, mult burft the dome outwardly, and this
weight will be greater as the contour approaches nearer to
the chords of the arches of the two fides, or to a conic
vaulting on the fame bafe, carried up to the fame altitude,
and ending in the fame circular courfe. Let us begin at
the key {tone and proceed downwards from courfe to courfe;
fuppofing a horizontal line to be a tangent at the vertex,
it 1s evident that every fucceffive courfing joint may be
made to flope fo much, and confequently the preflure of
the arch ftones of any courfe towards the axis fo great, as to
be more thao fufficient to refift the weight of all the part
above: it is therefore plain that there is a certain degree of
curvature to be given to the contour which will jult prevent
the ftones in any fuccecding courfe from being forced out-
ward.y: the circular vault thus balanced is an equilibrated
dome ; but initead of being the ftrongeit it is the weakelt of
all intermediate ones between its own contour and that of a
cone upon the fame bafe, rifing to the fame altitude in a key
ftone, or in an equal circular courfe. ‘lhe equilibrated
dome is therefore the boldeft contcur, and is the limit of an
infinity of infcribed circular vaults, which are all ftronger
than itfelf. Circular vaulting differs from ftraight vault-
ing in otaer re{pets, being built with courfes in circu-
lar rings; and the ftones in each courfe of equal length,
and prefling equally towards the axis cannot flide inwardly:
circular vaults may therefore be open at the top; and the
equilibrated dome, which is the weakeft, may be made to
carry a lantern of equal gravity with the part that would
have been neceffary to complete the whole ; but domes of
flatter contours may be made to carry more, according as
they are nearer to a conic contour, as has already been ob-
ferved ; avd thofe circular vaults that are either ftraight or
concave onthe fides may be loaded without limit, and will
never fail till they are crufhed to powder, provided they are
hooped at the bottom.

Having thus given a popular defcription of the equilibrium
and preflure of domes, fuch as might eafily be comprehended
by perfons of ordinary conception, though unacquainted with
the ufe of algebra or fluxions, we fhall here lay before our
readers Dr. Robinfon’s theory.

Prop. ‘To determine the thicknefa of dome vaulting
when the curve is given, or the curve when the thicknefs is

iven.

“Let BLA (jig. 6.) be the curve which produces
the dome by revolving round the vertical axis A.D.
We thal bere fuppofe the curve to be drawn through the
middle of the arch {tones, and that the courfing or hori-
zontal joints are every where perpendicular to the curve,
We fhall fuppofe (as is always the cafe) that the thick-
nefs KL, HI, &c. of the arch fones is very {mall in con-
parifon with the dimenfions of the arch. If we confider

- any

» yg

any portion H A+ of the dome, it is plain that it preffes
on the curve of which Ii L is an arch ftone, in a direction
5C, perpendicular to the joint HI, or in the direction of
the next fuperior element @4 of the curve. As we proceed
downwards, courfe after courfe, we fee plainly that this
direGtion muft change, becaufe the weight of each courfe is
fuperadded to that of the portion above it to complete tke
preffure of the courfe below. Through B draw the ver-
tical line BCG meeting 64, produced in C. We may
take Jc to exprefs the preflure of all that is above it, pro-
pagated in this direétion to' the joint KL. We may alfo
fuppofe the weight of the courfe H i united in 4, and ating
on the vertical. Let it be reprefented by ZF. If we form
the parallelogram 6 F GC, the diagonal 4G will reprefent
the direGtion and intenfity of the whole prcflure on the
joint KL.

“ We have feen that if 6G, the thruft compounded of
the thrutt 6C exerted by all the courfes above HI LK,
and if the force 4 F, or the weight of that courfe be every
where coincident with 4B, the element of the curve, we
fhall have an equilibrated dome ; if it falls within it, we
have a dome which will bear a greater load, and if it fails
without it, the dome will break at the joint. We mutt
endeavour to get analytical expreflions of thefe conditions.
Therefore draw the ordinates 506", B DB”,C dC”. Let the
tangents at dand J” meet the axis in M, and make MO, MP,
each equal to 4C, and complete the parallelogram M O N P,
and draw OQ perpendicular to the axis, and produce 4 F,
cutting the ordinates in E ande. It is plain that MN is
to M O as the weight of the arch HAA to the thrutt 6C,
which it exerts on the joint K L (this thruft being propa-
gated through the courfe of HI LK,) and that MQ, or
its equal de, or dd, may reprefent the weight of the half
AA.

Let AD be called », and DB be called y, Then de
=, andeC =y (becaufe 4C is in the direction of the
element #2.) It is plain that if we make j conftant, BC
is the fecond fluxion of x, or BC = ¥,and 4e and 6 E may
be confidered as equal, and taken indifcriminately for x,
We have alfo bC = VW x* + y*5 let d be the depth or thick-
nefs of HI of the arch ftones. Then d\/x* + j? will re-
prefent the trapezium H L; and fince the circumference of
every courfe increafes in the proportion of the radius y, dy
J x + FF will reprefent the whole courfe. If /be taken to
reprefent the {um or aggregate of the quantities annexed to it,
the formula will be analogous to the fluent of a fluxion, and
Sdy V + 9° will reprefent the whole mafs, and alfo the
‘weight of the vaulting down to the joint HI. Therefore
we have this proportion; fdy Vx + j': dy Vx +y>=
ba: bF =b2:CG=3d: CG=x:CG. Therefore

CG= dyk Va +" ve iva
Lay SH +S
“ Tf the curvature of the dome be precifely fuch as puts
it in equilibrium, but without any mutual preffure in the
vertical joints, this value of CG muft be equal to C B,
or to x, the point G coinciding with B. This condition
dyxVxv +7
Sdy Vx +y
(a A a = =. But this form
Jfdy Vx? + y? x
gives only a tottering equilibrium, independent of the
friGtion of the joints and cohefion of the cement. An
equilibrium, accompanied by fome firm ftability produced
by the mutual preffure of the vertical joints, may be expreffed
Vou, XII.

will be expreffed by the equation Tes OF

more conveniently by

M E.
by the formula ai tv eRe Z, or by ait ae
SdyVv +7 fay V x? + yy

:
Tage
x

creafes when x increafes. This laft equation will alfo ex.

prefs the equilibrated dome, if ¢ bea conltant quantity, be-

Fo where ¢ is fome variable pofitive quantity which in-

caufe in this cafe = is 0.

dy xv x aa gf
SdyV 2 LP
fhall be greater than #, and CG muft be greater than C B.
Hence we learn that figures of too great curvatures, whofe
fides defcend too rapidly, are improper. Alfo, fiace ftabi-
dya/ +R
Sabie Din
Sdy /x* +5’, we learn that the upper part of the dome
mult not be made very heavy. This, by diminifhing the
proportion of 6 F to &C, diminifhes the angle CG, and
may fet the point G above B, which will infallibly {pring
the dome in that place. We fee here alfo, that the alge-
braic analylfis exprefles that peculiarity of dome vaulting,
that the weight of the upper part may even be fuppreffed.
dyVP+H 8¢ 7

“ Since a firm ftability requires that

lity requires that we have greater than

* The fluent of the equation

SdyV H+ & ry
is moft eafily found. Itis L/dy Vx? + 3?#= Le4+ Le
where L is the byperbolic logarithm of the quantity annexed
to it. If we confider y as conftant and correé& the fluent,
fo as to make it nothing at the vertex, it may be exprefled

thus; Lfdy Vx +y —~La=Le—Lj+ Le.

This gives us L aa Te = Lis, and therefore
fdy SEER

a

Fs

<

a Sie
“ This laft equation will eafily give us the depth of the
vaulting, or thicknefs d of the arch, when the curve is

dy ot) ee he

given. For its fluxion is -———, and d=
a wh

atx+aix re z ~
rare which is all expreffed in known quantities ; fo,
we may put in place of ¢ any power or funétion of x or of »,
and thus convert the expreflion into another, which will {till
be applicable to all forts of curves.

** Tuftead of the fecond member ~ +7 we might employ
z y

:
fe, where p is fome number greater than unity. This will

“EAT Be a dome having ftability ; becaufe the original
x =9 a2

iyo will be greater than &, This will
per ha
IFT EES
tages when applied to particular cafes. Each of them alfo

ax . .
———===, when the curvature is fuch as in

IAA eT
precife equilibrium : and, laftly, if d be conftant, that is, if
the vaulting be of uniform thicknefs, we ohtain the formof the
curve, becaufe then the relation of 4 to x and to jis given.
** The chief ufe of this analyfisis to difcover what curves
are improper for domes, or what portions of given curves
may be employed with fafety.
« The

formula

Each of thefe forms has its advan=

gives d =

DOM

« The chief difficulty in the cafe of this analyfis arifes
from the neceflity of expreffing the weight of the incum-
bent part, or fd y »/ x° +7. This requires the meafure-
ment of the coroidal furface, which, in molt cafes, can be
had only by approximation, by means of infinite feriefes.
We cannot expeé that the generality of practical builders
are familiar with this branch of mathematics, and therefore
will not engage in it here; but contest ourfelves in giving
{uch infiances as can be underftood by fuch as have that
moderate mathematical knowledge, which every man fhould
poflefs. who takes the name of engineer.

“The furface of any circular portion of a fphere is very
eafily had, being equal to the circle inferbed with a radius
equal to the arch. This radius is evidently equal to
V+ i.

‘© In order to difcover what portion of a hemifphere may
be employed (for it is evident we cannot employ the whole)
when the thicknefs of the vaulting is uniform, we may recur

ee ZA esl k #7 = fd
x

y W EER,
Let a@ be the radius of the hemifphere. We have x =

isi Blilocs
= AN a, ————_ re
Va—y wy lf
in the formula, we obtain the equation y? V a — yr? =f

a" We eafily obtain the fluent of the fecond
Va =a
member = a? — a? / a — 9, andy =a V¥ —E > A/j-
Therefore if the radius of the hemiiphere be one-half, the
breadth of the dome muft not exceed / — $ + Vs, 8

0.786, and the height will be 618. The arch from the
vertex is about 51° 49’, much more of the hemifphere
cannot ftand even, though aided by the cement, and by
the friGion of the courling jointe. This laft circum-
ftance, by giving conneétion to the upper parts, caufes the
whole to prefs more vertically on the courfe below, and this
diminifhes the outward thruit ; but at the fame time dimi-
nifhes the mutual abutment of the vertical joints, which is a
great caufeof firmnefs ia the vaulting. A Gothic dome, of
which the upper part is a portion of a fphere not exceeding
45° from the vertex, and the lower part 1s concave outwards,
will be very ftrong, and not ungraceful.

«* Perfuaded that what has been faid on this fubje& con-
vinces the reader that a vaulting, perfeétly equilibrated
throughout, is by no means the belt form, provided that
the bafe is fecure from feparating, we think it unneceflary
to give the inveftigation of that form, which has a confider-
able intricacy, and fhall merely give its dimenfions. ‘The
thicknefs is {uppofed uniform. The numbers in the firft
column of the table exprefs the portion of the axis counted
from the vertex, and thofe of the fecond are the length of
the ordinates.

to the equation or formula

ayy AG. bs
JS Subftituting thefe values

a eal AD DB ie Pele
raav ite eerie | j
0.4} 100 || 610.4 | 1080 |} 2990 | 1560 |
g-4| 200 |) 744. | 1140. |) 3442 1600 |
11.4} 300 904. | 1200. |} 3972 | 1640
26.6| 400 || 1100. | 1260. || 4432 | 1670
52.4] 500 |} 1336 | 1320. 4952 | 1700
gt-4| Goo |} 1522. | 1360. || 5336 | 1720
146.8 | joo |} 3738. | 1400. || 5756 | 1740
223.4 | 800 || 1984. | 1440. |} 6214 | 1760
326.6| goo || 2270. | 1480. || 6714 1780
465.4 | 1000 || 2602. | 1520. || 7260 | 1800

DOM

« The curve formed accerding to thefe dimenfions will not
appear very graceful, becanfe there is an abrupt change in
its curvature at a fmall ditance from the vertex. If, how-
ever, the middle be cccupied by a laatern of equal, or of
{maller weight then the part, whofe fpace it fupplies, the
whole will be elegant, and free from defect.?? :

Dome, ta Chemiflry, is the upper-vaulted portion of fe-
veral kinds of Furnaces, which fee.

DOMENE, or Domarne, in Geography, a {mail town
of France, in the department of the Ifcre, chief place of a
canton, inthe diftrict of Grenoble, 6 miles E. of Grenobie,
with a population of 1231 icdividuals. The canton has an
extent of 200 kiliometres, 11 communes, and 8201 in-
habitants.

DOMENGER, in Middle Age Writers, is fometimes
ufed for damfel.

DOMENICO, Anteatt, in Biography, an Italian finger in
Handel’soperas, who performedthe fecond man’s partin Siroe,
when Conti washere,and Strada wasthe firftwoman. His voice
was a contralto, the power and {weetnefs of which Handel
gave him an opportunity of difpiaying in his firft air, «* Al
par della mia forte,” by a ‘‘ Mefi: di voce,”’ or {well, at the
beginning, but no peculiar tafte, expreffion, or power of
execution appear in his part ; his bravura air in the fecond a&,
« Si Cadro,”’ contains only common, and eafy paflages. We
can only jndge of a finger, whom we have never heard, by
examining the fcore of the fongs compofed exprefsly for him
or her. The abilities of Antbali, during his itay in Eng-
land, feem to have made no deep impreflion, as we never re-
member him to have been mentioned by thofe who conftantly
attended the operas of thofe times, and were rapiturifts in
{peaking of the pleafure they had received from fingers of
the firtt clafs.

We found a mufic-book of one of Anibali’s fcholars

vat a ftall in Middle-row, with graces to all the airs of

eu in his own hand-writing. which, for the time, were
good.

DOMENZAIN, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Lower Pyrenées, and diftri@ of
Mauleon; 7 miles N. N.W. of Mauleon. :

DOMES-Day, or Dooms-Day-Book, Liber judiciarius
vel cenfualis Angliz, the judicial book, or book of the furvey
of England : a moft ancient record made in the time of Wil-
liam the Conqueror, by his order and with the advice of his
parliament ; upon a fisrvey, or inquifition of the feveral coun-
tics, hundreds, tithings, &c. , Sir H. Spelman calls it, * if
not the moft ancient, yet without controverly, the moft
venerable monument of Great Britain.’ ,

Its name is formed from the Saxon dom, doom, judgment,
fentence, and day, which has the fame force ; fo that dome-=
day is no more thana reduplicate, importing judgment-judg-
ment.

But fome condemn this etymology as whimfical; and
contend that if it was juft, the Latin for domefday would
be dies judicii ; whereas, as appears above, it is ftyled «* Li-
ber judiciarius, vel cenfualis Angliz.”” Bullet, in his Celtic:
Didionary, hath the word dom, which he reads feur, feigneur,
(and hence the Spanifh word don,) asalfo the words deya, and
deia, which he renders proclamation, advertifement. Doomf-
day, therefore, fignifies the lord’s, or king’s proclamation,
or advertifement, to the tenants who hold under him;
and agrees well with great part of the contents of this
famous furvey. Obfervations on the Statutes, p. 190.
note (m).

The drift, or defign of the book, is to ferve as a regifter,
by which fentence may be given in the tenures of eitates ;
and from which that noted queftion, whether lands be

ancient

DOMES-DAY.

ancient dem-fne, or not, is fill decided. (See Demain.)
Its contents are fummed up in the following verfes:

« Quid deberetur fifco, qui, quanta tributa,
Nomine quid cenfus, que veétigalia, quantum
Quifque tenerctur feodali folvere jure,

Qui junt exempti, vel quos anzaria damnat,
Qui funt vel giebe fervi, vel conditionis,
Quive manumiflus patrono jure ligatur.’””

Th's book is ftill remaining, fair and legible, confifting of
two volumes, a greater and a lefs; the greater comprehend-
ing all the conrties of England, except Northumberland,
Cumberland, Weftmoreland, Durham, and part of Lancafhire,
which were never furveyed ; and except Effex, Suffolk, and
Norfolk, which are comprehended in the Ifler volume,
which concludes with thefe words: ‘ Anno milleflimo o¢to-
gefimo fexto ab incarnatione Domini, vigefimo vero regis
Withelmi, faéta elt ifta defcriptio non folum per hos tres
comitatus, fed etiam alios.””

It was begun in the year 1081, but not completed till the
year 1087. For the execution of this great furvey, fome of
the king’s barons were {ent commuflioners into every fhire, and
juries {ummoned in each hundred, out of all orders of freemen,
from barons down to the lowedt farmers, who were {worn to
inform the commiffioners what was the name of cach manor,
who had held it in the time of Edward the Confeffor, and
who held it then ; how many hides, how much wood, how
much pafture, how much meadow-land it contained ; how
many ploughs were in the demefne part of it, and how many
in the tenanted part ; how many mills, how many fifh-ponds,
or fitheries belonged to it ; what had been added to it, or
taken away from it; what was the value of the whole, to-

gether, in the time of king Edward; what when granted by
Wiiliam ; what at the ume of this furvey ; and whether it
might be improved, or advanced in its value. ‘They were,
Jikewife, to mention all the tenants, of every degree, and how
much each of them had held, or did hold, at that time ; and
what was the number of the flaves. Nay, they were even
to return a particular account of the live ftock on each
manor. ‘Thefe inquifitions, or verdi&ts, were firft methodized
jn the county, and afterwards fent up into the king’s exche-
quer. ‘The leffer doomfday-book, containing the originals
fo returned from the three counties of Effex, Norfolk, and
Suffolk, includes the live ftock. The greater book was com-
piled, by the officers of the exchequer, from the other re-
turns, with more brevity, and a total omiffion of this article,
which gave much offence to the people; probably, becaufe
they apprehended, that the defign of the king, in requiring
fuch an account, was to make it a foundation for fome new
impofition. And this apprehenfion feems to have extended
itfelf to the whole furvey at that time. But whatever jea-
loufy it might have excited, it certainly was a work of great
benefit to the public ; the knowledge it gave to the govern-
ment of the ftate of the kingdom, being a moft neceffary
ground-work for many improvements, with relation to
agriculture, trade, and the increafe of the people, in different
arts of the country ; as well as a rule to proceed by, in the
ee of taxes. It was alfo of no {mall utility for the
afcertaining of property, and for the {peedy decifion or pre-
vention of law-fuits. In chis light it is confidered by the
author of the dialogue ‘* De Scaccario,”” who {peaks of it
(I.i. c. 16.) as the completion of good policy and royal
care for the advantage of his realm in William the Conqueror;
and fays, it was done to the intent, that every man fhould
be fatisfied with his own right, and not ufurp with impunity
what belonged to another. He likewife adds, that it was
called “ Domefday-book” by the Englifh, becaule a fen-

tence, arifing from the evidence therein contained, cou'd no
more be appealed from, or eiuded, than the inal doom at the
day of judgment, From this authority aferibed to it, we
might be led to fuppofe, that the verdi&s, on which the
regifter had been grounded, were found, in general, to be
faithful ; notwith(tanding the confeffion made by Ingu!phus,
abbot of Croyland. that, with refpect to his ab ing the ree
turn was partial and falfe. For it does not appear that the
defign imputed to Ralph Fiambard, as minifter to William
Rufus, of meking another and more rigorcus inquifition
was ever put in execytion, or that eny amendments were
made in either of the books. It appears, that many lands
are declared in thefe records to be of much greater value
when this furvey was made, than in the time of Edward the
Conftffor, and capable of being {till very confiderably im-
proved by more cultivation. But, from ether evidence, it
appears, that the four northern counties were then, for the
moit part, in a wafte and defolate condition ; which, we may
Imagine, was one reafon of their not being furveyed toge-
ther with the others. And, indeed, it is furprifing, that
this defc& was not afterwards fupplied by a fimilar inquifi-
tion. (Littleton’s Hitt. Hen. II. vol. ni.) It is called
“« Liber judicial's,” becaufe a juft and accurate defcription
of the whole kingdom is contained therein; with the value
of the feveral inheritances, &c.

Camden calls it ‘ Gulielmi Librum cenfualem,
William’s T'ax-book.”’

This book was formerly kept under three different locks
and keys; one in the cultody of the treafurer, and the others
of the two chamberlains of the exchequer. It is now depo
fited in the chapter-houfe at Weftminiter, where it may be
confulted, on paying to the proper officers a fee of 6s. and Sd.
for a fearch, and 4d. per line for a tranfcript,

Our anceftors had many dome-books. We are told by
Ingulphus, that king Alfred made a like regifter with that
of William the Conqueror. It was begun upon that prirce’s
dividing his kingdom into counties, hundreds, tithings, &c.
when an inquifition being taken of the feveral diltriés, it was
digefted into a regifter, called Domboc, g- d. the Judgment.
book, and was repofited in the church of Winchetter =
whence it is alfo called the ‘* Winchefter-book,” and « Ro.
tulus Winton.”? {t was compiled for the ufe of the court-
baron, hundred, and county-court, the court-leet, and fherifl’s
tourn; tribunals, which he eftablifhed, for the trial of all
caufes civil and criminal, in the very diftri@s wherein the
complaints arofe ; all of them fubjeét, however, to be in-
fpeéted, controlled, and kept within the bounds of the uni-
verfal, or common law, by the king’s own courts, which
were then itinerant, being kept in the king’s palace, and re-
moving with his houfhold in thofe royal progrefles, which
he continually made from one end of the kingdom to the
other. This book is faid to have been extant fo late as the
reign of king Edward LV., but is now unfortunately loft.
It probably contained the principal maxims of common law
the penalties for mifdemeanors, and the forms of judicial
proceedings. And upon the model of this Dom-boe it is
that the Domefday of the Conqueror was formed. 7

That of king Alfred referred to the time of king Ethel-
red, and that of the Conqueror to the time of Edward the
Confeffor: the entries being thus made, *C. tenet rex Gu-
lielmus in dominico, & valet ibi ducate, &c. TR. E.
valebat;” g. d. it is worth fo much tempore regis Eduardi, in
the time of king Edward.

There is a third Dom-boc, or Domes-day-book, in quarto
differing from the other in folio, rather in form than matter.
It was made by order of the fame conqueror, and feems to

be the more ancient of the two.
P2 A fourth

king

DOM

A fourth bok there is in the exchequer, called domefday ;
which, thovsh a very large volume, is only an abridgment of
the other two. Ithas abundance of piGures and gilt letters
at the beginning, which refer to the time of Edward the
Confeffor. There is afo a firth book called Domes-day,
and the fame with the fourth, now mentioned.

DOMESTIC, from domus, houfe, a term of fomewhat
more extent than that of fervant ; the latter only fignifying
fuch as ferve for wages, as footrnen, lacquies, porters, &c.,
whereas domeftic comprehends all who a& under a man,
compofe his family, and live with him, or are fuppofed to
live with him. Such are fecretaries, chaplains, &c.

Sometimes domeftic goes farther, being applied to the
wife and children.

Domestic gown, toga domeftica. See Toca.

DOMESTICUS, Aoptsixos, in Antiquity, was a particular
officer in the court of the emperors of Conttantinople.

Fabrot, in his gloffary on Theophylax Simocatta, defines
dometticus to be any perfon entrufted with the management
of affairs of importance ; a counfellor, ‘*cujus fidei graviores
alicujus cure & folicitudines committuntur.””

Others hold, that the Greeks called domeftici thofe who
at Rome were calied comites; particularly, that they began
to ufe the name domeflicus, when that of count was become a
name of dignity, and cealed to be the name of an officer in

the prince’s family.

Dométici, therefore, were fuch as were in the fervice of
the prince, and affitted him in the adminiftration of affairs ;
both thofe of his family, thofe of juitice, and thofe of the
church.

The grand Domestic, Megadomeflicus, called alfo abfo-
lutely the domefticus, ferved at the emperor’s table, in qua-
lity of what we occidentals call dapijer. Others fay he was
yather what we call a majordomo.

Domesricus menfe did the office of grand fenefchal, or
fteward.

Domesticus rei domeflice, ated as mafter of the houfhold.

Domesticus /cholarum, or legionum, had the command of
the referved forces, called /chole palatine, whofe office was to
execute the immediate orders of the emperor.

Domesticus murorum, had the fuperintendance of all the
fortifications.

Domesticus regionum, that is, of the eat and weft,had
the care of public caufes, much like our attorney or folicitor-
general.

Domesticus icanatorum, or of the military cohorts.

There were diverfe other officers of the army, who bore
the appellation domefticus, which fignified no more than
commander or colonel. Thus, the domettic of the legion
called optimates was the commander thereof.

Domesticus chori, or chanter, whereof there were two in
the church of Conftantinople ; one on the right fide of the
church, and the other on theleft. They were alfo called pro-
topfaltes.

Dom. Magri diftinguifhes three kinds of domeftici in the
church: ‘¢ domeftic of the patriarchal clergy ; domeftic of
the imperial clergy ; that is, maiter of the emperor’s chapel ;
and dometticus defpoinicus, or of the emprefs. ‘There was
another order of domettics, inferior to any of thofe above
mentioned, and called patriarchal domeltics.

Domestic: was alfo the name of a body of forces in the
Roman empire. Pancirollus takes them to have been the
fame with thofe called proteGtors ; who had the chief guard
of the emp<ror’s perfon, in a degree above the prcetorians ;
and who under the Chriftian emperors had the privilege to
bear the grand flandard of the crofs.

They are fuppofed to have been 3500 before Juftinian’s

DOM

time, who added 2000 more tothenumber, They were di-
vided into feveral companics, or bands, which the Latins
called fchole, fome whereof are faid to have been inftituted
by Gordian, Some of them were cavalry and fome infantry.

Their commander was called comcs domefticorum.

DOMEVRE, in Geography, a very imall town of France
in the department of the Meurthe, chief place of a canton in
the diftri& of Toul. It has only 332, but the canton con-
tains 10 2Sg inhabitants, difperfed in 29 communes on a tere
ritorial extent of 310 kiliometres.

Domevxe fous dviére, a town of France in the departe
ment of the Vofges, and diftri@ of Epinel; one league N. W.
of Epinel.

DOMFRONT, a fmall town of Frence in the depart-
ment of the Orne, chief place of a diftriG, with a population
of 1545 individuals. Itis fituated on a ftzep mountain in
the midft of a foreft near the river Varennes, 42 miles N. W,
of Alencon and'171 W. of Paris. Long 58° 34’. Its can-
ton comprifes 11 communes and 13 226 inhabitants upon a
territorial extent of 180 kiliometres.

As chief place of a diltri& Domfront has a fub-prefe@, a
court of juftice, a regilter-oflice, and a ranger. he foil of
the diftrict is bad, it produces only rye, oats, and apples,
which are converted into cyder. There is alfo fome grafs land,
The grade is chiefly confined to cyder, butter, and gattle.

The whole difri& ecomprifes {even cantons, Ico com-
munes, an extent cf 1315 kiliometres, and a population of
110,526 individuals.

DOMICELLARY canens. See Canons.

DOMICELLUS. See Damset.

DOMIFYING, Domiricarion, in Afrology, the divid-
ing or diftributing of the heavens into twelve houtes ; >in order
to ere€ta theme, or horofcope, by means of fix great circles,
called circles of pofition.

There are diverfe ways of domifying, according to diverfe
authors. That of Regiomontanus, whichis the moft ufual,
makes the circle of pofition pafs through the interfeGions
of the meridian and horizon. Others make them pafs through
the poles of the world, or the equator; and others through
the poles of the zodiac.

DOMINANT, fr. The title given by the muficians
of France to the 5th of a key, with a % 3d, as a governing
or leading note to a clofe on the key-note.

Sous dominant is the 5th below the key-note and with us
the qth. Asthefe terms are not wanted in our mutical tech-
nica norin the Italian, we wifh not to multiply terms of
art, which convey no new or ufeful meaning. ‘The 5th of a
key being underftood, and a 5th requiring no new language
to exprefs it. See Firrx, Rameau generally gives the name
of dominant to every noteaccompanied by the chord of the
4th, and diftinguifhes that tothe sth of a key by dominant
tonique; but nore agree in only calling that with a ¥ 3
dominant tonique. Other 5ths with a 7th they call funda-
mental. Dominant in canto-fermo implies the found moft
frequently repeated.

DOMINATION, in Theology, the fourth order of an-
gels, or bleffed f{pirits, in the hierarchy ; reckoning from the
feraphim. See Hierarcuy, and SERAPH,

DOMINGO, Sr., San Dominco, //la Efpanola, Efpa-
nola, or Hifpaniola, in French Saint Domingue, and in the
language of the natives /ayti, in Geography, one of the great
Antilies, is the largeft and moit fertile of the Weit India
iflands. It is firuated in the Atlantic ocean hetween the
iflands of Jamaica and Cuba on the weft, and Porto Rico on
the eaft, in the latitude of 18° 20’ N. and in 68° 40’ W.
longitude from Greenwich. Its length from ealt to weft is

Sco kiliometres, or about 480 Englith miles. The breadth
6 Varies

DOMINGO.

varies from 60 to 100 and even 150 Engiifh miles, and it is
about 1890 kilomstres, or 1050 milcs in circumference.
Its fuperficies is reckoned at 1432 {quare miles, 69 to
a degree, 852 of which conftituted the Spanith part of
St. Domingo till the treaty of Bafil (Dafle) of the fourth
Thermidor third year of the French Republic (22d of July,
3795) when it was ceded by Spain to France.

This beautiful ifland was difcovered by Chriopher Co-
lumbus, who landed at a {mall bay which he called St, Ni-
cholas, on the 6th day of December 1492. He named the
ifland Efpanola, or Little Spain, in honour of the country by
whofe king he was employed. The inhabitants appeared,
fays Robertfon, who has confulted the beft authorities, in
the fimple innocence of nature, entirely, naked, their black
hair, long and uncurled, floated upon their fhoulders, or was
‘bound intrefles around their heads. They had no beards;
every part of their bodies was perfeétly fmooth. Their
complexion was of a dutky copper colour; their features
were fingular rather than difagreeable; their afpect gentle
and timid ; though not tall, they were well-fhaped and ative.
Placed in a medium between favage life and the refinement
of polifhed fociety, their induftry exceeded the meafure of
their wants. They were governed by feven caz'ques, or
kings, who reigned each overa different divifion of the ifland,
and, according to the report of Columbus to the Spanifh
monarch, they were the moft unoffending, gentle, and be-
nevolent of the human race. Sn’ Walter Raleigh fuppofed,
that they were defcended from the Arrowauk tribe of
Guiana,

The Spaniards, on their firft landing, were confidered as
fupernatural beings. The inhabitants gladly exchanged
their gold againit bells, beads, or pins. They pointed to the
Cibao mountains as the great repofitory of the metal which
their vifitors fo ardently defired.

Encouraged by the fimplicity of the natives, and their
fear of the inhabitants of the Caribbean iflands, their enemies,
Columbus refolved to form a fettlement ona fpot which he
confidered as the original feat of paradife. He left thirty-
eight Spaniards under the command of Diego de Aradoin
his colony, and failed for Spain onthe qth of January 1493.

Regardlefs of his inflru€tions, the Spaniards, after his
departure, gratified their licentious defires at the expence
of the natives to fuch a degree, that the cazique of Cibao,
exa{perated at their infolence, cut offa part of the colonifts,
furrounded the remainder, and deftroyed their fort.

Columbus, on his return to Hifpaniola in the month of
November of the fame year, founded anew town ina large
plain neara fpacious bay. This town he named [fabella, in
honour of his patronefs the queen of Caftile. Onthe 24th
of April 1494, he left his colony for the profecution of
new difcoveries; but after an abfence of five months, he
found his fettlement once more on the brink of diflolution.
The continual attempts of the natives to rid themfelves of
neighbours, whofe voracity threatened their deftruction,
compelled Columbus to have recourfe to arms. Thrown
into confternation by the fuperiority of European warfare,
by the attack of twenty horfemen, and by the fierce onfet
of an equal number of largedogs, the Indians yielded an
eafy victory. ;

To gratify the avarice of the Spanifh court, Columbus,
on completing the fubje@tion of the ifland, impofed a tribute
on all the nativesabove the age of fourteen. ‘This taxation
caufed an attempt to ftarvethe Spaniards. The inhabitants
pulled up the roots of the vegetables which depended on
their agricultural operations, and retiring to inacceflible
mountains, they fell the firit victims to the famine which
they iatended for their oppreffors,

In 1496, Columbus returned to Spain, leaving his brother
Bartholomew as lieutenant-governor, and Francis Roldan as
chief jultice, During his abfence, his brother removed the
colony toa more eligible ftation on the oppofite fide of the
ifland, where he founded a city which he dedicated to St.
Domingo, in honour of the name of his father.

Roldan in the mean time excited rebellions among the
Spaniards. It wasto calm their difcontents, that Columbus,
on his return in 5498, allotted them lands in different parts
of the ifland, and appointed the natives to cultivate thefe
allotments for their new mafters. This tafk proved to the
poor Indians an intolerable fource of oppreffion. Provifi-
ons were made for working the mines and cultivating the
country: but the plans of Columbus were mifreprefented,
and he himfelf was fent in chains to Spain. (See Co-
LUMBUS.)

Francis de Bovadilla, the new governor, to render himfelf
popular, gratified the avaricious inclinations of his country -
men. He numbered all the remaining Indians, and dividing
them into clafles, diftributed them among the Spaniards,
who fent them to the mines, and impofed on them fucha
difproportioned labour, as threatened their utter and fpeedy
extinétion,

On his arrival in Spain, Columbus was inftantly fet at
liberty, and Bovadilla difgraced. Nicholas de Ovando re-
placed the latter, and brought to St. Domingo a moft re-
{peCtable armament, confilting of thirty-two fhips with 2500
fettlers. Bovadilla, with Roldan and his accomplices, were
ordered to return to Spain.

In the mean time, Columbus obtained permiffion in 1502
to make a fourth voyage of difcovery to the eaft: but
having experienced fome inconvenience from one of his veflels,
he altered his courfe and bore away for St. Domingo, with
the hope of exchanging it againit a hip of Ovando’s fleet.
He found indeed eighteen veflels richly laden ready to depart
for Europe: but was refufed accefs to the harbouts of the
country which he had difcovered. (See Covumsus.)

Under the government of Ovando, the natives of St.
Domingo were relieved from compulfory toil: but without
the affiitance of the inhabitants, the Spaniards could not
cultivate the foil nor‘work the mines. Many of the new
fettlers quitted the ifland, and great numbers died of dif-
orders incident to the climate.

Thefe circumftances induced Ovando to make a new
diftribution ot the Indians among the Spaniards, with the
difference only, that the Indians were to be paid for their
labour. He alfo endeavoured to turn the attention of his
countrymen to the purfuits of agriculture, and having ob-
tained from the Canary iflands fome flips of the fugar cane,
which throve exceedingly, he tempted them to form fugar
plantations. ‘Thecolony flourifhed, but the fource of its
profperity was very nearly dried up. Fatigue, to which
they were unequal, difeafes, famine, and defpair, reduced
the natives, in the {pace of fifteen years, to fo inconfiderable
a number, that Ovando, to fupply their diminution,.decoyed
forty thoufand of the inhabitants of the Lucay.or Bahama
iflands into Hifpaniola.

In the year 1509 Ovando was recalled to make room for
Diego, the fon of Columbus, whofe arrival, however, effected
no change in the condition of the unfortunate Indians. His
government would have rendered the colony profperous and
happy, had he not been thwarted in feveral meafures by his
inferior officers. The power of making out the repartimientos
of the natives was even taken from the governor and cone
ferred upon Roderigo Albuquerque. . This induced him to
return to Spain.

Albuquerque ordered a new numeration of the natives in

I$17s

DOMINGO.

rs17. Although their number did not exceed 14 000, he
yet put them up to fale, and by a confequent feparation from
the habitations to which they had been accuftomed, and the
impofition of additional labour for the indemnification of
their purchafers, he completed the extinétion of this un-
fortunate people, which Las Cafas in vain endeavoured to
prevent. Benzoni afferts that ‘towards the middle of the
fixteenth century, fcarcely one hundred and fifty of the na-
tives of St. Domingo remained alive,

In 1586, fir Francie Drake came before the ifland, pil-
laged the capital, deftroyed one third part of it, and accepted
of about 7oco7/. fterling, as aranfom for the remainder.

The colonifts, in the mean time, degenerated from the
fpirit and manners of their anceftors. Aflociating with their
female flaves, they became a mixed colony, of which Spa-
niards formed a very {mall part. The mines were deferted;
agriculture was negle@ed, and the cattle ran wild in the plains.
"Lhe Spaniards became demi-favages, plunged in the extremes
of floth, living upon fruits and roots, in cottages without
furniture, aed molt of them without clothes. The colony
was reduced to the neceffity of adopting pieces of leather as
’a circulating medium.

While Spain neglected St. Domingo, its vigilance was
abfurdly dire&ted to prevent other powers participating in
the produce of the ifland, or in the acquifition of any terri-
tory in the Weft Indies. But notwithttanding this care, the
Englifh and French, during a war with Spain, had become
acquainted with the Windward iflands, and having taken
poifeffion of the ifland of St. Chriftopher, on the fame day,
had divided it into two equal fhares. They were foon at-
‘tacked in their new fettlement by the Spaniards, and thofe
who were not either killed or taken, fled for refuge to the
neighbouring iflands. A {mall number retreated to the
little barren ifle of Tortuga, lying off the north-welt coait
of Hifpaniola, ard within a few leagues of Port de Paix.

By the midde of the feventeenth century thefe refugees in
the ifland of Tortuga affumed an appearance as formidable
as it was fingular. (See Buccaniers, Frersoorers, and
Fuipustites.) They had gradually obtained notice under
the appellation of Buccaniers, from the mode of curing ani-
mal food, which they procured by hunting the cattle with
which the Spaniards had ftocked St. Domingo.

Afraid of their more aétive neighbours, the indolent co-
lonifts determined to deftroy all the bulls by a general chafe.
This had the efe& of turning the attention of the Buc-
caniers to the more permanent purfuits of agriculture.
They planted tobacco, and the moft intrepid began predatory
excurfions on the neighbouring ocean, Several Sparifh ar-
maments were commiffioned for their extirpation: but after
having alternately loft and recovered Tortuga, the Bucca-
niers, moltly French, under a captain of their own choice
and nation, ultimately retained it, and foon after obtained a
firm footing in St. Domingo, almoft at the fame time when
their Englifh companions in arms poffeffed themfelves of
Jamaica.

Though feparated from each other the Englifh and French
fill continued to aé& in concert, the latter retiring after the
confli& to St. Domingo to hare their booty, and the former
to Jamaica. They continued to increafe in force and to
deprefs the Spaniards, till at length a few fucceflive defeats
on the ocean turned their attention to agricuiture. It was
then that the infant colony of St. Domingo attra&ted the
notice of the French government.

Bertrand Dogeron, a man of uncommon talents, probity,
and fortitude, was ceputed by France to form the planters,
whofe number did not exceed four hundred, into a more re-
gular fociety. Although he had been unfuccefsful in his
own commercial enterprizes, he yet fucceeded in civilizing
the half barbarian colonilts by the introdu€tion of French

women, by reconciling the idle to labour, by affording the
principal encouragement to the planters, and by alluring
new inhabitants to the ifland. At the end of four years, in
1669, the number of planters amounted to more than fifteen
hundred.

The injudicious meafures of the French Weft India com-
pary caufed the inhabitants of St. Domingo to have re-
courfe to arms in 1670. Tranquillity was reftored at the
price of a free trade to France, fubje& to a duty of five
per cent. paid to the company by all fhips on their arrival and
departure.

The colony profpered under tke benevolent regulations of
Dogeron, but after his death, which happened in 1673, it
languifhed under the oppreflive monopoly of exclulive trading
companies. Three years before his death the town of cape
Francois !.ad been founded by Gobin, a French Proteftant,
whom the perfecutions of the bigotted Louis XIV. had
driven to this dittant afylum.

Several flaves having been taken from the Englifh in the
war of 1688, the inhabitants of St. Domingo began to turn
their attent‘on to the culture of the fugar cane. With this
view they continued to increafe their ftock of negroes by
every means in their power, and in 1694, taking advantage
of the misfortunes which had befallen the Enghfh colony of
Jamaica, they effected a landing in that ifland, and carried
off a confiderabie number of negro flaves. The year follow-
ing, the Englifh, in their turn, attacked the fertlemest of
cape Francois, which they piundesed and reduced to afhes.
lt was, however, foon rebuilt on the fame fite.

By the peace of Ry{wick, the French obtained the firft
regular ceflion of the weftern part of Sr. Domingo. In
1702, Port au Prince was made the feat of the government,
but the town of the cape continued in every other refp-ct
the capital of the colony.

In proportion as the French flourifhed in St. Domingo,
the Spaniards decayed. ‘Their colony, which in the time of
Herrera, counted 14,000 Cattilians, befides a proportional
number of other inhabitants, had, in 1717, only 18,410 indi-
viduals of every dcfeription ; whilit, accordiag to Raynal,
the produce of the French colony, in 1720, amounted to
1,200,000 lb. of indigo, 1,400,000 lbs. of white fugar, and
21,000,000 lbs. of raw fugar.

From the year £722, when the French colony of St.
Domingo was freed from the yoke of exclufive trading com-
panies, it rofe gradually to the highelt pitch of profperity.
In the year 1754, the amount of the various commodities of
the colony was equal to 1,261,469 /. fterling, and the im-
ports from the mother country amounted to 1,777,509 /.
fterling. There were 14,000 whife inhabitants, nearly
4000 free mulattoes, and upwards of 172,000 negroes; 599
{ugar plantations, 3379 of indigo, 98,946 cocoa trees,
6.300.367 cotton plants, andnear 22,000,c0o caffia trees;
63,000 horfes and mules, 93,000 heads of horned cattle,
6,000,000 banana tree’; upwards of 1,000,000 plots of po-
tatoes ; 226,000 plots of yams ; and near 3,000,000 trenches
of manioc.

Even the Spanifh government was excited to fome degree
of emulation. About the year 1757, a company was privi-
leged at Barcelona, to attempt a re-eftablifhment in the
eallern part of the ifland; but it was only in 1765, when
Charles III. opened a free trade to all the Windward
iflands, that Hifpaniola, fo long deprefled by abfurd regula-
tions, recovered fomething of its former aétivity, During
the five years preceding 1774, the cullom-houfe duties were
more than doubled.

The progrefs of the French, in the mean time, was ex-
tremely rapid. heir flaves increafed to 206,000, and in
1767, they loaded 347 fhips for France. But on the
3d of June, 1770, a dreadiul earthquake levelled Port au

5 Prince

DOMINGO.

Prince with the ground. It was, however, rebuilt with ad-
ditional convenience.

In 1776, a new line of demarcation was drawn between
the Spanifh and French part of St. Domingo, and the
Spaniards opened a more liberal commerce with their neigh-
bours. Yet their colony and their trade continued greatly
inferior to the French. At the epoch of the French revo-
lation, in 1789, the Spaniards had only four and twenty
fugar works. They paid with raw fugar, hides, timber,
and piaftres, for the {mali number of cargoes they received
from Europe. Befides 11,000 heads of cattle, they fernifhed
the French part of St. Domingo with horfes, mules, and
fome tobacco. Next to the ancient city of St. Domingo,
their principal towns were Monte Chrifti, La Vega, St.
Jago, Zeibo, St. Thomé, Azua, and Ifabella.

At the time of its ceffion to France, the Spanifh part of
St. Domingo counted only 125,000 inhabitants, 110,000 of
whom were free people, and 15,000 negro flaves. Land was
at fix French livres, or 5s. the arpent; and labour at two
French livres, fixty-one centimes, or a little better than
25, per day.

From 1776 till 1789, the profperity of the French colony
of St. Domingo was at its greateft height. It was divided
into the northern, weftern, and fouthern provinces. The
firft extended about forty leagues along the northern coaft,
from the river Maffacre to cape St. Nicholas, and contained,
inclufive of the ifland of Tortuga, 26 parifhes. he prin-
cipal towns were cape Francois, fort Dauphin, Port de Paix,
and cape St. Nicholas. The weftern province commenced
at this cape, and terminated at cape Tiburon. 1t contained
fourteen parifhes ; its chief towns were Port au Prince, St.
Marc, Leogane, Petit-Goave, and Jérémie. The fouthern
Province occupied the remaining coaft from cape Tiburon
to ’Anfe-a-Pitre, and contained ten parifhes and two towns,
Cayes and Jacmel.

The cultivated land in the French colony of St. Domingo
amounted to 2,290,000 Englifh acres, or 771,2)5 carreaux
of French meafurement, 350 feet on every fide to the car-
reau. Mr. Barbé Marbois, in his «* Compte rendu des
finances de St. Domingue, en 1789,” reckons the cultivated
land at 570,210 carreaux only. There were 792 fugar planta-
tions, 2810 coffee plantations, 705 cotton plantations,
3097 indigo plantations, 69 cacao plantations, and 173 dif-
tilleries of rum.

The produce of thefe different plantation, in 1788, con-
fifted of 163,405,500lb. of fugar, 68,15t,000lb. of coffee,
6,289,000lb. of cotton, 930,0c00lb. of indigo, 150,000\b.
of cacao, 34,453,000lb. of fyrup, worth in all, with fome lefs
important articles, 135,763,000 French livres. It was fent
to France in 686 vellels of 199,122 tons. The goods im-
ported into the colony from different ports of France, in
465 veficls of 135,624 tons, amounted to the value of
54,578,000 French livres,

Before the laft revolution, the exportation from the whole
ifland employed 1070 veffels, navigated by 7936 feamen.

The population, which in 1775, was of 32,600 white,
confifted in 1788, according to Mr. Barbé Marbois, of
27,717 white, of whom there were 14,571 males, 4482 fea
males, and 8664 children; of 405,564 negro flavee, of whom
there were 174.971 males, 138,800 females, and 915793
children; and of 21,808 free people of colour.

Of the whole ifland, the population, in 1801, is {aid to
have amounted to 42,000 whites, 44,000 free people of
colour, and 600,000 blacks.

Ai the ceffion of the Spanifh part of St. Domingo to the
French, the whole ifland was divided into five departments,

of the fouth, of the weft, of the north, of Samana, and of
VInganne,

The department of the fouth was fub-divided into 25 can-
tons, viz. Leogane, Grand Goave, Petit Goave, Fond des
Négres, PAnfe a vean, Vile dela Cayemite, Petit Trou,
Jérémie, Pile & vache, 'Torbeck, Cayes du fond, Cavailhon,
Saint Louis, Acquin, Beynet, Jacmel, Plimouth, Cap
d’Anne Marie, Tiburon, Les Coteaux, Port Salut, Cayes
de Jacmel, Paletrou, Neybe, Ile le Béate.

The department of the welt wes divided into 13 cantons,
viz. Port au Prince, les Gonaives, Saint Marc, Petite Riviere,
Verrettes, Mirebalais, Banica, l’Arcahaye, Croix des bous
quets, Vile de la Gonave, San Juan, Saint Thomé, Afua.

The department of the north was divided into 33 cantons,
viz» Monte Chrifto, Laxavon, Ouanaminthe, fort Dauphin,
Terrier Rouge, Trou, Valliére, Limonade, Grande Riviére,
Sainte Sufanne, Le quarticr Morin, Ja Petite Anfe, -
le Cap, la Plaine du Nord, ’Acul, le Linbé, le Port Mar-
got, le Borgue, Plaifance, Petit Saint Louis, Tortuga, or
Vile de la Tortua, Dondon La Marmelade Hinche, San
Raphael, San Miguel, lV’ Altalaya, le Port de Paix, le Gros
Morne, Jean Rabel, le Mdie St. Nicholas, Bombarde, le
Port a Piment.

The department of Samana was divided into five cantons,
viz. San Yago, La Vega, Porto Plata, Cotin, Samana.

The department of l’Inganne was divided into ten can--
tons, viz. Santo Domingo, Monte Plata, Zeibo, Higney,
Baya Guyana, Baya, Ile Sainte Catherine, San Lorenzo,
Illegnos, Ile la Sadne.

But France never enjoyed this acceffion of territory in
her molt important colony. Several years before the treaty
of Bafle, the fpirit of revolt had broken out in the French
part of St. Domingo, and in the year 1791, a moft alarming
infurreétion of the negroes had deluged half of the northern
province with blood. In two months upwards of 2000
white perfons perifhed; 1200 families were reduced to indi-
gence; 180 plantations of fugar, about goo of coffee, cotton,
and indigo, were deftroyed, and the buildings confumed by
fire. Deftru€tion every where marked the progrefs of the
blacks, and refiltance, fays Mr. Edwards, who was an eye
witnefs of their ravages, was confidered’ as unavailing and
hopelefs. From the northern province the rebellion tpread
to the welt, where, it was, however, foon quelled by the
concordat of the 12th of September.

The wavering conduét of the firft national affembly of
France, with refpect to the abolition of the negro flavery ;
the decree of the legiflative aflembly, which acknowledged
the political equality of the free negroes and people of colour
with the whites; the appointment of three commiffioners
noted for the violence of their republican principles; and
the arrival of a force of 8020 menin the month cf Septem-
ber 1792, inftead of reftoring the peace of the colony, kept
alive the flame of difcontent, which raged with renovated
fury in 1793, when the two remaining commiffioners of the
convention, Santhonax and Polverel, proclaimed the eman-
cipation of all the flaves in the colony. On the arft of
June, Macaya, a leader of the blacks, entered cape Francois
with upwards of 3000 flaves, and begun an indifcriminate
flaughter.

Under thefe circumftances, fome of the planters pre-
vailed with the Britifh government to take poffeffian of
St. Domingo. A {mall armament of about 870 rank and
file, fent from Jamaica, took Jérémie and the mole of cape
St. Nicholas. In the middle of January, 1794, the Britith
troops entered ‘Tiburon, and dire&ted their views towards
Port de Paix. The fort of ’Acul, in the vicinity of Leo-
gane, was carried on the s9th of February ; fort Bigotton,

on

DOM

on the road from Leogane to Port au Prince, was taken on
the ;1ftof May, and the town of Port au Prince furrendered
onthe 4th of June. But from this period the Britifh power
in St. Domingo declined ; the yellow fever manitefted itfelf
among the troops; 40 officers, and 600 rank and file fell vic-
tims to its ravages within two months after the furrender of
port au Prince.

In the mean time the French commiffioners, Santhonax
and Polverel, returned to France. Rigaud, a mulatto, and
a negro named Touffaint Ouverture, who headed the
army of the blacks, re-captured Tiburon, Leogane, Jean
Rabel, la Petite Riviere, and retained the whole of the
northern province, except the Mole and fort Dauphin. In
the month of May, 1795, fir Adam Williamfon, governor
of Jamaica, arrived at Port au Prince, as commander in
chicf of the Britifh forces, but was foon fucceeded in com-
mand by major-general Forbes.

A reinforcement of about 7000 Britifh troops arrived at
the Mole of St. Nicholas in May 17965 but a dreadful
mortality impeded the progrefs of the Britifh arms. The
republicans commenced operations in every quarter rcund
the capital, and at the very time when general Simcoe ar-
rived at St. Domingo to recover the Britifh character, the
celebrated Touflaint l’Ouverture received the fanétion of the
command which he had long poffeffed, by being appointed
general in chief of the armies in St. Domingo by the
French government. .

General Simcoe returned to England in Auguft 1797,
General Maitland, who arrived at Port au Prince in April
1798, withdrew the remainder of the Englifh forces to Jéré-
mie, and at left furrendered all the Britifh poffeflions in St.
Domino, and evacuated the ifland.

At this time the force of Touffaint Ouverture, in the
northern province, amounted to fomething lefs than 40,000
men, but in the year 1890 it had increafed to more than
double that number. The ind=pendence of St. Domingo
was proclaimed on the firlt of July 1901.

But in the month of December 1501, an expedition
failed from France with a force of 20,000 men, commanded
by general le Clerc, brother-in law to Bonaparte, the firft
conful of the French republic. They arrived in the bay of
Samana, on the eaftern coaft of the ifland, on the 28th of
the {ame month. But before they entered cape Frangois
the city was laid in afhes.

On the 17th of February 102, general le Clere com-
menced his campaign, and fought with varied fuccefs until
the firit of May, when hottilities ceafed with generals Touf-
faint VOuverture and Chriftophe. During this treacherous
truce the unfortunate Touffaint l’Ouverture was furprifed in
his plantation and conveyed a prifoner on board a French
veflel with his wife and children. He lingered in a French
dungeon till the month of April 1803, when death put a
term to his unjuit fufferings. But even the nature of his
death mult have been a torment inflited by his perfecutors,
as the floor ef the dungeon is reported to have been found
actually covered with water.

The perfidy experienced by the great and benevolent
leader of the blaeks roufed them to a renovated and more
vigorous oppofition. General Chriftophe rejoined the black
forces under Deffalines. A number of new chiefs arofe and
numerous defeétions from the French army infpired the ne-
groea with increafed confidence. Thofe who had been in-
corporated with the French troops were exterminated with
the moft unheard of cruelty, ‘The ufe of bloodhounds was
even introduced againft them. But contagious difeafes feemed
go punifh thefe enormities.

By the middle of October 1502, fort Dauphin, Port de

DOM

Paix, and feveral other important pofts, were again completely
loft to the French. Their general in chief, Vitor Emaruel
le Clerc, died in the night of the firft of Nevember. His
fucceflor, Rochambeau, continued the war with no better
fortune until the beginning of the year 1803, when another
treacherous ceflation of arms gave place to new but fecret
cruelties.

During this armiflice the blacks under Deffalines received
daily frefh reinforcements. At its expiration they drove the
French into the cape, and on the 3oth of November, 1803
forced them to furrender and evacuate the ifland. To avoid
being funk with red-hot fhot in the harbour, the French
put themfelves under the proteétion of an Englifh [quadron,
then cruizing before the cape, which conveyed them
prifoners to Jamaica, General Rochambeau was fent to
England.

The independence of St. Domingo was proclaimed on
the 29th of Nov. 1803, and to obliterate every remembrance
of their former flavery, the chiefs, who had effe&ted the free-
dom of the ifland, reftored to it on the firft of January, 1804,
with its priftine fimplicity of government, its ancient name
of Hayti. In the beginning of May general Deffalines was
invefled with the government of the ifland for life, and on the
8th of September he aflumed the title of emperor of Hayti,
by the name of Jaques the Firtt. His reign, however, was not
of long duration. He fell in a confpiracy, and republican
principles revivedat his death, underthe alternate command of
generals Chriftophe and Petion. (See Hayri.) (Marcus Rains~
ford’s Black Emp're of Hayti, 1805. Bryan Edwards’s St.
Domingo. Barbé Marbois’s Compte rerdu des Finances ce
St. Dominique 1789. Page’s Traité de l’Economie poli-
tique et de Commerce des Colonies, 1802. Lyonnet’s Sta-
tiftique de la partie Efpagnole de St. Dominique, 1800,
Herbin’s Sratiftique de la France, vol. vii, 1803.)

Dominco, St, a little walled town of Spain, in Old
Caltile, containing a church, an epifcopal palace, two con-
vents, anhofpital, &c.; eight leagues weft of Logrono, ina
fertile plain, on the rivulet Oja.

Dominco, St., Company of. See Company.

DOMINI, Bull in Cano. See Burt.

DOMINIAL Orrices. See Orrice.

DOMINICA, Isvanp of, in Geography, an ifland of the
Wett Indies, fituated between 15° 20’ and 15" 45’ N. lat.
and 61° 23’ and 61° 30’ W. long.; fo called by Chrifto-
pher Columbus, from the circumftance of its having bcen dif-
covered by him ona Sunday, November 3, 1493. This
ifland, as well as St. Vincent, and feveral other iflands, were
included in the earl of Carlifle’s patent, dated June 2, 1627,
and, therefore, attempts. were made at different times to
bring them under the Englifh dominion. But thefe attempts
proving ineffeCtual, it was {tipulated between the Englith
aud French by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1745,
that Dominica, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Tobago, fhould
remain neutral, and that the aneient proprietors, the Cha-
raibes, fhould be left in unmoletted poficffion. But no
fooner was the treaty of neutrality concluded, than both
the Englifh and French appeared to be diflatisfied with the
arrangement which they had made. The Charaibes, howe
ever, were little regarded ; for in the gth article of the peace
of Paris, in 1763, thé three iflands of Dominica, which, in
1759, had falien by conqueft under the Englith dominion,
St. Vincent, and Tobago, were affigned to Great Britain,
and St. Lucia to France; and the Charaibes were not men-
tioned in the whole tranfaGtion. Indeed they were reduced
to a {mall remnant; for of the ancient, or as they were
called by the Englifh, the red Charaibes, not more than
100 families furvived in 1763, and of all their ancient exten-

five

DOM

five poffeffions, they retained only a mountainous diftiG in
the ifland of St. Vincent. Although Dominica previoufly
to this period had been confidered as a neutral ifland, many
of the fubje@is of France had eftablifhed coffee plantations,
and other fettlements, in various parts of the country ; and
it refic&is honour on the Britifh adminifration, that thefe
people were fecured in their poffeflions, on condition of
taking the oaths of allegiance to his Britannic majelty, and
paying a {mall quit-rent. The, cultivable lands, to the
amount of 94,345 acres, comprehending one-half of the

Hland, were fold in allotments from 50 to 100 acres; yielding
the fum of 312,092/. 115. 1d. fterling money.

_ The French inhabitants are fill more numerous than the
Englifh, and poffefs the moft valuable coffee-plantations,
the produce of which kas hitherto been found its moft im-
portant ftaple. They differ but little in manners, cuftoms,
and religion from the inhabitants of the other French iflands
in the Welt Indies, and their prieits bave been appointed
by fuperiors in Martinico; to the government of which
ifland, and to the laws of their own nation, they ufed to
confider themfeives to be amenable. At the commencement
of the American war, the ifland of Dominica was in a flou-
rifhing fituation. ‘The port of Rofeau, or Charlotte’s town,
having been declared a free port by a& of parliament, was
reforted to by trading veffels from moit parts of the foreign
Wek Indies, 23 well as from America. The French o
Spaniards purchaled many negroes there for the fupply of
their fettlements, together with vaft quantities of the mer-
chandize and manufactures of Great Britain, for which
payment was made chiefly in bullion, indigo, and cotton,
and completed in mules and cattle. In 1773, the French,
attracted by the fertility of the ifland, encouraged by its
defencelefs ttate, and invited by fome of their former fellow-
fubjects, prepared a naval and military armement againft
the ifland*under the command of the marquis de Bouille,
governor of Martinico, who made himfelf matter of it after
an obftinate refitance. Dominica remained in the poffeffion
of the French during five years and three months, and by
the failure of its trade was reduced to great diltrefs. But
in January 1753, it was again reftored to the government of
England, the legiflative authority was veft-d in a governor,
with an annual falary of 1200/. fterling, befides fees of office,
a council of 12 gentlemen, and an aflembly of 19 mem-
bers.

Dominica contains 186,436 acres of land ; and is divided
into ro parithes. Its capital is Rofeau, which fee. The
ifland is 29 miles in length, and may be reckoned 16 miles
in breadth. It contains many high and rugged mountains,
inter{perfed with fine vallies, which generally appear to be
fertile. Several of the mountains exhibit unextinguithed vol-
canoes, which frequently difcharge vait quantities of burning
fulphur. From thefe mountains alfo iffue fprings of hot
water, fome of which are fuppofed to poflefs great virtue
in tropical diforders. In fome places the water is faid to
be hot enough to coagulate an egg. In the woods are in-
numerable {warms of bees, which hive in the trees, and pro-
duce great quantities of wax and honey, equally good with
any in Europe. The bee is faid to be the European fpecies,
which muft have been tranfported hither; as the native bee
of the Weft Indies is a {maller {pecies, without flings, and
very different from the European. The ifland is well water-
ed, having upwards of 30 fine rivers, befides a great number
of rivulets. The foil, in the greateft part of the interior
country, js a light brown-coloured mould, which appears to
have been wafhed from the mountains. ‘Towards the fea-
eoatts, and in many of the vallies, it isa deep, black, and
rich native-earth, and {eems well adapted to the cultivation

Vou. XII.

DOM

of all the articles of Weft Indian produce. The under
ftratum is, in fome parts, a yellow, or brick clay, in others
a ftiff terrace, but in moft places it is very ftony. The
fertile land bears a fmall proportion to the whole; there
being no more than 50 fugar plantations, which, one year
with another, do not produce annually more than 3000 hog!-
heads of fugar. Coffee feems to fuit the foil better than
fugar; as there are more than 200 cofiee-plantations,
which, in favourable years, have produced three millions of
pounds weight. A {mall part of the lands is alfo applied to
the cultivation of cacao, indigo, and ginger. The number
of white inhabitants appeared, in 1788, to be 1236, of free
negroes, &c. 445, and of flaves 14,967. Of the ancient
natives, or chara:bes, there are alfo from 20 to 30 families.
Thife are quiet and inoffenfive, {peak a language of their
own, and a jittle French, but none of them underftand Eng-
hifh. They are of aclear copper colour, with long, fleek, black
hair ; their perfons are fhort, ftout, and well made, but they
disfigure their faces, by flattening their foreheads in infancy.
They live chiefly by fihing in the rivers and fea, or by
fowliog in the woods, ufing their bows and: arrews with
wonderful dexterity. It is faid that they will kul the
{maileft bird with an arrow at a great diltance, or transfix a
fifh at a confiderable depth in the fea. They difplay alfo
great ingenuity in making curioufly wrought panniers, or
bafkets, of filk grafs, or the leaves and barks of trees.
Their race is now almofextin&. The exports of the ifland,
from January the 5th, 1787, to Jan. sth, 1788, were 71,302
ewt. of fugar, 63,392 gallons of rum, 16,803 gallons of
melaffes, 1.194 cwt. of cacao, 18,149 cwt. of coffee,
1i,250lbs. of indigo, 970,816lbs. of cotton, 161 cwt. of
ginger, with mifcellaneous articles, fuch as hides, dyeing
woods, &c. to the value of 11,912/ 10s. gd. Edwards’s
Wett Indies, vol. i. ;

Dominica, La, or Obevahooa, the largeft of the
Marquelas iflands, in the South Pacific Ocean, extending E.
and W. 6 leagues; its breadth is unequal, but it is about
15 or 16 leagues in circuit. It is full of rugged hills,
rifling in ridges dire€tly from the fea; which ridges are dif
joined by deep vallies, clothed with wood, as are the fides
of fome of the hills ; its afpeét is barren ; neverthélefs, it is
inhabited. 5S. lat. g° 44! 30. W. long. 139° 13! at its
weft end. See Marquesas.

Dominica, La, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 45 miles
W. of Havanna.

DOMINICAL Lertrr, in Chronology, properly called
Sunday Letter, one of the feven letters of the alphabet A
BCDEFG, ufed in almanacs, ephemerides, &c. to denote
the Sundays throughout the year.

The word is formed from Dominica, or Dominicus dies,
Lord’s day, Sunday.

The dominical letters were introduced into the calendar
by the primitive Chriftians, in lieu of the nundinal letters ia
the Roman calendar.

Thefe letters, we have obferved, are feven: and that in
a common year, the fame letter fhould mark all the Sundays
will eafily appear; inafmuch as all the Sundays are feven
days apart, and the fame letter only returns in every feventh
place. But in the biffextile, or leap year, the cafe is
otherwife, as we have already ftated and explained under the
article Cycre of the Sun, to which the reader is referred.

To find the Dominical letter of any given year. Seek the
cycle of the fun for that year, as directed under Cycte of the
Sun; and the dominicai letter is found corre{ponding to it
in the table annexed to that article; where the method of
finding the dominical letter for any year, of any century, is
explained. When there are two, the propofed year is bif-

fextile ;

DOM

fextile ; and the firft obtains to the end of February; and
the laft for the reft of the year.
Thus, the year 1809 being the 26th of the cycle, the
letter in the table correlponaing to it is A. ;
The dominical letter may be found univerfally for any
year of any century, by the following canon :

*¢ Divide the centuries by four ; and twice what does remain
Take from fix; and then add to the number you gain
The odd years and their fourth ; which dividing by feven,
What is left take from feven, and the letter is given.”

Thus, for the year 1809, if the number of centuries, 18,
be divided by 4, we fhall have a remainder of 2, and twice 2
or 4, taken from fix, leaves 2; to which add 9 of the odd
years, and 2 their fourth part, we fhall have the fum 2 + 9
++ 2 = 13, and 13, divided by 7, leaves the remainder 6,
which, taken from 7, gives 1, or A, the dominical letter re-
quired. It is evident, that four Gregorian centuries, con-
taining three centefimal common years, which remove the
letter two forward, and one centefimal leap-year, which
removes it one forward, will complete a revolution of the
letter. Thus, the dominical letter of 1600 is A; ef 1700
C; of 1800 E; of 1900 G3; of 2000 A, &c. Therefore
A, the fixth letter backward from G, is the dominical letter
of a biflextile centefimal year; and, as the firft common cen-
tefimal year brings the letter two forward from A, or two
lefs than fix backward from G, the remainder, after dividing
the centuries by 4, mult be doubled ; and fo we fhall have
6 — 2 = 4 to be added to the odd years, and their 4th, in
the fecond common century; and 6 — 4, or 2, muit be
added in the third, and o in the 4th, becaufe the Gregorian
biff-xtile recurs, and the number of centuries may be divided
by 4, without leaving any remainder.

By the reformation of the calendar under pope Gregory,
the order of the dominical letters was again difturbed in the
Gregorian year ; for the year 1582, which, at the beginning,
had G for its dominical letter; by the retrenchment of ten
days after the 4th of Otober, came to have C for its domi-
nical letter; by which means the dominical letter of the
ancient Julian calendar is four places before that of the
Gregorian; the letter A in the former anfwering to D
in the latter. When the dominical letter is known, the day
of the week correfponding to any day of the month may be
eafily found by the following canon :

« At Dover Dwells George Brown Efquire, |
Good Chriftopher Finch And David Fryer.”

Thefe words correfpond to the 12 months of the year, and
the firft letter of each word marks in the orderof the dominical
letters the firft day of each month ; whence any other day
may be eafily found. £.G. Let it be required to find on
what day of the week Chriftmas day, or the 25th of Decem-
ber, falls in the year 1808, the dominical, or Sunday letter,
of which is B. Fryer anfwers to December, and the firft day
is F, i.e. B being Sunday, it is Thurfday, and, therefore,
Chriftmas day, or the 25th, is Sunday.

Domunicat, in Church Hiflory. The council of Auxerre,
held in 578, decrees, thac women communicate with their
dominical. Some authors centend, that this dominical was a
linen cloth, wherein they received the {pecies ; as not being
allowed to receive them in the bare hand. Others will have
it a kind of veil wherewith they covered the head. The
moft probable account is, that it was a fort of linen cloth,
or handkerchief, wherein they received, and preferved the
eucharift, in times of perfecution, to be taken on occafion at
home. This appears to have been the cafe by the practice

DOM
of the firft Chriftians, and by Tertullian’s book “ Ad

Uxorem,”
, Domrnicar was alfo formerly ufed in the fame fenfe with
omily.

DOMINICANS, an order of religious, called in fome
places Jacobins, in others Predicants, or Preaching Friars,
and in others Fratres majores, by way of oppofition to the
Francifcans, who called themfelves Jratres minores. See
Jaconins, &c. _

The Dominicans take their name from the founder Do-
minic de Guzman, a Spanifh gentleman, bornin 1170, at
Calaroga, in Old Cattile. He was firft canon and arch-
deacon of Ofma; and afterwards preached with great zeal
and vehemence againft the Albigenfesin Languedoc, where
he laid the firft foundation of bis order. It was approved of
in 1215, by Innocent IIT. and confirmed in 1216, bya bull
of Honorius ILI. under the title of St. Aueukin 5 to which
Dominic added feveral auftere precepts and obfervances,
obliging the brethren to take a vow of abfolute poverty, and
to abandon entirely all their revenues and pofleflions ; and

- alfo the title of ‘ Preaching Friars,” becaufe public ins

ftru&tion was the main end of their inftitution.

The firft convent was founded at Tholoufe by the bifhop
thereof, and Simon de Montfort. Two years afterwards
they had another at Paris, near the bifhop’s houfe; and
fome time after, viz. in 1218, a third in the rve St. Jaques,
St. James’s-ftreet, whence the denomination of Jacobins.

Juft before hisdeath, Dominic fent Gilbert de Frefney,
with twelve of the brethren, into England, where they
founded their firft monaltery at Oxford, in the year 1221,
and foon after anctherat London. In the year 1276, the
mayor and aldermen of the city of London gave them two
whole ftreets by the river Thames, where they erected a
very commodious convert, whence that place is ftill called’
Black Friars, from the name by which the Dominicans were
called in England.

St. Dominic, at firft, only took the habit of the regular
canons, that is, a black caffock, and rochet; but this he
quitted in-1219, for that which they now wear, which, it
is pretended, was fhewn by the bleilcd Virgin herfelf to the
beatified Renaud d’ Orleans. : ‘

This order is diftufed throughout the whole known world.
Tt has forty five provinces under the general, who refides at
Rome; and twelve particular congregations, or reforms,
governed by vicars-general.

They reckon three popes of this order, above fixty car-
dinals, feveral patriarchs, a hundred and fifty archbifhops,
and about eight hundred bifhops; belide matters of the
facred palace, whofe office has been conftantly difcharged
by a religious of this order, ever fince St. Dominic, who
held it under Honortus IIT. in 1215.

The Dominicans are alfo inquifitors in many places. For
a further account of Dominic and the Dominicans; fee |
JInquisiTION.

Of all the monaftic orders, none enjoyed a higher degree
of power and authority than the Dominican friars, whofe
credit was great and their influence univerfal. Nor will
this appear furprizing, when we conlider that they filled
very eminent ftations in the church, prefided every where
over the termble tribunal of the inquifition, and had the care
of fouls, with the fun@ion of conteffors in all the courts of
Europe, which circumitance, in thofe times of ignoraxce
and fuperftition, manifeitly tended to put moft of the Eu-
ropean princes in their power.

But the meafures they ufed, in order to maintain and ex-
tend their authority, were fo perfidious and cruel, that their
influence began to decline towards the beginning of the fix-

: teenth

DOM

teenth century, The tragic ftory of Jetzer, condudted at
Bern in 1509, for determining the uninterefting difpute
between them and the Francifeans, relating to the immacu-
Jate conception, will rcfleét indelible infamy on this order.
(See an account of itin Burnet’s Travels through France,
Ttaly, Germany, and Switz-rland, p. 31. or Mofheim’s
Eccl. Hit. vol.iv. p. 19.) They were indeed perpetually
emp'oyed in ftigmatizing with the opprobrious name of
herefy numbers of learned and pivus men ; in encroaching
upon the rights end properties of others, to augment their
pofleffions; and in laying the moft iniquitous {nares and ftra-
tagems for the deftruction of their adverfaries, They were
the principal coenfellors, by whole inftigation and advice
Leo X. was determined to the public condemnation of
Luther. The papal fee never had more aétive and ufeful
abettors than this order and that of the Jefuite.

The dogmata of the Dominicans are ufually oppefite to
thofe of the Francifcans,

They concurred with the Jefuits in maintaining, that the
facraments have in themfelves an inflrumental and official
power, by virtue of which they work in the foul (ind: pen-
dently of its previous preparation or propenfities) a difpofi-
tion to receive the divine grace; ard this is what is com-
monly called the opus operatum of the facraments. Thus,
according to their doétrine, neither knowledge, wifdom,
humility, faith, nor devotion, are neceflary to the flicacy of
the facraments, whofe victorious energy nothing but a mortal
Jfin can refilt.

There are alfo nuns, or filters of his ardee: called in,

fome places ‘‘ Preaching Sifters.’? Thefe are even more an-
cient than the friars; St. Dominic having founded a fociety
of religious maids, at Prouiiles, fome years before the in-
ftitution of his crder of men ; viz. in 12006.

There is a third order of the Dominicans, both for men
and women.

DOMINION. See Property and Dominium.

DOMINIS, Marx Anruony pve, in Biography, a
learn-d Italian prelate, who flourifhed towards the clole of
the fixteenth, and in the feventeenth centuries, was defcend-
ed from a family of rank at Arba, a town in Dalmatia. He
finifhed his education at Padua, where he made much profi-
ciency in the different branches of learning. He conneéed
himfclf with the focicty of the Jefuits, by whom he was em-
ployed as a profeffor in polite literature, philofophy, and
mathematics. In this important truit he acquired the high-
eft reputation, but finding the duties of bis office more
laborious than pleafant, he determined, after twenty
years’ application, to retire. He was, upon quitting the
fociety, nominated to the bifhopric of Segni, and after-
wards to the archbifhopric of Spalato. In the latter high
fration, he confecrated all his talents to the fervice of his
benefa@lors, the fenate of Venice, whom he defended with
much learning and refolution, in a difpute which they had
with pope Paul V. who had iffued an interdi& againtt the
republic. The inquifition efpoufed the caufe of the pope,
but fortunately for Dominis he was out of their reach,
and replied to their cenfures without hefitation or fear. His
ardent mind was now led to examine the do@trines, the dif-
cipline, and rights of the church; the refult was, an entire
feparation from the papal communion. He openly joined
the proteftants, but was very defirous of uniting the two
churches, and refolved to withdraw into fome country in
which he might with fafety mature and publifh his plans
for the purpofe. He accordingly refigned his archbifhopric
in favour of a near relation, and {pent fome time at Venice
for the fake of the fociety of father Paul. Hecame to
England in the year 1616, where he was received with refpe&

.

DOM

by all ranks, and preached and wrote againft the church of
Rome, with the zeal and ardour of a new convert. He
almoft immediately upon his arrival publifhed a long letter,
addreffed to all the bifhops of the Chriftian church, explatn-
ing the reafons which had compelled him to quit his diocefe.
Between the years 1617 and 1620, he pubhfhed his great
work which he had been long in przparing, and which he
hoped would ftrike a fatal blow at the foundations of the
papal power and dominion. ‘This work was entitied, « M.
Ant. de Dominis de Republica Ecclefiaftica,”’ Libri x. in
three volumes folio.

He is fuppofed to have had a principal concern in the
publication of father Paul’shiftory of the council of Trent,
which appeared at London in the ycar1619. In England
he acquired fome preferment: was made matter of the Savoy,
and dean of Windfor. Thefe honours and the emoluments
attached to them, did not anfwer the expectations which
he had formed of the liberality of the Englifh toa convert,
fo diftingulfhed as himfclf, to the proteftant faith. Dyfap-

pointment, or a defire to return to his native country, in-

- duced him*to accept of the invitation fent him in the name

of pope Gregory XV. to return to Rome. In 1622, in
that city, he renounced the proteftant faith, abjured ail his
errors, and afked pardon in a public coufifory for the apof-
tacy of which he had been guilty. After this, he made a
ftill more public expofition of his conduét in a treatife en-
titled, «© M.A. de Dominis Archiepifcopus Spalatentis fui
reditus ex Anglia confilium exponit.”

By fuch unmanly conc:ffions, which were truly unworthy
of a man of fuperior talents, he was at firft well received at
Rome. This was not fufficient; he hoped to be admitted
to the pope’s confidence, which as he could not obtain, and
he felt, wheri too Jate, that he muft perpetually remain, not-
withftanding his profeffions, an object of fufpicion, he began
to entertain thoughts of coming a fecond time to England,
and of uniting himfelf a feeond time with the -protcitants.
Letters to this effe€&t were intercepted; and De Dominis was
inftantly, at the order of the pope, arrefted and committed a
clofe prifoner to the caftle of St. Angelo, where he dicd in
1625, in the 64th year of his age, not without fufpicion of
poilon. Some time after his death his body was dug from
the grave in which it had been depofited, and burnt, together
with his writings, by a decree of the inquifition.

De Dominis was author of a work in optics, which ob-
tained the applaufe of the illuftrious fir I. Newton, and
which is entitled « De Radiis Vifus & Lucis in Vitris per~
{pectivis et Iride TraGtatus.”” Our great philofopher come
plimented the author of this tract fo fer as to declare, that
he was the firft perfon who had explained the phenomena of
the colours of the rainbow. Moreri.

Domints, in Geography, a group of {mall iflands in the
Eatt-Indian ocean, lying off the eaftern part of Lingery
which fee.

DOMINIUM, Dominion, inthe Civil Law, denotes
the abfolute power, or property, of a thing, to ufe or difpofe
of it how we pleafe.

Direétum dominium is the righ¢ alone of dominium: and
donfiniuin utile, the profit redounding from it. The wife
retains the dominium diretum of her jointure, and the do-
minium utile paffes to her hufband, With refpe& to fig-
nory, he who pays rent, has the dominium utile of the lands;
and the lord he pays it to, the dominium directum.

Dominium, Dominion, or Domaine, in ouv ancient Cuf-
toms, denotes a rent due to the lord, where the property is
not his.

DOMINORUM, Arripatio, See AFFIDATIO.

DOMINUS, or Lorn, in Roman Antiquity, was exprefs

Q2 fivoy

DOM

five, according td its primitive fignification, not of the au-
thority of a prince over his fubjeéts, or of a commander
over his {i , but of the defpotic power of a mafter over
his domeftic flaves. Thus Pliny (in Panegyr. c. 3. 55, &c.)
{peaks of dominus with execration, as fynonymous to ty-
rant, and oppofite to prince. Confidered in this odious
light, it had been rejeGted with abhorrence by the firft
Cefars. Their refiftance, however, in procefs of time, be-
came more feeble, and the name lefs odious; till at length
the ftyle of our ford and emperor was not only beftowed by
flattery, but was regularly admitted into the laws and pub-
lic monuments. Dioclefian and Maximian ufurped even the
titles, if not the attributes, of the divinity, and tran{mitted
them to their {ucceffors.

Dominus, in Ancient Times, a title prefixed to a name,
ufually to denote the perfon either a knight or clergyman.
See VicE-DOMINUS.

Though the title was fometimes alfo given to a gentleman
not dubbed ; efpecially if he were lord of a manor. Sec
Dom, GenTLEMAN, and Sire.

In Holland, the title dominusis ftill retained, to diftinguifh
a minitter of the reformed church.

Redo quando Dominus remifit. See Recto.

DOMITIAN, (Titus Fravius Domitianus,) in
Biography, Roman emperor, was the fecond fon of Vefpatian,
and born at Rome, Otober the 24th, A.D. 51. At the
clofe of the reign of Vitellius, and when he was reduced to
the neceflity of abdicating the empire, Domitian was with
his uncle Sabinus, and retired with him into the capitol.
When the capitol was befieged and fet on fire by the foldiers
of Vitellius, Sabinus was taken prifoser, and foon put to
death ; but Domitian concealed himfelf in an apartment of
the temple, where he remained till the tumult fubfided, and
then made his efcape to the houfe of a friend. In memory
of this deliverance he afterwards ereted two monuments;
the one, in the life-time of his father, which wasa {mall
chapel in honcur of Jupiter the preferver, on the {pot where
he had been concealed, with an altar, and an infcription on
the marble, expreffing the event that bad befallen him; the
other was a magnificent temple, built after his acceffion to
the empire, and dedicated to the ‘¢ Guardian Jupiter,” ia
which he placed a {tatue of that god holding him in his arms,
Upor the tragicel death of Vitellius, A.D. 69, Domitian
was proclaimed Cefar, and in the following year he obtained
the pretorfhip, together with the power of conful.. When
he firft took his feat in the fenate, he fpoke modettly of
himfelf and of his youth. The comelinefs of his perfon
added to the graces of his di@ion; and as his true character
was not then known, his blufhes were interpreted as a token
of the mecknefs of his temper. Some of his firft a€ts were
conciliatory and popular; but he foon threw off the veil that
difcuifed him, and purfued a courfe of licentioufnefs and
debauchery, which occafioned great uneafinefs to his father
Vefpafian. Addited to the molt infamous pleafures, he
corrupted married women, and forced’ away Domitia, the
wife of Elins Lamia, and daughter of Corbulo, and having
firft kept her as bis miltrefs, he afterwards married her.
Ambitious as he was diffolute, he attempted to ufurp every
kind of authority ; and in the moft lavifh manner he gave
away, in one day, upwards of twenty confiderable poits in
the city and provinces; which made Velpafian fay to him,
jn one of his letters, * I thank you for not having yet fent
me a fucceffor, and fer your kindnefs in vouchfafing to let
me enjoy the empire.” Domitian, jealous of the rifing
fame which his brother Titus bad acquired in the jewifh
war, exprefled his: defire of taking the command againit
Civilis in Gaul > but er who at this time poflefled the

DOM

chief power at Rome, wifhed to divert him from his purpofe,
fearing left the precipitance and ardour of his youth, in the
condué of a large army, might induce him to liften to per-
nicious counfels, and to form projedts injurious to the peace
and welfare of the ftate. Mucian, however, was under a
neceffity of acquiefcing, and accordingly he accompanied the
young prince to Gaul: but receiving intelligence before they
had pafled the Alps, of the profperous exploits of Cerialis,
the Roman commander, Mucian diffuaded Domitian from
profecuting his journey, and prevailed with him to remain
at Lyons, Here he brooded over the feditious projects:
which he had formed, and determined, if poffible, to accom-
plith them: he difpatched private emsflaries to Cerialis, in
order to gain information whether that general was difpofed
to furrender, in his favour, the command of the army.
What were his fecret views it is impoffible to fay ; whether he
wifhed to make war againft his father, or to forma party
againtt his brother, the event does notafcertain ; for Cerialis
returned no anfwer to his propofals, but confidered them as
childifh fancies. Thus difappointed, he refolved to diflem-
ble; and carried his falfe modefty fo far as to renounce the
exercife of the prerogatives due to his rank, to retire for
the fake of ftudy, and even to write verfes, which received
the fulfome adulation of the poets of his time, and the coms
mendation even of the judicious Quintilian, although he
had no previous tafte for poctry, and afterwards held it in
great contempt. Thus, however, he endeavoured to maiic
his ambition, and to ayoid giving umbrage to his brothers
whofe mild and open temper he charged with hypocrify, and
whofe virtues he difregarded, and would not even allow to
exilt.

When Vefpafian returned from the Eaft to take poffeffion,
of the empire, Domitian was the only perfon who did not
partake of the general joy on this occafion, and he alone
was unfavourably received in the interview which he had
with his father at Beneventum. Vefpafian was well apprifed
of his difpofition and conduG, and repofed no confidence in
him during his whole reign. Domitian, however, accom=
panied his father and brether in their triumph, on account
of the fuccefsful iffue of the Jewifh war, A.D. 71. Upon
the death of Vefpafian, this ambitious prince manifeficd-a
difpofition to difpute, or at lealt, to fhare, the empire with
his brother, who was unanimoufly acknowledged his father’s
fucceffor, both by the fenate and the army. With this
view he thought of doubling the gratification to the troops,
which Titus had given them; and he alfo preteuded, that
his father’s will had been altered, and that it was his inten-
tion that his two fons fhould inherit the empire jointly ; for
which fnggeltion there was not the leait foundation. His
intrigues were continued, and he proceeded fo far as fecretly
to folicit the armies to revolt. Titus, however, though not
unapprifed of his hofliltics, took no meafures for fecuring
his perfon; nor did he defiit from treating bimewith civility
and kindnefs. He made him his colleague in the confulfhip;
and from the firft day of his acceflion to the empire, always
declared to him, that, as he had no male iffue, he looked
upon him as his fucceflor to the empire. When they were
alone, he frequently conjured him, even with tears, to fecond
his endeavours, and to return him affection for his kindnefs,
Some have faid, that Domitian haflened the death of his
brother by poifon ; a charge, indeed, which is not warranted
by the circumftances of Titus’sdeath. (See Trrus.) Al-
though, through life, he had been the obje¢t cf Domitian’s
envy and hatred, fo that he never miffed any opp rtunity
which occurred of cenfuring and reviling bim, he caufed-
him, after his death, to be ranked among the gods.

Immediately upon the death of Titus, A.D. 81, Domi.

tian,

DOMITIAN.

tian, who was then go:years of age, was proclaimed empe-
ror; aud having attained this eminence, his character foon
began to be developed. For fome time, however, be re-
ftrained the induljence of his worft paflions, and contented
himfelf with puerile difplays of vanity and oltentation. He
began his career with accepting all thofe titles of honour,
which other emperors had been generally accuftomed to de-
fer till they had done fomething that feemed to merit them.
He did not feruple to declare, in full fenate, that the fupreme
power, to which he had attained, was merely a reititution,
on the part of h's father and brother, of his right, and which
he had condefcended to permit them to enjoy ; and he caufed
himfelf to be appointed conful for ten years to come; fo that,
adding thefe to the feven confulfhips which he had enjoyed
under Vefpafian and Titus, he prided himfelf on heving been
conful 17. times, which was an honour never poflcifed by any
Reman, either before or after him. Inftead of 12 li€tors he
had 24; and after he had once triumphed, he always pre-
fided in the fenate in his triumphal drefs. On the various
edifices which he caufed to be built, inftead of thofe that had
been deftroyed by fire, he had his own name infcribed, with-
out the leaft mention of their firlt founders; and he filled
the world, 2s Dion Caffius fays, with his tatues, nor would
he fuficr any to be erected to him in the capitol, which were
not of gold, or at leafl filver, and of a certain height. In
every {treet and corner of Rome he built triumphal arches,
as monuments of his pretended viGtories. Although the
Germans had every where repulfed and defeated him, he af-
fumed the furname of Germanicus, and he gave it likewife to
the month of September, in which he afcended the imperial
throne; and he ordered O&tober, the month in which he was
born; to be called Domitianus, after his own name. He
caufed himfeif to be proclaimed “‘Imperator,”” or victorious
general, 22 times during the courfe of his reign, though he
was almoft always fhamefully defeated. Not fatisfied with
the title of Lord and Mafter, which Avgultus and Tiberius
had rejefted with a kind of horror, he added to it that of
God ; and this impious ityle was obferved through his whole
reign. At the commencement of his reign, notwithltandinz
all thefe difplays of confummate vanity and arrogance, he
performed fome aéts of humanity and generofity. He re-
ftrained the powers of the magiftrates of the city and pro-
vinces withia due bounds; he adminiftered judtice with in-
tegrity, and feverely punifhed thofe judges who took bribes ;
and he iffued feveral landable edi&s for the reformation of
manners, though his own private conduét was very unconform-
able to his public decrees. His treatment ef the altrologers
was equally inconfittent; for, though he firmly believed in
their delufive arts, he paffed an cdi& by which they were all
banifhed from Rome. He fuppreffed defamatory libels, re-
gulated the police of the theatres, and forbade pantomimes
to appear on the public flage. He was fora confiderable time
an enemy to every kind of rapine and extortion; he infifted
on his officers abitaining from all fordid gains ; he declined
accepting eltates that were left him by thofe who had chil-
dren of their own; and he difcouraged calumniators and iv-
formers, alleging, that *¢the prince who does not punifh
informers, countenances and encourages them.”? With a
change of circumiftances, however, the conduct of Domitian
changed. Fond of magnificence and fhew, he raifed the
means of gratifying his ruling paflion by tyrannical exact-
jons, and on the moft frivolous pretences confifcated the
eftates of the living and the dead. Incurring boundlefs ex-
pence by building, by theatrical fh ews and entertainments,
and in various other ways, he had Trecourfe to unwarrantable
means in order to provide himfelf with the neceflary fupply
for defraying thefe charges.

Domitian, in the fecond year of his reign, made an
unprovoked attack on the Catti, a people of Germany, and
laid wafte their borders; but he was intimidated by a report
that they were colleGting together their forces, and haftily re-
treated. On his return to Rome, however, he claimed the
honours of a triumph, and hired perfons to perfonate German
prifoners. Other inftances might be adduced, in order to
prove that his ruling paffion was vanity ; and in the progrefs
of his reign this vanity appeared to be blended with timidity
and cruelty, fo that in his general condué and diftinguifhing
charaéter he was one of the moft deteftable tyrants that ruled
the Roman world. Refembling Caligula in his madnefs, he
declared himfclf a god, and caufed temples to be erected to
his honour, and divine worfhip to be paid him. He was fond
of flattery, and he found among the poets of his time too
many who were difpofei to offer him this incenfe; and, among
others, the licentious Martial frequently addreffed him as his
‘* dominus deufque,” lord and god. His jealouly was always
excited by merit and popularity ; and thofe whom he dreaded
or declined to put to death, he deprived of pofts of honour
and command, as was the cafe with AGricoLa. One of
the moft confiderable among the public events of his reign
was his war with the Dacians (fee Dacra,) which, though
terminated by a difhonourable peace and treaty, afforded him
occafion for a new triumph, and for afluming the furname of
Dacicus. In his warlike expeditions, he was commonly car-
ried with effeminate luxury in a litter; and fuch were his
exa@tions and pillages in his marches, that his prefence was
dreaded no Jefs than that ofthe enemy. Jealous of fubordi-
nate commanders, and licentious in his own condut, he ener-
vated difcipline, and encouraged licentioufnefs in his armies.
At Rome his chief occupation was the celebration of games
and folemn feftivals. By anticipating the eftablifhed period,
he affumed the honour of celebrating the fecular games. He
alfo inftituted a variety of other new games, fuch as the
gymnattic, mufical, and equeltrians or rather revived thofe
which bad been inttituted by Nero, and which were abolithed
at his death. Thefe games he confecrated to Jupiter Capito-
linus. (See Caprrouine Games. )

In his amphitheatrical fhews he was both profufe and cruel.
Having caufed to be dug an immenfe lake near the Tiber,
he exhibited a fea-fizht, in which the fhips were fo numerous
that they forraed almoft two complete fleets; and during
this exhibition, when a heavy rain fell, he would not fuffer
any of the {pectators to withdraw, fo that many died in con-
fequence of the cold, which they took on this occafion.
The diverfions which he appointed often lafted through
the whole night; and he exhibited combars of gladiators,
and fights of wild bealts, by moonlight, or by the help of
torches ; and even females ran races and fought in the cir.
cus, like gladiators. Savage by nature, his cruelty was cherifhed
by fufpicion and diftruit; and he often ufed to fay, allud-
ing to an expreflion of Demolthenes, ‘that diltruit is the
people’s fafeguard againft tyrants, and the tyrant’s fate-
guard againft all”? He is faid to have taken an inhuman
pleafure in the groans and tears of fuffering men. With
his cruelty he blended the moft refined diffimulation ; fe that
he was never more to be dreaded than when he affeéted to
appear moft mild and merciful. The moderation which he
affumed emboldened the fenators to requeft him to pafs an»
act for difabling the emperor from putting any member of
their body to death, by virtue only of his military power,
Domitian, however, hated the fenate, and refufed to grant
them this privilege : and in the exercife of the prerogative
he retained, fo confonant as it was to his own nature, he
put tq death feveral illuftrious fenators on no other ground
than that of their having become the unfortunate objects of

hie

DO Nt

his fufpicion and jealoufy. Nor were even the common

people exempt from his infatiable vengeance. Ags of
cruelty afforded him fo much pleafure, that he was glad to
find or to feign opportunities for indulging his favage difpo-
fitios. Acccrdingly, conceiving that the punifhing of a
veftal, according to the ancient laws, that is, burying her
alive, would give luftre to his reign, he ordered Cornelia,
chief of the veltals, to be the devoted victim. As he ad-
-vanced in years, his cruelty increafed ; and in the 11th year
of his reign a circumftance occurred, which was the rebellion
of L. Antonius, who commanded the army on the Upper
Rhine, that roufed into exercife all the moft ferocious paf-
fions of hisnature. The rebellion was fuppreffled, and An-
tonius was flain ; and yet he indulged a grcund'efs fufpicion
that many perfons were concerned in it, and determined to
make them the viGims of his wanton feverity. On this oc-
cafion, and about this time, fome of the moft virtuous and
dignified perfons in Rome were felected as facrifices. The
number of thofe who were put to death is not known; but
among them were Helvidius Prifcus, Herennivs Senecio,
and Arulanus Rutiticus, three of the beft and moft iliufri-
ous fenators who then lived. As thefe, eminent perfons
were philofophers of the Stoic fchool, their condemnation
was followed by a decree of the fenate, which banifhed all
philofophers from Rome and Italy. Domitian, fays Taci-
tus, could not bear to fee the leaft trace of honour and vir-
tue; but drove from him all-that profeffed and taught the
ftudy of wifiom and the liberal arts. Some of thefe philo-
fophers fied to the fartheft parts of Gaul; others to the de-
ferts of L’bya and Scvthia; and others again renounced the
profeflion, that expofed them to fuch danger, and conformed
to the manners of the times.

Among the fugitives were Dio Chryfofon, Pontius Tele-
finus, Epiétetus, and Artemidorus. With philofophy, Do-
mitian banithed the liberal arts ; and even eloquence was re-
duced to filence. .This favage tyrant, confounding CA&rif-

tianity with Judaifm, and feigning fome defaleation in the-

tributes due by his exactions to the imperial treafury, filled
the meafure of his crimes by the perfecution of the Chni-
tians. Another reafon for this perfecution ts alfo aflizaed ;
which was, his fear that fome of the polterity of David re-
mained, and that at one period or other they would excite
the Jews, whom he did not difiinguith from the Chriftians,
‘to rebel. This perfecution took place A. D. 95, and con-
tinned till the emperor’s death. (See Persecution.)
Some have {aid that, at this time, St. John was thrown intoa
caldron of boiling oil Kee Joun); but it is more certain, that
‘Flavius Clemens, a coufin of Domitian, who had been his
partner in the confulfhip, fuffered death. The fenate was at
this time reduced to a ftate of ab{fclute flavery: nor could
the members of it dare to complain under the feverity they
fuffered, nor remonftrate againft any of the decrees, or fen-
tences of condemnation, which the emperor propofed.
« Under Domitian,”’ fays Tacitus, (Vit. Agricol.) ** it was
the principal part of cur wretchednefs to behold and to be
beheld ; when our fighs were regiftered ; and that.ftern coun-
tecacce, with its fettled rednefs, his defence ayainit fhame,
was employed in noting the palenefs of fo many by-
ftanders.””

Ta his own family, 2t kength, his tyranny was felt, and
excited enemies againft him; and 2 confpirecy was formed
againfi him under bis own roof, and among his officers
and freedmen, at the head of whom was Domitia, for
“whom he had, at various times, manifefted great attach-
ment and averfion. SofpeQing that fome defign was medi-
tating againit him, and apprehending real danger more from
the furmiles of his own guikty and gloomy foul, than from

DOM

any of thofe aftrological predidions and warnings, which he
is faid to have regarded, he became very cautious and cir-
cum{peét with regard to bis own fafety. But the plot was
too deeply laid, and his deltiny was hxcd. As he was going
to bathe, before dinner, his chamberlain, Parthenius, in-
treduced to him Stephanus, fteward of Domitilla, his nicce,
and wife of Clemens, under pretence of having fome im-
portant bufinefs to communicate. Stephaius, having his
arm ina fling, as if he had been kurt, concealed a dagger ;
and, after prefenting a memorial to the emperor, and whiltt
he was reading it, he pinnged the dagger in his belly.
Domitian had ftrength enough remaining to feize the aflaffin
and throw him upon the ground; and calling for his fword,
which was placed under his pillow, the feabbard only re-
mained. Whilit they were {till itruggling, the other con-
{pirators entered, and, with feven different ftabs, d:fpatched
the tyrant. Some officers of his guard were alarmed, and
entered, too late to fave his life, though they killed Ste-
pbanus, Domitian’s death took place Sept. 18th A. D.
96, when he was 44 years, 10 months, and 26 days eld, and
after he had reigned 15 years and 5 days. His body was
privately buried by his nurfe, named Phyliis; and the after.
wards carried his afhes privately to the Flavian family,
where fhe mixed them with thofe of Titus’s daughter Julia,
whom fhe had alfo taken care of in her infancy. In him
terminated the race of emperors of the Flavian family. The
fenate, who detefted and dreaded him whilft he lived, re-
joiced in his death. As foon as it was known, the fenators
ran in crowds to their place of aflembly, and expreficd their
abhorrence of his memory with the bittere& invedtives. They
wifhed to have his body dragged with ignominy to the
‘© Gemoniz ;’? they ordered all the p:€tures, brits, ftatues,
and other reprefentations of him to be demolifhed ; his name
to be ftruck out of the Roman annals, and all public monu-
ments; from fererai of which, that are {bill remaining, we
find, that the decrre of the fenate was actually executed.
The foldiers, whofe effeGtions he had ftudicufly gained by
his liberalit*es and complaifance, were the only perfons who
regretted his death, and who wifhed to avenge it upon his
aflafins. Suetonius. Dion Caffius. Tacitus. Crevier..
DOMITIANA Srarzo, in ncient Geography, a port

of the Italian fea, in Etruria, marked in the Itinerary of
Antonine, near the river Almiana.

DOMITIOPOLIS, a town of Affa, in Cilicia.
lemy.

DOMITZ, or Doemirz, in Geagraphy, a {mall town of
Germany, in the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, near the
Elbe, with an ancient caftle ; 60 miles S. of Schwerin, and
24 of Grabow. .

DOMMAIGNE, a town of France, in the department -
of the Ile and Vilaine, and diltri& of Vitré; 7 miles W.S.W,
of Vitré.

DOMMALATIN, a town of France, in the department
of the Ile and Vilaine, and diitrict of La Guerche ; one’
league N. of La Guerche.

DOMMART tes Pontuitv, a town of France, in the
department of the Somme, and diftri&t of Doulens; 4
leagues N.W. of Amiens. ; ;

DOMME, Mons Doma, a fmall town of France, in
the department of the Dordogne, chief place of a canton, in’
the diftri@ of Sarlat,-fituated on a hill, near the river Dor-
dogne; 6 miles S.E. of Sarlat. The town contains 1898,
and the canton 12,465 inhabitants, difperfed in 18 com-
Tunes» on a territorial extent of 242 kiliometres and a

a ~ ‘

DOMMEL, a river of the kingdom of Holland, in the

department of Brabant, which has its fource in France, in-
3 the

to-

DON

the department of the Ourthe, pafles by Bois-le-~Due, joins
the river Aa, a little below that town, and falls into the
Meufe, near Crevecceur.

DOMMITZSCH, a fmall town of the kingdom of
Saxony, in the circle of Meiffen, or Mifnia, near the Elbe,
not far from Torgau. It has about reco inhabitants, chiefly
employed in navigating the Elbe, and in agricultural pur-
fuits. It was one of the commanderies of the Teutonic
order in the bailiwick of Saxony.

DOMNAU, a {mall town.of the kingdom of Pruffia, in
the province of Natangen, a fubdivifion of Eaftern Pruffia.
It was built in the year 1400; but there are, clofe to the
town, ruins of ancient fortifications, from which, it is fup-
pofed, that it had originally a ftrong cattle.

DOMNUS, or Donus, in Biography, was born at Rome,
and raifed to the high office of pope in the year 676. He
died in lefs than two years, during which time nothing of
any great importance occurred, excepting the final {ubjuga-
tion of the church of Ravenna to that of Rome, after a long
ftruggle in maintenance of its independence.

Domnvs, or Donvs, a fecond pope of this name, was

alfo born in Rome, and fucceeded to the papal chair on the -

death of pope Benedi& VI. inthe year 974. His reign was
of very fhort duration, not being extended to a year. No.
thing is recorded of him worthy of praife or blame,
Moreti.

DOMO D’oscgt10, or Dossora, in Geography, atown
of Piedmont, in the valley of Offola, defended by a fortrefs ;
51 miles N.W. of Milan, and 7o N.N.E. of Turin. N.
lat. 46°. E. long. 8° 2!.

DOMO Reparanpa, in Law, a writ that lies for: one
againft his neighbour, by the fall of whofe houfe he fears da-
mage to his own: (Reg. of Write, fol. 153,) in which cafe
the civilians have the action de damno infedio.

DOMPAIRE, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Voiges, chief place of acanton, in the
diftri& of Mirecourt, with a population of 626 individuals;
x2 miles N.E. of Darney, and 18 N.W. of Remiremont.
The canton has 30 communes, 8465 inhabitants, and a ter-
ritorial extent of 202% kiliometres,

Dompaire was anciently the relidence of the kings of
Avultrafia; and, in lefs remote times, that of the dukes of
Lorraine.

DOMPIERRE, a {mall town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Allier, diftri& of Moulins. It has 1158 in-
habitants, and is the chief place of a canton, which in 9
communes, and upon a territorial extent of 355 kiliometres,
has only a population of 7269 individuals.—Alfo, a {mall
town of France, in the department of the Lower Charente ;
6. miles N.E. of La Rochelle. There are befides feveral
villages of that name in Frances.

DOM-REMY, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Meufe, not far from the little river Vaire, which,
below this place, falls into the Meufe ; 6 miles N, of Neuf
Chateau, and g S. of Vaucouleurs. It has been furnamed
La Pucelle, for having been the native place of the celebrated
Joan d’Arc, better known by the French name of La Pucelle
a’ Orleans, the Maid of Orléans.

DOMRIANKA, a town of Rvffia, in the government
of Perm; 40 miles N. of Perm.

DOMUS Conversorum. See Conversos.

‘Domus Dei, a name anciently applied to many hofpitals.

DON, in Geography, called Tuna by the Tartars and Tanaiis
by the ancients, who confidered it as the boundary between
Europe and Afia, is one of the largeft rivers of Europe, and
the fecond of thofe which fall into the Palus Meotis, or fea

of Afoph, and through it into the Euxine, It has its fource.

.

DON

not far from Tula, in the government of Rezan in the Iva-
nofskoe lake. It ftill divides the moft eaftern part of
Rnuffia in Europe from Afia, and in its courfe towards the
eaft approaches fo near the Volga, tbat the czar Peter I. had
undertaken to form a communication between them, by
means of a canal, which is reported to be again in contem-
plation under the prefent emperor Alexander. The courfe
of the Doa, exclufive of its turnings and windings, is com-
puted at 1000 verfts. It flows for the moft part through a
flat country, covered with forefts of pines and oaks. Its
bed is generally fand, marle, and lime; it has many fand
banks arid {mall iflands. In its courfe through the govern.
ments of Rezan, Tambof, Voronetz, and Ekatarinoflaf, it
takes up nearly. three hundred rivers and ftreamlets, the
principal of which are the Voronetz, the Khoper, the Do-
netz, and the Manitfh.

The Don is liable to violent inundations. Its water is
reckoned not very wholefome, being turbid and chalky ;
yet it abounds in fifh. Below Voronetz, the Don com-
monly freezes about November, but the ice goes off in the
beginning of February,

The Steppe of the Don and Volga comprizes the whole
{pace between the Don, the Volga, and the Cuban, but ig
more generally known by the name of Kumaw Steppe (which
fee.) Tooke’s View of the Ruffian Empire.

Don is the name of a {mall river in York{hire, England,
and of another which nfes im the mountains of Culgarff,
Scotland. The latter, after pafling by Kintore, difembogues
its waters into the German ocean, and is navigable for {mall
veffels a confiderable way from its mouth. Several very
valuable falmon weirs are formed on this river, '

Don, ariver of America, in the Eat Riding of the coun.
ty of York, in Upper Canada, which difcharges itfelf into
York harbour. -

Don, or Dun River, in the Welt Riding of Yorkhire.
This river is navigable from its ¢f€ux into.the York Oufe
river at Goole bridge, to Attercliff, two miles below Shef-
ficld ; it ferves for the export of coals, iron, and iron ware
from the great run of coal ftrata. (See Canau.) The
lower part of this river is through level feas, above which
it is embanked, and the warping of lands in its neighbour-
hood is praétifed as on the Trent river.

Don Chri/topher’s Cove, a cove on the north fide of the
ifland of Jamaica, having Anna’s bay on the W., and:
Mammee bay on the S. E.; remarkable for having afford.
ed fhelter to the difcoverer of America during a ttorm, in
1503, and for being the fite of the old town of Sevilla
de Nueva. N. lat. 18° 587. W, long.97° 1’.

DONABURG. See Dunasurc=

DONAGHADEE, a pol town of the county of Down,
Ireland. It is a feaport on the north-eait fide of the-
Ardes, and nearly oppolite to port Patrick in Scotland,
from which it is diftant about 25 miles. Its quay is made
of large ftones, in form of a cre{cent, without any cement,
and is 128 yards in length, and about 21 or 22 feet broad,
befides a breaft wall of the fame kind of ftones about fix feet
broad. The town confits of two principal ftreets be-
fides crofs Janes, one open and expofed to the fea, and the
other at the back. of it, which is well paved. This is the
place from which the packets, which take the northern
mail, fail to port aearet and from it is a confiderable ex-
portation of horles and horned c.ctie to Scotland. Do-~
naghadee is 944 Infh miles N. fom Dublin. Long. 5?°
26' W. Lat. 54°37’ N.

DONAIECZ, a river of Poland, phich runs into the -
Viltula; 25 miles below Cracow.

DONARIA, among the Ancients, in its primary figai-

Acation,

DON

fication, was taken for the places where the oblations of-

fered to the gods were kept; but afterwards was ufed to

denote the offerings themfelves ; and fometimes, though im-
roperly, the temples.

DONAT, Saint, in Geography, is a {mall town of
France, inthe department of the Drome, chief place of a
canton in the diftriét of Valence, 9 miles N, W. of Romans.
It has 1595 inhabitants. ‘The canton comprizes nine com-
munes and a population of 4773 individuals upon a terri-
torial extent of 1072 kiliometres.—Alfo, a fort of Hol-
* land, near Helvoet-fluice.

DONATELLO, or Donaro, in Biography, one of the
principal revivers of fculpture in Italy, was deicended from
humble origin at Florence, and bornin the year 1333. He
‘Jearned defign under Lorenzo de Bicci, and by his afliduous
application became an excellent fculptor, and a matter of per-
foeétive and archite@ure. Abandoning the o!d dry man-
ner, he was the firft who gave his works the grace and free-
doin of the produétions of ancient Greece and Rome. His
talents and performances foon attracted the notice of the
great €ofmo de Medici, who employed him on a tomb for
pope John XXIII., and in other works, both public and pri-
vate. Such was the high eflimation in which he was held
by Cofmo, that he availed himfelf of his taile and judgment
in forming thofe grand colleétions, which gave celebrity to
Florence as the parent of modern art. Amongit his per-
formances in that city are his Judith and Holofernes in
bronze, his Annunciatior, his St. George and St. Mark,
and his Zuccone. ‘lo his St. Mark, Michael Angelo 1s faid
to have addreffed the queition, ‘“* Marco, perche non mi
parli?’? «Mark, why do you not fpeak to me?” His
equeltrian ftatue of bronze at Padua, to the honour of their
general Gallamalata, is admirable and worthy of being com-
pared with the beft antiques. Confcious of the excellence
of his performances, he exclaimed to a Genoefe merchant,
who had befpoke a head, and eflimated its value by the
number of days which it had employed the artift, ‘* this man
better knows bow to bargain for bears than for lLatues :~-he
fhall not have my head ;” and then dafhed it to pieces. Ne-
verthelefs, no man lefs regarded money than Donatello.
Upon his return to Florence, Cofmo, at his death, recom-
mended him to his fon, who gave him an eftate; but in a
little while he begged his benefactor to take it again, as he
did not like the trouble of it. The gift was relumed, and
a weckly penfion of the fame value affigned to the artiit.
He had no notion of hoardisg ; but it is faid that he depo-
fited what he received in a baiket, fufpended from a cieling,
from which his friends and work-people might fupply them-
felves at their pleafure. He diedin 1466, at the age of 83,
and was buried in the church of St. Lorenzo, near his friend
ofmo, that, as he expreffed himfelf, “¢ his foul having been
with him when living, their bodies might be near each other
when dead”? He left a fon, named “ Simon,’”’ who adopted
his manner and acquired reputation. irabofchi. Rofcoe’s
Lorenzo de Medici. Gen. Biog.

DONATIA, in Botany, (fo named by Forfter, in me-
mory of Vitaliano Donati, a native of Padua, appointed
profeffor of Botany at Turin, and fent by his fovereigaon a
botanical expedition into Afia Minor, but he died on his
voyage. He publifhedat Venice in 1750, a {mali folio with
plates, entitled, Della Storia Naturale Marina dell? Adriatico,
to which his friend Sefler fubioined the botanical hiftory of
a plant, named after him Vitaliana, fince july referred to
Primula.) Forlt. Gen. 5. t. 5. Schreb. 787. Willd. Sp.
PL. v. 1. 491. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2. Juff. 300. Clafs and
order, Triandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Caryophyllea, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth of three awl-fhaped, fhort, dif-

DON

tant leaves. Cor. Petals nine, or rather from eight ‘to ten,
linear-oblong, twice the length of the calyx, {preading.
Stam. Filaments three, awl-fhaped, the length of the calyx ;
anthers roundifh, two-lobed. - Pif. Germen fupericr ;
{tyles three, thread-fhaped, fomewhat longer than the fta-
mens ; ftigmas bluntifh. Peric.. unknowr.

Eff. Ch. Calyx ofthree leaves. Corolla of many petals.

1. D. fafeicularis, (Polycarpon magellanicum; Linn.
Suppl. 115.) is the only fpecies. A native of moift rocky
pleces in Terra del Fuego. It forms tu‘ts hke a mofs or
mountain Saxifrage, the /lems being, moftly fimple, denfely
clothed with imbricated, permanent, thick, {mooth, lanceo-
Jate, obtufe, entire /eaves. Flowers terminal, f{cfiile, foli-
tary, white. Forftcr did not fee the fruit, nor is our fpe-
cimen, gathered by him, fufficient to throw any light upon
the fubj-&. The younger Linnaus referred this plant to
the genus Polycarpon, furely without any thing in its habit
or charaGier to juitify the meafure, yet Dr. George Forfter
fubmitted to his judgment, and pubiifhed it as fuch in the
Goettingen Commentaries, v. 9. 23. t. 3. mentioning: at
the fame time the opinion of Sparrmanr, that it really con-
flituted a ciftin& genus. c

DONATIANA, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal
town of Greece, in Epirus.

DONATION, Donato, an a& or contraét, whereby
a man transfers to another, either the property or the ufe,
of the whole, or a part of his effets, as a free gift.

A donation, to be valid and compiete, fuppofes a capacity
both in the donor, and the donee; and requires confent,
acceptanee and delivery, and by the French law regiftry alfo.
See Grrr.

Donation mortis caufa, in Law, a difpofition of property
made by a perfon in his lait ficknefs, who apprehending his
diffolution near, delivers or caufesto he delivered to another,
the poffeflion of any perfonal goods, (including bonds, and
bills drawn on his banker,) to keep in cafe of his deceafe.
If the donor dies, this gift needs not the affent of his exe-
cutor ; but it fhall not prevail againft creditors ; and it is ac-
companied with this implied truft, that, if the donor lives,
the property fhall revert to himfelf, being only given in con-
templation of death, or mortis caufa. (Prec. Chanc. -269.
1 P. Wms. 406, 441. .3 P. Wms. 357.) This method of
donation feems to have been conveyed to us from the civil
lawyers, (Inft. 2.7. 1. FF. 1.39. t. 6.) who borrowed it
from the Greeks. Ody/ff. lib. xvii. ver. 78. and Euripides,

Iceftes, ver. 1020. See Blackit. Comm. vol. i. p, 514,

DONATISTS, in Leclefaffical Hiffory, ancient {chiima-
tics in Africa, fo denominated from their leader Donatus.

As inthe faGion of the Donatilts there were two emi-
nent perfons of the name of Donatus, the one a Numidian,
and bifhop of Cafe Nigre, and the other who fncceeded Ma-
jorinus, bifhop of Carthage, as leader of this party, and who,
onaccount of his learning and virtue, was called by his fe,
Donatus the Great; it has been a queftion, from which of
thefe the feG& derived. its name? Probably they were thus
denominated from both.

They had their origia in the year 317, when, in the room
of Menfurius, who died in that year, on his return to Rome,
Czcilian was ele€ted bifhop of Carthage, and confecrated
without the concurrence of the Numidian bifhops, by thofe of
Africa alone; whom the people refufed to acknowledge,
and to whom they 6ppofed Majorinus ; who, accordingly,
was ordained by Donatus, bifhop of Cafe Nigre. They
were condemned, in a council held at Rome, two years after
their feparation; and afterwards in another at Arles in the
year following ; and again at Milan, before Conftantine the
Great, in 316, who deprived them of their churches in

Africa,

Africa, and fent their feditious bifhops into banifhment, and
punifhed fome of them with death. This treatment occa-
fioned violent sommotions and tumults in Africa, the feet
of the Donatifts being there both numerous and powerful.
Their canfe was fupported bya confederacy of defpcrate
ruthans called Circumecellicnes, (which fee,) who filled Africa
with flaughter and rapine. Conftantine having tried various
methods for conctiiating them without effcét, at length
abolifhec, by the advice of the governors of Africa, the
laws that had been enacted again{t the Donatilts, and al-
lowed the people {nil hberty of adhering to the party they
liked the beft. Their caufe was efpoufed by another Do-
naius, called the Great, the princ’pal bifhop ot that fe&, who,
with a number of his fcllowers, was exiled by order of Con-
ftans. Many of them were punifhed with great feverity.

However, after the acc: flion of Julian to the throne in 362,
they were permitted to return, and reftored to their former
liberty. Gratian publifhed feveral edi€ts againit them ; and
in 377 deprived them of their churches, and prohibited all
their aflemblies. But notwithilanding the feverities they
fuffered, it appears that they had a very confiderable number
of churches towards the clofe of this century, which were
ferved by no lefs than 400 bifhops; but at this time they
began to decline, on account of a {chifm among themfelves,
occafioned by the election of two bifhops, in the room of
Parmenian, the fucceffor of Donatus; one party elected
Primian, and were call-d Primianifts, and another Maximian,
and were called Maximianifts. The decline was alfo precipi-
tated by the zealous oppofition of St. Auguftin, and by the
violent meafures which were purfued again them, by order

of the emperor Henonrius, at the folicitation of two councils
held at Carthage; the one in 404, and the other in 411.
Many of them were fined, their bithops were banifhed, and
fome put to death, This f-& revived and multiplied under
the prote€tion of the Vandals, who invaded Africa in 427,
and took poffeffion of this province ; but it funk again under

new feverities, when thejr empire was overturned in 534.
Neverthelefs they remained in a feparate body till the clofe
of this century, when Gregory, the Roman pontiff, ufed
various methods for fupprefling them; his zeal fucceeded,
and there are few traces to be found of the Donat'tts after
this period. They were diltinguifhed by otherappellations ;
as Circumcelliones Montenfes, or Mountaizeers, Campites,
Rupites, &c. They held three councils, or conciliabules ;
one at Cirta in Numidia, and two at Carthage.

' The errors of the Donatilts, befides their fchifm, were,
z. That baptifm conferred out of the church, that is, out of
their fe&, was null; and accordingly they rebaptized thofe
who joined their party from other churches, and rc-ordained
their minifters, 2. T'hat their’s was the only true, pure, and
holy church; all the reft of the churches they held as
proftitute, and fallen.

Doratus feems hkewife to have riven into the dodtrine of
the Arians, with whom he was clofely allied ; and accord-
ingly, St. Epiphanius, Theodoret, and fome others, accufed
the Donatifts of Arianifm; and it is probable that the
charge was well founded, becaufe they were patronized by
the Vandals, who were of thefe fentiments. But St. Au-
guitine. ep. 185. to count Boniface, and Her. 69. affirms,
that the Donatitts, in this point, kept clear of the errors of
their leader.

DONATIVE, Donarivum, a prefent made to any per-
fon; called alfo gratuity.

The Romans made large donatives to their foldiers. Julia
Pia, wite of the emperor Severus, is called, on certain medals,
MATER CASTRORVM, beeaule of the care fhe took of the

Vou. X11.

{oldiery, by interpofing for the augmentation of their dona-
tives, &c.

Donative was properly a gift made to the folciery ; as
congiarius was that made tothe people.

Salmafius, in his notes to Lampridius, in his Life of He.
liogabalus, mentioning a donative that emperor gave of
three pieces of gold per head, obferves, that this was the
common and legitimate rate cf a donitive. Cafaubon, tn
his notes on the Life of Pertinax by Capitolinns, obferves,
that Pertinax made a promife of three thoufand denarii to
each foldicr; which amounts to upwards of ninety-feven
pounds fterling. The fame ‘author writes, that the legal
donative was twenty thonfand denarii; and that it was not
cultomary to give lefs, efpecially to the pretorian foldiers ;
that the centurions had double, aud the tribunes, &c. more in
proportion.

Downartive, in the Canon Law, a benefice given, and
collated to a perfon, by the found=r, or patron; without
either prefentation, inftitution, or indu@ion by the ordinary ;
fo called becaufe they began only by the foundation and
ereGtion of the donor. If chapels founded by laymen be not
approved by the diocefan, and, as it is called, /piritualized,
they are not accounted proper benefices. neither can they be
conferred by the bifhop, but remain to the picus cifpofition
of the founders; fo that the founders, and their heirs,
may give fuch chapels without the bifhop.

Gwin obferves, that the king might of aucient time found
a free chapel, and exempt it from the jurifdiGion of the
diocefan; fo may he, by Jetters patent, give liberty to
a common perfon to found fuch a chapel, and make it
Gonative, not prefentable ; and the chaplain, or beneficiary,
fhall be deprivable by the founder or his heir, and not by
the bifhop. And this feems to be the original ef donatives
in-England. See Anvowson.

When the king founds a church, &c. donative, it is of
courfe exempted from the ordinary*s jurifdi@ion, though no
particular exemption be mentioned, and the Jord chancellor
fhall vifit the fame ; and where the king grants a licence to
any common perfon to found a church or chapel, it may be
donative, and exempted from the jurifdiGion of the bifhop, fo
as to be vifited by the founder, &c. (Co, Littl. 134.2 Rol.
Abr. 230.) ‘Tbe refignation of a donative mutt be to the
donor or patron, and not to the ordinary ; and donatives
are not only free from all ordinary juri{diGion, but thespa-
tron and incumbent may charge the glebe to bind the fuc-
ceflor, and if the clerk is difturbed, the patron may bring
quare impedit, &c. Alfo the patron of a donative may take
the profits thereof when it is vacant. (Co. Litt. 344.
Cro. Jac. 63.) 5

Donatives are within the ftatute againft fimony ; and if
they havecure of fouls, within that againft pluralities. [Ff
the patron of a donative doth not nominate a clerk, there
can be no lapfe thereof, unlefs it be fpecially provided for in
the foundation ; but the bifhop may compel lim to do it by
{piritual cenfures. But if it be augmented by queen Anne’s
bounty, it will lapfe like other prefentative livings. 1 Geo. I.
ftat. 2. cap. ro. The ordinary cannot vifit adonative, and
therefore it is free from procuration, and the incumbentis
exempted from attendance at vifitations.

No perfon is capable of a donative, unlefs he be a prieft
lawfully ordained, &c. (Yelv. (Gr. tat raiCary Mater a,
1 Litt. 488.) There may be adonative of the king’s gift
with cure of fouls, as the church of the Tower of London
is. A parochial church may be donative, and exempt from
the ordinary’s jurifdigtion. (Godolph. 262.) The church
of St. Mary-le-Bow in Middlefex is donative, and the

R incumbent

DON

incumbent being cited into the fpiritual court, to take a
licence from the bifhop to preach, pretending that it was a
chapel and that the parfon was a ftipendiary, it was raled in
the king’s bench, that it wasa dozative ; and if the bifhop
vifit, the court of B. R. will grant a prohibition. (1 Mod. go.
1 Nelf. Abr. 676.) Ifa patronof a donative doth once
refent his clerk to the ordinary, and the clerk is admitted,
inflituted, and indu&ted, then the donative ceafeth, and it
becomesa church prefentative. (Co. Litt.344.) But when
a donative is created by letters patent, by which lands are
fettled upon the parfon and his fucceffors, and he is to come
in by the donation of the king, and his fucceffors ; in this
cafe, though there may be a prefentation to the donative,
and the incumbent come in by inftitution and induion, yet
that will not deftroy the donative. (2 Salk. 541.)
All bithoprics in ancient time were donative by the king.
Rep. 75.) Agaiz, where the bifhop has a gift of the
fice, 1t is properly called a donative, becaule he cannot

prefent to himfelf.
Do

natives have two peculiar properties, one, that the

incumbent is made a bifhop. (Ca. Parl. 184.)
is, that a donative is within the ftatute of plura-
is the fir living ; but if the donative is the
-e taken withont a difpenfation, the firft would
; for the words of the ftacute are in/lituted and
in y other, which are not applicable to dona-
tives. (1 Woodd. 330.) And therefore it feems that, if
donatives are taken laft, they may be held with any other
preferment.

DONATO, Bernarnino, in Biography, alearned Italian,
was born at Zano inthe Veronefe. The exa@ time of his
birth and death are not afcertained. He flourifhed in the
fixteenth century, and was greatly celebrated as a tranflator.
His verfion of the Demonitratio Evangelica of Eufebius
has been feveral times reprinted. He tranflated the works
of Galen, Ariflotle, Xenophon, and of fome of the early
ecclefiaftical writers. Asan author, he publifhed a Latin
dialogue on the difference between the philofophy of Arif-
rotle and that of Plato. A Latin grammar is alfo afcribed
to him, which was printed at Venicein 1529. Moreri.

Donato, Giroramo, a patrician of confiderable rank
at Venice, who was both a ftatefman and man of letters.
The exact time of his birth is not known, but itis fuppofed
to have been about 1454. As a literary man, he wrote an
apology for the pope’s fupremacy againit the Greek church,
and a letter to cardinal Caraffa upon the fame fubjeét. He
drew upa long and forcible apology for the Venetians
againft Charles VIII, king of France, and tranflated into
Latin fome of the works of Chryfoftom, and other Greek
authors. He was confeffedly one of the moft learned men
of theage. He died in 151x: as a itatefman, he was
eminent for probity and talents, and was employed by his
country in various important and very difficult negociations.
Morer?.

Donato, Baupassave,*a mufical compofer of Naples,
who publifhed at Venice, in 1555, ‘¢ Canzone Villanefche
alla Napolitana,” in very good counterpoint of four parts.
in thefe little national fongs there is generally more humour
in the words, and more air and vivacity in the melody, than
in any other fongs, equally ancient, that we have feen. They
feem to have been {ung about the ftreets, in parts, as the
words of feveralimply. In one of them, a finging-mafter
fpeaks, who offers to teach the Guidonian hand, or gamut,
in an hour; and in one of the following, the fyllables wé,

ntation does not devolve to the king as is other livings, .

DON

re, m, fa, &c, are ingenioufly applicd'in_moft of the parts,
to fuch found: as require them, in folmifation,

DONATUS, At1vs, flourifhed in} the time of Con-
ftantine, and was one of the preceptors of St. Jerom. He
was acommentator uponthe works of Virgil and Terence.
He compofed fome grammatical pieces which are fill ree
maining.

DONAUESCHINGEN, or Donescuincen, in Geos
graphy, a {mall town of Germany, in Suabia, is the principal
refidence of the princes of Furltenberg, in the court yard
of whofe palace the Danube, in German the Donan, takes
its rife. Some {mail fprings bubbling from the ground,
form a bafon of about thirty feet fquare, and from this
bafon iffues the mighty Danube, which, in its origin, is only
alittle brook.

DONAVRTZ, atown of Hungary, 16 miles N. N. W.
of Palatza.

DONAUSTAFF, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Bavaria, and bifhcpric cf Ratifbon, on the Danube; 6 miles
E. of Ratifbou.

DONAWERTH, Downawerrt, in Latin Donaverde
Danubii infula, isa {mall town of Bavaria, on the northern
fhore of the Danube, go miles N. of Augfburg, and 45
N. E. of Ulm. Itis onthe borders of Suabia, and was
anciently a free imperial city. In 1805, it was occupicd
by the French under marfhal Soult, who reftored the bridge
which the Auftrians had deftroyed.

DONAX, in Botany, (dovxk, a reed, arroqw, or pipes) is
retained by Linneusas the fpecific name of the great reed
of the fouth of Europe, 4rundo Doisx, fuppofed to be the
doveE of Diofcorides. See ARuNDO. ‘

Donax, Loureiro Cochinch. 11, is applied by that
author to the 4rundaffrum of Rumph. Amboin. v. 4. 22. t. 7.
which Loureiro fuppofes a new genus; the characters of
Maranta, to which it appears to belong, not having been
clearly defined when he wrote.

DONAX, in Coachology, a genus of bivalves, the animal
of which is confidered as a Vethys. Thefe have the anterior
part very obtufe, and the margin in general crenulated; the
hinge is furnifhed with two teeth, and a fingle marginal one
placed rather behind. Some fpectes are deftitute of this
marginal tooth, others have two, or fometimes even
three.

Species.

Scortum. Shell triangular-heart-fhaped, with a flat frons
tal margin. Linn. &c.

The colour of this fhell is cinereous, mixed with violet ;
within fnowy, at the hinge violet ; marginal teeth double
in each valve, with an intermediate cavity. Inhabits the
Indian ocean.

PUBESCENS.
margin. Linn.

Native of the Indian ocean. The ountfide of this fhell is
whitifh with fine decuflating ftrie; the anterior margin flat
with an ovate gape, and behind the beaks an ovate oblong
depreffion. Infide as in the former.

Rucosa. Shell wrickled and gibbous before ; margin
crenated. Linn. Paman, Adanfon.

A {mall fpecies found in the Mediterranean, Atlantic,
and American feas ; the colours various and ufually difpofed
in bands on the outfide, within violet and white. This kind
has no marginal tooth.

Srraiata. Shell ttriated, with denticulated margin; an-
terior part obtufe, Knorr.

_ Inbabits the fouthern feas of Europe. The colour is
white, and the fhell in general is rather gibbous.
TRUNCULUS,

Shell ciliated with fpines on the anterior

DON

Teruxcurus. Shell at the aaterior part fmooth, with
erated margins; with violet. Linn. Donoy. Brit.
Shells, &c.

Found in plenty on many of the fea coats of Europe ;
the ground colour is molt commonly whitifh or tinged with
yellow, and marked in the direG&tion of the ftriz from the
beaks downwards, with broader or narrower ftripes, or
lines of rich purple. Length about three quarters of an
inch,

Denticurata. Sheli at the anterior part very obtufe ;
lios tran{verfely wrinkled, finely ftriated longitudinally, and
denticuiated at the margiae Gmel. Donov. Brit. Sheils,
&c.
Very abundant in the Exropean and American feas, and
is rather larger than the laft. Chis thell is wedge-formed,
and is in general whitifh, freaked of ftriped with brown or
purple from the beaks to the margin.

Cuneara. Shell wedge-fhaped, the margins very entire.
Cnemn, &c.

Inhabits Tranquebar, and meafures about an inch in
length. The {pcecies varies from yeliow to rufous, and has
the margin violet ; the anterior part tran{verlely wrinkled in
front, with perpendicular lines croffing the wrinkles ; coiour
within violet and white.

Faza. Shell gibbous, very fincly ftriated tranfverfely,
fpotted with yellow ; tip of the beak, and band at the mar-
gin blueifh, the former intercepted witha white ray. Cnoemn.
ative place unknown.

Scripra. Shell ovate compreffed, {mooth, marked
with purpie waved lines, taargins crenulated. Linn. ~

Inhabits the coaftof Malabar, and refembles the laft, but
is thinner; the outfide is elegantly painted with angular
reddifh or brown lines, and the hinge fomewhat refembles
that of a Venus.

Muricata. Shell ovate, with muricated ftriz, the
margin denticulated. Lion.

Native of the Indian fea. This fhell is gibbous and of a
reddifh colour, with the frontal margin gaping, and ending
each fide in a compreffed tooth.

Ixus. Shell oval,:with tranfverfe waved ere& {ftriate
membranaceous wrinkles or foliations. Gualt. Donov. Brit.
Shells, &c.

Inhabits the Mediterranean, and is ufually found buried
in clay on the fea-fhore. Its fize is that of a {mall kidney
bean.

~Lavicata. Shell obtufe before, obfo'etely flriated at
the fides, yellowi‘h green within, and violet at the beaks;
margin very entire; hinge without marginal teeth,
Chemn.

Native of Tranquebar, the length from the beak to the
margin about an inch anda half, and ite breadth two inches
and a quarter; margin near the beak fomewhat incumbent.
‘This is a rare {pecies,

Spinosa. Shell fnowy, within blueifh; pofterior part
fmooth and perpendicularly ftriated ; anterior part truncated,
aad very finely cancellated ; the angles fpinous. Chemn.

A very fcarce fpecies found in Vranquebar.

Incarnata. Shelli carnation; anterior part truncated,
wrinkled and marked with reticulated {trie ; polterior part
cuneated and furrowed with fine perpendicular ftrie.
Chemn.

Inbabits Tranquebar.

yellowith,
ArGented. Shell oval f{mooth, olive-green, within

filvery ; margin with more elevated acute tecth near the
hinge. Gualt,
Bicoxor.

Shell fometimes banded with

Shell ovate, with elevated ftrie croffing a

DON

few tranfverfe lines; rufous with a white ray each fide,
Gualt.

The native place of this and the preceding {pecies is uns
known.

Rapiara. Shell brown with hyaline fpots; the outfide
with crowded arched tranfverfe ftriw 3 infide with perpen-
dicular ones; the anterior part wrinkled. Schroct.

Inhabits ‘Tranquebar. Length about an inch; the an«
terior part not very obtufe, and marked-with two white
rays; polterior part rounded with a white border.

Straminea. Shell with very thin perpendicular ftrie
crofling the tranfverfe ribs cn the forepart ; ftraw coiour
with darker tranfverfe bands ; margin tawny, and very entire
behind. Schroet. ; i

Lefs than the laft. Within flefh colour, towards the rim
violet. Native country unknown.

Canpipa. Shell entirely white, with a few thio arched
traniverfe ftriz, turned obliquely towards the rim; hinge
with three oblique midd'e teeth ; margin very entire.
Schroset.

Native of Tranquebar.
about an irch in length.

DONAZ, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the
department of Doire, which was formerly a part of Pied.
mont in Italy. It is the chief place of a canton in the
diftri&t of Aofte, and has a population of 1097 individuals.
The canton contains 5410 inhabitants, difperfed in fix
communes.

DONCASTER, a large, refpeGtable, and ancient town
in the Weit Riding of Yorkthire, England, was a Roman
ftation, and, according to fome authors, was the place
where the province of Maxima Cefarienfis commenced, Tt
was called by Nennius Caer-Daun ; by Antoninus, Dentun «
in the Saxon annals it is written Dona Cercen 3 and in “8
firlt charter granted to the town by king Richard I. it ig
called Danecaffre. The ancient Itineraries concur in infert-
ing Doncafter asa Roman ftation, and a Roman votive altar
of exquifite workmanfhip difcovered in this town in 1781
infallibly proves, by its {eulpture and infcription, the truth
of the aflertion and fa@. This altar, which was found in
digging a cellar in St. Sepulchre’s gate, is confidered as
the third of the kind ever difcovered in any part of the
world: one of the other two having been found at Binchef.
ter in the county of Durham, and the other at Ribchefter
in Lancafhire. In the hiftory of Doncafter the mof rea
markable events were—the deftruGion of the town by light«
ning about the year 759, when, Camden fays, “ it was fo
buried in its own ruins, that it has hardly yet recovered
itfelf.’? The battle of ‘Towton-field, in this vicinity
took place on Palm Sunday 1460, between the armies of
the contending houfes of York and Lancatter, when nearly
37,002 men were left dead on the fizld, a greater number
than is fuppofed to have been flain in any battle in this king
dom. And of Afke’s rebellion in 1536, this town and
its vicinity were the principal {cenes.

Doncatfter has obtained a vaiiety of charters from fuccefe
five kings from Richard I. to James II. The Corporation
is compofed of a mayor, recorder, town-clerk, twelve al-
dermen, and twenty-four common council men. The reves
nue of the corporation amounts to nearly Gooo/, per annum 5
which is chiefly expended for the comfort and ersclument of
the inhabitants ; by large contributions to all charitable in-
ftitutions; by ready affiltance to the poor in times of {care
city ; by the eretion of elegant edifices for public amufes
meat ; and by defrayiog the expences of lighting and pave
ing the ftreets, and the conveyance of riyer water: fo that
the inhabitants enjoy privileges rarely to be found in any

R 2 country

This fhell is thin, britile, and

DON

country town. Doncalter has never been, what is ufually
called, a trading town: it was formerly, in fome degree,
noted for knitted ftockings; and of late fome attempts
have been made to eflablifh manufa@tories of various kinds,
but without fuccefs. ‘The thopkeepers and mechanics chiefly
depend for fupport on the perfons of fortune in the town and
neighbourhood, on the corporation, and on travellers, of
whom, it being on the great road from London to Edin-
burgh, there is a conitant fucceffion paffing through the
town. The houfes in Doncalter are in general well built;
the Uigh-ftreet, in particular, which is about a mile in
Tength, is, forlength, width, and beauty, allowed to be the
beft on the great northern road. The church (for there is
but one, which in fuch a confiderab!e town is rather finza-
_ lar) is a large handfome ftru€ture. It ftands on the area of
the old caftle, which, with the lordihip. was in the poffeffion
of Nigell de Foflard, at the time of the congueft ; and was
probably built of the old materia!s of the caltle 5 but the pre-
cife period of its ereGion it is now difficult to afcertzin. In
a recent repair of the church a ftone wa: taken out of the
wall at-the eait end, on which was the date 1071: whence
it may be inferred that the eaftern part was built at that
time: but the feveral joinings in the ftone-work clearly de-
note that one part was built at a different time from the
other. The prefent elegant tower is of a later date, aad
from the peculiar {pecies of its architecture appears to have
been ereted in the reign of Henry ILI. a period when many
of our prefent churches derive their origin, - The font, in
which children are yet baptiz<d, is of free fone, and was
made in the reign of Edward the Confeffor, it bearing date
zo61. The principal public buildings of the town are, the
manfion-houfe, the town-hall, a grammar-fchool, St. Tho-
mas’s hofpital, erected and endowed by Thomas Ellis in
1588, adifpenfary, a workhoufe, atheatre, and four meet-
ing-houfes or chapels for diffenters of different denomina-
tions. Horfe races are held here in September; a grand
ftand has been built by the corporation for the accommoda-
tion of the company who refort to this town on that occa-
fion. Doncafter is fituated 158 miles N. from London;
has a well fupplied market on Saturdays, and two annual
fairs ; was returned to parliament in rSor, as containing
3186 honfes, and 5697 inhabitants. of whom ro43 were
employed in various trades and manufaGures, particularly in
{pinning wool and cotton. Over the river Don, on which
the town is feated, are two handfome bridges; in the vi-
einity of which were formerly two convenis of White and
Grey Friars. | Miller’s Hiftory of Doncafter, gto. 1804.

DONCHERY, a fmall but: neat town of France, in
the department of the Ardenne, near the river Meufe, 3
miles W. of Sedan.

DONDANGA, atown of the duchy of Courland, 24
miles N. E. of Piltyn.

DONDE, James De, furnamed the Aggregator, on ac-
count of the large number of compolitions he contrived for
the cure of various difeafes, in Biography, was of a re-
{peGtable family at Padua, and was himfelf in great repute

for his profeffional abilities. He flourifhed about the middle’

of the fourteenth century. His principal work is called
«* Promptuarium Medicinz, in quo non folum facultates
fimplicium et compofitorum Medicam. declarantur, verum
etiam, quz, quibufvis Morbis medicamenta fint accomo-
data, ex veteribus Medicis monftrantur,’’ printed 1481,
but written, as we learn from the preface, in 1355. Itis
principally, as the title informs us, taken from the works
of the ancient phyficians; and to tranflate, or tran{cribe,
from the works of the ancients, was the principal labour of
the literati of that age. Donde alfo became famous for

DON

his fil in the mathematics ; and in mechanics he contrived
a clock, which not only fhewed the hours of the day. and
night, but the paflage of the fua through the twelve figns
of the zodiac, the place of the moon, &c,; but this, on
good authority, is faid to have been the performance of his
fon, who acquired confiderable reputation for his philofo-
phical acumen; that made by the f:ther was more imply
conftru€ted. Donde taught the art of obtaining the fale
from the waters of Aloano; about one pound of falt from
a thoutand pounds of water. His account cf the method
of obtaining it was printed at Venice, with his * Trea-
tife de fluxu, et refluxu Maris,’ in 1571. He left two
fons, Jolin, who, befides inheriting his tather’s talents for
mechanical purfuits, was well inftructed in every other branch
of literature. Petrarch, with whom he was clofely connected,
left him a legacy to purchafe a ring, to be worn in memory
of bim. The other fon, Gabriel, practifed medicine with
great fuccefs at Venice, where he is faid to have acquired
an ample fortune. Haller Bib. Eloy. Di€. Hhit. General
Biog.

DONDON, in Geography, one of the thirty-three cane,
tons of the department of the North, in the ifland of St.
Dominzo, in the Weit Indies, now Hayti.

DONDRE Heap, the moft fouthern point of the ifland
of Ceylon, about 4 miles from Matura; éalied by the na-
tives Dewullum,. Dewunder Head, or Divi-noor. Within
halt a-mie of this point itandsea C:nglefe tempie of a circu-
lar fhape, ebout 150 feet in circumference, and 12 feet high.
From the centre rifes a beli fhaped {pire, with a {mall cone
on 2 {quare pedeftal, the whole about jo feet high. The
Cingleie repair hither daily to perform their devotions. A
granite pillar, to receive a lamp, is pleced at the front of _
the tempie, which is moftly cut ont of folid rock. This
temple contains a figurz of Buddou, and in the fhrine is

faid to be buried one of the teeth of the facred elephant.

Ciofe to the coalt is a building deiigned forthe ufe of devo-
tees, who perform their laft ablution in the fea. This build-
ing is encircled by rows of pillars of granite, about 10 feet
high. Beyond this is the inner portal of an Hindoo temple,
confifting of two upright {tones fupporting a crofs one, all
covered on one fide with ornaments, fimilar to thofe oa the
Coromandel coaft. ‘Yo the left are the ruins of more tem-

les. * On narrowly invefligating thefe remains of antiqui-
ty,” fays Percival (Account.of the Ifland of Ceylon, p.155.),
“ and comparing them with the religion and works made in
the prefent and laft centuries by the Ceylonefe, they do not
appear to belong originally to the prefent inhabitants of
Ceylon, but altogether correfpond with the opinions and
workmanfhip of the Hindoos.”’ Cinglefe temples appear to
have been erected at a much later period, on the {cites of
thofe orizinally conftra@ed by the Hindoos. Dondre-head
lies in N. Jat. 5° 51’. E. long. 80” 11’.

DONDUCCI, Gio. Anprea, called In Manrecetrra,
from the trade of his father, who was a pail-maker, in Bio-
graphy, a painter of hiltory and landfcapc, was a Bolognefe,
and born in1575. Inclined to painting by a powerful pro-
penfity of nature, he became a dilciple of Caracci; and ac-
quired dittinguifhed reputation by a great {pirit of defign,
in which he imitated Parmigiano, and a native facility,
which enabled him to colour much canvas in a little time,
In his firft performances he difregarded drawing, and con-
trived to catch the eye by iurrounding a fplendid centre
with impenetrable darknefs, which abforbed every trace af
outline. His fuccefs in this way is faid to have encouraged
thofe painters called ‘* Tenebrofi,” fhell painters, who be»
came numerous in the Venetian and Lombard {ehools. But
failing to change his manner as he grew older, light, no

lorfger

>

DON

longer fupported by obfcurity, ferved only to expofe his
weaknefs; and the miracles of St. Domenico, in the church
of that faint, which had been confidered as his matter-
pieces, became by alteration the meaneft of his works. The
Jame diverfity of manner, fays M. Fufeli, is obfervable in
his fmaller piftures. Thofe of the firft, {ach as the miracle of
the Manna, in the Spado palace, are as highly valuable as his
Jand{capes, which in many galleries would be taken for the
works of Caracci, were they not difcriminated by thet on-
ginal fhade that ftamps the genuine flyle of Manteiletta.
Pilkington’s Di&. by Fufeli.

DONE Sor, grant and render, in Law, a double fine,
comprehending the fine ‘*fur cognizance de droit comme
ceo,” and the fine * fur conceffit,”? which may be ufed to
create particular limitations of eftates. See Fine.

DONEGAL, in Geography, the name of a county in the
province of Uilter, Ireland, fituated in the north-well, extre-
mity of the ifland, and bounded on the eaft by Londonderry
and Tyrone, on the fouth by Fermanagh and Leitrim, and
on the weit and north by the Atlantic ocean. It was for-
merly called Tyrconnel, and was a feparate principality, the
chieftains of which were very powerful, even as late as the
time of queen Elizabeth. It extends 57 Irifh miles (72
Englifh) trom north to fouth ; aud 40 Inth miles (51 Eng-
lifh) from eatt to weft. It contains 679,550 acres, or 1061
fquare miles, Irith meafure; which are equal to 1,091,736
Engitfh acres, or 1704 fquare Englifh miles. The number
of houfes, in 1790, was 23,521, which at fix to a houle,
wonld give a population of about 140,000, which is very
trifling for fuch an extent of country. The number of pa-
rifhes is only forty-two, in which are forty-fix churches:
they are in the diocefes of Raphoe and Derry. The only
members which are returned to the imperial. parliament, are
the two reprefentatives of the county. Donegal is a very
rugged couatry, in many places rendered lefs habitable by
bogs, and almatt every where rough with mountains. It is
not, however, deftitute of good land in the vallies between
thefe rocky mafles, and along the banks of many rivers.
To enumerate the mountains of this county would be as dif-
ficult as it would be ufelefs. The principal clufters are the
Siieble-league mountains, which occupy the peninfula weit
of Killybegs, and form part of a chain extending round the
welt to Lough Foyle; and the Barnefmore mountains ad-
joining the county of Tyrone, on the north of Lough
Derg, which are’ conne&ted with the mountains of Ferma-
nagh. The champaign country is chiefly between Bally-
fhannon and Donegal, and the tra&t adjoining the county of
Tyrone. Agriculture is in the former of thefe at a very
low ebb, and'the natural advantages are by no means im-
Dp Near Ballyfhannon there is an extenfive tract of
imeftone, with a thin furface of light brown gravelly foil,
though in the reclaimed parts the foil is deep and rich._ The
eaftern part adjoining ‘Tyrone, comprehending fixteeen or
feventeen miles long, by eight or nine broad, is the molt im-
proved part of the county; being thickly inhabited, and
the foil being tolerably good for potatoes, oats, barley, and
flax. The minera) treafures of this mountainous dif-
tri& are probably great, but are yet very little known.
‘The mountains near the fea are mottly granite, but they
are interfeted occafionally by limeftone and flate. Lead
ore, in fome places appearing very rich, is found in great
abundance, and fome mines have been worked, but not with
{pirit or to advantage. Iron ore and manganefe are alfo
found ia many places, and there are fome indications of coal.
Silicious fand, found near Sheephaven, is carried to Belfaft for
the glafs manufa€tory, and is found to be of excellent quality
for this purpofe, It may be added here that the linen manus

DON

fadture extends tothis county. Iu the peninfula of Inifhowen,
and the parts adjoining Derry and Tyrone, and alfo about Bal.
lyfhannon, cloth is woven ; and yarn is {pun in every part of it,
A great deal of flex is imported at'Derry, as the county does
not raife enough for its own manufacture, The principal
rivers of this county are the Fin, the Dale, the Erne, the
Guibarra, and the Swilly. The Fin rifes ina lake at no
great diltance from the ocean, and crofiing from weit to eaft,
meets the Derg near Lifford, and thence under the name of
Foyle, fiows into Lough Foyle. The Dale purfuing a
fimilar courfe, flows into the Foyle a few miles north of
Lifford. The Erne difcharges the waters of Lough Erne
into the bay of Donegal, a little below Ballythannon.
Though its courfe is fhorter, itis of confderable breadth, but
the navigation is impeded by feveral rocks in the bed of the.
river, The Guibarra is alfo noted for its extraordinary
breadth and depth, in proportion to the fhortnets of us
courfe, which extends fcarcely twenty miles from its fource
to the ocean. The Swilly is only remarkable for giving
name to a great lough or inlet_of the fea, which forms the
weitern boundary of the peninfula of Inifhowen. Lough
Swilly runs fixteen miles into the land, but never exceeds
fix, whilft ig is feldom more than two miles in breadth.
Though a fafe harbour, it is little frequented. The
harbour of Mubray has not even a village on its fhores.
The country on the north weltern coalt appears to be nor
only very barren, but to have {uffered from a change of cli-
mate. he effe&ts of driftiog fands are very ftriking.
The penin{ula of Hornhead, in 1797, contained veiliges of
enclofures fo fmali and fo numerous, as to mark the refidence
of a number of families in a {pot which then exhibited no-
thing but

, ee A defert, falt and bare,
«The haunt of feals and orcs and fea-mew’s clang.”

About a century ago an elegant-edifice, according to the
tafte of that age, was built on the peninfula between the
harbours of Sheephaven and Mubray, which in 1794
ftood “like Tadmor of the ealt, the folitary won-
der of a furrounding defert.”’ The gardens are totally de-
nuded of trees and fhrubs by the fury of the weitern winds :
their walis, unable to fuftain the mafs of overbearing fands,
have funk before the accumulated preflure, and overthrown
in numberlefs places, have given free paffage to this reftlefs
enemy of all fertility. The courts, the flights of fteps, the
terraces, are all involved in equal ruin; and their limits only
difcoverable by tops of embattled walls, vifible amid hills of
fand. ‘The manfion itfelf, yielding to the unconquerable
fury of the tempeft, approaches faft to deftruétion: the
freighted whirlwind, howling inceflantly through every
avenut and crevice, bears along with it its drifted burden,
which has already filled the lower apartments of the building,
and begins now to rife above the once elevated threfhold.
Fields, fences, villages, involved in common defolation,
are reduced to one undiftinguifhable f{cene of fterile uni-
formity, and twelve hundred acres of land are faid thus to
have been buried, within a fhort period, in irrecoverable
ruin. This account was given by a man of integrity and
obfervation, the late Rev. Dr. W. Hamilton, author of the
account of Antrim, whofe premature death, in confequence
of the rebellion, was a confiderable lofs to his country.
There is a curious phenomenon near Hornhead, which may
alfo deferve notice. By decompofition of part of the rock,
the waves have perforated a cave many yards in diameter,
which extends about fixty feet into a rock, making part of
the main land, and nearly horizontal with’the level of the
fea at high and low water marks. When the wind et

ue

DOrN

due north, and the tide is half in, this perforation, called
M'Swine’s Gun, is {een to {pout fea water far higher than
the eye can reach, into the air, whiitt the noife can be heard
at the diflance of 20 or 30 miles. On the weltern coaft, be-
tween the river Guydore and the ocean, lies a tract of coun-
try called the Rofes, part of which is very marfhy. Oppo-
fite to this tract 1s a large clulter of iflands, called the north
ifles of Arran, on one of which the town of Rutland
was built, with parliamentery aid fer carrying on the her-
ring-fifhery. (See Rutianp.) On the fouth are the har-
bours of Kiliybezs and Donegal, which are of little confe-
quence. There is no town of importance from its fize or
manufactures in the county. Lifford, which is on the bor-
ers of the county cf ‘l'yrone, and within a mile of Stra-
bane, feems to have been fixed upon mercly to. accommodate
the judges and barrifters, to the great inconvenience of the
inhabitants. Donegal was one of the counties forfeited to
the crown in the beginning of the reign of James I., and
which were colonized by that monarch, Beaufort’s Me-
moir. A. Young’s Tour in Ireland. Statiflical Survey of
Donegal. Hamilton on Irifh Tranfations, vol. 6.

Downecan, a {mall poft and market town in the county
of Donegal, Ireland, which ftands ona fine bay, but ts a
place of little trade. It was formerly a borough, but lott
its privilege of being reprefented in parliament by the
union. It is 112 miles N.W. of Dublin. Long. 7° 57' W.
Lat. 54° 39'N.

Donecat, the name of three townfhips of America, in
the ftate of Pennfylvania; one in Lancafter county, contain-
ing 2476, one in Weflmoreland county, conteining 1411,
and one in Wafhington county, containing 1762 inhabitants.

DONEMARIE, or Donnemarte, a {mall town of
France, in the department cf Seine and Marne, chief place
of acanton, ia the diftri@ of Provins; nine miles S.W. of
Provins, with a population of 1250 individuals. The can-
ton has a territorial extent of 187% kiliometres, and con-
tains 21 communes and 9627 inhabitants.

DONESCHINGEN,. See Donavescuincen.

DONERAILE, a poft town of the county of Cork,

Treland, and before the union a borough, fending two mem-
bers to parliament. It is a {mall town, and in no way re-
markable. Spenfer, the poct, refided at Kilcolemen cattle,
in its neighbourhood. It is 21 miles N. from Cork, and
126 mites S.W. from Dublin. W. long. &° 34’. N. lat.
h2° 12%.
i DONETZ, the .moft confiderable of thofe rivers in
eaftern Ruffia, which fall into the Don. It has its feurce
in the government of Kurfk, fows as far as the Caucafus
through a fertile and very populous country; is navigable
from the Ifum, and has nearly the fame water and the fame
kinds of fifh with the Don. Tooke’s View of the F.uffian
“Empire.

DONETZK, a town cf Ruffa, and one of the fourteen
diftricts of Catherinenflaf, or Ecaterrinenflaf ; fituated on the
river Donetz. N. lat. 45° 30’. E. long. 38° 297.

DONGA, a difti& of Abyfiinia, faid to be the fource of
the Bahy-el-Abiad. It is the refidence of a chief or king
of ao idolatrous nation, The country is very mountainous,
and in the {pot where the river rifes, are {aid to be 40 dif-
tinG hills, which are called Kumri. From thema great num-
ber of {prings iffue, which uniting into one great channel,
form the Bahr-el-Abiad. The people of Bergoo go thither
fometimes to feize captives, but no trade {ubfilts between
them and the natives. The people are quite naked, black,
and ido‘aters. ‘The place is {aid to be 20 days removal from
‘the confines of Bornou, the whole road thither being moun-
¢ainous. Erom Donga to Shilluk is a diftance of 30 days.

*

DON

DONGES, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Seine; feven leagues W.N.W. of Nartcs.

DONGO. See Ancora.

DONGOLA, the chief town of a diftri& of the fame
name, and the capital of Nubia, in Africa; fitnated on the
eaftern bank of the Nile, in N. lat. 19° 30’. E. long. 32°.

DONGON, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by the
people of the Philippine iflands to a peculiar fpecies of
crane, which has a large body Ike a goofe, and a fhorter
neck than the common kind; it bas a long and very broad.
beak, and is of a grey colour; they have, befidcs this, an-
other {pecies of crane, which they call tipul or tihol; as ree
matkable for the length of its neck and legs, as this for
the breadth of its beak. This tipul can ftand ere&, and
look over a tall man’s head.

DONI, Anron Francisco, in Biography, an Italian
mufician and poet of the middle of the 16th century, author
of a book, entitled ** Dialoghi della Mufica,’”? which was pub-
Ithed at Venice 1544. It is now among the /ibri rari; we
have never feen it, except in the library of Padre Martini,
where we tranferibed a confiderable part of it. The author,
a whimficel and eccentric charafter, tin&tured with buf.
foonery, was not only a practical mufician and compofer by
profeffion, but conneéted and in correfpondence with the
principal writers and artifts of his time. His ‘ Libraria’?
muft have been an ufeful pubjiication when it firft appeared ;
as it pot only contains a catalogue and chara¢ter of all the
Italian books then in print, but of all the MSS. that he
hed feen, with a lift of the academies then fubfilting, their
infiitution, mottoz, and employment; but what rendered
this lictle work particularly ufeful to our inquiries after
early mufical publications, is the catalopue it contains
of all the mufic which had been publifhed at Venice fince
the invention of printing.

This author publithed a collection of his letters, and the
anfwers to them; and a wild fatirical rhapfody, which
he cails ‘* La Zucca,” or the Pumpkin.

In all his writings, of which he gives a lift of more than
twenty, he afpires at fingularity, and'the reputation of a
comical fellow; in the firft he generally fucceeds, and if he
fail in the {econd, it is not for want of great and conftant
efforts to become fo.

At the beginning of bis * Dialogue oa Mufic,”’ this
author gives a lift of compofers then living at Venice,
amounting to feventeen, of whom feven are Netherlanders ;
the relt chiefly Italian. In the courfe of the dialogue, compo
fitions by molt of them are performed. In the firlt conver{a-
tion the interlocutors are Michele, Hofte, Bargo, and Grul-
lone, all performers, who fing madrigals and fongs by Claudio
Veggio and Vincenzo Ruffo. In the fecond converfation,
inftruments are joined to the voices: Anton. da Lucca firft
playing a voluntary on the Inte, ‘* Fa cofe divine ;”’ then
Buzzino, il violone; Lod. Boffo, 8. G. Battifta, Pre Michele,
Pre Bartolomeo, and Don: himfeif, p!ay on viols; thefe ail
perform in pieces of Riccio da Padua, Girolamo Parabofco,
Berchem, Archadelt, &c. Here Doni fpeaks with tri-
umph and exultation of the fuperior fate of mulic in his
time, compared with that of any former period: for, fays
he, ‘* there are muficians now, who, if Jofquin were to re«
turn to this world, would make him crois him(felf. In for-
mer times people ufed to dance with their hauds in their
pockets; and if one could give another a fall, he was
thought a wit, and adextrous fellow. Yfach (Henry Haac,
‘detto Arrigo Tedefco), then fet the fongs, and was
thought a matter ; at prefent he would hardly bea fchokir.’?

“‘ Hannibal,” fays Capt. Bluff, “‘ was a very pretty fel-
low in thofe days, it mult be granted.—Bat alas, fir!

5 were

DON

were he alive now, he would be nothing, nothing in the
earth.”

Apoftolo Zeno, in his notes on the “ Bibl. della Eloq.
Ttal.?? of Fontanini, feems to give a very juft character of
this whimfical writer, when he fays, ** Il Doni folito fempre
tener dubbiofo il lettore ne’ moi fantaftici fevitti tia la vi «ita
e la falrita, falche non fi fcuopre quando da finno, € quando
da burla egli parli,”’ to. ii. p. 130. edit. de Venezia, 1743.
“It is fo much the praétice of Doni, in all his fantaftical
writings, to blend truth with falfehood, that the reader ts
unable to difcover when he is ludicrous, or when ferious.’”

Dont, Joun Bastista, a Florentine nobleman, who
flourifhed in the laft century, fpent the greateft part of his
life in the ftudy and defence of anctent mufic. His writings
and opinions were very much refpedted by the learned, thouzh
but little attended to by practical mulicians ; on which ae~
count molt of his treatifes, which are very numerous, are
filled with complaints of the ignorance and degeneracy
of the moderns, with relpeét to every branch of mulic, both
in theory and practice. f

It is no uncommon thing for philofophers, mathemati-
cians, and men of letters, abforbed in mere {peculation, to
condemn in theirclofets, unheard and unfeen, the produdtions
and performances of practical muficians; who in their turn,
contemna whatever theory fuggefts as vifionary, and inad-
miffible in practice, without giving themfelves the trouble to
confider, or even to read, the principles upon which an hy-
pothefis may be founded. ;

It feems as if theory and praStice were ever to be at ftrife;
for the man of fcience, who never hears mufic, and the mu-
fician, who never reads books, mult be equally averfe to each
other, and uulikely to be brought to a right underftanding.

That Doni was but little acquainted with the mufic which
delighted the ears of his cotemporaries, appears in many
parts of his works; and as to his belicf that the ancients
knew and pra€tifed counterpoint, and that their mufic was
fuperior to the modern in every particular, it feemsto have
been founded upon no better grounds than that of his pre-
deceffors, Gaffurio and Zarlino: but if it was fuch as Dont
has imagined, and given in example, the ears of mankind,
to have been delighted with it, muft haye been diflerently
eonftru&ted formerly, from thofe of the prefent times, which
are pleafed with modern harmony.

This writer feems full of inconfitencies, with refpect to
ancient counterpoint. He is unwilling that the Greeks and
Romans fhould be d-prived of it ; and yet, in {peaking of its
ufe among the moderns, he cal's it ‘‘ nemico della mufica,”’
His reafons for allowing it to the ancientsare chiefly drawn,
from their vocal notes being different from the inftrumental;
from the early invention of the hydraulic, and other organs ;
from the numerous tlrings upon fome of their inftruments ;
and from a ftriking paflage in Plutarch, which he thinks
cecifive, as it proves, that though the moft ancient muficians
ufed but few ftrings, yet thefe were tuned in confonance,
and difpofed with as much art as in our inftruments at
prefent.

Doni left behind him at his death, about 1650, many printed
works upon ancient mulic, as ‘* Compend. del, Trat. de?
Generi e de’ Modi della Mufica. De prettanta Mufice
Veteris,” and particularly his ‘* Difcorfo fopra le Confo-
nanze,’” with a great number of unfinifhed eflays and tracts
relative to that fubje&t, and the titlesof many more. Few
men had indeed confidered the fubjeét with greater attention,
He faw the difficuities, though he was unable to folve them.
The titles of his chapters, as weil as many of thofe of father
Merfennus, and others, are often the molt interefting and
feducing imaginable, But they are falfe lights, which like

DON

ignes fatui, lead us into new and greater obfcurity; or like
thofe fpecimens of fruit brought from the * Land of Promife,”
which thofe in whom they excited the ftrongeft defire, never
lived to fee.

The treatifes which he publifhed both in Latin and Italian
on the mufic of the Greeks, being well writtenin point of
language, obtained him the favour and eulogies of men of
the higheft clafs in literature. He has been much extolled by
Heinfius, Gaffendi, Pietro della Valle, and others. Apof-
tolo Zeno, in his learned notes to the Biblioteca Italiana of
Fontanini, fpeaks of him in the following terms. “ Wehad
reafon to hope, that the works of Doni would have com-
pleted our knowledge of the mufical fyftem of the ancients ;
as he united in himfelfa vaft erudition, a profound knowledge
in the Greek language, in mathematics, in the theory of
modern mulic, in poetry, and hiltory, with accefs io all the
precious MSS. and treafures of antiquity.”?

He invented an inftrument which he denominated the
‘© Lyra Barberini,”? or “* Amphichordon,” which he has
defcribed in an exprefs treatife, but we hearof it no where
elfe. He was adeclared foe to learned mufic, particularly
vocal in fugue, where the feveral performers ave uttering
different words at the fame time, which certainly manifeft
good tafte, andenlarged views, with refpe& to theatrical
mufic and the improvement of the mufical drama or opera;
but his objeGions to modern mutic, and propofals of reform,
not only manifett his ignorance of the laws of harmony, but
a bad ear, as he recommends fuch wild, impracticable and
intolerable expedients of improvement, as no ear well con-
ftruéted, however uncultivated, can bear. ° :

In 1763, fiznior Bandini, librarian to the ci-devant grand
duke of Tufcany, publifhed, in 2 vols. folio, not only the’
mufical traéts of Doni which had appeared during his life,
but others that were found among his MS. papers after his
deceafe, fome finifhed, fome unfinifhed, and the mere titles of
others which he had in meditation. <

DONT, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece, in Mo-
loffia, a country of Epiras.

DONJEUX, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Upper Marne, chief place of a canton,
in the diftriét of Wafly, with only 361 inhabitants; but the
canton comprifes a population of 6265 individuals, difperfed
in 19 Communes, upon a territorial extent of 2174 kilio-
metres.

DONJORN, in Fortification, generally denotes a large
ftrong tower, or redoubt, of a fortrefs, where the garrifon
may retreat in cafe of neceflity, and capitulate with greater
advantage. See Dunceon.

DONJON, Le, the Dungeon, in Geography, which, during
the fhort exiftence of the French repubitc, was called Le
Val Libre, the Free Valley, or Valley of Liberty, in oppofi-
tion to its original name, is a {mall town of France, in the
department of the Allicr, chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of La Paliffe; 12 miles W. of Digoin, 27 milcs S.E. of
Moulins, and 240 S. of Paris. It contains 1421 individuals,
and the canton, which has an extent of 312+ kiliometres,
and 13 communes, reckons 10,068 inhabitants.

DONIS Conpirionarisus, flatute de, in Law, is the
ftatute of Weltminfter 2. vis. 13 Edw. I. cap. 1. which
revived in fome fort the ancient feodal reftraints, that were
originally laid on alienations, by enating, that from thence-
forth the will of the donor be obferved ; that the tenements
fo given, to a man, and the heirs of his body, fhould, at all
events, go to the iflue, if there were any ; or, if none, fhould
revert to the donor. Black{t. Com. vol. ii, p. 112.

DONKEY, in Agriculture, a term often ufed to fignify
a dampith, or wettilh, {tate of the atmofphere.

DONKOF,

DON
DONKOF, or Danxor, in Geography, a town of Ruffia,

and one of the 12 diltriéts of the government of Kefan,
fituated on the Don, near its fource ; Go miles S. of Refan,
and 480 §.S.E. of Peterfourzh.

ONKY, in Rural Economy, a name often provincially
applied to the als. :

DON Maertinpe Magorta, ‘in Geography, a clufter of
iflands in the Great South Sea. S. lat. 18° 36’. -E. lonz.
179° 52! from Paris. The inhabitants, who are numerous, live
in eafe and plenty. Cocoa, banana, and lime-trees, potatoes,
and other eatable roots, grow {ponteneoufly in great abusd-
ance. They cultivate their grounds, weave cloth from the
bark of certain fhrubs, and are decently clothed. ‘They are
hofpitable and friendly, have apparently no kind of religion,
and are great thieves.

DONNDOREF, a {mall town of the kingdom of Saxony,
in the circle of Thuringia ; 12 m‘les from Sangerhaufen, with
aa ‘ancient convent, which, in the year 1561, was converted
into a free-fchool for twelve boys.

DONNE, Joun, D.D. in Biography, who excelled as a
poet and divine, was born in London 1573. He ftudied at
Oxford at a very early period, and was elteemed a prodigy
of abilities. Here he remained three years, and then pafled
the fame period at Cambridge. He next fettled at Lincoln’s
Inn, with a view of ftudying the law : this did not accord
with his views, and he exchanged the law for divinity.
Having been educated a Catholic, he was refolyed to try his
religious creed by the telts of reafon and {cripture. The
refnlt of this examination was a firm perfuafion of the truth
of Proteftantifm. He now feems to have embarked in more
ative life, and attended the earl of Effex in his naval expe-
ditions: he then {pent fome years in Italy and Spain, and
upon his return became fecretary to lord chancellor Eger-
ton, and continucd ia that employment five years, when he
was difmifled for having contracted a clande!tine marriage
with the chancellor’s nicce. The newly married couple
had to ftruggle with many and grievous difficulties, till a
yelation, fir Francis Woolcy, afforded thema honfe in Surrey,
where Donne applied with the greatelt earneftnefs to the
ftudy of the civil and canon law. At this period, he was
earneitly folicited to enter the church, but feeling himfelf
not properly qvalifed, he declined the propofai, notwith-
ftandinx,his crcumftances were extremely narrow. He
afterwards came to London, and was admitted into the houfe
ot fir Robert Drury, whom, in 1612, he accompanied to
Paris: on his return, many of the nobility urged the kieg,
(James I.) to confer fome civil employment upon him, but
the monarch had determined he fhould, if poffible, be in-
du&ted into the church. Donne nad already drawn up'a
treatife at the requctt of James, concerning the oaths of
allegiance and fupremacy required fromthe Roman Catholics,
and now he complied with the wifh of the fovereign, and
was ordained deacon and prieft, and, almof immediately,
was appointed one of the king’s chaplains ; and likewife
prefented with the degree of D.D. by the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. So generally was he beloved, and highly efteemed by
people of rank and influence, that he received offers of four-
teen benefices in the courfe of the firft year after he enterad
into orders ; but, preferring London, he was made preacher
of Lincoln’s Inn. He had not long fettled in the metro-
polis before he icft his wife, who left him with feven youny
children. In 1619, he accompanied the earl of Doncattcr
on an embaffy to the German princes ; and upon his return,
the king conterred upoa him the ceanery of St. Paul’s, with
which he held the living of St. Dunitan in the Wei. He
was chofen prolocutor of the convocation in 1623-4, and
zbout the fame time appointed to preach fome occafonal

8

DON

fermons at Paul’s erofs, and other places. A dangerous
illnefs led him to compofe a book, entitled, ‘* D-<votions
upon emergent Qccafions,””? in which much fervour and fe-
rioufnefs are exprefied. He recovered, and lived in good
health till he was fcized with a fever in 1630, after which
he never more enjoyed a ftreng conftitution. He felt that
his end was approaching, and prepared to meet it with refig-
nation and tranquillity, though not without fome peculiaritics
that belonged to his chara&ter.: Having caufed himfelf to
he wrapt up in a winding-theet, like a dead body, and ftand-
ing with his eyes fhut, and with fo much of the fhcet put
afiide as might difcover his thin and death-like face, he caufed
a fcilful painter to take bis pi€ture, which wes placed by his
ed-fide, and there remained as his conftant remembrancer
tothe hour of his death. During Lent, 1631, he preached
in his turn at court, and his difcourfe on this occafion was
termed by the houfhold ‘* the do&tor’s own funeral fermon.’?
He died March 31ft of the fame-year, and was buried in
St. Peul’s cathedral. Dr, Donne was an Englith poet, but
his works are now little known; he may, however, be re«
garded among thofe who wrote Latia verfe with elegance.
A colleGion was publifhed in 1633, entitled, ‘ Fafciculua
Poematum, et Epigrammatum Miicellaneorum,” which con=
tains a beok of epigrams by him. Of his profe works, the
moft remarkable is that entitled ‘ Biathanatos, or a Decla-
ration of that Paradox, or Thefis, that Self-Hamicide ts not
fo naturally a Sin, that it may not be otherwife.”
not appear that he intended this work for the public cye,
but it found its way to the prefs after his death. He wrote
‘* Effays on Divinity ;” ‘* Sermons,” &c. 3 vels. fol. - Biog.
Brit.
DONNEMARIE, in Geography. See Donemarie.
DONNERBERG, a mountain of Bohemia, fuppofed
to be the highelt in that country. \
DONNERSMARK, a town of Hungary; feven miles
N. N. W. of Kapfdorf, =
DONNINGTON, or DonincrTon, is a {mall market
town of Lincolnshire, England. It is feated in that part of
the county called the Fens, acrofs which a new road, named
Bridgend-caufeway, has been made to facilitate the communi-

cation between this town and that of Folkingham. Previous,

to this improvement, the place was fcarcely acccffible in bad
weather. A free {chool was erected here and endowed in
1718, by Thomas Cowley, efq. who bequeathed all his ef=
tates to be applied to the poor of each parifh, in which his
pofl ffions were fituate: in this divifion, the poor of Don-
nington acquired 400 /. per annum. In digging for founda-
tions bebind the {chool-houfe, a vault was difcovered, four feet
{quare, conitruéted of hewn ftone, and containing an urn filled
with red earth. Amongft the ruins of fome ancient buildings,
fome glazed carthen veffcls were found, fuppofed to be {peci-
mens of pottery very early manufa€tured at Bolingbroke.
Donnington is &ftant 106 miles N. from London: has a
market on Saturdays, and two annual fairs. The living
isayicarage. In the return to parliament in 1801, the
rumber of houfes in this town was 216, inhabited by
1321 perfons, of whom many are employed in the cultivation
of hemp, which is carried on to a confiderable extent for the
fupply of the London market. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. ix. ‘

DONNOE, a {mall ifland in the North fea, nearthe coat
of Norway. N. lat. 66° 5’. E. long. 17° 14’.

DONON, one of the mountaizs called Vofges, inthe de-
partment of the Vofges, in France, in the diltri@ of St. Dié.
Tt is remarkable for its iron mine; and af its foot is the
fource of a {mall river called La Plaine.

DONOR, in Law, he who gives Jands or tenements, to

another,

Tt dees *

DAOGO
4

another, im tail. As donee, is he to whom the fame are
given. 4
ONSHAL, in Geography, a town of Egypt; 10 miles
N. W. of Faove.

DONSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government of
Caucafus; 116 miles W. N. W. of Ekaterinograd. h

DONUCA, in Ancient Geography, a very high mountain
of Tarace, mentioned by Livy, end called Dunex by Strabo.

DONUSA, an ifland of the Icarian fea, one of the Spo-
zades. It lay S. W. of Icaria, W. of Patmos, and E. of
Mycone, The marble obtained from this ifland was green.
Virgit and Mela call it Dony/z, aud it isnow known by the
name of Denuffa. :

DONZENAG, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Correz~, chief place of a canton, in the
ditriG& of Brives, with a population of 2012 individuals, and
fituated fix miles N. of Brives. ‘The canton has an extent
of 165 kiliometres, feven communes, asd 9973 inhabitants.

DONZERE, a fmali town of France, on the Rhéne, in
the department of the D:idéme, fouth of Mortelimart.

DONZY, in Latin Domiciacum, a {mall town of France,

in the department of the Nievre, chtef place of a canton,ia the
a:friG& of Cofne, fituated on the river Nonain, nine miles FE.
of Cofce, and 27 miles N. of Nevers. Jt contains 3600 in-
habitants. ‘The canton hes 10 communes, upona territorial
extent of 282 kiliometres and a half, with a population of
10,327 individuals. —Alfo, a {mall town of Trance, in the
department of the Loire, fix miles E. of Feurs,

DOOAB, a tract of fertile land in Hindooftan, formed
by the Ganz-s and Jumnah rivers, belonging to the nabob
of Oude: dooab, or doabah, fiznifying any tra& of land
formed by the approximation and junélion of two rivera.

DOOBANT Lakg, lies in the welt part of N. America,
S. E. of the head of Cheftertield inlet, in New South Wales:
it is about 69 or 70 miles long, and 20 or 30 broad. N. lat.
63° 5’. W. long. 100° 30’.

DOOLS, a term ufed in feveral parts of the kingdom for
balks or flips of pafture, left between the furrows of ploughed
lands.

DOON, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which has its
rife from loch Doon, on the confines between Galloway and
Carrick, and running northerly paffes the ancient village of
Dalmellington, in its progrefs takes a N. W. direGion, and
difcharges itfelf into the Frith of Clyde about three miles
from Ayr.

Doon, or Down,.a province of Hindookan, which oc-
cupies the fpace at the foot of the mountains that extend
from the Ganges to the Jumnah, in length 20 cofles, or 23
Britih miles each.» The Dooab in this place is about 40 or
4t geographical miles in breadth, but it becomes wider
iarther towards the fouth.

DOOR, in Mafonry, is the aperture for the entrance
into a building, or through a partition for pafling from
one apartment to another. The apertures of doors are
regulated by the fize of a man, fo that they are feldom
Jefs then two feet nine inches in width by fix feet fix inches
in height, except in confined fituations, where utility is
beyond every other confideration. Doors of entrance
vary in their dimenfions according to the height of the ftory,
or according to the magnitude of the building, in which
theyare placed. In private houles four feet may be the greatett
width, and in moft cafes three fect will be fufficient, except
under the circumitances as flated in the foliowing.

A good proportion of doors, is that in which their dimen-
fions are in the ratio of three to feven in’fmall doors, and
one to two in large doors. Io the entrance doors of public
edifices, where there is a frequent ingrels and egrefs of

Vou, XII.

DOO

people, and often crowded, their width may be from fix to
twelve feet. Infide doors fhould, in fome meafure, be regu-
lated by the height of the ftories: this, however, has its
limit, as there is a certain dimerfion which ought not to be
exceeded; for the difficulty of fhutting the door will be in-
creafed by its weight; therefore doors for private edifices,
which are intended to be fhut with ore clofure, thould never
exceed three feet fix inches in breadth. In palaces, and ia
noblemen’s houfes, where much company refort, all the doors
are frequently thrown opvn. Thefe may be made much
larger tnan thofe of inferior edifices; the width may there-
fore be from four to fix feet. In modern houfes it is com-
men to havea large door for throwing two rooms into one.
In fuch cafes, the proportion of the aperture will often be of
a lefs height than that of cwice the breadth, as the doors in
the fame ftory are generaliy one height throughout. The
lintels of doors fhould range with thofe of the windows, ahd
their breadth fhould never be lefs than that of the windows.
In the fourth book of Vitruvius, rules are laid down for
Doric, Ionic, and Atticdoors,ail of which have their apertures
narrower at the top than at the bottom, in conformity to the
apertures which are to be feen in the ruins of ancient Greck
and Roman edifices, as in the temple of Minerva Polias at
Athens, and the temple of Vefta at Tivoli. Doors of this
form have the property of fhutting themf-lves ; this perhaps
eccafioned their introduction. In modern times they may
be employed with advantage inrifing from a flocr in the a&
of opening to clear a carpet. They have beeu introduced
by a few modern architects, particularly Mr. Soane, in
the bank of England.

With regard to the fituation of the principal entrance, it
is evideat that the door fhould be in the middle, as it will
not only conftitute better fymmetry, but wil communicate
more readily with all other parts of the building, "The doors
of principal rooms fhould at Jeaft be two feet difant from
the wall, if poffible, that furniture may be paced clofe to
the door fide of the room. :

The apertures of exterior doors, placed in blank arcades
are generally placed at the fame height as the fpringing of
the arch ; or if they have dreffings, the top of the dreffing,
whether it be the architrave or cornice, is generally placed
on the fame level with the impoft.

The moft common method of adorning the aperture of
a door is with an architrave furrounding it, or with a cornice
furmounting the architrave, or with a complete entablature ;
fometimes confoles are introduced flanking the architrave
jambs, and futtaining the ends of the cornice. Sometimes
the architrave jambs are flanked with pilaflers of the orders
or of fome analogical form : in this cafe the proje@ions of
their bafes and capitals are always lefs than that of the fur-
rounding architrave, and then the architrave over the capitals
of the pilafters is the fame with that of the head ofthe door. *
Sometimes the door is adorned with one of the five orders.
The entrance doors of the grand houfes are frequently adorned
with porticoes in the manner of Grecian temples.

Door, in Joinery, is the wooden clofure or clofures which
fhut or open the communication at pleafure.

Doors are either framed, battened, ov ledged.

Framed doors are employed in ali defcriptions of buildings;
they are made cither fingle, or folding, or double margin,
or in double doors. All framed doors confift of ftyles, rails,
and pannels. Mott fingle framed doors have munnions belides
the other parts of the framing. The framing is the part
which is put together by mortife and tenon, and includes all
the parts except the pannels. The flyles are the vertical parts
of the framing upon the margins; the rails are the horizontal
parts of the framing, tenonzd into the Ayles. The muusions

5 ace

DOO

are parts of the framing tenoned into the rails. Yolding
doors are thof= which are made in two breadths, and confe-
quently have four ftyles, one pair to each part. Double
margin doors are thofe made to imitate folding doors, and
have a vertical piece running up the middle called the ftaff
ftyle, made in form of the two middle ftyles of folding
doors when fhut. Double doors are thofe which clofe the
- breadth of the aperture intwo different places, in order to
eepthe apartment warm, Doors are generally framed in
reGtanzular compartments: however lozenges, circles, ellip-
feffes, and other fanciful forms, are fometimes indulged.
Framed doors are either {quare or moulded. Square framing
is only ufed in common houles. The mouldings ufed in
doors are of a variety of forms, fome altogether witnin the
framing, and fome made to project beyond it. ‘The mould-
ings and form of the pannels of the door generally regulate
the framing of the fhutters and the joinery of the windows.
When doors are made double margin or folding, the whole
of the other doors on the floor mult be fo alfo, if the {ym-
metry is intended to be preferved. This happens in canfe-
quence of the apartments having a communication with cach
other.

Batten door, is one conflru&ed of a board glued together
of atize equal to the dimenfions of the aperture: then
ftyles, rails, and munnions made of battens, with proper
amouldings, are fixed to the furface: fo that the whole has
the appearance of a framed door, thoush in reality it 1s not.
This kind of duor is fidto be either fingle or double, ac-
cordingly as it is battened on one or both fides. Batten
doors were much ufcd in former times, but now they are
{eldom empioyed, except in Gothic work, where all the
vertical joints may be hid by the munntons cf the framing,
which are bolted through, toa reticulated framinz on the
back ; the boards forming the pannelling fhould not be glued
together, as the framing bolted together will be abundactly
itrong. Batten doors are employed in this kind of work
with advantage. ‘The large gates and doors of our ancient
Britifh edifices are made in this manner. It is certainly,
however, a very ineligible method, to imitate the framing of
Grecian or Roman doors, particularly where no bolts are
employed: for itis evident, that a door made in this manner,
however well feafoned the {tuff may be, is liable to be affect-
ed by dry and damp weather, and much more fo mult this be
the cafe, when the parts of which it is compoled are made
of unfeafoned tuff.

The materials of which docrs are conftructed are either
metal or wood. The ancients conftructed the doors of their
temples frequently of gold, filver, bronze, and ivory. We
ufe iron doors in apartments where treafure or other valuable
things are depofited. Doors of common houfes, and mott
frequently in good houfes, are made of deal. 1o noble-
men’s houfes they are often made of mahogany, either folid
or veneered. Doors of the pointed ftyle are frequently made
of wainfcote,

Doors are fometimes made double, in order to keep the
apartments warm.

Fig. 1. Plate A B, a door made in the ancient manner, fhew-
ing only munnions on the front.

Figs. 2 and 3, diilerent methods of reticulating the back
of fig. 1. The munnions of fg. 2. are croffed obliquely, in
order to give ftrength ; amethod fometimes uled when the
upper part is fixed and the lower part madetoopen. In
Jig- 3, the reticulations are at right angles in the lower part ;
and the bars of the upper part crofa the munnions diagonally.
This manner is fometimes ufed when the whole half door
opens at once.

Fig. 4. No 1. fhews the reticulations to a large {cale, with

DOR

the manner of dovetailing the tranfverfe pieces into the
ftyles.

Fig 4.No. 2. part of the {cGtion of a door. he tranfverfe
pleces are notched half their thickneffes into the munnions,
and firmly bolted with {crew bolts or rivetted ends.

Fig. 5.No.1.a door frit put together with ftyles and
rails ; the ftyles are made thick in order to receive boarding
vpon each fide, which finifhes fluth with the ttyles. Fig. 5.
No. 2. the fame door boarded and bolted. The core is filled
in tightly with diayonal pieces, as fhewn at No. i.

Anaccount of modern doors will be feen in the article
Joinery.

Door, feenography of a, Sze ScknoGrarny.

Doors, architrave. Sze ARCHITRAVS.

Door, is fometimes applicd to the gates of locks or
fluices,

DOPONEN, is Geography, atown of Pruffian Lithu-
ania; 4 miles S.S.E. of Stalluvonen.

DOPPELMAIER, Joun Gasriet, in Diography, a
celebrated mathematician at Nuremberg, was boro in 1667,
in that city, where his father was a merchant. Having
obtained the elem-nts of learning, he ftudied the law .at
Al:dorf in 1696, and, at the fame time, attended the lec
tures of the celebrated profeffor Sturm on philofophy and
the mathematics. ‘The firft dilputation be maintained was
in 1698, * De So’e:”? and in, the following year he main-
tained another, ** De Vifione fenfu nobiliffimo, ex camera
obfeure i'luftrata.”? Te then went to Hallie, and in afew
years his ftrong attachment to philofophy and the mathe-
matics induced him to quit the purluit of the law altoge-
ther, that he might devote his. whole time to the fciences.
In connection with thete, he ttudied the Enghth and other
modern languages ;.and in the {pring of 1701, he vifited
Leyden, and curing his ftay there exercifed nimfelf in the
art of polifhing optical glaffzs,and in praCtical altronomy.
From Leyden he proceeded: to Rotterdam, and thence to
England, where he formed an acquaintance with the molt
celebrated,mathematicians of the axe, and particularly with
Mr. Fiamftead, the aftronomer rayal at Greenwich, and the
doéters Wallis and Gregory at Oxford. Ln 1702, he re-
turned to his native city, and in. 1704 was clected p-ofeffor
of mathematics in thecallepe of Nuremberg, the duties of
which office he performed forty years with, much credit and
reputation. In 1715, he was admited into the Imperial
Academy of the Searchers into‘Naturé, under the name of
Conon, anda fimilar honour was conferred upon him by the
Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He was hkewife elected a
fellow of the Royal Society of London: and in 1741 the
Imperiai Academy of Peterfburgh fiut him a diploma of
affuciate. ‘Towards the clofe of hfe, he attraGied great
notice by his electrical experiments, which thea engaged the
attection of the whole philolophical world. He died on
the 1ftof December 1750. Hs wowks are numerous and
re{peGtable; they are ail connected with the {ciences which
were the delight of his lite. Gen. Biog,

DOR, the Englith name for the common black beetle.
Some alfo apply it to the dutty beetle, that flies about hedges
in the evening. See ScaraBaus.

DORA, in Botany, is the Arabian name of a large fpe-
cies of Holcus, tue Milium arundinaceum, plano alboque fe-
mine; Bauh. Pin. 26, figured in Rauwolf, t. 198, which
by the Mantiffa altera of Linnzus, p. 500, feems what he
finally determined to be his Hf. Sorghum, and it agrees with
the [pec'\men in hisherbarium. 6.

Dora, or Dor, according to its eaftern name, in Ancient
Geography, a town of Pheenicia, fituated in a kind of penin-
fula at the pafs where mount Carmel commences, according

to

DOR

to Artemidorus cited by Steph. Byz., who adds that it was
at firft inhabited by the Phoenicians, who eftablifhed them-
felves in this plain, on account of the fih which furnithes
the purple dye. This town was 11 miles S. of Sycaminas,
according to Jerome, who fays that it was left altogether
defolate, and that its ancient magnificence could only be
conjectured from its ruins. According to Jofhua it fubfitted
under the name of Dor before the Ifraclites entered into the
Jand of Canaan. Jofhua Waving conquered it and killed its
king, gave it to th: half tribe of Manaifch, on this fide of Jor-
dan. (Jofh. xi. 23. xvit. 11 ) Dora became fubjec to the
kings of Egypt, the fucecflors of Alexander, Antiochus
Epiphanes tcok it, after having geined a vi€ory over the
troops of Ptolemy Philometor, king of Ezypt, according to
Polybius (I. v.) It was one of the towns poff fled by the
Jews when Pompey entered Syria; and when this whole
country was redced into a Roman province, Pompey gave
it the privilege of independence in the year of Rome 690.

Dora, an :fland of the Perfian culph, according to Strabo.
—Alfo, a fountain placed by Pliny in Arabia Felix.

DORAB, in Lchibyolocy, a {pecies of Clupea, which fee.

DORAC, or Durac, in Ancient Geosraphy, a town of
Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy, and placed by him in
31° 15’ lat.; the ruins of which are vifible on the fummit of
the mountain called Dédez.

Dorac, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Chufittan; 75 miles S. of Sufa. y

DORADO, in Afronomy, a fouthern conftellation, not
vifib'e in‘our latitude ; it is alfo e:lled Kiphias. The ftars
of this conftellation, in Sharp’s Catalogue, are fix.

Doravo, in Geography, a name given by the Dutch to
a part of the chain of mountains of Parima in S, America,
fignifying mountain of gold, It is compofed of bright
micaceous fchiftus, which has given fimilar reputation to a
{mall ifland in the lake of Parima.

Dorapo, in Schihyology, the name of a large fea-fith,
ealled by the Brazilians, guaracapema; the CorypHena
equifelis, which fee.

DORANA, in Botany, Thunb. Nov. Pl. Gen. fafe. ‘3.
59. Fl. Jap. 6.’ Schreb. 108. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 812.
Jufl. 420. Mart. Mil. Di@.v. 2. Clafs and order, Pen-
tandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain ; Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, five-cleft, fhorter
than the corolla; its fegments ovate, concave, fmooth,
Cor. of one petal, wheel-fhaped, fomewhat cylindrical ; its
limb in five ovate, obtufe, upright fegments. Svam. Fila-
ments five, extremely fhort, inferted into the tube of the
corolla ; anthers obloug, nearly fquare, included in the tube.
Pift. Germen fuperior, conical, {mooth; ftyle thread-fhaped,
the length of the corolla ; ftigma abrupt, notched. Peric.
Capfule ovate, acute, {mooth, the fize of a pepper-corn, of
one valve and one cell, with many feeds. Thunb.

Eff. Ch. Capfule fuperior, of one cell, with many feeds.
Corolla five-cleft. Stigma cloven.

r. D. japonica. (Tufukaki, Fitatfi, or Senrjo, of the Ja-
panefe.) A thrub, native of Japan, about fix feet high,
with altethate, round, {mooth;afh coloured, {preading branches.
Zeaves alternate, flaked, {preading, oblong, pointed, dif-
tantly and flightly ferrated, ribbed, fmooth, about a finger’s
length. Jef flalks an inch long, femicylindrical, furrowed
abave, {mooth. ~J/owers minute, white, in axillary clufters
fearcely an inch loug. Such is Thunberg’s account, from
which alone we have any knowledge of this plant. We have
never feen even a dried {pecimen, noris there any figure of it
extant. . .

DORAN, in Geography, a very ancient town of Arabia,

“ym that part of the country of Yemen, which comprehends

DOR

the Imam’s dominions, fituated on the declivity of a moun-
tain, not far from the roads between Sana and Damar, and
the refidence of feveral Imams. The diftrict is under the
government of a particular fchiech, as is alfo D-jcbbel
Scherki, a great mountain in its vicinity, N. jat. 14° 55"
E. long. 4.4° 4”

DORANA, or Darano, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Afia, in Galatia. Itin. Antonin.

DORAT, or Daurar, Joun in Biography,a man of letters,
was born of an ancient family in the Limotin, about the be-
ginning ofthe fixteenth century. He ttudied at Paris, where
he obtamed fo high a reputation for learning, that he was
made royal profeffor of the Greek language. He had many
{cholars who became very diftinguifhed for application and
talents. He was in high favour with Charles [X, who tock
much pleafure in converfing with him, but he never obtained
much cf the royal patronage, and peffed the latter part of
his life in great poverty. He wasa moft ready writer of
verfes, which iffued from his pen on almoft every occafion,
yet he obtained a confiderable fhare of reputation by his
earlier prodaétions, and acquired the title of royal poet,
and it is to the‘ difgrace of his fovereign, that he obtained
nothing more fubftantial than the title. He was highly
efteemed as a critic, and was {uppofed to excel in explaining
the fenfe of obfcure ancient authors, He died in 1588,
having completed his eightieth year. He had been twice
married, the fecond time when he was very old, to a hand-
fome young woman; being cenfured for the inequality of
the conneétion, he replied that it was better to die by a
bright than bya ruftyfword. Moreri. Bevle.

Dorar, in Geography, a {mall toww of France, ia the
department of the Upper Vienne, chef place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Bellac, with a population of 3096 individuals.
It is fituated on the river Scurre, 30 miles N. of Limoges,
and nine miles N. of Bellac. The extent of the canton ia
335 kilometres; it comprizes 14. communes, and 11,446
inhabitants,

DORATH,, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Mauritania T ingitane.

DORBETA, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia, on the
bank of the Tigris. ”

DORCAS, in Zoology, a {pecies of Antelope (which fee,)
called allo Capra Dorcas, hircus Africanus, or Gazella A frica-
na, [zebi of the Buble, and Barbary Antelope, has its horns,
which are about 12 inches loug, and furrounded by about
13 prominent rings, bent in form of alyre ; the woper parts
of the body reddifh brown, the under parts and buttocks
white, and both divided by a dufky line along the fides,
the knees furnithed with along bruth or tuft of hair, the tail
fhort, covered with long blackifh hairs and white underneath.
This animal, which inhabits Barbary, Egypt, Arabia, and
Syria, is about half the fize ofa fallow-deer; and is fuppofed
by Gmelin to be the difchon of Mofes; perhaps the animal
mentioned by Solomon, and named in our verfion, roe of
the.mountains. It goes in‘ large flocks, is eafily tamed,
though naturally very timid, and its flefh is reckoned excel-
lent food.

DORCHESTER, in Geagraphy, the county, and prin-
cipal town of Dorfetfhire, England, is a place of remote
antiquity, and its hiftory is replete with interett. It was a
Roman ftation of confiderable extent, and from the veftiges
of the Romans in and near it was a principal fettlement
of that people in Britain. Its Roman name, Durnovaria,
or, the paflage of the river, is of Britifh extraGtion. Richard
of Cirencefter calls it refpectively by this name, and that of
Durinnum ; but Antoninus by the former only. Ptolemy
calls it Dunium, which fome copies erroneoufly read Dur-

2 nium,

DORCHESTER.

nium. Both are probably only corruptions from Durinum.
Dunim meant, according to Mr. Baxter, Maiden-caftle,
(the name of a large encampment in the vicinity ;) and
Durnovaria, the town. This is, however, again{t the ex-
prefs teftimony of Ptolemy, who calls Dunium the town
of the Durotriges. Thefe, therefore, are only different
names affigned to the fame place in different ages. Dore
chefter was by the Saxons called Dorncealter, from the Bri-
tiih Dwr, and the Saxon Chelter,a corruption from the Ro-
man Caftrum, acamp or town : hence the Latin name Dor-
ceftria, in ancient records, and the modern name Dorcheiter,
is clearly derived. In the Itineraries of Antoninus and Ri-
chard of Cirencefter, Dorchefter appears as a Roman fta-
tion; and, indeed, the ancient walls, the Via-Iceniana, on
which it ftands, the feveral vicinal roads that iffue hence,
coins, and other pieces of antiquity found here, Maiden-
caftle, the amphitheatre, and camp at Poundbury, near it,
fhew it to have been then a place of great importance. It
was fortified by the Romans with a wall and fofs, which
extended quite rourd it, and two exterior ramparts to the
fouth and weft, which are fill vifible; though they are in
many places levelled by the plough. The high ground on
the north rendered any advanced works there unneceffary.
On the weit fide part of the old Reman wall was ftanding ull
the fummer of 18023 this was fix feet thick, and in fome
places twelve feet high. The foundation was laid on the folid
chalk, and the wall formed of rag-itones, laid fide by fide, in
an oblique direction, and then covered over with very ftrong
mortar. ‘Che next courfe was generally carried the con-
trary ways and occafionally three horizontal ones for bind-
ing; much flint was alfo ufed, Confiderably more of the
wall remained within memory, and fome otf the foundations
appear in other places ; on the ea{t a {mall Jane is built upon
it, and the ditch filled up; though it is ftill called the
walls. Great part of the remains was levelled or deltroyed
in making the walks round the town. About the year
1764, eighty-five feet of the wall were pulled down, and or ly
feventy-feven left flanding. The area inclofed by the walis
was about eighty acres. Numerous Roman coins of the
afferent metals, formerly called by the vulgar Dorn’s pen-
nica, have been dug up in different parts of Dorchefter 5
and in 1750, a gold ring, half an inch thick, valued at
31. 175. Od., was difcovered in the river Frome. But the
molt perfect aed curious relic of antiquity, was a bronze
image of a Roman Mercury, feated on a fragment of a rock,
about four inches and a half high, difcovered in the back
garden of the principal free-{chool ; anda large fragment of a
tiffelated pavement. Dorchefter was of confiderable im-
portance under the Saxons, and had, from Athelftan, the
grant of two mints; a privilege he only extended to cities
and walled towns. In 1003, Sweyn, king of Denmark,
having landed in Cornwall, to revenge the maflacre of his
countrymen, after ravaging that county and Devon, dire@-
ed his march to this town, which he befieged, and burnt,
and afterwards threw down the walls, probably for the ob-
{Linate defence they enabled the befieged to make. Camden
mentions many of the burying-places, or tumuli, of thefe
Danes, as being fcattered round the town. The devaftation
they committed appears from the Domefday book, which
ftates that, in the time of Edward the Confeffor, “ there
were 172 houfes, which defended themfelves for all the kings
fervices, but which were then reduced to eighty-eight, a 100
having been totally demolifhed from the time of Hugh, the
high fhenff.”? In the year 1595 Dorchefter was vilited by
the plegue, which proved fo deltru@ive, that the living
were not fufficient to bury the dead. In Augufl 1613,
the town was partly deftroyed by a fire, which confumed

302 houfes, and the two churches of the Holy Trinity and
All Saints ; the lofs was eftimated at 200,000 /. Another
conflagration, of which no particulars are recorded, is faid
to have happened in 1662. Dorchefter is recorded, by the
hiftorian of the civil wars, as having been particularly dif-
affeGted to the royal caufe, more fo than any place in Eng
land. He terms it “ the magazine whence the other places
were fupplied with the principles of rebellion; and a feat
of great malignity.”” It was one of the firft towns forti-
fied againit the king ; and though neither ftrong by nature

nor bardly capable of being made fo by art, thefe dilade
vantages were [uppofed to be more than counterbalanced
by the fpirit and obftinacy of its inhabitants. In the time
of Edward III. the government of this town was velted in
bailiffs and burgefles. James I. increafed the number of
burgeffes to fitteen, with permiflion to chufe a recorder and
other officers. By Charles I. it was incorporated under
a mayor, two bailiffs, fix aldermen, fix capital burgeffes, a
governor, and twenty-four common-councilmen. "This -bo-
rough has returned members to parliament ever fince
23 Edw. I. The right of eleGion was formerly claimed
by the inhabitanss paying fcot and lot; but this right has

by a late determination, been adjudged to be equally velted:
in non-refidents, provided they are poflciled of real ctlates
within the borough, and have paid the church and poor
rates. he eleétors are at prefent about two hundred ;
the mayor is the returning officer. 5;
‘ Dorchefter is delightfully fituated on an afcent above the
river Frome, which bounds it on the north fide; on the
fouth and weft it opens on pleafant downs, intermixed with
corn fields. ‘The town forms an irregular fquare ; though
in former times, as appears from obfervation, it moft pro-
bably made a complete one. It confifts principally of three
fpacious ftreets, which join each other about the middle ;
thefe, with others fubordinate, are well paved, and, in oe
ral, adorned with handfome buildings of brick i fone.
Thofe of moft eminence are, the three churches of St

Peter, Trinity, and Al-Saints; the town-hail, the count
hall, and thenew-gaol. St. Peter’s church isa large eee
fome ftru€ture, {landing near the centre of the town, and
confifting of a chancel, nave, and fide aifles; the comer

which rifes to the height of ninety feet, is ornamented Sikes
pinnacles and battlements. ‘Though only a chapel of eafe
to the Holy Trinity, this is elteemed the principal church
in the town. It contains a few monuments commemorative
of diftinguifhed perfons, and fome infcriptions, curious on
account of their antiquity. ‘The town-hall is fituated ata
fmall diftance from S-. Peter’s church. It was ereéted by
the corporation in the year 17y1, and is a fpacious and
handfome edifice, having a market place under it ; and be-
hind it, two rows of convenient fhops for the ue of the
town butchers. The fhire-hail isa plain neat building, hav-
ing a front of Portland-ftone, and a pediment in the ceune

The courts are well contrived, and commodioufly fitted u :
and the building is appropriately fuited to the purpofes
which it was ere€ted. The new-gaol is on the north fide
of the town: the old one, being fmall and inconvenient, was
fold by auction for 1220% In the prefent ftruéture are
united the county-gaol, penitentiary-houfe, and hounfe of
correction. The plan adopted is that recommended by Mr

Howard. The expence-of the erection was 16,179/. 108 6d.
This edifice, in its external appearance, is handiane aa
charateriltic ; and the interior poffefles every convenience
appropriate to its deftination. The buildings confilt of a
lodge, keeper’s houfe, chapel, debtors’ day rooms, female
fines, and female debtors’ rooms, vifiting rooms for male
debtors, fines, felons’ infirmaries, &c,, and of four wings,

detached

DORCHESTER,

detached from, but communicating with, the centre build.
ing on each ftory, by means of caft iron bridges from the
feveral. galleries. There are feparate fleeping cells for
cighty-eight prifoners, which are diftributed in the feveral
buildings ; and two airy dorrnitories for male debtors, each
containing four beds, to be ufed in cafe the number exceeds
that which can be accommodated in the debtors’ wing ; be-
fides four cells for condemned prifoners, four over thefe
perfeGtly dark, yet airy, for the refractory ; and fix recep-
tion cells, which are fitted up in the lodge, he diflribu-
tion is fuch, that not only the male prifoners are feparated
from the female, and the felons from the debtors, &c. but
thofe of each defcription are fubdivided into claffes 5; and
for each clafs, by means of diftin& ttaircafcs, feparate fub-
divifions are appropriated, with courts, work-rooms, &c.,
to each. ‘The female fines, and female debtors, have each
a commodious room, with every poffible convenicnce, over
the male debtor’s dormitories, and under the two infirmaries,
feparate and detached from every part of the building, ex-
cept the keeper’s houfe and court, to which they have ac-
cels through the chapel.

The environs of Dorchefter are extremely pleafant ; being
almo‘t furrounded by agreeable walks planted with rows of
limes and fycamores ; the view of the town, with the tower
of St. Peter’s church, and that of Fordington, a neighbour-
ing village, appear on every quarter with advantage. Dor-
chefter is ftuated 120 miles'S.W. from London ; has weekly
markets on Wednefday and Saturday, with four annual
fairs ; and was returned to parliament in 1801, as contain-
ing 353 houfes ard 2042 inhabitants.

The vicinity of Dorcheller prefents feveral objeAs of hif-
torical refearch, and highly interefting to the curious en-
quirer. ‘* Tnefe extended plains,’ remarks Mr. Gilpin, in
his obfervations on the weftern parts of England, ** how-
ever defolate they now appear, have once been bufy fcenes :
the antiquary finds rich employment among them for his cu-
riofity. To follow him in quett of every heaving hillock,
and to hear a difcuffion of conjectures about the tracesiof a
Danifh or a Roman mattock, where the eye of common
obfervation perceives no traces at all, might be tedious, but
he fhews us feveral fragments of antiquity on thefe plains,
which are truly curious; and convinces us that few places
in England have been more confiderable in Roman times
than Dorchefter. Poundbury and Maiden-cattle are both
extraordinary remains of Roman ftations. Numberlefs tu-
muli alfo are thrown up over the downs: thefe were anti-
quities even in the times of the Romans themlelves. But
the moft valuable fragment oa thefe plains is a Roman am-
phitheatre, which retains its complete form to this day,”
"This ftrugture, allowed to be the moft perfect of its kind
remaining in England, was firft publicly noticed by: fir
Chriftopher Wren, who had obferved it in his journies to
the Ifle of Portland. It was afterwards examined by the
indefatigable Dr. Stukeley, who inferted a particular de-
feription of it, with five engravings, in his ‘ Itinerarium
Curiofum :”? but his relation is in feveral places more fanci-
ful than juft. This amphitheatre, which has acquired, from
its component parts, the name of Maumbury, is fituated on
a plain in the open fields, about a quarter of a inile fouth-
weit from Dorchefter, clofe by the Roman road which runs
thence to Weymouth. [It is raifed upon, and was probably
framed of, folid chalk, cemented by mortar made of burnt
chalk, and covered with turf. It is computed to confit of
about an acre of ground; and by an accurate admeafurement
it was found that the greate(t perpendicular height of the
rampart, above the level of the arena, was 3o fect; the ex-
ternal longeft diameter 343 feet 6 inches; the external

fhorteft diameter 339 feet 6 inches; the internal longelt
diameter 218 feet; the internal fhorteft diameter 163 fect
6inches. ‘The number of {pe&tators which it was capable
of accommodating is computed to be 12,960. Poundbury
camp is fituated about half a mile weft of Dorchefter, on
the bank of the river Frome, having a very abrupt cefcent
on that fide. The breadth of the area is 147 paces, and its
length 378: towards the middle, the ground is confiderably
elevated ; and near the fouth fide is a barrow, which Dr.
Stukeley imagined to be Celtic, and extant before the camp
was made. ‘L'his gentleman was induced, from the {ituation,
fize, and form, of this fortification, fo much refembling
that near Amefbury in Wiltthire, to fuppofe that it was
made by Vefpafian, when employed in the conqueft of the
Belge. But Camden, Speed, and fome other antiquaries,
afcribe it to the Danes, who befieged Dorchetter under
king Sweyn. Maiden-caftle, one of the ftrongeft and molt
extenfive encampments in England, occupies the entire apex
of a hill, about one mile fouth.weft of Dorchefter, to which
garrifon, 1 the time of the Romans, this is fuppofed to
have been the caftra eft'va, or fummer ftation. Its form is
an irregular ellipfis, furrounded by treble ditches and ram-
parts; the former are of prodigious depth; and the jatter
extremely high and fteep. The entrances to the ea{t and
welt are flrengthened by additional works; the ends of the
ramparts lapping over each other, and rendering the outlets
very winding and intricate. The inner rampart includes an
area of about 44 acres, and is nearly a mile and a quarter
in circumference. The area is divided into two parts by a:
low ditch and bank, extending from north to fouth; and
near the fouth fide, where the ramparts are low, there ap-
pears to have been another entrance. Here alfo is the.
mouth of acave, or fubterraneous paflage, faid, by tradition,
to be of confiderable length, though it is now choaked up
and impaflable. ‘The whole extent of the works is 1194
yards by 5443 of the area 760 yards by 275. This great
and commanding fortrefs, thouzh commonly fuppofed to
be a Roman work, is, by Mr. King, afcribed to the Bri-
tons. This gentleman has given a particular defcription of
it in his “* Munimenta Antiqua,” vol. i. ‘* Beauties of
England and Wales,” vol. iv. ‘* Hutchins’s Hiftory of
Dorfetthire,”’ 2 vols. folio.

Dorcuester, a county of America, in the ftate of Mary-
Jand, lying on the E. fide of Chefapeak-bay, and on the S,
fide of Choptank river, which feparates it from Talbot-
county. On its coaft are feveral iflands, the chief of which,
from the mouth of Hudfon’s river, are, James, Taylor’s,
Barren, Hooper’s, and Goldfborough’s, the laft lying be--
tween Hungary river and Fifhing bay. The length of the
county from E. to W. is about 33 miles, and its breadth
from N. to S. 27 miles. The number of its inhabitants is
12,346, of whom 4566 are flaves. ‘Che lands in- the nor-
thern parts are fomewhat elevated, but in the fouthern parts>
low and marfhy, particularly along Tifhing-bay, and up its
waters Tranfquaking, Blackwater, and Fearim creek, and
along Hungary river, an arm of the Chefapeak. The pro-
duce is chiefly wheat, corn, and lumber. Its chief town:
is Cambridge. Morfe.

Dorcuestsr, atownfhip of America, in Grafton county,
New Hampfhire, incorporated in 1761, and containing 349
inhabitants. It lies N. E. of Dartmouth college about 17
miles,—Alfo, an ancient and thriving town in Norfolk
county, Maffachufetts, fettled as early as 1630. It is 2
miles S. by E, diftant from Botton, and is now about 6
miles long, and 3% broad. Its chief manufaétures are paper,
chocolate, {nufl, leather, and fhoes. It has a handfome
church, and contains 2347 inhabitants, he N, E, sy

J

DOR r

af the peniafula, called “ Dorcheer-neck,’? approaches
within half a mile of Caltle ifland, and its N. W. point
within half a mile of the S. part of Bolton.—Alfo, a town
in Cumberland county, New Jerfey, lying on the E. fide of
Morris river, about 5 miles from its mouth in the bay, and
17 eaftward of Fairfizld,—Alfo, a fmall town of Charlefton
autrid, South Carolina, on the N. E, bank of Afhley
river, £8 miles W. N. W. of Charlefton city. . This place
was fettled and named in the year 37c0, by a colony from
Porchelter and its viciaitv, in Maflachufetts; and fome of
its inhabitants, about the year 1750, left it, and fettled
midway, in Georgia. Morfe.

Dorcnesrer Mount, aridge of mountains in America,
running through the county of Lincoln, to Upper Canada,
parallel to Ontario, and fuppofed'to be a [pur of the Alie-
ghany. ‘
~ Dorcuestir Tocun/fhip lies im the county of Norfolk,
Upper Canada, W. of and adjoining to Dereham, fronting
the river Thames. ,

DORDOGNE, Ua, in Latin Dordonia, is a confider-
able river of France, which has its fource in the calt, in the
department of the Cantal, at the foot of a mountain calied
le Mont a’Or, and is properly formed of two tlreamiets, the

’Dore and the Dogne, from which it derives its name. The
Dordogne flows firlt towards the north, then towards the
welt, and afterwards to the fouth, as far as Bort; from
thence it takes a fouth-welt diretion as far as Beaulieu, and
it is only to the north of Rocamadour that it begins to pur-
fue a fteady courfe weftwards, when it pafles by Souillac,
St. Cyprien, Limeuil, !a Linde, Bergerac, where it receives
the river Vezere, St. Foy, Genlac, Cattillon, Branne, Ore
bourne, to the right of which it receives the river PIlle,
and then flows to Bourg fur Gironde, and laitly difcharges
itfelf at Bec d?Ambez into the river Garonne, which, aiter
having taken up tne Dordogae, is called the Gironde,

The Dordogne is navigable fome time before it reaches
Libourne, where its navigation is ft:ll more facilitated by
the tide. It gives its name to a department, and divides
the department of the Correze from thofe of the Puy-de-
Dome and the Cantal.

Dorvocne, Lhe department of the, is the fecond depart-

ment of the feventh repion, or fouth-welt part of France,
which comprifes nine departments, and is allo kvown by
the appellation of the Region of the Garonne, It derives
its name from the river Dordogne, which runs through it in
its fouthern part from eait to welt, and is compoled of that
part of the former province of Guienne which was called
Périgord. Its chief place is Périgucux.
“The department of the Dordogne 1s bounded on the
north-eaft by the department of the Upper Vienne, on the
eaft by that of the Correze, on the fouth-<alt by that of
the Let, on the fouth by that of Lot and Garoare, on the
fouth-wet by that of the Gironde, on the welt by that of
the Lower Charente, and on the north-weft by the depart-
ment of the Charente.

The principal rivers of this department are the Dordogne
and the Iile; the kflkr ones are the Houe, the Upper
Vezere, the Baudiat, the Dronne, the Vezere, and the Céon.
{ts climate is falubrious, but rather cold, on account of the
mountains by which this department is furrounded. There
are, however, fome extenfive plains, and very fne valleys.
The'foil is generally tony. Corn is grown on the banks of
the Ile and of the Dordogee ; but the reft of the depart-
ment is without it; to fupply the want of wheat, the inha-
bitants live moftly upon che(nuts, which grow in abundance,
and which ferve as food for both the country people and their
cattle. Some cantons produce wine, others a little rye, bar-

DOR

ley, truffles, walnuts, &c. There are fome good meadows
and a few grazters: but the induftry of the country people
is chiefly direGted towards the rearing of poultry. The
turkeys of the Périgord are famous alt over Franee.

Agriculture has made little progrefs in the department of
the Dordogne; fcarcely one-third of the ground 1s culti-
vated. Molt of the land wants draining, and artificial mea-
dows wouid be of immenfe benefit: but the antiquated pre-
judices of the inhabitants refit every fort of improvement.
‘There are many extenfive forefts, but molt of them in a ftate
of decay. Game is abundant.

There are fome iron mines in the department of the Dor-
dogne which yield excellent iron ; it is ufed in the cannon
founderies, and the guns which are made of it are reckoned
nearly as good as brafs cannons. ‘This department has alfo
feveral mineral {prings. The principal articles of trade are
poultry, pigs, cattle, chefnuts, brandy, timber, iron, knitted
hofiery, earthen-ware, and paper.

The territorial extent of the department of the Dordogne
is SoS2 kilometres and a half, or 1,135.322 arpens, equal to
451 fquare leagues. ‘The forelts eccupy 133.339 arpers.
Its population amounts to 410,350 individuals, or about gro
inhabitants fer [quare league. ‘Che principal towns are Pe-
rigueux, Nontron, Excideuil, Sariat, Monpafier, Bergerac,
Muffidan, and Riberac. Itis divided into five diftrits; wiz.
Nentron, Perigueux, Sarlat, Bergerac, and Riberac; 47
cantons, and G42‘communes. The average contribution of
every individual to the expences of the fate amounts to feven
livres, 77 centimes, 10 cnziemer, or nearly 6s. 6d. fterling.
(Herbin. Statiftique de la France.)

DORDOMANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Parthia. Ptolemy. f

DORDRECHT, Dorrrecut, or Dort, in Latin Dor-
dracuni, ov rather Dortrechtum, in Geography, isa confiderable
town of the kingdom of Flolland, in the department of the
Maas, celebrated for the Protetlant fynod which was held here
in 1618, (fee Dorr) and for being the place where the ancient
eotiats of Holland ufed to be inaugurated. It is fituated in
an ifland called the Merwe; the harbour is commodious $ it
has a good falmon-fifhery, and traded chiefly with timber,
which in fummer-time is floated down the Rhine and the
Waal, aod cut in the fawing-mills, of which there is a great
number in the neighbuurhood of this tawn. Dordrecht is
12 miles S. E. of Rotterdam, 18 N. W. of. Breda, and 45
S. by W. of Amiterdam. Long. E. from Ferro, 22° 11’ 30”.
Lat. 51° 48%

DORE, a {mall river of France, inthe department of the
Puy-de-Déme, has its fource near Saint Amand, Roche
Savine, from whence it runs fouthwards, paffes by St. Bonnet
and Arlant, thence flowing to the north, it paffes by Am-
bert, Oihergue, Courpiere, Puy Guillaume, and falls into
the Allier near Ris. }

Dore u’Ecutsse, a {mall town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy-de-Dome, 21 miles E. of Iffvire.

DOREBAT, a town of Arabia, in the country of Ye-
men, 10 miles diftant from Mocha, the capital of the terri-
torics of Schiech-Ibn-Aklan. Its fituation on the fummit
of a hil renders it naturally ilrong. At the foot of the hill
{tands a tower, the public prifon, which is faid to be the mott
difmal in Yemen. -! Se

DOREE, or Joun Dores, in Schthyology, a name given
by us to a fifh, called by authors the faber and gailus ma-
rinus. We have borrowed the name Doree from the French;
and, as to the word John, by fome writers prefixed to it, it
feems only a corruption of the French word jaune, yellow ;
they expreffing the colour of the iides of this ffh, which is
a gold yellow, by the phrafe Jaune Dorée; this has given us

the

=

DO"

the words John Morée, or by thofe who fpell yet worfe,
John Dory, as we fee it in fome authors. This is the Zeus
Faber, which fee.

The fi-(h is well tated, and by many preferred to that of
the turbot. It is caught in the Mediterranean and other
feas, andis not uncommon on the Cornwall coalt, aud other
of the Englith fhores.

The Indian Doreé is a fifh caught in many parts of the
Eat Indies, and called by the Datch there the meerhaen,
the fame with the abacatuia of Marcgrave, caught in the
Brafilian feas. See Apacatuata and Zeus Gallus.

DORENBERG, or Duirenpere, in Geography, a town
of Germany, in Weftphalia, and county of Ravenfberg ; three
miles N. W. of Bielefield,

DORENHAGEN, a town of Germany, in Weftphalia,
and bihopric of Padgrborn ; five miles $.S. E. of Paderborn,

DORENTHAL, or DororHeenruat,a town of Ger-
many, iu the circle of Upper Saxony, and circle of Erage-
berg; 13 miles S. of Freyburg.

DORETTE, a river of France, which runs into the
Dive, near Troan, in the deparcment of the Calvados.

DORFYF, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Au-
ftria, on the Danube; 11 miles’ N. W. of Bruck.

_DORFFEN, or Dorren, a market-town of the kingdom
of Bavaria, in Lower Bavaria, fituated on the Ifer, in the
@iftr af Landfhut.

DORFFTIS, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of
Aultria, feven miles S. of Ziltertorff.

DORFMARK, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and principality of Luseburg ; 20 miles
N. W. of Zel'e.

DORGAMANES, in Ancient Geography, a river of the
Paropamifus, Ptolemy.

DORGIO, in Geography, a {mall town of Switzerland,
in the canton of Uri, with a mineral (pring, the water of which
is reported to purify the blood,

DORHOBUS, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Volhynia; 60 miles E of Lucko. !

' DORIA, Anpvrew, in Biography, a very extraordinary
charaé&ter, was born at Oneglia in the year 1406, or 1468, of
which his father, a noble Genoefe, was feudatory lord. At
an early period he exhibited a {trong inclination for a mili-
tary life, which was checked and difcouraged by his parents.
At their death he entered into the fervice of the pope asa
man at arms. He next engayedin the fervice of the kings
of Naples. In Venice he undertook the guardian{hip of
Francis-Maria, whom he fecured againft the attempts of
Czfar-Borgia; and then repaired to his own country, Ge-
noa. ‘Twice he fubdued, and brought to their allegiance,
the revolted Corficans. His enterprizing {pivit by land ob-
tained for him the office of captain-general of the Genoefe
gallies, about the year 1513. His firft eflays on the new
element were upon the African pirates, with whom he en-
gaged, and by the conqueft of whom he was fo far en-
riched as to become matter of four gallies in his own pay.
At this period Genoa was the prey to contending faétions,
and the city had, by one of them, been put into the hands of
Louis XLI. of F:ance, from whom it afterwards revolted.
Doria attempted to compofe the diftraGtions of the repub ic,
but, finding his efforts ineffe€tual, he entered into the fervice
of Francis [. of France, to which country he was exceed-
ingly ufeful, but being negleéted by the minilters, he joined
himfelf to pope Clement VII. and became admiral of his
gallies. In this fituation he dd not remain very long, for
upon the capture of Rome under the conftable Bourbon,
Doria was perfuaded to return to the fervice of Francis, who

_seceived him with open ayms, and appointed him his admiral

DOR

in the feas of the Levant. Doria had at that time eight
gallies of his own, and notwithltaoding his engagements to
a foreign prince, he itill maintained the independence of his
mind; and when the Trench attempted to render Savona,
long the object of jealoufy of Genoa, its rivalin trade, Doria
remonftrated againft the meafure in a high and animated
tone, which fo irritated Francis, that he ordered his admiral
to fail inftantly to Genoa, then in the hands of the French
troops, to arrcft Doria, and to fe'ze his gallies. Doria was
appriz-d of their inteations, r.tired with all his veffels to a
place of fafety ; and, while his refentment was thus raifed,
he ciofed with the offers of the emperor Charles V., re-
turned his commiffion, with the collar of St. Michael, to
Francis, and, hoifting the Imperial colours, failed with his
gallies towards Naples, not to block up the harbour of that
uafortunate city, but to bring it proteGtion and deliverance.

The ruin of the French army b-fore Naples was the im-
mediate confequence of this change. ‘This was an important
object, but Doria’s higheft ambition was to deliver his
country from the power and domin‘on of foreizn fovercigns.
The moment favourable to this pojeét feemed to have ar-
raced : Genoa was afllicted with a grievous peftilence, the
city was, m a manner, deferted, and the French garrifon
was greatly reduced and very ill pad. Doria feized the ope
portunity ; failed with thirteen galleys to the Genoefe se 9
landed a body of 509 men, and took poffeffion of Genoa
itfelf without the lofs of a fingle man on either fide. The
French garrifon retired to the citadel, where they were foon
glad to capitulate ; and upon th-ir departure, the people
rufhed to the fortrefs, and jevelled it with the ground, asa
monument and inftrument of their fervitude. To the bo-
nour of the hero let it be mentioned, that he fcorned to take
the advantage which his fituation gave him, by making him-
felf the matter of the country: he nobly affembled the body
of citizens, difelsimed all pre-eminence, and reltored into
their-hards the right of eftablifhing fuch a torm of govern-
ment as they fhould think belt. TAwelve perfons were ap<
pointed to new model the conttitution, which: was fetticd
nearly in the form in which it exifted till within thefe tew
years. Doria was greeted by the titles of the deliverer and
father of his country; and the higheft honours were con-
ferred upon him. He was exempted from all public bur-
dens, and a palace affizned him for his habitation, purchafed
at the charge of the ftate. A marble itatue was erected in his
honour, on which was a Latin infeription proclaiming him
the founder of public liberty. He lived to the advanecd age
of g2 or 94, leaving behind him a name that can never die,
while a {park of public fpirit and public liberty furvives,
For farther particulars of this great man fee the article
Gevoa. Robertion. Univer. Hitt.

Doria, in Botany. See Senecio Dorra.

Dora, or Duria. in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain,
in Lufhtania; now the Douro.

Doria Baltea, or Grand Doria, in Geography, a river of
Piedmont, which rifes in the Alps, on the borders of the
Valais, and after winding through the valley of Aofta, &c.
difcharges itfelf into the Po by two branches, between
Chivazzo and Crefcentino.

Doria Ripuaria, or Little Doria, a river of Piedmont,
which rifes in the Alps, on the borders of France, pafles
through the valey of Sufa, &c. and runs into the Po, a
little to the N. E. of Turin. |

DORIAN, adj. asthe Dorian mode in Greck mufic; it
was the lowelt of thofe which have fince, in ecclefiaftical
mufic, been cailed authentic, (See Mopes. and Canto
Fermo.) The charaéters of this mode were gravity, foiem-
nity, and its fitnefs for sages fubjects of war, and religious

rites,

POR

yites. Pluto regards the majefty of the Dorian mode as ef-
ficacious in preferving order and decorum ; for which reafon
he has permitted its ufe in his republic. It was called
Dorian from having been firft uled by that people. Its in-
vention is afcribed to Thamyris of Thrace; who having
yafhly challenged the mufes, and been defeated, loft at once
his lyre and his fight.

* It is agreed that the ancient medes or keys are all minor.
Some place the Dorian mode in D ; but Ptolemy, who re-
formed the Greek modes, has placed itin E. Sir Francis
Eyles Stiles, who wrote en ingenious paper onthe fubje&
of the modes or tones of the Greeks, which was read at the
Royal Society, andis printed in the Tranfa€tions for 1761,

fuppofes the modes to be only erfferent {pecies of otave of

the founds iv C or A natural; but how fuch different and
powerfal effects could be produced by tranfpofitions of the
fame founds is not eafy toconceive. See dacicnt Greek

Music and Mops.

DORIAS, or Doatus, in Ancient Geography, a river of
India, on the other fide of the Ganges, according to Pto-
Jemy ; the modern Zangan, the mouth of which is inthe
kingdom of Tonquin.

DORIC Orner, inArchiredure, is that peculiar form of a
column and its entablature, which was originally formed in imt-
tation of a weoden fabric {upported with potts or the trunks
of trecs. It therefore lays claim toa more remote origin than
ettherthe Ionic or Corinthian. The antiquities which yet re-
main of this ancient order are to be feen in Greece, the place
of its nativity, and in ats colonies, in Sicily and Paeftum in
Ttaly, anda few fragments in Ionia. ‘The examples which are
found in thefe remains are of fuch uniform character as
to denote its peculiar fly!e or {pecies. Though the Egyp-
tian buildings andthofe of other anterior nations, bear fo
much refemblance to an order, 28 to have entablaturcs fup-
ported by circular pillars, yet thefe pillars have no f{pecific
form, and are in charaéter fo different from any of the Gre-
cian orders, as toentitle the Greeks to be the inventors of
that ftyle of building, which is no where to be traced but in
theirown edifices. We are informed by Vitruvius, that the
Doric order was firft praGifed in the temple of Juno, in the
ancient city of Argos, in the time and territories of Dorus,
who reigned over Achaia and Pelcponnefus; but its {vmme-
try was not fixed till an Athenian colony led by fon efte-
blifhed itfelf in that part of Afia now. called Ionia, after
their leader Ion, and built a temple in the manner in which

they had obferved it pradtifed in the Dorian fates. In this’

building they made the columns fix diameters in height,
taking the proportion from the ratio which the foot of a
man bears to his altitude.
The columns of the Doric order were imitated from the
ofts which fupported the wooden ftruéture, and were fluted
to hold the {pears or ftaves which the early Greeks always
catried along with them. The capital was formed of a
large convex moulding, reprefenting a bow and a fquare
ftone, in order to proteé the fhaft from rain. The archi-
trave confifted of a mafly ftone, or marble, reprefenting
the woodenbeam. The frize was formed in imitation of the
ends of the joilts with open fpaces between: however, in
procels of time, thefe were clofed, and formed into receding
pannels, and” the projecting parts, reprefenting the ends of
the joilts, were cut into vertical channels to condv@ the rain
from the furface: the tablets thus cut, were called triglyphs,
from having two angular channels in the middle, and two
half channels at the angles of the triglyphs. The glyphs or
channels were each formed by. two planes, making a right
angle with each other internally, and an angle of 135 degrees
with the face of the triglyphs externally, as alfo the half

DOR

channels on-each extreme of a trizlyph. The cornice was
formed in imitation of the proje@ting timbers of the roof, and
{mall conical or cylindrical bodies were f{culptured on the
under fides of the rafters, to-reprefent the drops of the rain
which adhered tothem. hele drops were called gutte,
and confifted of three rows under each rafter, each? row
containing fix. The parts which at firft refulted from the
primitive habitation, were afterwards carved into mouldings.
‘he fpaces or pannels between the triglyphs were called
metopes, and were generally of a fquare figure. The firit
triglyphs always began at tne angle of the building. ‘The
ends of the joifts were called mutules, and were fo dif-

_ pofed, that one was placed immediately over each triglyph,

and one over the middie of each metope. ‘The architrave
hada projeGing band, which covered the mafly face below :
under this band, and under each triglyph, was placed’a fillet,
with fix pending gutte, coinciding at the ends with the
vertical fides of the triglyphs. The faces of the triglyphs
are generally in the fame furface or plane with the face of
the epiftylinm, or architrave, and confequently the metopes
are recefilcd. ‘The Doric portico at Athens, the portico of
Pailip king of Macedon, and the temple of Apollo in the
ifland of Delos, are inftances where this is otherwife. This
is the general chara&er of the Grecian Doric, which is
almoft uniformly placed on three fteps not proportioned to
the human ftep, but to the magnitude of the edifice. ‘The
columns cither diminifh in a curve or right line from the
inferior to the fuperior ends of the fhaft. The fhafts are
almeft confiantly futeé: the temple of Apollo in the ifland
of Delos, and the temple at Segeila, are inftances to the
contrary. The flutcs are generally twenty in number, with=
out fillets, and terminate under the annulets of the echinus
of the capital.

The Doric order was the only order known in Greece, or
its colonies, anterior to the Macedonian conqneft. The ex-
amples which yet remain are of various proportions, as may
be feen by the following examples, which are taken from the
fragments of the edifices which vet remain of this order.
However, as the proportions of the members of the entabla-
ture are very uniform, we fhall venture to give the refult
which arifes from the agregate or number of them, For
public edifices, the columns may be five or five diameters
and an half in height, and for private buildings fix ; and

_may diminifh one-fourth of the inferior diameter of the fhaft.

The height of the capital may be two-fifths of the lower
diameter, and may be divided into two equal parts, giving
the upper one to the abacus: the lower one to the echinus
and annulets: divide the lower one into five equal parts,
giving one to the annulet, and four to the echinus. Divide
the height of the entablature into four equal parts, giving one
to the cornice: divide the three lower equally into two,
giving one’to the epiltylium, and one to the zophorus or frize.

‘The following four plates contain a comparative view of
the proportions of all the Dorics that have been afcertained
by meafurement.

Plate XV. fig.1, (Architedure) from the temple of Apollo in
the ifland of Delos. This is one of the two fingular examples
where the fhaft of the column is not fluted except at the neck-
ing and a fmal] part at the Jower end. Fig. 2, from the por-
tico of Philip, king of Macedon, alfo in the ifland of Delos:
the moulding which occupies the place of the echinus is fin-
gular, being a conic fruftum inverted : the proportions are
very light, and may be ufed in private buildings or in works
of gaiety. Fig. 3, from the temple at /Egefta: this is the
other exemple where the fhafts are not fluted: the necking —
is formed by making it recede within the furface of the
upper part of the fhaft; a recefs alfo obtains at the lower.

4 end

DO

end of the fhaft, but thefe receding annular furfaces
are {inooth, and not fculptered into flutes, as in the temple
of Apollo, in the ifland of Delos. Fig. 4, from the temple
of Jupiter, at Selinus: this is the largeft example of this
order: the height of the column is 48 feet 7 inches, and the
diameter of the lower end of the fhaft ro feet 7 inches and
five-tenths of an inch: the fluting of the shafts is fingular,
and unlike every other example of this order, the flutes being
feparated by fillets, as in the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
Fig. 5. greater hexaftyle temple at Selinus.

Plate KVi. fig. 1, temple at Corinth: the Maft is di-
minifhed in a convex curve fr@m the bottom to its termina-
tion under the annulets: this columu is that which has the
fewelt diameters in height ; from this cireumitanee, it is pro-
bable, that the temple exhibits one of the moit ancierit ex-
amples of the Doric order. ig. 2, from the interior pe-
riftyle of the bypaethral temple at Paeftum, fhewinz a dou-
ble range of columns one above the other. Here it may be
obferved, that the inferior diametera of the fuperior range
are not equal to the fuperior diameter of the inferior range,
but the fides of both ranges are in,continued ftraizht lines,
and confequently may be elteemed as parts of the fame cone
wanting the intermediate fruftum, which is occupied by the
podeum: the fhafts of the columns have only lixteen flutes.
Fig. 3, from the exterior periftyle of the fametemple. This
¢xample is almoft fimilar to that of the temple of Corinth
with a low fhaft and a bold projeéting echinus; fo that if
we are to judge of the antiquity of an order by the propor-
tion of the column, this example will rank next to the temple
ef Corinth. Fig. 4, from the templé of Minerva at Sunium,
a light beautiful proportion of the Doric order, well adapted
to works of gaiety or private buildings. ig. 5, from the
temple of Minerva, at Syracule: this exemple 1s fingular, in
as much as the columns are placed upon plinths all around
the exterior periftyle: there is another fingularity attending
the columns within the pronaos, that they are not only
placed upon plinths, but have mouldings above forming
what has been denominated the Doric bafe; with all the
f{pecific members though not of the ufual proportion ; and
that the capitals have an aftragal and fillet under the echinus
inftead of the annulets which are in all other Grecian ex-
amples placed in this fituation; in this refpect it is fimilar
to fome of the examples compofed by the Italiaus after the
reftoration of the Roman ftyle.

Plate VIL. fig. 1, fromthe pfeudodipteral temple at Pae-
flum: here the necking of the capital is receffed as in fome of
the foregoing examples, and contrary to the ufual fimplicity
of the Doric, hasa row of leaves difpofed around it, bending
their tops downwards underthe annulets. Sig. 2, from the
temple of Thefeus at Athens, a moft elegant light example
well adapted for the purpofes of dometftic habitation: this
building is among the molt perfeét of the facred edifices at
Athens, and is now converted intoa church dedicated to St.
George. Fig. 3, temple of Concord at Agrigentum. Fig. 4,
from the temple of Jupiter Panellenius in /Egina a {mall
building. Fig. 5, from the Parthenon, or great temple of
Minerva at Athens: this is a mott beautiful and auguft build-
ding, confilting of the moft graceful proportions, it was
built during the zdminiltration of Pericles, who employed
T&inus and Callicrat-s for his architects: the cella of this
temple isnow occupied by a Turkifh mofque.

Plate XVII. fiz. 1, trom the theatre of Marcellus at
Rome: this example is altogether out of character; the
mutules, the genuine marks of the order, are wanting, and
in their places are dentils, which are pecultar to the Tonic :
the middle of the trigly ph is placed ina plane pafling through

the axis of the column, and at right angles to the face of
Vou. XII. =

RIG

the epitylium: the column is too flender, reprefenting a
poft of wood vather thaa a ftrong durable maible or tlone
column; the capital is overcharged with mouldings; in a
word, the whole is void of that original fimplicity and ele-
gance which the Grecian Doric exhibits: yet this ig the
only remaining-examp!e which the Romans have k ft us of
their tafte of this order. Jig. 2, from the hexafyle temple
at Paeftum: the entablature feems altogether to be Roman;
it is without the mutules, and the foffit of the corona is
coffered; the columns, however, have a nearer affinity to the
Grecian than the Roman; the capital has a row of leaves
under the annulets, as in the pfeudodipteral temple. Fig. 3,
from the temple of Jupiter. Nemzeus, between Argos and
Corinth: this is a very lofty example ; but the members are
too {mall to imprefs the mind with grandeur. Fig. 4, from
the temple of Juno Lucina at Agrizentum ; an example of
bold and maffy features. Fig. 5, from the Dorte portico at
Athens; a very beaatiful ligt example, well adapted for
private edifices: this, and the temple of Minerva, are the
only examples in Greece where the crowning echinus ts ea-
tire.

Plate XVII a, contains the various peculiarities of the
triglyphs and annulets of the Doric order, which are to be
found among the various examples. Jig. 1, Nos. 1 and 2,
fhews the forms of the heads of the glyphs, as 1s to be feen
in the temple of Minerva, the propylia and the temple of
Thefeus at Athens; the temple of Minerva at Syracvfe ;
the temple of Juno Lucina at Agrigentum; the temple of
Jupiter at Selinus, and the temple of /igefta. The form
reprefented in fig. 2, Nos. r and 2, obtains 10 the Doric por-
tico at Athens; the antae within the pronaos of the temple
of Concord at Agrigentum, and the tomb of Theron at the
fame place; the hexaftyle temple at Selinus; the temple of
Apollo at Cora, and in plate 18, Tonian Antiquities, vol. it.
Fig. 3, from vol. i. ch. 2. pl. «1, Ionian Antiquities.

Fig. 4, from vol. ii, pl. 35, Ionian Antiquities. ig. 55
from the temple of Apolio, in the ifland of Delos. Fig. 6,

from the hexaftyle temple at Paeftum. J%g. 7, from the
temple of Concord, and from the temple of Jupiter Olym-

, pius, at Agrigentum, and the hexaftyle temple at Selinus.

Fig. 8, from the hexaltyle peripteral temple at Pacftum,
dilpofed over the axis of the column, as in the Roman Doric,
Fig. 9, from the theatre of Marcellus’ at Rome, where it
may be obferved that the tops of the glyphs terminate in a
plane, which has the fame inclination to the face of the
triglyph, as the vertical fides which form the glyph have.
Fig. 10, annulets from the temple of Minerva at Athens.
Fig. 11, from the Doric portico at Athens. Fig. 12, from
the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum. Jig. 13,
from the temple of Minerva at Syracufe. Jig. 14, from the
theatre of Marcellus at Rome.

Doric-cimatium is a member mentioned by Vitruvius,
b. iv. ch. 3. placed above and below the corona of the Doric
cornice: from thefe fituations it would appear to be the
femi-inverfa.

Doric, in Grammar. The Doric diale& is one of the
five diale&ts or manners of {peaking, which obtained among
the Greeks. See Diavecr.

It was firft ufed by the Laccdemonians, and particularly
thofe of Argos; thence it paffed into Epirus, Libya, Sicily,
the iflands of Rhodes and Crete.

In this diale@, Archimedes and Theocritus wrote, who
were both of Syracufe ; as likewtle Pindar.

In ftri€tnefs, however, we fhould rather define Doric, the
manner of {peaking peculiar to the Dosians, after their re-
cefs near Parnaffus, and Afopus; and which afterwards

Ls ty came

D7O R

eame to obtain among the Lacedemonians, &c. Some
even diftinguifh between the Lacedemonian and Doric; but
in reality, they were the fame, fetting afide a few particu-
larities im the language of the Lacedemonians ; as is fhewn
by Rulandus, in his excellent treatife, De Lingua Greca,
ejufque Diale&is, lib. v.

Befide the authors already mentioned to have written in

.the Doric diale&t, we might add Archytas of Tarentum,

Bion, Cailinus, Simonides, Bacchylides, Cypfelas, Aleman,
and Sophron.

Molt of the medals of the cities of Grecia Magna, and
Sicily, favour the Doric diale& in their infcriptions: witnefs
AMBPAKIQTAN, ATIOAAQNIATAN, AXEPONTAN, AXY-
PITAN, HPAXAEQTAN, TPAXINION, OEPMTLAN, KAY-
AONIATAN, KOIITAN, TAYPOMENITAN, &c. Which
fhews the countrics whercin the Doric dialect was ufed,

The general rules of this dialect are thus given by the
Port-royalifts :

«© 2)’: Hea d’w grand, d’t, do & d’wla fait le Dore.

D'« fait wzw; d’e, 0; SF d’ wow fait encore.
Ofte s de Pinfiniz &&F pour le fingulier,
Se fert au femenin du nombre plurier.”

But they are much better explained in the fourth book of
Rulandus; where he even notes the minuter differences of
the diale@s of Sicily, Crete, Tarentum, Rhodes, Lacedz-
mor, Laconia, Macedonia, and Theffaly.

The « abounds every wherein the Doric; but this diale&
bears fo near conformity with the A®olic, that many reckon
them but one.

This diale&t was muchefteemed by the Greeks, but wa3
preferved moft pure by the Meffenians, even throughout
their various tranf{migrations. I: was juftly efteemed the
moft elegant, fweet, and belt adapted to Lyric poetry and
mufic, of which the Dorians were very fond, and in which
they were the moft expert of all the Greeks.

Doric, in Mufic. The Doric mode is the firt of the
authentic modes of the ancients.

Its character is, to be fevere, tempered with gravity and
mirth: itis proper for occafions of religion, and war. It
begins with D, Sol, Re.

Plato admires the mufic of the Doric mode, and judges it
proper to preferve good manners, as being mafculine.
And on this account he allows of it in his Common-
wealth.

Theancients had likewife the Sub-Doric mode, which
was one of their plagal modes. Its character was, to be very
grave, and folemn. It began with G U/,a diateflaron, lower
than the Doric mode.

DORIENSES, or Dortans, in Aacient Geography,
formed a part of the nation comprifed under the appellation
of Hellenes. Underthe king Deucalion, the Hellenes inha-
bited the Phthioide territory: under Dorus, the fon of Hellen,
they occupied the Hiftieotide difriét fituated towards
mounts Ola and Olympus. They were driven thence by
the Cadmzans, and inhabited the town of Pindus and its
territory, where they affumed the name of Macednes. Hence
they diftributed to a diftance various colonies, one of which
fettled in the ifleof Rhodes. Afier the fiege of Troy, the
Dorians founded Megaraon the confines of Attica, about
the year 1131, before the Chriftian era. Others migrated
to the ifle of Crete, where they elftablifhed a colony; and
fome of them were dilperfed in the ifle of Rhodes, Halicar-
naflus, Cos, and Cnidus. In. procefs of time, other colo-
nies of the Dorians paffedinto Sicily. But the country,
which may be regarded as the principal feat of their power,
was the Peloponnefus, of which they took poffeffion under
the conduét ef the Heraclide, about So years after the

DOR

taking of Troy, 1104 B.C. In the year rro2 B. C. the He-
raclidz divided among them the territories of the Pelopone
nefus, referving fome few towns to the Jonians upon the
borders of Achaia. The Dorians of Peloponnefus made
feveral irruptions on theterritoriesof Attica. Herodotus
reckons four of thefe expeditions. The firft was thatin
which they condvéted a colony to Megara; the fecond and
third, in which they expelled the Pififtratides; and the
fourth, in which Cleomenes conducted the Peloponnefians
againtt Eleufis. Their language, according to Strabo and
other writers, differed little from the /®olian. See Doric
and Doris.

DORIGNY, Micuaex, in Biography, a painter and
engraver, was born at St. Quentin in France, in the year
1617, and manifefling an early inclination for the arts, was
placed under Simon Vouet, a painter of great reputation,
whofe daughter he married. As a painter he copied the
manuer of his mafter, but he is better known as:an engravers
He performed his plates chiefly with the point in a bold,
powerful ftyle; the lights are broad and mafly, efpecially
upon the figures. But the marking of the folds of the dra-
peries, and the fhadows upon the outlines of the flefh, are
frequently fo dark asto produce a harfh, difagreeable effeét,
and fometimes entirely to deftroy the harmony of the en-
graving. Although he underftood the human figure, and
in fome intances it was corre€tly drawn; yet by following
the manner of Vouet inftead of the fimple forms of nature,
his outlines were affeied, and the extremiticsof his figures:
too much negle&ted.. This artift vas made profeffor of the
Royal Academy of Painting at Paris, where he died:
A. D. 1665, aged 48. His works are faid to have confifted:
of 105 prints. Amonglt thefe were ‘ the Adoration.of the
Magi,” ‘the Nativity of Chrift,”” ‘‘ Venus at her toilet,’
“Venus, Hepe, and Love, plucking the feathers from the
wings of Time,’’ ‘*Mercury and the Graces,”’ and “ the
Rape of Europa,” all from pictures of Vouet. He alfo
engraved from Le Seur, Sarafin, and other mafters. Strutts.

Doricny, Lewis, a painter of hiftory, fon ‘of the
former artift, was born at Paris in 1654; and having been:
inftru@ed by his father in the rudiments of his art, he be-
came on his death, at the age of ro years, a difciple of Le
Brun. Here he made confiderable progrefs ; but difap-
pointed in his expectations of obtaining the firft prize at
the Academy, he travelled to Italy, and ftudied for feveral
years at Rome, Venice, and Verona. He was highly com=
mended for the fertility of his invention, the grandeur of
his compofition, and the harmony of his colouring; but
difgufled by the unfavourable judgment pronounced on a
cieling at Paris, reprefenting the fall of Phaeton, he re=
turned to Veronaand there ended his days, in1742. His
principal work is the dome of the great church at Trent.
By the hand of this mafter we have feveral etchings, Pil-
kington and Strutt.

Doricny, Sir Nicmoras, Knight, an eminent engraver,
the brother of the preceding Lewis, was born at Paris in.
1657, and in confequence of the death of his father, whilft
he was young, wasbroughtup tothe law. But at the age
of 30 he quitted that’ profeflion, devoted himfelf to the
arts, and went to his brother at Rome to ftudy the principles.
of painting. By his brother’s advice, he took.up the point,
and produced feveral etchings. He afterwards refumed the
pencil. But again laying this alide, he began again to
engrave, and his firft productions are faid to have been the
feven planets from Raphael; and he alfo finifhed the trans
figuration, from the fame ma{ter. Advanced in reputation,
he was invited to England in order to engrave the cartoons,
then at Hampton-court. He arrived in June 1711; but as
he demanded the fum of four or five thoufand pounds, this

plan

DOrR

plan was rendered abortive, Afterwards he undertook to
execute it by fub{eription; and having apartments affigned
him at Hampten-court, he fent for Dupuis and Dubofe from
Paris to affilt him; but from fome difagreement that oc-
curred, they left-him, before the work was half completed.
In 1719, he prefented two complete fets to king George I.
anda fet a-piece to the prince and princefs; for which the
king gave him 100 guineas, and the prince a gold medal.
The duke of Devonfhire, who had affitted him, procured for
him, in 1720, the honour of knighthood. Hts eyes after-
wards failing him, he returned to Paris, where, in 1725, he
was made a member of the Royal Academy of Painting, and
died in 1746, aged 89.

His drawing was incorreét and affeGted; the naked parts
of his figures are often falfely marked, and the extremities
are defeétive. His draperies are coarfe, the folds ftiff and
hard ; and a manner of his own prevades all his prints, fo
that the ftyle of the painter is conftantly loftin that of the
engraver. Nor did he ever fail more than in working from
the paintings of Raphael. Bafan, with an excufable parti-
ality for his countryman, fays of him, ‘* we have many excel-
lent prints by his hand, in which one juftly admires the
good tafte of his drawing, and the intelligent pi€turefque
manner, which he acquired by the judicious reflections he
made upon the works of the great matters, during the refi-
dence of 22 years in Italy.”? We have of his prints the fol-
lowing, viz. ‘* St. Peter curing the lame man at the gate
of the temple,” from Civoli; “ the transfiguration” from
Raphael; ‘ the defcent from the crofs,” from Daniello da
Volterra; ‘‘ the martyrdom of St. Sebaltian,”” from Domi-
nichino, which twolaft are faid to be his beft prints; ‘* the
Trinity” from Guido, ‘* the hiftory of Cupidand Pfyche,”’
from Raphael’s pictures in the Vatican ; ‘ the Cartoons,’
feven very large plates from the pi€tures of Raphael. He
alfo engraved from Annibale Caracci, Lanfranche, Louis
Dorigny, and other matters. Strutt.

DORING, or Darine, among the Sport/inen, aterm ufed
to exprefs a method of taking larks, by means of a clap-net
and a looking-glafs. or this {port there muft be provided
four flicks, very ftraight and light, about the bignefs of a
pike ; two of thefe are to be four feet nine inches long, and
all notched at the edges, or at the end. At one end of each
of thofe fticks there 1s to be faftened another of about a foot
long on one fide; and on the other fide a {mall wooden peg,
about three incheslong. ‘Then four more fticks are to be
prepared, each of one foot length; and each of thefe muft
havea cord of nine feet Jong faltened to it at the end. Every
one fhould have a buckle for the commodious faftening on
to the refpective fticks when the net is to be {pread,

A cord mutt alfo be provided, which mutt have two
branches. ‘The one mutt be nine feet and a half, and the
other ten feet long, with a buckle at the end of each; the
reft or body of the cord muft be twenty-four yards long.
Allthefe cords,as well the long ones, as thofe about the {ticks,
mult be well twilted, and of the bignefs of one’s little finger.
The next thing to be provided is a ftaff of four feet long,
pointed at one end, and with a ball of wood on the other,
for carrying thefe convienences in a fack or wallet.

There fhould alfo be carried, on this occafion, a fpade
to level the ground where there may be any little irregula-
rities ; and two [mall rods, each eighteen inches long, and
having a {mall rod, fixed with a packthread at the larger
end of the other. To thefe are to be tied fome packthread
loops, which are to falten the legs of fome larks ; and there
are to be reels to thefe, that thefe birds may fly a little way
up and down,

When all this is done, the looking glafs is to be p epared

DprOTR

in the following manner. ‘Take a piece of weod, about an
inch and a half thick, and cut it in form of a baw, fo that
there may be about nine inches [pace between the two ends;
and let it have its full thicknefs at the bottom, that it may
receive into it a falfe piece; in the five corners of which,
there are to be let in five pieces of looking glafs. Thefe are
to be fixed, that they may part their light upwards, and the
whole machine is to be fupported on a moveabie pin,
with the end of a long line fixed to it; and made in the
manner of the children’s play-thing of an apple and a plumb-
ftone; fo that the other end of the cord being carried
through a hedge. the barely pulline it may fet the whole
machine of the glaffes a. turning. ‘This and the cther con-
trivances are to be placed in the middle between the two nets.
The larks fixed to the place, and termed calls, and the glit-
tering of the looking glaffcs, as they twirl round in the fun,
invite the other larks down ; and the cord that communicates
with the nets, and goes through the hedge, gives the perfon
behind an opportunity of pulling up the nets, fo as to meet
over the whole, and take every thing that is between them,
The places where this fort of {porting fucceeds belt are open
fields, remote from any trees or hedges, except one by way
of a fhelter for the fport{man, and the wind fhould always be
either in the front or back; for if it blows fideways, it pre-
vents the playing of the nets.

DORINGSTFADT, or Durinstart, in Geography, a
town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, and bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 14 miles N. of Bamberg.

DORINK, or Dortnc, Martratas, in Biography, a
learned German monk of the Francifean order, was bora
about the year r415 at Kiritz. In the year 1445, w
find him profeffor of theology in the univerfity of Mag-
deburg, difcharging the duties of his office with great
reputation. While he held this fituation, ftri@ures and
objeGions againft the fhort commentaries on the fcrip-
tures of Nicholas de Lyra, were publifhed by Paul de Bur-
gos; Dorink undertook their defence and farther illuftration,
The different pieces which he wrote on thefe fubjeGts were
collected together, and inferted in an edition comprehending
the works of both thofe authors, which was publithed in
Paris, in fix volumes folio, in the year 1590. his work
was well received, and went through feveral editions. To
Dorink is generally afcribed the ‘Miroir Hiftorial’? com-
monly known by the name of ‘¢ The Chronicle of Nurem-
burg,’’ and in this refpeét he is confidered as the forerunner
of the illuftrious Luther, the Chronicle being written with
fpirit and energy apainit the vices of the cardinals, the
bifhops, and the popes, and alfo again{t jubiiees and indul-
gences. Moreri.

DORIS, in Botany, according to Pliny, is a name fome-
times given, among many others, to a kind of baftard alkanet,
Anchufa, whofe root yields a red juice. The Jeaves are nar-
row, flaccid, and very wooily, and their juice, or that of the
feed, taken internally, is celebrated as extremely efficacious
againft the bites of ferpents Commentators have fuppofed
this planta {pecies of Lchium.

Doris, or the Doricde, in Ancient Geography, wasa country
of Greece, fituated on the fouth of Theflely, and feparated
from it by mount Oeta, anda ridge of other hills. On the
fouth it had Phocis and part of /Etolia; on the eatt it was
parted from the Locrii Epicnemide by the river Pindus;
and on the weft from Epirus and Acarnania by that of Ache-
lous. ‘The Cephifus was the only river of note which had its
fource in thiscountry ; but its mountains were numerous and
not inconfiderable, of which the molt famous were Octa and
Pindus, which, with fome others lefs remarkable, bounded
it on the north, as the Callidromians did on the welt.

Liz The

D..O-R 155;

The country, however, though mountainous, abounded with
{pacious plains, and was very fruitful. The air was falubrious,
and the foil capable of agricultural improvement. Its terri-
tory was not large, extending only about 40 miles in length,
that is, from 39° 10’ to 39° 50’ Jat., and about 20 miles in
breadth at the wideft part, or from 23° 10’ to 23° 30! E.
Jong., according to Piolemy, Strabo, Mela, Cellarius, Wells,
&c. ‘This country was called Doris, and the peoplg Dores
or Dorians, from Dorus the for of Hellen,-and grandfon of
“Deucalion, who is faid to have firft peopled or conquered it,
at leaft that part of it which lies below the mountains of
Osta and Pindus. It was aifo calied Tetrapolis from its four
cities, viz. Pindus, Erineus, Cytinium, and BoiumorBozum,
The Dores, though they inhabited a mountainous tradi, were
very polifhed in their manners, good orators, poets, and mufi-
cians, 2nd at the fame time ftout and wariike, and accuftomed
to wear a tuft of horfe-hair on their helmets, from which Ho-
mer ftyles them sgixxsve;. They extended their colonies to fe-
veral parts of Afia, and among others founded the city of
Chalcedon, on the Euxinefea ; and as they fent forth feveral
colonies, we find different countries called Doris. Thofe that
continued in their original fettlement were driven from it by
the Cadmzans, and forced for fome time to occupy the diftrias
about Macednum and Pindus; but they returned foon after
to Dryopis, (which {ee,) and the country about Oeta, where
they continued til] they madetheirdefcentinto the Peloponne-
fus with the Heraclide (fee Dorrenses), and whither they
carried alfo their diale&t, called from them Doric (which fee).
They alfo gave name to the Doric mufic, in oppofition to
that of the Lydians and Phrygians, and to the Doric order
in architeQure. Their chief city was called Doris, from the
founder of this kingdom. ‘This metropolis is mentioned by
Homer, Herodotus, and others. After thefe people made
their naval defcent into Peloponnefus, and their fettlement, in
this peninfula, with the Heraclidz, they built a flately tem-
ple to Jupiter Tropzeus, in memory of this great event. Such
indeed it was, and an{werable to the appellatiou given to this
deity, from cesxw, verio, fince it almoft overturned the whole
ftate of affairs in eli the different kingdoms and ftates of Pelo-
ponnefus, whofe cities were now forced to receive a garrifon
of Dorians, and to fubmit to a foreign government.

On the arrival of the Doriarsin Afia, they formed them-
felves into fix independent ftates, or fmall republics, which
were confined within the bounds of fo many cities ; thefe were
Lindus, Jalyfus, Camirus, Cos, Cnidus, and Halicarnaffus.
Other cities in that tra@, calied from them Doris, belonged
to their confederacy ; but the inhabitants of thefe alone, as
true and genuine Dorians, were admitted into their temple at
Triope, where they exhibited folemn games in honour of
Apollo Triopius. The prizes were tripods of brafs, which
the viGtors were obliged to confecrate to Apollo, and leave
in the temple on an altar of gold. When Agaficles of Ha-
licarnaffus won the prize, he tranfgreffed this cultom, and
carried the tripos to his own houfe ; on which accouat the
city of Halicarnaffus was ever 2‘:erwards excluded from the
Dorian confederacy; fo that the Dorians were, from that
time, known by the name of the five cities, or Pentapolis.
Herodot. |. i. c. 144.

Doris, in Zoology, a genus of the Mollufca tribe of
Vermes, including about thirty different fpecies. The body
is creeping, oblong, and flat beneath ; mouth placed below
on the anterior part; vent behind on the back, and fur-
rounded by a fringe; feelers from two to four, feated on
the upper part of the body in front, and retratile. Thefe
animals are of the marine kind, and are found principally
crawling on the rocks, or adhering to the zoophytes and
marine plants attached to them under the furface of the wae

ter. It is only occafionally that they are found at a dif.
tance from fhore in the open fea; they feed, like the greater
part of the mollufea, on other worms, and when fwimming
exhibit, a molt beautiful appearance, the horns, or ten=
tacula, and alfo the fringe furrounding the vent, both
which are retractile at the pleafure of the animal, being
then expanded. An isconfiderable number of the [pecies-
cccur in warm climates, efpecially in the Mediterranean ;
but according to the remarks of Dicquemere, they abound
moft in celder regions. Nearly ail the fpecies at preient
known have deen obferved by Muller in the northern feas.

The genus doris, as propofed by Linnzus, is not uniformly
adopted by the continental naturaifts of the prefent time.
It is difapproved by Muller in his ‘* Zoologia Danica.?”
Cuvier divides them into two diftin& genera, to one of which
he retains the Linnwan name, the other he calls tritanis, a
particular account of which may be feen in a memoir pub=
lifhed in the “Annales du Mufeum.”? Lamarck alfo di-
vides them into two genera in a fimilar manner. Linneus
was himfelf aware of fome objeétion to his genus doris, and
in order to comprehend even the few fpecies known in his
time, found it neceflary to conftitute two families or feGtions
for their reception, and Gmelin adopts the like fubdivifions
in the la& edition of the Syftema Nature. In both the
body is oblong and creeping, but in the tritonis is acumi-
nated behind, convex above, and flat beneath, with the f{pira-
cles prominent and difpofed like fcales or tubercles along
the back; the doris is flattifh, and free from thofe dorfal
{piracles. The diltin€tion between the two animals is well.
expreffed in the {pecies c/aviger, and argo, the firft of which.
is a tritonis, the other a doris of thofe authors.

‘ Species.
Verrucosa. Body covered with tubercles above. Linns
Limax marina verrucofa, Rumpf. Mztella verrucofa, Seba.
The body of this {pecies istoblong, and nearly cylindrical ;:
the back covered with warts; lateral margin deflected ;
pedal limb oval, oblong, and furnifhed with a {mooth margins
Inhabits the feas of Europe.

Ciavicer. Oval, white with fafiron-coloured clavate
pedicels on the back. Mill. Geknootide Zeeflakjemet,
Bommé.

Found on fuci in the Norway feas. The body is gelati-
nous and fub-pellucid ; head with a lateral yellow truncated
tubercle ; feelers faffron colour; tail pointed, and marked
with a yellow f{pot.

QuapxitineaTa. White with four black lines; auricles
fulphur. Miuil.

Like the former inhabits the Norway feas, and is found
adhering to fuci. The body is fometimes marked with ful-
phur fpots, and the tentacula are white.

Fascrcutata. Linear, grey brown, with fub-ferrugi+
nous acute papille on the back. Gmel. Limax marinuss
Forflx.

Inhabits the Mediterranean fea, and is generally found
adhering to fragments of timber floating inthe water. The
feelers are pale and pellucid.

Parittosa. Body covered above with papille; dorfal
line{mooth. Gmel. imax papillofus, Linn. Dorts /pinis
mollibus hirfuta, Balter. Doris bodoenfis, A&. havnienf.
Found in the European ocean.

Auricutata. White, with red dorfal faiciculate papil-
le tipt with white. Miiller. Difcovered in the Norway
feas.

Lacinurata. Whitifh, with fix obovate papillx. on
each fide the back, Forlk, Anim. Mar. a

Enhabits

DOR

Inhabits the deeps of the fea among fuci; it is a fmall
fpecies, :
Minima.
pille. — Forfkc.

A minute fpecies, about the fize of a grain of rice found on
fuci floating in the Mediterranean fea. The body is oblong,
the feelers white, and placed near the head; papiile nume-
rous, ovate-oblong, obtufe, and pale cinereous.

Cegvina. Reddifh cinereous, with eight branched pa-
pille onthe back, Gmel. Haarts hoorn gelyk getakie Zce-
fiakje, Bommé.

Length half an inch ; head and tail furnifhed with ramofe
papille. The {pecies inhabits Holland, and ie found adhering
to the fertularia abietina.

Pale cinereous, with four rows of dorfal pa-

Rapiata. Silvery-blue, beneath white, with lateral ex-
tenfile radiated fafciculate papille. Du Pont Phil. Tranf.
&c.

Inhabits the Weft Indian ccean. Thelength is about an
inch ; its colour pale blue, with a filvery glofs; the margin
and tips of all the papilla rich blue, obtufe in front, and
tapering to a fharp point behind.

Ccoronata. Miik-white, beneath hyaline; back dotted
with red with fix pyramidal papille, tipt with red eaci fide.
Gehnifde of gekroonde Zeefiakje, Bommé.

Lefs than an inch in length, and inhabits the fhores of
Holland.

Pennata. Back covered with fub-cylindrical papille,
incumbent towards the pofterior part. Gevederde of Zacht
gedoornte Zecflakje, Bommeé.

Inhabits the fhores of Holland, where it occurs on zoo-
phytes ; it varies in colour from reddifh to cinereous, and is
about the fize of the former.

Perecarina. Feelers four, not retraGtile; body milk-
white, with ten rows of blue-brown cirri or proceffes. Ca-
volin. Native of the Mediterran<an.

Arrinis. Feelers four, not retraGtile, annulated, and
tipt with white; body purple, with feven rows of dorlal
proceffes. Cavolin. Found in the Mediterranean.

TeTRAQuETRA. CQuadrangular, coriaceous, pointed be.
hind, above flat with carunculated clefts at the angles.
Pallas. :

Inhabits the feas about the Kurile iflands, where it is
boiled and eaten by the natives.

Fusca. Oval, and covered with a rough punctured

late. Mull. Limax bilamellatus, Fn. Suec. Doris bila-
mellata, Linn. Syft.

The body of this fpecies is glabrous, above pale brown
with cinereous dots, beneath white; plate dotted with ful-
phur; feelers two brown ; vent tran{verfe, and furrounded
with fix fulphur plumes.

OsveLaTa. White; body elongated with a flexuous
plate, punétured above. Mull. Concha fine teffa, Plancus.

Inhabits the bays of Norway, and moves like a fnail,
The body is fub-pellucid, beneath glabrous, plate rough,
with convex dots above; feclers fimple.

Muricara. Body oval, and covered ‘entirely with pale
yellow tubercles. Mill. Native of the Norway feas.

Pitosa. Body ovate, pale yellow, and covered with
foft white hairs; feelers fecreted within their receptacles.
Mull.

Leavis. Body oval and white; above Alattih and
fmooth. Miill. Inhabits the Norway feas.
Arporsscens. Feelers ramefe; back gibbous and

branching into protuberances. Mill.

Fronposa. Body entirely covered with numerous
branched cirri. Gmel. Amphitrite frondofa, Afcanius.
Found in.the Norway feas.

DOR

Arco. Body oval, {mooth, with two {mall feelers at the
mouth; vent furrounded by a ramified fringe. Linn. J4rgo,
Bohadfch. Lepus marinus, alter major, Column. Limace a
Plante, Dicquemere.

Body red with fulphur fpots and black dots; feelers
white, dotted at the tips with red; ramified fringe of the
vent fulphur dotted with black. Inhabits European and
Mediterranean feas.

Srevzara. Body oval, with an eight-rayed ftar at the
veut, the raysramofe. Gmel. Legeltje met ceneffer op de
uit. Bommé.

Inhabits the fhores of Zealand; body whitifh-grey, be«
neath flat, and covered above with obtufe tubercles.

DORISCI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, who,
according to Pliny, inhabited the confines of Aria, Carma-
nia, and Drangitana towards te weft of Parthia.

DORISCUS, a plain of Thrace, near the Aigean fea and
the mouths of the river Hebrus, on which, according to
Herodotus, was a royal fortrefs, and where Xerxes reviewed
his army in bodies of 10,000 men, becanfe it could not con-
tain a greater number. It extended to the promontory Serr
hium.—A\fo, a promontory of Greece, in Attica, near the
promontory of Sunium. Pliny,

DORIUM, a town of the Peloponnefus, in Meffenia.
Panfanias.— Al fo, atown of Greece, in the ifland of Euboea,
Strabo.—Alfo, a town of the fame name in Thrace.

DORKIAN, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia; 44 miles W. of+Sinope.

DORKING, a market-town and parifh in the hundred of
Wotton, in the county of Surry, England, is feated on the
banks of theriver Mole, Moft of the houfes are built on the
fide of a hill, which confifts of a foft fand-itone. This is exca-
vated in many places for cellars, &c. The fcenery of the coun-
try in the vicinity is diftinguifhed by bold eminences and fertile
vales; and many gentlemen’s feats are within a {mall diftance
of the town. Ohne of them, called Deepden, formerly be-
longed to the family of the Howards, dukes of Norfolk, in
whom the manor is velted. The cuftom, called Borough-
Englifh, prevails in this manor; by which the youngef fon
becomes heir to a copyhold eftate in cafe the parent dies in-
teftate. Anold Roman road, or caufeway, called Stone-ftreet,
croffed the country at this place, and fome remains of-it are
faid to have been found in the church-yard. The church, a
large, ancient ftru€ture, was formerly connected with that of
St. Mary Overy’s, in Southwark, and is faid to have been
ereSted and made collegiate by the founder of that building.
The chief ftreets of, Dorking are paved ; and betides a com-
modidus work-houfe, here are fome alms-houfes. Dorking
has long been noted for the fuperior fize and quality of the
poultry that are bred and fattened here, the greater part of
which is fent to the London markets. Some of the capons
weigh feven and eight pounds each when prepared for roaft-
ing. Great quantities of linen are made in the vicinity of
the town, and in the neighbourhood are feveral corn-mills.
Dorking is about eight miles from Epfom, and 24 miles
S. W. of London. According to the parliamentary report
it contained, in 1801, 570 houfes, and 3058 inhabitants.
Here is a weekly market on Thurfdays, and one annual faire.

In the vicinity of Dorking is Denbighs, a feat belonging
to Jofeph Denifon, efq. It was rendered remarkable by its
gardens, which were planted, laid out, &c. by Jonathan
Tyers, the firlt proprietor of Vauxhall gardens, who had
caves made in the fide of the hill. One of thefe was fingue
larly conitru€&ted and ornamented, and was called, with its
accompaniments, ‘* The Valley of the fhadow of Death.”

DORKOWKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 44 miles S.S,E of Braclaw.

DORMAGENs,

DOR
DORMAGEN, a {mall town of France, in the depart-

ment of the Roer, chief place of a canton, in the diftriat of
Cologne, with a population of 834 individuais. - The canton
reckons 10.516 inhabitants, difperfed in 15 communes,

DORMANS, a imall town of France, in the department
of the Marne, chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Eper-
nay. It is fituated on the river Marne, 12 miles E. of
Epernay, and five W. of Chateau-Thierry. The number
of its inhabitants amounts to 2108. ‘The canton itfelf has a
population of 8554 individuals difperfed in r5 communes,
upon a territorial extent of 1874 kilometres.

DORMANT, from dormio, I fleep, is the herald’s term
for the polture of a lion, or other beat, borne as fleeping in
a coat of arms.

DORMANT-rres, or Summer, in Building, a beam of
timber tenoned into a girder for fupporting the ends of joilts
on both fides of it.

Dormant, or Dormar-tyles. See Tyre.

DORMER, or Dormant, in ArchiteGure, denotes a
window made in the roof of a houfe, or above the entabla-
ture ; being raifed upon the rafters.

The Latins call it /ucerna, whence the French /ucerne, and
our luthern,

There are diverfe kinds; {quare, round, &c.
THERN.

DORMITORY, a galleryin convents, or religious honfes,
divided into feveral ceils, wherein the religious lodge, or
he, &c.

The word is formed fron. the Latin dormitorium; of der-
mire, to fleep.

It is deemed a crime in a religious to lie out of the dor-
mitory. By chap. xxit. of the rule of St. Benedi&, it ap-
pears that the ancient dormitories were not divided into cells,
but were a kind of large open wards, filled with beds, as in
our hofpitals.

By the rule of St. Benedi& a lamp was to be kept con-
ftantly burning in the dormitory, and the monks were to
fleep in their full drefs, only laying afide the knives which
they carried at their girdles, for fear of hurting themfelves in
their fleep. ‘The proper fituation for the dormitory, as we
gather from the capitularies and from aGtual infpeétion, was
the eaft fide of the great cloifter or quadrangle, upon the
upper floor, from which there were ftairs into the fouth tran-
fept of the church, fo that the monks could readily defcend
from their fleeping-room into the choir to perform their mid-
night and early offices.

Dormirory is allo ufed fora burying-place. See Coz-
METERIUM.

DORMOUSE, in Zoolgy. See Mvoxus.

Dormouse, firiped. See Scrurus Striatus.

DORNABAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Chorafan; 150 miles N. W. of Herat.

DORNBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and principality of Heffe Darmftadt; eight
miles W.N.W. of Darmftadt. -

DORNBEUREN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Bregentz ; five miles S. of Bregentz.

DORNBURG, in French Dornzoure, or Dornebourg,
a fmall town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Weimar,
fituated on the Saale, upon a fteep hill, durmounted with an
ancient cattle, fix miles N. of Jena. It has but 400 inha-
bitants, moftly {tocking manufa@urers and cotton fpinners.

Ite name is derived from the northern pagan deity called
Thor, whofe idol was worfhipped on this hill.—Alfo, an an-
cient caftle in the principality of Anhalt-Zerbft.

DORNE, a {mall town of France, in the department of
the Niévre, diftri& of Nevers.

See Lu-

It contains 960 inhabitants, ~

Bok

and is the chief place of a canton which has a population of
5572 individuals, 10 communes, and a territorial extent of
2574 kilometres.

“DORNECK, or Dornacu, a fmall town of Switzer-
land, in the canton of Soleure, with a ftrong cattle, and the
celebrated convent of Marie-Stein. It is fituated in a very
fertile country ; and is chiefly famous for the battle which
the Auftrians loft near this place againft the Swifs, on the
12th of July 1799. The Swifs were only 50co againtft
t5,0co Auftrians, of whom they killed 3000, whofe bones
were depofited in a chapel built for that purpofe. There are
feversl parifhes belonging to the diftri& of Dorneck.

DORNECY, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Niézre; fix miles E. of Clamecy.

DORNHEIM, or Dornuan, a {mall town of the king-
dom of Wurtemberg, in the Black Foret. the diltiG of which
comprizes the parifhes of Furnfaal and Underbrandi,—Alfo,
an ancient ruined caftle, in the grand duchy ef Heffe-Darm-
ftadt, in Germany, near the town of Darmitadt, where the
emperor Adolphus of Naflau was killed, in the year 1298,
by Albert I. of Auttria.

DORNUM, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and county of Eaft Frifeland; fix miles W.S.W. of
Efens. :

DORNOCK, ‘a royal borough and county town of
Sutherland, Scetland.— Alfo, the name of an extenfive parifh,
of which this town is the capital. ‘The town ftands on the
northern coaft of the Frith of Dornock, and was confti-
tuted a royal borough by charter from king Charles I.; by
which its government is vefted in a provolt, four bailies, and
ten counfellors, four of whom are annually changed. It eon-
tains about 500 inhabitants, Dornock was anciently the feat
of the bifhop of Caithnefs, and a part of the cathedral is ftill
kept in repair asthe parifh church. It is uncertain when the
fee of Caithnefs was eftablifhed; but it muft have exifted
before the year 1150, as we find Andrew bifhop of Caith-
nefs, a witnefs to a donation by David I. to the abbey of
Duntferline in that year.

Dornocx-Frira, fometimes called the Frith of Tain, is
that arm of the fea which divides the fouthern parts of Suthers
land from the county of Rofs. The entrance of this frith
is nearly 15 miles wide, and gradually becomes narrower, till
about three miles welt of the town of Dornock; its breadth
is not above two meafured miles. After this it increafes in
width, and forms an inner harbour or bay, where a ferry Is
eftablithed, called the Little-ferry. Sinclair?s Statiftical Ac-
count of Scotland.

Dornock, in the Manufudures, is a {pecies of figured li-
nen of a very ftout fabric, manufa€tured chiefly in the north of
Scotland, and ufed for table cloths. It is the moft fimple
in pattern of all the varieties of this manufaGure, and
therefore the fabrics are generally of the coarfeft kinds, the
finer forts of table linen being ufually more ornamented,
and woven either as diaper, or damafk. A large proportion
of the dornocks, which are made in Scotland, are woven
by thofe who are termed cuftomer weavers, who receive
linen yarn, fpun from flax raifed at home, from thofe who
employ them, and return the cloth, charging a certain price
for the weaving, In many diftrits, particularly the mott re-
mote ones, the greater part of every {pecies of houfehold cloth
is manufactured in this way, a fufficient quantity of yarn
being {pun in moft country families during the intervals
of their other labour, to fupply their own wants, and fre-
quently a furplus to fell at fome neighbouring fair, or
market, This trade, however, feems much upon the de-
cline. ,

Dornock, like every other fpecies of fanciful twilled

7 cloth,

DOR

eloth, receives the figure by reverfing the flufhing of the
warp and woof at certain intervals, which form fquare, or
oblong figures upon the cloth. The moft fimple of thefe,
is a fucceffion of alternate {quares, forming an imitation of
a checker board, or mofaic pavement. ‘The coarfer kinds
are generally wrought, as tweels of three leaves, where every
thread floats over two, and is interfected by the third in
fucceffion. Some of the finer are tweels of four and five
leaves, but few of more; for the fix and feven-leaf
tweels are feldom, if ever, uled, and the eight leaf tweel is
confined almoft exctufively to damafk. A reprefentation of
dornock, as it appears upon defign paper, is given in Plate
A, and the manner of mounting the loom in Plate C. Plate
VILL. Mifcellany. See Deavcut and Cording.

DORNOLL, in Geography, a river of Wales, which runs
into the Wye, in the fouthern part of the county of Mont-

omery.

' DOROBITZA, in Ancient Geography, a town and alfo
a river of lilyria.

DOROBOI, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Moldavia; 68 miles N.N.W. of Jafli, and
142 N.W. of Bender.

DOROG, a town of Hungary; 6 miles S. E. of
Nanas.

DOROGOBUSH, atown of Roffia, and one of the
72 diftrids of the government of Smolenf{ko, fituated on
the Dnieper; 40 miles E.N.E. of Smolenfko. See Do-
GOROBUSH.

DOROJATEWICZE, a town of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Brzefc ; go miles E. of Brzefc.

- DORON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Cili-
cia. Pliny.

Doron. See Dora.

DORONICI Rapix, in the Materia Medica, the name
of aroot kept in the fhops in fome places, but at prefent
little ufed. There are two kinds of it, the Roman and the
German. The Roman is a {mall yellow root, appearing
white when broken, of a {weet aftringent tafte, and vifcous
inthe mouth. The faireft and plumpett roots fhovid be
chofen, and fuch as are frefix dried, or at leaft not worm-
eaten. The root is brought from the Alps, and fome other
places. ‘Phe plant which produces itis the doronicum offi-
einarum of Gerrard, and is kept with us’ in the gardens of
the curious. The leaves are broad, and the flower is yel-
low, and of the fize of a marygold-

“It is faid to be an alexipharmic, but is not ufed in the
prefent praftice, Authors are indeed not at all agreed
about its nature ; fome accounting it a very valuable medi-
cine, and others a poifon,

The German doronicum is a native of the mountainous
parts of Germany, znd flowers through the fummer. The
leaves and flowers bruifed, emit a light pungent {mell, which
provokes fneezing. They yield their virtues by infufion,
both to water, and rectified {pirit ; the roote are more aro-
matic than the other parts. This plant has been efteemed
in Germany as a fpecific for diffolving coagulated blood, oc-
cafioned by falls and bruifes, and thence has been intitled
lapforum panacea. It is likewife recommended in various
obftinate chronical diforders; but its operation is too violent.
Lewis’s Mat. Med. p. 225. See Durunect.

DORONICUM, in Botany, (Doronigi or Durungi of
the Arabians, according to Ambrofinus. Hence Linneus
in Phil. Bor. feét. 229, enumerates it among the barbarous
names, which ought to be rejected ; but he veverthelefs re-
tained it, becaufe perhaps its found, if not its fenfe, was
Greek; of which he gives other inftances in the place juft

quoteds) Linn. Gen. 427. Schireb. 559. Willd. Sp. Pl

DOR

v. 3» 211g. Mart. Mill. DiG&.v. 2. Joff. 182. Gertn.
t.173. Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia fuperfiua. Nat.
Ord. Corymbifere, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx of about twenty lancect-awl-
fhaped, equal, ereé& leaves, in a doubie row, moftly as long
as the rays of the corolla. Gor. compound, radiated; the
united florets tubular, five-cleft, numerous, in the difl;
the female ones ligulate, three-toothed, in the radius, equal
in number to the calyx-leaves. Svam., in the united florets,
filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers in a cylinder,
tubular, Pi/?., in the united florets, germen oblong; ftyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftigma notched;
in the female ones, germen and ftyle as in the former ; ftig-
mas two, reflexed. eric. none, except the flightly clofed
calyx. Seed, in the united florets, folitary, obovate, com-
prefled, furrowed ; down capillary ; in the female ones lefs
compreffed, without any down. Recept. naked, flat.

Eff, Ch. Receptacle naked. Down fimple. Calyx-
feales equal, in two rows, longer than the difk. Seeds of
the radius deftitute of down.

This genus is next akin to 4rnica, which fee, agreeing
with it very much in habit, but differing in the want of
down to the feeds of the radius, as well as of the five bar-
ren filaments in the radiant florets. Doronicum Bellidiaflrum,
Linn. Sp. Pl. r247- Jacq. Auftr. t. 400, a plant ex-
tremely hke our Daily, Bellis perennis, but tatler, is remove
ed to Arnica by Viilars, Gertner, and Willdenow, becaufe
all its feeds are furnifhed with down.

D. Pardalianches, Linn. Sp. Pi. 1247." Fl. Brit, 896.
Engl. Bot. t. 630. Jacq. Auttr. t. 350, (of which D. au/-
triacum, Jacq. Aultr. t. 130, is certainly a variety,) is found
in fome parts of England, and the lowlands of Scotland; as
well as in Sweden, Germany, and Switzerland. It is not
unfrequent in ruftic gardens, and is one of the few fynge-
nefious flowers, that bloom in the fpring. The corolla is
of a light yellow, the herbage a pale green. The root,
which ts creeping and tuberous, hasbeen thought poifonous
to bealts of prey, whence the fpecific name ; while on the
other hand it has, with as little reafon probably, been fup-
pofed an antidote to poifon. Some phyticians of eminence
have found it fafe to adminifer two drams at a dofe, though
not in any cafe beneficial. D. plantagineum, Linn. Sp. Pl.
1247, (DL. minus officinarum; Ger. em. 759. f. 1.) 18 an
ambiguous {pecies, having fometimes down to ail the feeds.
It grows in the warmer parts of Europe, and has ovate or
lanceolate, net heart-fhaped, radical leaves. Its qualities
are fuppofed to be like thofe of the preceding. LD. glutino-
Jum, Wiild. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2115, (After glutinofus ; Cavan.
Ic. t. 165.) a native of Mexico, can fearcely belong to this
genus on account of its imbricated calyx, neither is its
habit that of a Doronicum.

Propagation and Culture-—The genuine f{pecies of this
genus are hardy perennjals, encreafing much by their roots,
which may be parted in autumn, and eafily raifed from
feed, which is produced in great plenty.

DORONINSK, in Geography, a town of Raffia, and one
of the four diftriéts in the province of Nertchinik, and go-
vernment of Irkutfl, fituated on the Ingoda; 280 miles
E.S.E, of Irkutfle.

DORONK, a town of Egypt; 2 miles S. of Sitt.

DOROSTAY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Volhynia; 16 miles’ S.E. of Lucko.

DOROSTO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bulgaria,
taken by Zimifus in the year 973.

DORP Asner, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
country of Yemen; 44 miles N. of Chamir.

DORPAT, or Doxer, a town of Ruflia, ia the age:

rs)

‘DOR

of Livonia, government of Riga, on the river Embeck, called

Hy the Eithonians Emma-Joggi, i. c. mother river, not far

from the lake Peipus. It is the feat of an univerfity ree

cently eftablifhed by the emperor Alexander. Its annual
revenue granted by the infrument of its foundation, dated
the 12th of December, 1802, old ftyle, amounts to 126,090
roubles. The amphitheatre for anatomy js placed on a

. {mall eminence, in a pleafant airy fituation, furrounded with
new plantations. The library is placed in the cld cathedral
church, which is a fine monument of the archite@ture of the
mid ¢ The univerfity of Dorpat has the dire€tion of
all the fchools in the four provinces of Livonia, Courland,
Fiona; and E&honta.

DORRA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan ;
18 miles E.S.E. of Kin.

DORRBERG, a {mall town of Germany, in the duchy
of Saxe-Gotha, in the Thuringian foreft, the inhabitants of
which manufa@ure lamp-black, and near which there is an
extenfive iron-work.

DORSAL, from dor/um, back, any thing that belongs
to the back: as dorfal glands, dorfal nerves, dorfal mulcles.

DORSANE, Antuony, in Biography, a French divine,
who flourifhed in the 17th aed 18th ceftturies. During his
ecclefiaitical career he became dodtor of the Sorbonne,
chanter of the church of Paris, and grand vicar and official
of that diocefe, under cardinal de Noatlles. He was author
of * A Journal,” which gives the hiftory, and moft inte-
refting circumftances which took place at Rome and in
France, during the celebrated negociation refpecting the
conititution, or bull unigenitus, in two volumes, ato. Thofe
who are defirous of feeing a detail of the molt minute cir-
cumftances conneéted with this negociation, will find all
that they can wifh for in the ‘¢ Journal,” written in fimple
but clear language. The belt edition of this work is the
fecond. which was publifhed in 1756.

DORSCH, or Torsx, in Jchthyography, the common
name of a {mail fifth of the cod-kind, frequent in the Baltic,
but more rare in other feas, and called by authors the afel-
lus varius, or ftriatus. See Gapnus Callarias.

DORSET, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the
flate of Vermont, and county of Bennington, having Rupert
to the weft, Manchetter to the fouth, «nd Danby to the
north, containing g58 inhabitants; 27 miles N. by E. from
Bennington.

Dorser and Somerfet Canal, is the parliamentary name of
a navigable canal in Wiltfhire, Somerfetfhire, and Dorfet-
fhire, intended to be about 40 miles lonz ; it commences 1n
the Kennet and Avon canal near Bradford, and ts to termi-
nate in the Chriftchurch Stour river, in Shilling-{tone, Oke-
ford. A branch of this canal extends to Nettlebridge col-
lieries, in Midfummer-Norton. See Canat.

DORSETSHIRE, a maritime county on the fouthern
coaft of England, is bounded on the north by Wiltfhire and
Somerfetthire: on the eaft by Hampfhire; on the weft by
Devonthire, and part of Somerfetthire ; and on the fouth by
the Brith Channel. It is of a very irregular form: its
long northera fide has a confiderable angular projection in
the middle; the fea-fhore on the fouth runs eut into numer-
ous points and head-lands, till it ftretches to the ifle or pro-
montory of Portland; thence weftward the coaft is not fo
deeply indented, but inclines obliquely towards Devonthire.
its extent, from north to fouth, is about thirty-five miles;
from eatt to weft, about fifty-five: the circumference being
nearly 160. The area includes about 775,000 acres; and
has five grand divifions, fubdivided into 34 hundreds, con-
taining upwards of 3990 parifhes, 22 towns, about 22,260
houfes, and 115,320 inhabitants. Before the invafion of

2

dle uge.

DOR

the Romans, Dorfetthire, according to Ptolemy, and fome
other writers, was inhabited by the Durotriges, or Morini.
On the divifion of the ifland into Roman provinces, this
diftri& became part of Britannia Prima; and on the efta-
blifhment of the Saxons, was included in the kingdom of
Weffex, to which it continued attached till the union of the
different ftates under Egbert. Many of the Saxon fovereiyrs
appear to have lived in thie county ; aud King{ton-hail, and
Corfe-caftle, are pointed out by tradition as their places of
refidence. The general appearance of Dorfetfhire is uneven,
and in many parts very billy. Its moft ftriking ‘features are
the open and uninclofed parte, or downs, which are covered
with numerons flocks of fheep. In the natural divifion of
the lands, the larger proportion is appropriated to pafture ;
the orable is eftimated at one-third, and the wafte et about a
ninth part: the principa! fheep country is round Dorchefter.
Great numbers of fheep and oxen are fed in the vale of
Blackmore, which is diftinguifhed for the richnefs of its
pafturage, and extends from north to fsuth about nineteen
miles, and from ecalt to weft about fourteen: here are alfo
feme orchards. Many of the other vales, on the fouth-
weltern fide, are uncommonly luxuriant. From the mild.
nefs of the air, and the beauty of its fituation, Dorchefter
has been termed the garden of England. The foils are
various. About Bridport the lower lands are moftly deep
rich loams; on the higher parts, throughout the weftern
diftriét, the foil is a fandy loam, intermixed with a bale kind
of flint, and well adapted to the growth of beech. To the
north of Sherborne, which affords fome of the beft arable
land in the county. it ts a fone brack, which is the cafe in
the ifle of Portland, and molt parts of the ifle of Purbeck.
The tillage in the open parts of the country is very much
upon a chalk bottom, and all the land towards Abbotfbury
and Weymouth is of an inferior quality. In the centre of
the county the foil is good, and the land well managed. The
growth of flax and hemp, particularly the former, is of great
agricultural importance, efpecially about Bridport, the vil-
lege of Bradpole, and towards Beminfter, where it is chiefly
cultivated. The beit feed is annually imported from Riga,
The land is frequently let to a middle man, called a flax-
jobber, who pays the farmer a net fum of four or five pounds
per acre, manages thie Crop, finds the feed and labour, and
expects nothing from the farmer but ploughing, and the dif-
‘charge of the parochial taxes. Tne chief produéts of Dor-
fetfhire are corn, cattle, butter, fheep, wool, timber, flax,
and hemp. The cattle, and particularly the fheep, have
long been celebrated. Dyer has enumerated this tra&
among the moft favourite {pote for the breeding of this ufe<
ful animal :

« Such Dorcheftrian fields,
Whole Siocks innumerous whiten all the land.’?

The number of fheep conftantly kept in this county ia efti-
mated at 800,000, of which upwards of 150,000 are annu-
ally fold, and fent away. They are highly efleemed for the
finenels, fhortnefs, and clofe texture of their wool, which is
much ufed in the manufaGure of broad cloth. The annual
produce of this wool is reckoned to be g0,0c0 weighs, or
weights, of thirty-one pounds each. Within cight miles
round Dorchetter, nearly 170.000 fheep and lambs are fup-_
pofed to be kept. The ifle of Purbeck is famous for its
ftone quarries; fome of the ftone taking a polifh nearly
equal to marble, is ufed for chimney-pieces, hearths, &c.
and the coarfer kinds for paving. The ifle of Portland pro-
duces excellent free-ftone, which has been ufed in building
Whitehall, in London; alfo St. Paul’s, Weftminfter and
Blackfriars bridge, with many other public ftru@tures. we
e

DOR

The principal manufaGiure of this county is that of flax
and hemp, which is chiefly carried on in the vicinity of
Bridport and Beminkter: and, on a{maller fcale, in the ifle
of Purbeck. At Shaft<fbury is a manufaGory for ail kinds
of fhirt-buttons, which employs great numbers of women
and children: a fort of flannel or coarfe white woollen cloth,
called fwan-fkin, is alfo made in this town; but the chief
trade in this branch is carricd on at Sherminfter. A large
manufactory of fhirt-buttons is alfo carried on at Blandford.
At Stalbridee is an eftablifhment for {pinning filk; and at
Sherborne another on a Jarger fcale. At Wimborne, con-
fiderable bufinefs is tranfacted in the worlted flocking
branch ; and upwards of 1000 women and children are em-
ployed in knitting.

Dorfetfhire was anciently a bifhop’s fee, but was after-
wards connected at different periods, with the fees of Ox-
ford, Winchefter, Sherborne, and Sarum: it was feparated
from the latter in the thirty-firlt year of Henry ViII., when
it was conftituted part of the newly ere&ted bifhopric of
Briftol, to which it {till belongs. It pays nine parts of the
land tax ; fupplies the militia with 640 men ; and fends 20
members to parliament, viz. two for the county, and two
for each of the boroughs of Dorchefter, Poole, Lyme-Regis,
Weymouth, Melcombe- Regis, Bridport, Shaftefbury, Ware-
ham, and Corfe-caftle.

“The Roman ftations in Dorfethhire appear, according to
the beft authorities, to have been Londinis, Lyme-Regis ;
Canca Arisa, Charmouth ; Durnovaria, Dorchefter; Vin-
dogladia, Wimborne-Mintter ; Clavinio, Weymouth; JZo-
rinio, Wareham; Bolclaunio, Poole.

The principal rivers of Dorfetfhire are the Frome, the
Stour, the Piddle, and the Ivel. The Frome rifes in the
north-weltern part of the county, near Everfhot, and having
received fome {maller ftreams from the vicinity of Hook- park,
flows by Catltock, Maiden Newton, Frampton, and Brad-
ford Peveril to Dorchefter. Thence pafling to the fouth-
ealt, it receives the waters of the Winterbourne, at Frome
Belet, and flowing, onward, pafles Moreton, Bindon, and
Wareham, about three miles from which it fails into Poole
bay. The Stour enters this county from Wiltfhire, near
Gillingham, below which it gives name to feveral villages.
For fome miles its courfe is nearly fou'h, but having reached
Sturminiter, it proceeds ina fouth-ealtwardly direction to-
wards Blandford, Sturminfter.Marfhali Wimborne, and Par-
Jey, at a little diftance from which it enters Hamphhire.
Several rivulets flow into it during its progrefs through this
county. "Fhe Piddle, called Trent by Affer, rifes north-
ward of Piddle Trenthyde-church) and flowing to the fouth-
eaft, gives name to feveral {mall villages and hamlets : near
Keyfworth, it unites with the waters of Poole bay. The
lvel,. anciently named Yoo, has its origgn from feveral
fprings, at a place called Horethorn, in a hill north-eatt
from Sherborne; from which town it flows into Somerfet-
fhire, and fails into the Parret. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. iv. Hutchins’s Hiftory of Dorfetfhire; new
edition by Gough, Agricultural Report for Dorfethhire.

DORSI Larissimus, ir Anatomy, {terfor ani, {calptor ani,
le grand dorfal, )is one of the mufcles which move the humerus
on the fcapula, fo named from its great breadth, ag it covers
the lower half of the pofterior furface of the trunk, immedi-
ately under the integuments. It arifes by a thin and flat
tendon from the fpinous proceffes of the five, fix, or feven
loweft dorfal vertebra ; from the fpinous proceffes of all the
lumbar vertebra, and of the facrum; from the oblique pro-
ceffes of the factum ; from the margin of the glutens maxi-
mus, with which it is united; and from the outer margin
of the back part of the crifta of the ileum; by flefhy flips

Vou, XII,

DOR

'
from the outer furface of the four lower ribs, the portion
derived from the twelfth rib being the broade#, and that
from the ninth the narroweft. Thefe portions meet with the
origins of the obliquus externus abdominis. Its tendinous
origin is thin and broad ; narrower at the upper part, but
expanding to a breadth of three or four inches below, and
clofely conneéted to the tendons of the ferratus inferior pof-
ticus and obliquus internus abdominis. Its fibres all cor
verge towards one point, hence they tollow different direc-
tions according to their orizins; but the greater part pafles
obliquely upwards and ovtwards, The fuperior fibres are
nearly traniverfe; they become more and more oblique as
we defcend; and thofe arifing from the ribs afcend‘almolt
in a ftraight direftion. As the mufcle procecds towards its
infertion, it becomes narrower but thicker ; it goes over the
_inferior angle of the fcapula, from which it fometimes derives
a fafciculus of fibres, and lying on the teres major, forma a
flattened but ftrong tendon, united to that mufcle. Tt then
turns fo as to get in front of the teres, and is inferted either
together with that mufcle, or immediately in front of it,
into the rough line that runs along the humerus fromthe
{maller tubercle of the bone. The tevdon has a twiled ap.
pearance ; the fuperior fibres of the mufcle joining its infe-
tior edge, and vice verfa. It joins that of the pectoralis in
the bicipital groove, and its Jower edge is conneéted with
the fafciz. The latiflimus dorfi is covered externally by the
fkin, except at its origin from the dorfal vertebrae, where the
trapezius Jics on it, and at its infertion where the teres ma-
jor covers it. It covers a {mall portion of the rhomboideus
major, the facrolumbalis and longiffimus dorfi, the ferratus
polticus inferior, a very {mall portion of the obliquus exter-
nus abdominis, and a larger part of the obliquus internus,
the outer furface of the fix or feven laft ribs, and the core
refponding intercoftal mufcles, the inferior angle of the fca-
pula, the ferratus magnus, and the teres major.

This mufcle will move the arm, chett, pelvis, and at the
fame time the whole trunk. Its aétion on. the former des
pends on the pofition of the limb. If that hangs by the
fide, it will be carried backwards, and hence the names of
{calptor and terfor ani formerly given to the mulcle ; if it
has been previoufly elevated, the latiffimus dorfi will draw it
down, if rotated outwards it willturn it in the oppolite di-
re€tion. The chelt is affet&ted by its coftal fibres, which are
~exerted particularly when refpiration is laborious; and hence
we oblerve afthmatics feizing fome fixed obje@&, in order to
render the humerus a fixed point to which the ribs may be
elevated. The latiflimus dorfi elevates the trunk to the up-
per limbs when the latter are fixed to any object above the
head, as to the branch of a tree in climbing, and carries the
body forwards upon the fame limbs when we walk with
crutches, or when we make an impreffion with a feal, In
this clafs of ations it concurs with the pedtoralis major.
It may alfo be regarded as a tenfor of the aponcurofis which
covers the lumbar mufcles.

Dorsi Longiffimus, (le long dorfal) one of the mufcles
of the back, fo called from its great length. A common
mafs of mufcular and tendinous fibres filling the hollow at
the fide of the loins and facrum, gives origin to the longif-
fimus dorfi and facrolumbalis mu{cles. This mafs, which is
very thick and flattened on its furface, extends from the
lower part of the facrum nearly to the lafl rib, and is covered
by a broad and ftrong aponeurofis, from which all the muf-
cular fibres proceed. ‘The aponeurofis is attached to the
back end of the crifta ili, and to the lower extremity of the
facrum, being conne€ed between thefe points to the gluteus
magnus. It 1s fixed to the whole of the {pinous procefles of
the facrum and of the lumbar vertebra. It covers on the

facrum

DO! ae

Aacrum the whole of the common origin of the two muifcles,
but in the loins leaves the facrolumbalis, and is continued
throughout the whole length of the longiffimus dorfi. The
latter mufcle has an elongated form, thick below, and gra-
dually tapering to a point above, and extends in a line pa-
ralll to the {pine from the end of the facrum to the firft
dorfal verzebra. Its fibres are derived from the anterior fur-
face of the aponeurofis juft deferibed; they pafs obliquely
upwards, and detach, as they afcend, feven or eight flat-
tened Acfhy heads, which are inferted into the lower margin
of the fame number of ribs; on the oppofite fide it fends a
tendinous attachment to the tranfverfe procefa of each lum-
bar and dorfal vertebra.

The multifidus {pine, complexus, and tranfverfalis colli
lie along its inner edge, the facrolumbalis on its outer. Its
polterior furface is covered by the aponeurofis of the obliquus
internus and tranfverfalis abdominis, by the poltcrior ferrati,
and the vertebra! fafcia; while it lies in front on the leva-
tores voftarum and ribs. It extends the {pine, reftoring the
vertebral column to its ere& {tate after it has been bent for-
wards, and being ina ftate of con{tant action, in order to
maintain the ere&t pofition of the trunk, which naturally
tends to fall forwards.

Dorst femifpinalis, (demi-cpineux, or tranfverfaire epineux
du dos), one of the mulcies of the back, It arifes from
the tranfverfe proceffes of four vertebrae towards the lower
part of the back, and is inferted into the {pinous proceffes
of the two or three fuperior dorfal, and the laf cervical
vertebre. It is fo connected to the multifidus fpine on
which it lies, and to the femifpinalis colli, that it can with
difficulty be made out feparately. It extends the dorfal
region of the fpine. Yih

Dons: /pinalis, is a’{mall mufcle of the back, molt inti-
mately connected with the longiffimus dorfi, of which it may
be confidered to forma part. It arifes from the fpines of
the lower, and is inferted into thofe of the upper vertebra of
the back, and adheres clof<ly to the inner edge of the tendon
of the longiffimus, lying between it and the {pinous procefles.
It will extend the back, and move it to one fide.

Dorst inter/pinales, and inlertran/verfarii, are fome {mall
mu(cles, of which the former lie between the f{pinous, and
the latter between the tran{verfe procefles of the contiguous
vertebra. They are only found in the lower part of the
back, and have the cffice of approximating the bones to
which they are connected.

DORSIFEROUS, or DorsipArous Plants, from
dorfum and fero, I bear, are thofe of the capillary kind;
which are without ftem, and bear their feeds on the back-fide
of their leaves.

DORSTEN, in Geography, a {mall town of Germany, in
the circle of Weftphalia, on the river Lippe, which formerly
belonged to the elector of Cologne, and lately to the grand
duchy of Berg. It is 24 miles N.E. of Dunfburg, 60 miles
N. of Cologne, and 45 S.W. of Munfter.

DORSTENIA, 1n Botany, (fo named by Plumier after
‘Theodoric Dorftenius, a German pbyfician and botanift, of
fome fame and learning in his time,-who publifhed at Frank-
fort, in 1540, a Latin herbalin folio, with rude wooden cuts.
Linnzus obferves that the obfolete or antiquated charafer
of this work is expreffled by the inelegant flowers of the
Dorflenia.) Plum. Gen. 29.t.8. Linn. Gen. 62. Schreb. 84.
Wilic. Sp. Pk v. 1.682. Mart. Mill. Di. v. 2. Juff. 4or.
Lamarck t. 83. Clafs and order, Letrandria Monogynia?
Nat. Ord. Scabride, Linn. Urtice, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Common Receptacle of one large, expanded, flat,
moftly angular leaf, covered with very numerous minute
florets, occupying its difk. Perianth quadrangular, concave

DOR

imbedded in the receptacle and connected with it. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments four, filiform, very fhort ; anthers roundifh.
Pif, Germen roundifh; ftyle fimple; ftigma obtufe. Peric.
none, except the receptacle become ficfhy. Seeds folitary to
each floret, roundifh, pointed. Linn.

Linnzus fufpected there might be female flowers inter-
mixed with the united ones, as in Pariefaria, judicioufly re-
marking that Dor/lenia was of a nature between that genus
and Ficus, being, as it were, a fig laid open. He, how-
ever, profeffed that his knowledge of the fubje€t was imper-
fect, and required to be correéted by obfervations on the
living plant. Hence Jacquin was induced to amend the ac-
count above given, in his Colleanea, v. 3. zor. Ic. Rar,
v. 3.t. 614, from the infpection of Dorflenia Contrayerva,
continually flowering in the ftovesat Vienna. He detcribes
the cells of the receptacle as covered by one comnion {kin,
which is elevated over each cell into a vaulted protuberance,
and he believes there is no proper perianth. Each cell is
either male or female, The anthers lie in pairs, without fila-
ments, on the fummii of the protuberance over each of the
former only; while in the bottom of every female cell is a
folitary germen on a fhort ftalk, with acloven ftyle, reaching
to the cover of the cell, with fimple ftigmas. Each germen
hecomes a bivalve, very elattic, capfule (which perhaps is the
perianth of Linngzus) of one cell, enclofing a compreffed,
rugged, fomewhat triangular feed. If this defcription fhould
be found to accord with all the {pecies, as ts molt probable,
Dorjfienia mult be placed in Monecia Diandria.

Eff. Ch. Common receptacle flat, of one leaf, flefhy, cel-
lular. Seeds folitary in each fertile cell.

Linnzus enumerates four {pecies of Dor/lenia, Willdenow
ten. The moft remarkable is D. Contrayerva above-men-
tioned, whofe acrid aromatic root has been celebrated as an
antidote to the bites of poifonous reptiles. It is kept in the
fhops, having been recommended for its diaphoretic qualities.
(See Conrrayerva). his {pecies is botanically diftin-
guifhed by its quadrangular receptacle, its palmate, fome-
what pinnatifid, ferrated leaves, and radical flower-ftalks. It
is a native of many of the Spanifh fettlements in South Ame-
rica, and of the iflands of Tobago, St. Vincent’s, and Mar-
tinique, growing in mountainous fhady places. Nothing
can be lefs like a flower than its green leafy receptacle, be-
fprinkled with whitifh feflile anthers in the firft inflance, and
then with prominent feeds, which on the flizhteft touch,
when nearly ripe, are projected to a diftance by the elaftic
capfule. In order to colle& them for fowing Jacquin found
it necefflary to cover the whole receptacle with a piece of
linen cloth.

Dorstenia Contrayerva, in the Materia Medica. See
ConTRAYERVA.

DORSUM, in Anatomy, a name applied to the back of
the hand and foot; alfo to the outer or back furfaces of
fome bones, as the fcapula and ileum.

DORSZYU, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Minflk; 46 miles N.N.E. of Minfk.

DORT. See Dorprecur.

DORT, fynod of; in Eccefaftical Hifory, a rational fynod,
fummoned by authority of the ftates-general, the provinces
of Holland, Utrecht, and Overyffel, excepted, and held at
Dort in 1618, and 1619.

This fynod was convened in confequence of the difputes
that prevailed in Holland, between the Calvinifts and Armi-
nians upon the five points, relating to eleCtion, redemption,
original fin, effectual grace, and perfeverance. Each party,
in the progrefs of the controverfy, had loaded the other
with reproaches, and in the ardour excited by the difpute,
charged their opinions with the moft invidious confequences;

infomuch

DO: RT.

infomuch that all focial intercourfe was interrupted, the pul-
pits were become the ftages of unprofitable and angry alter-
cation, and as each party prevailed, the other was turned
out of their churches. The magiltrates, who at firft exhorted
the contending parties to exercife moderation and charity,
ani who enforced thefe virtues by obferving, that, in a free
{tate, their refpeCtive opinions might be treated with tolera-
tion, without any detriment to the efiential interefts of true
religion, became at length no lefs divided than the minilters,
fo that one city and town was ready to take up arms again't
another. By degrees this controverfy grew into a ftate fac-
tion, which endangered the diffolution of the government.
Maurice, prince of Orange, though a remonftrant, put himfelf
at the head of the Calvinilts, or contra-remonftrants, becaufe
they were for a ftadtholder ; and the magiftrates, who were
again{t a fladtholder, took part with the remonftrants or Ar-
minians, among whom the advocate of Holland, Olden Bar-
nevelt, and the penfionarics of Leyden and Rotterdam, Ho-
gerberts and Grotius, were the chief. Several attempts were
made for an accommodation, or toleration of the two parties;
but thefe proving unfuccefsful, the three leaders of the re-
monftrants or Arminians were taken into cultody ; and the
magittrates of feveral cities and towns were changed by au-
thority of the prince, which made way for the choice of fuch
a fynod as his highnefs defired. The cloffes of the feveral
towns met firft in a provincial fynod, and thefe fent deputies
to the national one, with proper in{ftructions, ‘The remon-
ftrants were averfe from convoking a fynod, becaufe their
number was inferior to that of the Calvinifts ; and as their
leaders were in cuftody, it was eafy to apprehend their ap-
proaching fate. They complained of injuttice in their fum-
mons to the provincial aflemblies ; and their deputies, being
incenfed and diflatisfied, abfented themfelves frem their claffes,
and thus furrendered their power into the hands of their ad-
verfaries, who condemned their priaciples, and depofed many
of their minifters. The national fynod of Dort confifted of
38 Dutch and Walloon divines, five profeffors of the uni-
verfities, and 21 lay-elders, amounting in the whole number
to 61 perfons, of whom not above three or four were remon-
ftrants. Befides thefe, there were 28 foreign divines from
Great Britain, from the Palatinate, from Heffia, Switaer-
land, Geneva, Bremen, Embden, Naflau, and Witteravia ;
the French king not permitting his Protefant divines to
appear. Next to the ftate deputies fat the Englith divines ;
the fecond place was referved for the French divines; and
the reft fat in the order above-recited. Upon the right and
icft hand of the chair, next to the lay deputies, fat the Ne-
therland profeffors of divinity ; then the minifters and elders
according to the rank of their provinces; the Walloon
churches fitting laft. After the-divines had produced their
credentials, and the choice of a prefident, aff-flors, {cribes, and
fecretaries, a faft was appointed ; and they then proceeded to
the bufinefs of deciding the controverfy between the Gomar-
ifts or Calvinifts and the Arminians; the latter of whom
were declared corruptors of the true religion. The fynod
continued to the 29th of May, 1619, in which time there
were 180 feffions ; in the 23d of which the members took
an oath, exprefling their purpole, during the whole courfe
of the tranfaGtions of this fynod, in which enquiry was to be
made, and judgment and decifion pronounced, concerning the
Jive points and other forts of doctrines, not to ufe any kind ef
human writings, but only the word of God, as a fure and in-
fallible rule of faith ; and to have no other objeét in view
throughout the whole difcuffion, but the honour of God, the
peace of the church, and above all, the prefervation of the pu-
rity of doétrine. In the 145th {eflion, April goth, the Belgic
confeflion of faith was debated ; to which the Englith di-

vines affented, the articles relating to the purity of minifers
and ecclefiaftical difeipline excepted; declaring, that, after
examination, they found it, with re{pe to farth aud d iGtrine,
conformable in the main to the word of God. They alfo
added, that, upon confideration of the exceptions of the re-
monftrants or Arminians, they appeared to be fuch which
might be made againft all the confeffions of other reformed
churches. Their own church government they-maintained
to be founded upon apoftolical inftitution. The five points of
difference between the Calvinifts and Arminians were,
after a long hearing, decided in favour :of the former,
after which the remonftrant minifters were difmifled the
affembly, and banifhed the country within a limited time,
volefa they fubmitted to the new confeifion. However
the authority of this (ynod was far from beirg univerfally
acknowledged either in Holland or in England. The pro-
vinces of Fricflind, Zealand, Utrecht, Guelderland, and
Grovingen, could not be perfuaded to adopt their decifions 5
and they were oppoled by the authority of archbifhop Laud,
and king James I. in England. Tae reformed churches ia
France, though at firlt difpofed to give a favourable recep-
tion to the decifions of this famous fynod, in procefs of
time efpoufed do€trines very diffrent from thofe of the
Gomarifts; and the churches of Brandenburgh and Bremen
would not fuffer their doétors to be tied down to the opinions
and tenets of the, Dutch divines. The liberty of private
judgment, with refpect to the dottrives of pREDESTINATION
and Grace, which the fpirit thet prevailed among the divines
of Dort feemed fo much adapted to Gifcourage and fupprefs,
acquired new vigour, in confequence of the arbitrary pro-
ceedings of this aflembly. Of this fynod very different opi-
nions have obtained amongft the contending parties. Several
divines exprefled their fatisfa€tion with its proceedings.
Mr. Baxter, {peaking of it, faye, that the Chm {tian world,
fince the days of the apoftles, never had an aflembly of more
excellent divines ; and the learned Jacobus Capellus, profeffor
of Leyden, further declared, that the equity of the fathers
of the fynod was fuch, that no inftance can be given fince
the apoftolick age of any other fynod in which the heretics
were heard with more patience, or which proceeded with
better temper and more fanétity. Others, however, poured
contempt upon it, and burlefqued its proceedings in fuch
monkith lines as the following :

Dordrechti fynodus, nedus; chorus integer, eger ;
Conventus, ventus, Seffio, ftramen, amen.’’

All the favourers of the Arminian doGtrine, as we may na«
turally conceive, charge them with partiality and unjuttifiable
feverity. It would indeed be a difficult, nay, an unfurmountae
ble tafk, to jultify ali the proceedings of this fynod, how
much foever its partifans have extolled, them; aud it were
much to be wifhed that they had been more conformable to
the fpirit of Chriftian charity, than the reprefentations of
hiltory, impartially weighed, fhew them to have been. In
England this fynod had its advocates both in the eftablificd
church, and among the Puritans, although king James, who,
from his propenfity towards popery, had deferted from the
Calvinifts to the Arminians, and who f{eemed inclined to
bring about an union between the church of England and
the church of Rome, and alfo the epifcopal clergy under
his immediate influence, difapproved its proceedings ; and its
decifions, in point of doétrine, were regarded by many, and
perhaps, not without reafon, as agreeable to the tenor of
the Book of Articles eftablifhed by law inthe Church of
England,” Brandt’s Ref. vol. iii. Mofheim E. H. vol. v.

DORTICUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper
Mytia, Prtol. Itin, Antonin.

U2 DORT-

DOR

DORTMANNA, in Botany. See Lonecta,

DORTMUND, in Geography, a {mall town of Germany,
in the circle of Weitphalia, on the river Ems, 42 miles S.W.
of Munfter, and 45 miles N. E.of Cologne. “It was for-
merly a free imperial city, and anciently one of the Hanfeatic
towns.

DORVALLIA, in Botany, See Fucusta.

DORUM, in Ancient Geography, a village of Egypt,
fituated in the ifland of Meroe. Prol.

DORY, in Geography, atown of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Wilna ; 68 miles E. of Lida.

Dory, a harbour in the northern part of Papua or New
Guinea. See Papua.

DORYANTHES, in Botany, (from Acgu, a fpear, and
avdos,a flower,) Correain Tr. of L. Soc. v. 6. 211. t. 2 3, 24.
Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Bro-
melie, Juil.

Gen, Ch. Cal. none, except partial fheaths, which are
rather braGteas. Cor. of one petal, funnel fhaped, in fix deep
divifions, which are oblong-lanceolate, concave, keeled, the
three innermoft dilated at the bafe. Stam. Filaments fix, almoft
as long as the petals and inferted into their lower part, awl-
fhaped, their points penetrating deeply into the bafe of the
anthers; anthers erc€t, fomewhat cylindrical, two celled,
after impregnation becoming of the fhape of extinguifhers.
Pift. Germen inferior, oblong, angular; ttyle the length of
the ftamens, columnar, with three longitudinal furrows ;
fligma three-lobed. Peric. Capfule elliptic-oblong, with
three furrows, crowned with the bafes of the corolla and
fiyle, of three cells and three valves. Receptacles central,
longitudinal, two in each cell. Seeds fomewhat kidney-
fhaped, depreffed, ranged vertically in a fingle feries, but
alternately attached to each receptacle or line of the colu-
mella.

Eff. Ch. Corolla fuperior, in fix deep fegments, upright.
Filaments fhorter than the corolla, ere. Anthers ere&.
Capfule of three cells. Seeds in one row, with a double
infertion.

1. D. excelfa. Native of the mountains of New South
Wales. Root perennial. Habit thatof a Yucca or Agave,
with numerous, oblong, for the moft part radicel, /eaves.
Stalk folitary, ftraight, firm, above twenty feet high, bear-
ing clufters of large, beautiful, crimfon hliaceous flowers.
A portion of the ftalk, brought from New South Wales,
was fo tenacious of life that it produced a flower in the
garden at Kew, from which Mr. Correa made the above
defeription. ‘The genus is nearly allied to Agave, but the
anthers are not incumbent,~and the feeds in each cell make
but one row in fact, though they are alternately inferted
along two lines of the centralcolumn. How far thefe cha-
raéters are fufficient, even in this tribe, where we mutt often
be content with flight ones to mark very natural genera, may
admit of fome doubt; efpecially asthe anthers become ex-
tinguifher-fhaped only by the rolling back of theirlobes after
fhedding the pollen, and the filaments are inferted into their
backs, exa@ly asis the cafe with incumbent anthers. S.

DORYCNIUM. ° See Convotvutvvs n. 136, alfo
Lotus Doryentwom, which Lamarck refers to Ajpalathus,
Jul 353, 356.

DORYCTELA, in Ancient Geography, acountry of
Alia, on the coaft of the /Egean fea, according to Diodorus
Siculus; named #olia and the. Aolide by other authors.

DORYDREPANON. See Drepanon.

DORYLEIUM, or Doryreum, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Afia, fituated in the noithern part of Phrygia
Salutaris. The plain, on which this city ftood, was watered
by feveral rivers, which flowed into the Sangarus,

D: Oss
DORYPHORY, from do, foear, and dew, J bear, an

appellation given to the life-guard-men of the Roman em-
perors. They were held in fuch high eltimation, as
frequently to have the command of armies conterred oa
them.

It was ufual alfo for chief commanders to have their do-
ryphort, or life-ruard, to attend them.

DOSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Affyria, placed
by Ptolemy near Gaupanela. %
DOSARA, a town of India, on this fide of the Ganges.
Prol. .

DOSARENI, a people of Arabia Felix. Ptol.

DOSARON, a river of India, in the peninfula on this
fide of the Ganges, which difcharged itfelf into the fea,
N. E. of the river Tyndis.

DOSCI, a people of Alia in Sarmatia, who are faid by
Strabo to have occupied the coalt of the Euxine fea.

DOSE, in Pharmacy, &c. the quantity of a medicine to
be taken at one time. ©

The word is formed from the Greek docs, which fignifies
gift, ora thing given, from didwys, do, L give.

In authors, and difpenfatorics, that deferibe the fame
remedy, frequently the dofe is different; which occafions a

reat difference ir its effect.

Dr. Cockburn has given us an eflay towards determining
the dofes of purgative medicines, on mechanical prin-
ciples.

Several attempts have been made to afcertain the propor-
tional dofes for the different ages and “conttitutions of pati«
ents; but, after all that can be faid on this fubjeG@t, much
muft be left to the judzment of the perfon who adminifters
the medicine. The following general proportions may be
obferved, though by no means intended for exact rules. A
patient between 20 and 14 may take two-thirds of the dofe
ordered for an adult ; from 14 to g, one-half; from g to 6,
one-third ; from 6 to 4, one-fourth ; from 4 to 2, one-fixth ;
from 2 to 1, a tenth: and under one, atwelfth. Buchan’s
Dom. Med. App. p. 695. ;

DOSENS, ttraight cloths, made in Devonhhire, and fo
called in Rot. Parl. 2 Hen. V. Sze Dowseines.

DOSITHEANS, Dosiruey, an ancient fect among the
Samaritansin the firft century of the Cliriftian era.

Mention is made m- Origen, Epiphanius, Jerome, and
divers other Greek and Latin fathers, of one Dolitheus, the
chief of a faction among the Samaritans; but the learned
are not agrecd as to the time wherem he lived. St. Jerome,
in his dialogue again the Luciferians, places him before
our Saviour ; wherein he is followed by Drufius, who, in his
anfwer to Serrarius, places him about thetime of Senna-
cherib, king of Aflyria; but Scaliger will have him polte-
rior to our Saviour’s time. And, in effect, Origen intimates
him to have been contemporary with the apofties; where he
obferves, that he endeavoured to perfuade the Samaritans
that he was the Meffiah foretold by Mofes.

From the ‘ Recognitions of Ciement,” an ancient work
faid to be written in the fecond century, we learn, that Do-
fitheus, a Jew, wasat firit a difciple of John the Baptift, but
aimed at being thought the Chrift, in oppofition to both
John and Jefus, and after the death of the former aiually
placed himfelf at the head of his fe&t. Some fuppofe that
the evangelift John refers to him, ch. iii. 25, where inftead
of Tovdsiwy, the reading Tovdasov tives 18 introduced.

He had many foilowers ; and his fect. was {till fubfitting
at Alexandria in the time of the patriarch Eulogius; as ap-
pears from a decree of that patriarch, publifhed by Photius,
In that decree, Eulogius accufes Dofitheus of mjurioufly
treating the ancient patriarchs and prophets; and attributing

to

DO'U

to himfelf the {pirit of prophecy. He makes him contem-
porary with Simon Magus; and accufes him of corrupting
the Pentateuch in divers places, and of compofing feveral
books, dire&tly contrary to the law of God.

Archbifhop Uther takes Dofitheus to be the author of all
the changes made in the Samaritan Pentateuch; which"he
argues from the authority of Eulogius; but all we can juftly
gather from the teftimony of Eulogius is, that Dofitheus
corrupted the Samaritan copies fince ufed by that feét; but
that corruption did not pafs into all the copies of the Sama-
ritan’ Pestateuch, vow in ufe among us, which vary but little
from the Jewifh Pentateuch.

A\nd in this fenfe we are to underftand that paffige in a
Samaritan chronicle, where it is faid, that Doufis, ze. Dofi-
theus, altered feveral thinys in the law of Mofes.

The author of that chronicle, who was a Samaritan by
religion, adds, that their high-prieft fent feveral Samaritans
to feize Doufis, and his corrupted copy of the Pentateuch.
Epiphanius takes bim to have been a Jew by birth, and to
have abandoned the Jewifh party for that of the Samaritans.
He imagines him likewife to have been the author of the fe&
of the Sadducees: this is inconfiftent with his being later
than our Saviour. And yet the Jefuit Serrarius agrees to
mak: D fitheus the matter of Sadoc, from whom the Sad Ju-
cees are derived.

Tertullian, making mention of the fame Dofitheus, ob-
ferves, that he was the firft who dared to reje& the authority
of the prophets, by denying their infpiration. But he
charges that as acrime p-culiar to this fectary, which, in re-
ality, is common to the whole fe€t, who have never allowed
any but the five books of Mofes for divine.

DOSOME, in Agriculture. a term provincially applied
to fuch bealts as improve rapidly in flefh, Thus a thriving
beift is faid to be dofome.

DOSS, in Rural Economy, is a term provincially made
ufe of to ftrike with the horn, cr gore in a flight manner,
as neat cattle frequently do to each other,

DOSSE, in Geography, a river of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Brandenburg, which
runs into the Havel, 8 miles E.S.E. from Havelberg.

DOSSER, a fort of bafket to be carried on the fhoulders
of men. {[t is uled in carrying the overplus earth from
one part of a fortification to another, where it is wanted.
There are likewife fmall carts and wheel-barrows for the
fame ufe.

DOSSIL, Surgery, is lirt made into a cylindric form,
or refembling the fhape of dates or olive ftones. Doffils
are fometimes fecured by a thread tied round their middle.

DOSSO, Doss1, in Biography, a painter of hif-
tory, was a native of Doffo, in the territory of Ferrara,
and from the fchool of Cofta went to Rome, where he
fludied fix years, and five at Venice, forming a ftyle com-

ared fometimes to that of Raphael, fometimes to that. of
Fin, and fometimes faid to refemble that of Correggio.
Arriofto ranks him, and alfo his brother Gio. Batifta, with
the firft names in Italy; and Doffo’s pictures are faid to
prove that he did not owe this high rank to the partiality of
the poet. The head of his St. John at Patmos, in the
church. a’ Lateranenfi at Ferrara, is reprefented as a prodigy
of expreffion. Inthe copy of his moft celebrated picture
in the church of the Dominicans at Faenza, exhibiting
Chrift among the doétors, the fimplicity of the compofition,
’ the variety of the charactera, and the breadth and propriety
of the drapery, deferve admiration. Sevea of his pictures
are at Drefden. The ftyle of Doffo is fomewhat more ob-
folete than that of the great mafters with whom he is com-
pared; but he has a novelty of invention and drapery, which

*

DOU

are his own; together with a colour that unites with variety
and boldnefs a general harmony. He died about the year
1560. Pilkington’s Diét. by Futeli.

DOTAL Goops. Sze Goons. ‘

DOTE Assicnanpa, in Law, a writ that lay for a wi-
dow, where it was found by office, that the king’s tenant
was feifed of tenements in fee, or fee-tail, at the day of his
death ; and that he held of the king in chief, &c.:in which
cafe, the widow came tnto the chancery, and there made oathy
that fhe would not marry without the king’s leave. Anno
15 Edw. IV. c. 4. And hereupon fhe had this writ to the
efcheator,; for which fee Reg. of Writs, fol. 297. and
Fitz. Nat. Br. fol. 263.

Thefe widows are called the king’s widows.

Dorr unde nihil habet, a writ of dower that lies for the
widow again{t the tenant, who bought land of her bufband
in his life-time, whereof he was folely feifed in fee-fimple, or
fee-tail, in fuch fort, as the iffue of them both might have
inherited. Fitz. Nat. Br. fol. 147. See Dower.

Dore, redo de, fee Recto.

DOTHAN, or Doruaim, in Ancient Geography, a place
of Judea, inthe tribe of Zabulon, S.E. of mount Lrabyriam,
or Tabor, and 12 miles N. of Samaria. It was at this place
that the brethren of Jofeph fold him to the Ifhmaelite mer
chants of Gilead. (Gen. ch. xxxvii.) Tis was alfo the
place where Elifha, the prophet, was encompafled by the
troops of Benhadad, king of Syria, who were {ent to appre-
hend him. 2 Kings, vi. 13.

DOTIS, iv Geography, a {mall town of Hungary, on the
road from Vienna to Comorn. It is very agreeably fituated
in an extenfive plain, bounded by lotty hills.

Doris admenfuratione. See ADMEASUREMENT, and Reg,
of Writs, tol. 171.

DOTIUM, in Ancient Gengraphy; a town of Greece in:
Theffaly, placed by Strabo near the lake Boebeis.

DOTKIN. See Dorrxin. |

DOTMATYN, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 6
mies N.W. of Podolicz.

DOTTEREL, in Ornithology, the name by which the
morinellus is commonly known in molt parts of England. Sze
Cuaraprius Morinellus.

Dorreret, Sea,. Trinca Marinella, in the Linnean
fyftem, a name given by authors to the bird, commonly
known in England by the name of the Turnffone ; and called
by Turner, cinclus. See Trinca.

DOTTO, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome aus.
thors to a f{pecies of the emerald, which was a good green,
but not clear or fine.

eee in Geography, a-river of Switzerland, in Neufcha=
tel.
DOUADIO, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre; 5 miles N. of La Blane.

DOVAIN, a town of Savoy, in the Chablais, celebrated
for its vineyards; 3 miles E.S.E. of Hermance.

DOUARNENEZ, a {mall town of France, in the de-
partment of Finifterre, chief place of a canton in the diftri&
of Quimper, with a {mall harbour in the bay of the fame
name, 12 miles W. of Quimper. It has 1795 inhabitants.
Its canton comprifes a population of 11,071 individuals,
difperfed in 7 communes, on a territorial extent of 1674
kihometres.

DOUAY, or Dovati, in Latin Duacum, .a confiderable
town of France, in the department of the North, chief place
of the department and of the dittri& of Douay. It.is very
advantageoully fituated on the navigable river Scarpe, which
falls into the Scheldt, and it communicates, by means of a
canal, with the river Deule, which affords an eafy and cheap

intercourle.

BO

intercourfe with Arras, Valenciennes, Dunkirk, and part
of the department that formerly conftituted the Auftrian
Netherlands. It is 18 miles N.W. of Cambray, 15 N.E. of
Arras, and 145 miles N. of Paris.

Douay has a very handfome fquare, a fine guildhall, a
good arfenal, a ftrong caftle on the Scarpe, and a cannon
foundery. Clofe to the town is the village of La/ain, the
church of which contains tombs of the middle age, remark-
able for their fculpture.

The principal manufa@tures of Douay are thofe of earthen-
ware, glafs bottles, foap, oil, tin, linen cloth, cambric, cam-
bric meflin, thread, thread lace, gauze, flannel, and quilts.
It has alfo fome fugar-hcules and falt works. Its chief
trade is with oil, hops, cambric muffin, linen cloth, and
thread lace.

As chief place of a department, Douay has a prefeét,
two courts of juftice, a ranger, a regilter office, and a com-
pany of the national gens d’armes, formerly called maré-
chaufsée. Its population amounts to 18,230 individuals ;
but it is divided into three cantons. The northern part of
Douay, which contains 6260 inhabitants, reckons in its
canton 5 communes, and 12.598 inhabitants. The weftern
part bas 5830 inhabitants, and comprifes in its canton 10
communes, and £2,600 inhabitants. The fouth part of
Douay contains 6140 individuals, and its canton has 12
communes, with 12,603 inhabitants.

The diftri& of Douay counts altogether 13 cantons, 146
communes, and 166,442 inhabitants, upon a territorial ex-
tent of 11422 kiliometres. The foil produces corn of all
forts, flax, tobacco, and hops. There are alfo coal mines
in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes and Conde, now called
Nord Libre.

The canal of Douay, from that place to Lille, was finifhed
in 1686, by Louis XIV. Herbin. Statiltique de la France.

DOUAZIT, a {mali town of France, in the department
of the Landes, 6 miles fouth of St. Sever.

DOUBLE, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to double
his reins, when he leaps {everal times together to throw the
rider. Thus we fay, this ramingue doubles kis reins, and
makes pontlevis. See Ramincue, and Pontvevis.

A hare is faid to double when fhe keeps the plain fields,
and winds about to deceive the hounds.

Dovste, Fr. in Mufic, is equivalent to variation. Han-
del, in his two fets of leffons, of which the title is in French,
has made ufe of the French terms throughout the two
books. Variation at this time was only multiplying notes,
and doubling their rapicity.

Doustg, is ufed ia the French theatres for the fubfti-
tutes of great aGtors and adtrefles, when a performer of an
inferior order is allowed to take the part of a great per-
former during an indifpofition, real or imaginary ; or when
a new piece Is preparing, which prevents them from ap-
pearing at the end of the run of a fuccefsful drama. With-
out hearing an opera performed by fubititutes, it is impof-
fible, fays Rouffeau, to conceive how a piece is degraded,
and what patience is requifite in the audience, who deign
to frequent the theatres at fuch times. All the zeal of
good French citizens is neceflary to thole who have any
ears, and who ever heard good performers, to bear fuch
deteftable jargon.

Dousre d/ped. See Asrecr.

Douste Banked, in Sea Language, denotes the fituation
of the oars of a boat, when two oppofite ones are managed
by rowers feated on the fame bench, or thwart. The oars
are alfo faid to be double-banked when two men row upon
every fingle one.

Dove Bafe, Contra-bafo, Ital. Contra-baffe, Fr. This

2

DOU

inftrument has fometimes three, and fometimes four firings
with different tunings. But if ic doubles the violoncello, or
any bafe part, its tones will always be an o€tave below thole
produced by other bafe inftruments.

But whoever wifhes to know of what the double-bafe is
capable, fhould hear the extraordinary performance of Sig.
Dragonetti, who executes on the double-bafe all that can be
played on a violin, or any other treble inftrument ; and, we
believe, generally in fons harmoniques.

Dounce Bajflion. See Bastion.

Dous.e-Bridge, in Geography, a town of America in the
ftate of Virginia, and county of Luneburg, in which is a
pott-office ; 225 miles from Wafhington.

Dovece Caf, in Hufoandry, aterm ufed by the farmers
for that method of fowmg which does not difpenfe the nes
cceflary quantity of feed for a piece of land at one bout,
but requires the going over it twice. Plott. Oxf. p.
age

Douste Children, Douste Cats, Dounre Pears, Fc,
inftances of, are frequent in the Philefophical Tranfaétions,
andelfewhere. Sce Monster.

Sir John Floyer, in the fame Tranfaétions, giving an
account of a double turkey, furnifhes fome refletions on
the produétion of double animals in general. Two tur-
keys, he relates, were taken out of an egg of the com-
mon fize, when the reft were all hatched, which grew to-
gether by the fiefh of the breaf-bone ; but in all other parts
were diftin&. They fcemed lefs than the ordinary fize,
as wanting bulk, nutriment, and room for their growth,
which latter, too, was apparently the occafion of their co-
hefion.

For, having two diftin& cavities in their bodies, and
two hearts, they muit have arifen from two cicatriculas ;
and confequently, the egg had two yolks, which is no
uncommon accident. He had a dried double chicken: he
affures us, that though it had four legs, four wings, &c.
it had but one cavity in the body, one heart, and one head ;
and that this, confequently, was produced from one cica-
tricula.

So, Pareus mentions a double infant with only one heart s
in which cafe, the original, or ftamen of the infant, was
one, and the veffel repular: only the nerves and arteries
towards the extremities, dividing into more branches than
ordinary, produced thofe double parts.

The fame is the cafe in the double flowers of plants, oc-
cafioned by the richnefs of the foil. So it is in the eggs of
quadrupeds, &c.

‘Chere are, therefore, two reafons.of duplicity in embryos :
1. The conjoining, or connexion of two perfeét animals ;
and, 2. An extraordinary divilion, and ramification of the
original veflels, nerves, arteries, &c.

Dovste Chorde, Fr. double ftops on the violin, that is,
playing different parts on two ftrings at the fame time, as
in the firft fix folos of Corelli, Geminiani, and Tartinj.
It is very difficult to play double {tops on the violin in tunes,
and {till more difficu't on the violoncello; yet many great
performers, with ftrong hands and nice ears, have diftinguifh-
ed themfelves by the accuracy of their performance of two
parts at once. The elder Hamitz and Haydn have coms
pofed folos for one inftrument, in which the under part is
not a fecond treble, but a real bafe, in the true charaéter of
an accompaniment of a folo on the violoncello or tenor, b
flightly touching, flaccato, the under notes. Crofdil’s play-
ing the treble part and bafe of the March in Scipio on his
violoncello, as'completely as if performed by two violoncellos,
will long be remembered. )

Dovare

DOWIE LE.

Dovusre Concave, and Dovsre Convex Glafs. See
Concave, Convex, and Grass.

Douste Cone. See Cone.

Doustre Counterpoint. See Composition, and Coun-
TERPOINT.

Dousre Croche, Fr. a femiquaver, or a note with a
black head, and two hooks to the tail, or two ties.

Douste Crotchet, Fr. a croche, or what we call a quaver,
cut twice in abbreviation: dividing the crotchet into four
femiquavers. Sce AzpReviATION.

Dovstre Dancette, in Heraldry. See DanceTTe.

Dovusre Deficient intervals, 30 Mufic, are fuch as are
two major commas greater than a true confonance, as double
deficient THirp, Firru, &c. which fee.

Dovusre Defcant. See Descanr.

Dousre Horizontal-dial, one with a double gnomon,
whereof one points out the hour on the outward circle, and
the other thews the hour on the ftereographic projection
drawn upon it.- This dial finds the meridian, hour, the
fun’s place, rifing, fetting, &c. and many other propolitions
of the globe. See Dirac.

Dovsie Diefis. See Diests.

Dovsce Dij/cords,-in counterpoint, muft be doubly pre-
pared and refoived.

Dovusce Lccentricity. See Eccentricity.

Dovusce Lmploi, a name given by Rameau to two dif-
ferent ways of treating the chord of the § to the fourth
of the key, or as the French call it the /ous-dominant ; in the
one the fifth is made a difcord by the fixth, and refolved by
defcending one degree upon the third to the next bafe; in
the other, the fixth is made a difcord by the fifth, and is
refolved by a/cending one degree upon a fixth to the next
bafe.

\ Seeteeceeeee le

This generally precedes a clofe, when the § are played
inftead of the $.

Dovusre Feaf. See Feast.

Dovusre Fever. See Fever.

Dovsre Fiché, or Dousre Fichy, in Heraldry. A
crofs is denominated dd&ble fiché, when the extremities are
pointed at each angle; that is, when each extremity has
two points; in contradiftinGtion to fiché, where the extre-
mity is fharpened away to one point.

Gibbon exprefles it by an o€tagonal crofs, the two points
whereof at each extremity are parted inwards by a {mall
{pace of aline; by which it is diltinguifhed from the crofs
of Malta, the two points whereof proceed from a third pcint,
or acute angle between them.

Dovunte Pine. See Fine.

Dovusre Floor, a floor conftru&ted with one or more
girders, with binding joitts tenoned into the girders, and
with bridging joilts f{upported upon the binding joilts.

Dous te Fugue, in Mufic, a fugue on two {ubjects, of which
the fecond theme mult have regular anfwers like the firft. 1f
thefe fubjeéts or parts of them fhould reciprocally ferve for
accompaniments to each other, they would be more eafily
worked, and confufion avoided. The double fugue in Ge-
miniani’s fixth concerto, opera 111, and the double fugue in

Handel’s third leffon in F % minor, are admirable fpecimens
of this kind of fugue. In this fpecies of ingenuity, the
f{ubje&s fhould come in, one after the other, and in notes
of different lengths; as contraft inthe fubjeéts will renderthem
more marked and dittin&. With more parts more {ubjeéts
might be introduced; but confution is ever to'pe feared froma
multitude of fubje€&ts: to treat them well is the utmott ef-
fect of the art. But thefe painful efforts are more caicu-
lated as exercifes to try the ftrength of young ftudents
than mafters, Rouffeau compares them to the clogs and
weight with which young horfes are loaded to keep them
within bounds.

Dovusve incifion, grafting by, in Gardening. See En-
GRAFTING.

Dovusre land Point, in Geography, a cape on the N.E.
coaft of New Helland, fo called by Cook in 1770, becaufe
it looked like too {mall iflands lying “under the land; it
may be known ailfo by the white cliffs on the north fide of
it. S. lat. 25° 58’. W. long. 206° 48’,

Dovusve Leaf, in Botany. See TwyBvape.

Dovsre Letter, in Grammar, a letter, which has tke
force and effe& of two; as the Hebrew Tfade, which is
equivalent to J and S; or the Greek £, or Latin a, &c.

Thefe letters are evidently equal to wo; when we pro-
nounce the Latin axis, or the Englifh axillary, we give the
x the fame found, as if it were written with two cc, accis,
accillary ; or a cand s, acfis, acfillary. The Greeks have
three, Z, 2, ¥; the Latins only two, X and Z; and moft
of the modern languages have the fame.

Dovsre Margin-door is one conftruéed fo as to reprefent
a pair of folding doors when fhut.

Dovusre Meafure. See Measure.

Dovsce Pedeftal. See Pepestar. :

Dovsre Plea, in Law, is where the defendant alleges
for himfelf two feveral matters in bar of the ation whereof
either is fufficient to effect his defire, in debarring the
plair tiff-

This is not admitted in common law; for which reafon
it is to be well obferved, when a plea is double, and when
not; for if a man alleges feveral matters, one not at all
dependent on another, the plea is accounted double; but
if they be mutually depending on cach other, then it is ace
counted but fingle, and fhall be allowed. (Kitch. 223.)

Where there are feveral inducements to a plea, they {hall
not make the plea double; and double pleas are allowable in
affizes of novel diffeifin, &c.; but not in other ations.
(Jenk. Cent. 75.) By ftat. 4 and 5 Ann. c. 16.,a man, with
leave of the court, may plead two or more diftinét matters or
fingle pleas; as in an aétion of affault and battery, thefe
three, not guilty, fon affault deme/ne, and the ftatute of limi-
tations. See Prea and PLeapina.

Dovusre Plough. See Proucu.

Dovusxs Point, in the Higher Geometry. When all the
right lines tending the fame way with the infinite leg of any
curve, do cut it only in one point (as happens in the ordinates
of the Cartefian and the cubical parabola, ) and in the right
lines which are parallel to the abfciffes of hy perbolas, and pa-
rabolas, then you are to conceive that thofe right lines pafs
through two other points of the curve, placed, as it may be
faid, at an infinite diftance. Which coincident interf¢Gion,
whether it be a finite or an infinite diftance, fir Ifaac Newton
calls the double point.

Dounce Pofition. See Position.

Dovusre Quarrel, Duplex querela, in Law, a complaint
made by a clerk, or other, to the archbifhop of the province,
againit an inferior ordinary, for delaying or refufing jultice
in fome ecclefiaftical caufe; as to give fentence, inititute a

clerk

DOUBLE

clerk prefented, or the like. Its denomination feems owing
to this, that itis commouly made both againtt the judge ard
him at whofe fuit juflice is dented or delayed.

Dowsre Ratio, See Dupre.

Dounre Roads. See Roans.

Dovsze Sharps, in Mufic, marked yx or +, have the
eff:& of nfing a note two half tones; but according to
‘Dr. Boyce’s MSS. in the library of the Royal Inftitution,
thefe half tomes are not to be confidered as ftri@tly equal, but
the double, or fecond fharp, as raifing the note an apotome
(5923) higher than a fingle fharp had elevated it. Double-
fists, marked bb, or b, are likewife faid to have the effe@
of adding an apotome to the flattening effc& of a fingle flat-
On the contrary, Mr. Maxweil makes a double fharp to have
the effe4& of two fingle fharps in raifing a note jult two Semt-
TONES medii, which fee.

Dounce Star, in Afronomy. Ever fince the invention of
telefcopes, ftars have been occafionally obferved by different
aftronomers, which, though they appear fingle to the naked
eye. yet when examined with a good telefcope, are found to
confift of two or more flars extremely near to each other.

But little notice had been taken of thefe objeéts, till Dr.
Herfchel dire&ted the attention of aftroncmers by publifh-
-ing his firft catalogue of them in 1782 (Ph. Tranf.), at the
fame time ftating the probable advantages which he conceived
aftronomy might derive fron a more attentive examination
of thefe curious objets. In the Philofophical ‘Tranfactions
-of 1785, Dr. Herfchel publifhed his fecond catalogue, and
notwithftanding they are given in a very abridged form, and
.the words contraéted and expreffed by initials, yet it would
occupy too much fpace for the limits of our work: we are
therefore obliged to give it in a ftil] father abridged ftate,
but arranged for the convenience of the praCtical aftronomer
in the order of the conftellations.

Thefe double ftars have acquired additional irtereft from
‘the great changes which have happened in them fince they
were firft obferved; a very full accourt of which may be found
in the TranfaGtions for 1803 and 1804.

It was by means of thefe obje&s, that Dr. Herfchel pro-
pofed to determine the parallax of the fixed fars, by obierv-
ing the variation in the very {mall angle fubtended by them.
‘We fhall juft explain the nature of this method, and refer to
Pararvax fora farther confideration of its merits and defects,
Let x and y (Plate 1X. Afronomy, fig. 67.) be two flars fituated
in a line with the earth at A, and perpendicular to the dia-
meter A B of the earth’s orbit, and when the earth is at B,

A x)M—m:M; hence P= “i . 7
If x be a ftar of the firft magnitude, and y one of the third ;
and p = 1", then P= 13, on thefe fuppofitions fee the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaétions, 1782.

The double ftars feem, of all others, the beft adapted to
enable us to judge of the power and perfection of cur tele-
fcopes. But evenwith the very beft of Dr. Herfchci’s own
conftruétion, it requires a very great degree of attention to all
the minute circumfances connedied with diftin@nefs of vifior,
to fucceed in feparating fome of the moft difficult of his
catalogue, and fome are fo extremely clofe that it may be
doubted if any other obferver befides himfelf has ever feen
them feparated. But fuch changes have taken place in them,
fince the firft publication of his catelogue, that mary that he
cconfidered as moft difficult, are now to be feen with much

the parallax of x.

inferior inflruments. y Leonis for example may now be
feen with any tolerable 3% feet achromatic telefcope, 2 Her-
culis, on the contrary, has for fome years ceafed to appear a3
a donble ftar. -The beft method of eftimating the diftance
of their obj.€&s is in meafures of their own apparent di-
ameters, as eftimated by the eye, which will be found in
mary cafes much more exact than the beft micrometer.

The following obfervations of Dr. Herfchel, as given in
the TranfaGtions, will be found bighly ufeful to thofe who
are poflefed of good inflraments, and wifh to examine thefe
intereiting objects.

When we increafe the power, we leffen. the light in the
inverfe ratio of the {quares of the power. And telefcopes
will in gencral difcover more {mall ftars, the more light they
colle. Yet with a power of 227, I cannot fee the {mall
ftar following 6 Aqui'e, when, by the fame telefcope, it
appears very plainly with the power of 460. Now in the
latter cafe the power being more than double, the light is
lefs than one-fourth part of the former.

The experiment has been too often repeated to be doubt-
ful, as has alfo been confirmed by others of nearly the fame
nature,” For inftance, the fmalleft of the two that accompany
the ftar near £ Aquile, the {mail ftar near 2 Herculis, and the
{mall ftar near « Lyre, are invifible with my power of 227,
and vifible with the fame aperture when the power is 460.
Alfo the fmail ftar near Flamftead’s 24 of Aquila, the fmail-
eft of two near ¢ Corona, the {mall flar near the tar fouth
or ¢ Aquile, the {mall ftar near the fecond o Perfei, the fmall
ftar near the flar which accompanies Flamttead’s roth
fub pede et fcapula dextra Tauri, the {mall ftar near 8 Del-
phini, and the {mall (tar near the pole ftar, are ali much
brighter and ftronger, and therefore much fooner feen with
460 than with 227.

As thefe are fome of the fineft, moft minute, and moft
delicate obje€@s of vifion I ever beheld, I fhall be happy to
hear that my obfervations have been verified by ether per-
fons, whieh I make no doubt the curiovs in aftronomy will
foon undertake. I fhould obferve, that fince it requires no
common ftretch of power and diftin€inefs to fee thefe double
ftars, it wil not be much amifs to’go gradually through a few
preparatory fteps of v-fion, {uch as the following. When»
Corone Borealis (one of the moft minute double ftars) is
prepofed to be viewed, let the telefcope be fome time be-
fore dire&ted to « Geminorvm,’ or if not in view to either of
the following ftars: ¢ Aquarii, « Draconis, e Herculis, «
Pifcium, or the curious double ftar « Lyre. Thefe fhould
be kept in view a coniiderable time, that the eye may ac-
quire the habit of feeing fuch objeéts well and diftinGly.
The obferver may next-proceed to § Urfe majoris, and the
beautiful treble ftar in the right fore foot of Monoceros, after
thefe to i Bootis, which is a fine miniature of « Geminorum, to
the ftar preceding a Orionis, and to x Orionis. By this time
both the eye and the telefcope will be prepared for a ftill
finer piture, which is» Coronz borealis. It will be in vain to ©
attempt this latter if all the former, at leaft ¢ Bootis, cannot
be diftinétly perceived to be fairly feparated, becavfe it is
almeft as fine a miniature of i Bootis, as that is of « Gemi-
norum. If the obferver has been fuccefsful im all thefe, he
may at the fame time try 4 Draconis, though I queftion if
any power lefs than 4 or 500 will fhew it to be double, but
the tormer I have a!] feen very well with 227.

To try ftars of uncqual magnitude, they may be taken ir
fome fuch order as the following: « Herculis, » Aurigz, $
Geminorum, x Cygni, « Perfei, 6 Draconis, from thefe the
obferver may proceed to « Bootis. Perfons ufing 34 achro-
matic muft not be difappointed if they cannot pcrceive the
following flars to be double. P

2

DOUBLE STARS.

26 | w Leonis

31 | between 41 and 39 Lyncis of Flamftead
56 | & Herculis

41 | 31 Draconis

44.| 4 Aquarii

46 | 13 Aquarii treble

47 | 29 Capricorai

75 | 26 Orionis

82 | 49 Serpentis

87 | g Ophiuchi.

The foregoing remarks have fuggefted a method of feeing
how far power and ditinétuefs of our inftrumenta will
reach; I fhall add the wey of finding how much light we
have, The obferver may begin with the pole flar and
Lyra, then go to the ftar fouth of « Aquila, the treble tar
near x Aquile, and laft of all to. the ftar following o
Aquile. Now if his telefcope has net a good deal of good
diftin@ light, he will not be able to fee the {mall ftars that
accompany them.

Ihave divided the double ftars into feveral different claffes.
In the firlt I have placed all thofe which require indeed a
very fuperior telefcope, the utmoft clearnefs of air, and every

favourable circumftance to be feen at ail, well enough to.

judge of them. They feem to me on that account to de-
ferye a feparate place, that an obferver might not condemn
his infrument or his eye, if he fhould not be fuccefsful in
diftinguifhing them.

In the fecond clafs of double ftars, I have put all thofe
that are proper for eftimation by the eye, or very delicate
meafures by the micrometer. ‘lo compare the diftances
with the apparent diameters, the power of the telefcope
fhould not be much lefs than 200, as they will otherwife be
too clofe for the purpofe. The inftrument ought moreover
to be as much as poffible free from rays that furround a ftar,
ip common telefcopes, and fhould give the apparent diame-
ters of a double ftar, perfectly round and well defined,
with a deep black divifion between them. It will be
neceflary here to take notice that the eftimations, made with
one telefcope, cannot be applied to thofe made with another;
nor can the eftimations made with different powers, though
with the fame telefcope, be applied to each other. Whatever
may be the caufe of the apparent diameters of the tars,
they are certainly not of equal magnitude with the fame
powers in different telefcopes, nor of proportional magnitudes
with different powers in the fame telefcope.

In my inftruments I have ever found lefs diameter in
proportion the higher I was able to go in power; and never
have I found fo {mail a proportional diameter, as when I
magnified 6450 times: therefore, if we would wifh to com-
pare any fuch obfervations together, with a view to fee whe-
thera change in the diftance has taken place, it fhould be
done with the very fame telefcope and power, even with the
very fame eye-glafs or glaffes ; for others, though of equal
power and goodnefs, would moft probably give different pro-
portional diameters of the ftars.

In the third clafs, I have placed all thofe double ftars,
which are more than 5” but lefs than 15” afunder, and for
that reafon, if they fhould be ufed for ob{¢rvations on the
parallax of the fixed ftars, they ought not to be looked
vpon as quite free from the effefs of refraction, &c. In
the fame manner that the ftars of the firft and fecond clafles
will ferve to try the goodnefs of the mott capital inftruments,
thefe will afford objeéts for telefcopes of inferior power,
fuch as magnify from 40 to 100 times. The obferver may
take them in this or the like order; ¢ Urfe majoris,
y Delphini, y Arietis, * Bootis, y Virginis, 1 Cafliopiex,
* Vou. XIL.

w Cygni. And if heean fee all thefe, he may pals over inte
the fecond clafs, and dire& his inftrument to fome of thofe
which were pointed out as objects for the very beft telefcopes,
where, I fuppofe, be will foon find the want of fuperior
power.

The fourth, fifth, and fixth claffes contain double ftars that
are from 15’ to 30”, from 30” to 1’, and from 1‘ to 2’, or
more afunder. ‘Though thefe will hardly be of any fervice
for the purpofe of parallax, I thought it not amifs to give an
account of {uch as I have obferved; they may perhaps anfwer
another very important end, which alfo requires a great
deal of accuracy, though not quite fo much as the inveftiga-
tion of the paral:ax of the fixed ftars. I will juft mention
it, though foreign to my prefent purpofe. Several ftars of
the firft magnitude have already been obferved, and others
fufpeéted to have a proper motion of their own, hence we
may furmife that our fun, with all its plasets and comets,
may have a motion towards fome particular part of the hea-
vens, on account of a greater quantity of matter, collected in
a number, of ftars, and their furrounding planets there fix
tvated, which may perhaps occafion a gravitation of our
whole folar fyftem towards it. If this furmife fhould have
any foundation, it will thew itfelf in a feries of fome years, as
from that motion will arife another kind of hitherto unknown
parallax, the inveftigation of which may account for fome
part of the motions already obferved in fome of the principal
ftars: and for the purpofe of decermining the direétion and
quantity of {uch a motion, accurate obfervations of the dif-
tance of {tars that were near enough to be meafured with a
micrometer, and a very high power of tele{copes, may be of
confiderable ufe, as they will undoubtedly give us the rela-
tive places of thofe ftars to a much greater degree of accu-
racy, than can be had by tranfit inftruments or feGors, and
thereby much fooner enable us to difcover the- apparent
change in their Situation occafioned by this new kind of fyf
tematical parallax, if I may be allowed to ufe that expref-
fion, for fignifying the change arifing. from the motion of the
whole folar fyttem.

Of the changes that have taken place in the relative fituation
of the double Stars. —

For a more detailed account of thefe changes, the rea-
der is referred to Dr. Herfchel’s papers in the T'ranfa¢tions
of 1802, 1804. The following abridged account of them
is taken from the Journals of the Royal Inftitution.

Do@or Herfchel devotes this paper principally to the
confideration of the fecond clafs of fyftems, into which he
has divided the fidereal world. After curforily remarking
with refpe&t to the folar fyftem as a fpecimen of the firlt
clafs, which among the infulated ftars comprehends the fun,
that the affeGtions of the newly difcovered celeftial bodies
extend our knowledge of the conftrugtion of this infulated
fyftem, which is belt known to us, he proceeds to fupport,
by the evidence of obfervation, the opinion which he has
before advanced of the exiftence of binary fidereal combina-
tions revolving round the common centre of gravity, Dr.
Herfchel firtt confiders the apparent effe@ of the motion of
either of the three bodies concerned, the two {fars, and the
fun with its atrendant planets, and then ftates the arguments re-
{fpecting the motionsof a few only out of the fifty double ftars,
of which he has afcertained the revolutions. The firit exam-
ple is Caltor, or Alpha Geminorum ; here Dr. Herfchel flops
to fhew how accurately the apparent diameter of a ftar, viewed
with a conftant magnifying, may be aflumed as a meafure
of {mall angular diftances, he found the ten different mirrors
of feven feet focal length, exhibited no perceptible difference
inthis refpe&t. In the cafe of Caitor no change in the dif-

Xx tance

DOUBLE "STARS.

tance of the flars has been obferved, but their angular fitu-
ation appears to have varied fomewhat more than 45°, fince
it was firft obferved by Dr. Bradley, in 1759, and they have
been found by Dr. Herfchel in intermediate pofitions at in-
termediate times. Herfchel allows that it is barely
poffible that a feparate proper motion in each of the ftars
. and in the fun may have caufed fuch a change in the relative
fituation, but that the probability is very decidedly in favour
of the exiltence of a revolution. Its period muit be a little
more than 342 years, and its plane nearly perpendicular to
the direGtion of the fun. The revolution of Gamma Leonis
is fuppofed to be ina plane confiderably inclined to the line
in which we view it, and to be performed in about 1200
years. Both thefe revolutions are retrograde, that of Ep-

\
Dr.

filon Bootis is dire&, and is fuppufed to eecupy 1684 years,
the orbit being in an oblique pofiiion with refpe& to the fun,
In Zeta Herculis, Dr. Herfchel obferved in 1802 the ap-
pearance of an occultation of the imaller ftar by the larger
one. In 1782,he had leen them feparate; the plane of
revolution therefore muft pafs nearly through the fun, and
this is all that can at prefent be determined refpeGing it.
The ftar of Delta Serpentis appears to perform a retrograde
revolution in about 375 years, their apparent diameter is in-
variable as well as that of the two {tars which conftitute
Gamma Virginis, the laft double itar which Dr. Herfchel
mentions in this place, and to which he atrributes a perodie
cal revolution of about 705 years.

Catatocue or Dovusre STArs.

[v. very ; pol. pofition; N. f. North following; S. p. South preceding ; S. {malleft ftar; L, largeft far ; eq. equal.]

No. in Mlamftead,

ANDROMEDZ.
veun. 55/32", pof.10°37/S.p,

|p. uneq. pof. 34° 24’, N. p.

vy. uneq. 9” 15'", pof. 19° 37’,
N. f. beautiful obje.

p- uneq. 18” 57’’, pof. 22°
22/NoE:

uneq. 15 15', pof. 55° g!
N. f. a 3d ftar in view.

p. uneq. pof. 75° 30'S. f.

v. ve uneq. 34! 12!!!

eq. 45" 1", pof. 32° 34'S. p.

AQUARIL,

foll. 30’ | 47

foll. N. 8'| 3

v. uneq. dift. 25!!

2qu. 4" 34", pof. 71° 39! N. f.
with'227, 14 diameter, wit!
460, 2 diameters.

v. v. uneq. N. p. two ftars in
view.

v. un. v. minute, pof. 81° 30!
N. p. almoft in contaé, a3<
ftar (VI) ditt. 1! with 460, at
moft ~ diam. of S.

ve v.un. 33!" 16", pof. 55°48

l. uneq. pof. 77° 36! S.f.
about 42° from @ towards».

v. un. pof. 45° N. p.

uneq. 23! 5!

z, uneq. 13! 45!"",

7. upeq. 36,47", pof, 19° 54
S. f.

‘neq. with 227, 2 diameters.

reble neareft vy. un. 62° N.
fartheft v. un. dift. 1! 24",
30° N.f. about 13° toll. v.

-onfiderable ftar v. un. pof. 41
12! N.p.

Aguirz.

5 |v uneq. pof. 16° N, p. a very
>| {mall ftar.

v. v. uneg. 7!!

Be 5 & é
mo a oe
as es Mi aba al
£6
$ g |
cg I 78 |.uneq. pof. 34° 24'S. fi 1
nute and pretiy.
28 fol. ° II | 80 |v. v. un. pof. 36° 28! N.
requires a very powerful |
lefcope ; according to H:
fchel not vifible with 2:
Tt has been feen with
excellent achromatic wit}
much lower power.
w | VI | Su |v. v. un. 2!23"18!", pof. ¢
44! N. p.
29 |near v II | 83 |v. v. un. pof. 75° N. p.
sae ” II | 8g |l. uneq. pof. 29° 3! N. p.
24 I | 90 Jv. v. un. pof. 72%! S. f

good obje& for trying a
lefcope; fearcely vifible w
227.

un. 29! 28!", pof, 81° 85'S,

gg |v. un. 42! yall

87 |v. un. 30%

on. ii!! 3 si

treble, two neareft v, un. th
flar v. fmall.

bc
o™mr

a
Lo i)
Hadda

Os
~Y

b | V_ | 04 lan. 33! 53M
4 I | go }minu. v. un. pof. 81° 30! N,
y I So Jjabout 4 deg. np. pr. y. in

line par. toy and ¢; of ti
that neareit to y: 227 hai
ly vifible, with 460 1

bulous.
ARIETIS.
33 IV_ | 63 |p. uneq. 25" 32", pof. 87%
30] V | 66 |equal 31" 6"
a V_ | 67 |p. uneq. 36"4.4", pof. 42° N
6 I | 68 jv. uneq. pof. 77° 24! S. f.
y | TL | 71 {equal 10" 10", pof. 86°5! N,
2d rather largeft. . y
x I | 73 |v.v. ureq. treble pof. 19%
S. f. moft dift. 25”, all tiar
ina line, very ciff y
B Il 1, uneq. pof. 23° 12! N. p,

DOUBLE STARS.

5 ip 5 3 S Ep = a 3
of ca 5 ms = | 3 s
=§ f= N hes 5 v N
AS & as &
3 3 - S s
7, Z, az Zz |
bernie Cancri.
) I |v. une Pgyltt £.8 ON, °

4 a dF BOE ro Be 30 57 I 58 Baan: wou 12! N. p. beau-

44 |v. v. un 2! 49" 8", pof. 61° )
2 BE. 49 P 48 | IV | 60 ee 29" 54!, pof. 39° 54

45 |v. v. un. i Fr ihoik Ge hg aad hol Bevo" N

49 juneq. 24" 53!" Gh a ea indy ek ge

es era 34! 15", pol. 54° 6 foll, w | IID | 66 Jun. sM 50", pof. 65° 12!

+p. ° "
dift. 20" 24 ; _, f |treble 8”, pal. 88° N. f. diffi-
2I Be ee Jn Al on phere { cult tobe feen with 46038
a0 Med ne ate » pot pee Q V 71 |v. v. un. 44" 2! pof N.f
. p. {mali itar not vifible at ; Sti Gaede ‘ boat ce
firtt. 54 | IV | 73 juncq. 17" 14!", pol. 29° S. ff.
50 |v. un. 2350! pol. 50° 3/S. p. | Canis.
14 52 |v. un. pof, O32 37'N.
Ad or daakygotaae 33°. P i i wie 7 V_ {110 feeble See vy. un. farthefl

52 |v.¥. un. 35118", pof. 16°N.p. oll. 2 p 3 ey Aare t

19 57 \v.un. 16" 8!" pol. 37° 38/8.p. N. 28/ § II |112 fy. un. pof. 67° 36'N. p-
57 \v. un. Rol, 2g" TNE Canis Minorts.
59 Ve un. 13°25 » po Vei2 Pp: 23 foll I 8 : fo} yel)
ie lade hi if . a 4 {moft minute uneq 27° 21'S. f
3° 'P- wo within 30 the 2dtelefcope ftar following
«; with 278+ S. beautifu:
Booris. eal g once clofer than n Corona
© |l. un. pof, 38° 21! N.F. prett it 7 ROPER OR
i i a we nak ab? 54! N. Lape) 39 near 7 II near Procyon. 2°S. f. in a line
object to try a telefcope ; Ba lad OT ae
Rahiatinetoe ie (Genk iver cyon not vifible with 275 ,
hautifal: : _| with 460 more than three
‘i 62 lv. un. pof. 31° 34! N. p. av diameters, pof. 54° 28/5. f.
pune object, with 227 3 Canum VENATICORUM.
tI 37 |v. a 30", nof. 30°S. p 2 | IIT | 48 fv.un. 12" 12", prof. 11° S. p.

37 |v. un. 37" 33", pol, 52° 51 17 12 | IV | 50 |Cor. Caroli. v.un. 20", pol.
NE ‘ 41° 47'S. p.

67 |treble Capricorni.

18 | 70 jv. un. pol, 65° 53! N. f. foll » EE= iit y
8 42 |p.un. 6! roll, aah 16222! S.f. 51 j f ll a8 4° -un. pof. 61° 12! N. p.

76 lequal ext. difficult. hia ftar Eee ea poner Set treple si,
was firkt obferved to be dou- “VAM Teis ap is the firft clan
ble by Mr. Pond. The bel 0 AE ed |W SRC aC
achromatic telefcope will ‘ TO9 |p. uneq. 23" 30!" pol. 30° 45
but juft elongate the ftar. ria
With a feven feet reflector, 4 { ae } iH I 105 auth un. 84° 48! N, p.
under favourable circum- een % IV difficuls.
ftances, they may be fepa- 3 5 aN L S28)
rated

38 78 jv.un. 5! 10!, pof. 83° 5!. S.p. | i 9
[7 52 [near pw. un. with 46025, 47 Vi; 13 {50" 58", pof. 3° 33'N. p.
16 31 | IV | 22 |20" or more
Gigsevonnae nel, 4 & 34 $5 \L& ITT] 24 treble vy. un. neareft pof, 22° 30
5 N. p. moft dilt. 7’ 30!, 10
9 5 132d Hevelii. un. 20! 5!" S.f.

26 |p. un. pof. 67° 15! N. p. 6 juneq. 42!35", pol. 85° 12'N. f.

jr |v. v. un. pol. 88° 33! 5. f. 23 35 ve a Vs sat Pun ti late:

33 |\v-un. 42'/26)!), pole 47 530" S.f. dee IV a v. un, 20! or more.

36 \p.un, 19! 32 » pol. 85 S. p. 39 |foll. Z I 32 pof. 50° 42/ N. p. v..un,

3 ve Vv. un. pol. 18 34 S. fi pretty confiderable ftar.
227, ftar with a tail, 932, I } 35 |v. un. pol, 60° 28'N.p.

plainly double 5 foll. ¢ IV } 37 |v. ¥. un.

ra

2 rs
(2 s
s. e
Eee E
m2 ce
Es =
Se
S 6
Zz Zz
foll. é

9

n

%

4o | Np. | 25
39 prece B

ac)
od
a
aQ
°
nN

tal

foll. 16
B
3
orec. n
g
near o
r°N.£. A} 22

foll,

2! foll, 54
61
66
foll. 12

Clafs.

<<

til

Re <<

DOUBLE STARS,

6 ait
x £5
Ed)
2}
a
40 equal 43! 26"
v.un, 52! 30!!!
33 \v.un. 11" 16", pof. 27° 56!
N. f. beautiful. 97
34 |v. v. un. 52/48", pof, 40° 58!
N. p. 23
v. un. pol, 56° 30! S. £. 24
32 |v. un. pof. 50° 42'N. p. *
CENTAURI. 22
121 |p. un. 11 35", pof. 22° S.f. 94
124 |p. un. 54!
CepPuet.
iv. minute, pof, 14° 9! S. p. 39
beautiful 13.
12 |v. un. 5" 47!" beautiful.
17 |v.un. 28/5", pof. 79°18! N. p.
20 |v.un. rag 3M pol, 15°29'5S.p.
32 Jun. 38" 18!"
28 |v. uneq. r9!! 32!!!
26 |fine 5", pof. 28° 18! N. p.
treble dift. neareft 20’
ve un. pol, &5° 45! N. f,
Com BEReENICcIs. II
62 |p. uneq. §8!'55", pol. 77° S.£. 26
l. uneq. 56! 36"
67 |p. uneq. pof. 27° 42'S. p
v. uneq. 31! 7!", pof. eee
S. f. ;
70 |p. uneg. 18! 24", pof. 3° 28! 2
N. Pp 2
| Coxon. 15
52 |p. un. 5! 28", pof. 25 °51'N.p.
58 Iv. minute, uneq. pof. 59° 19
| N. f, miniature of 7 Bootis. 10
| It appears to be now more
difficult than when originally
feen by Dr. H.
+-55 |treble p. un. pof. 77° 34'N. p.
3° 24' N. f. v. faint. 35
'The {malleft of two telefcopic
| ftars between 6 and 2 equal 16
Corvi.
105 |v. v. un.23" 30", pof, 54°S. p. 41
Ceti.
80 |nearly equal, pof.87°39!N. f.
8g |v.un.17!" 2", pof.14° 36'S. p.
gr |v. un. 37! 43!" a
93 16! Baill 8
gs |p. un. 18! 35!)
99 42it git
i! 6 19

foll. o!

prec.

prec. Tiss

IN. f.

foll.

lprec. g!

prec. 12!

prec. 3!

2! foll.

prec,
foll.

foll. x!

near

nt

ee a a5 | No. iu Flamftead.

sar,
Soya S28

III

1V
IV

| 39 Ineatly equal 304

————
i

| Cycni.

40
40

|v. uneq. 4o!!

minute p. uneq. pof, 46° 24
Nf

41 |p. un, 30" pof. 7° 23’ Ne p.

41 \treble, all within 30” v. un.
pof. brighteit ftar 44° 19!
N. p.

43 |v. v. un. rel! ry!

45 |vouneq. pof. 18° 21! N, f,

49 auadenples

59 juneq. 48!

5m lv. v. uneq. 17! 30", pof. 28
24'N. p. a 3d in view,

51 |v.v.uneq. 18", pof, 30°23! S. f

52 p.uneq, 16! i, pol. 36°28
N. £.

52 |v. uneq. 44"

53 luneq. pol. 29° 12! N. f.

54 |Between 4 Cygni and 4 2
double, ausdrnple ILI, fex
tuple and treble I,

54 \treble v. un.

55 tp. un. 35/14), pof. 579 N. ¥:
confiderable ftar.

56 |v. un. 24" 52!

58 |v. un. pol. ° 48! N. £

60 |v. v. un. pof. 31° 3! N. f, a

neb. croffes this ftar.
60 |treble, neareft v. v. un.pof. 40°
N. p. 3d dift: 1!

62 |p. uneq. 3932" beautiful. *

62 |p. an 655", pof. 20° 15
S.

62 Ivy. Pak pof. 87° 48! N. f.

38 |v. un. pof. $2° og! N, p>

Deprun.

near equal 11" 49", pof, 4°9
N. p.

ip. un. pof. 78° 48! N, p,

ble ely Sues neareft 21

76 veve un. 2.5" 54", pof.78° N.p
{carcely vilible with 227,
un. diit. 12° 5/, pof. 9° 42
S. p.

Draconis.

79 ih

17 |v. minute, v. un. pof. 84° 21
N.p. cannot be feen but i
favourable circumftances.
10 |20! zo!!!

I5 |v. minute, very difficult.

17 |28! 14! unequal.

20 |v. minutt, difficult, 635° N. 5
227.21, 932.2 L, aifin
lucid point.

24 |a moft minute double ftar; 3:

DOUBLE STARS,

oe a STS 3 Bh dag
3 = i =

S Ss Ee 3

Zz a Z Z
S. p. extremely difficult, 42 aed AAG 8" rg", pof.4° 58’ N
perhaps never feen out o! 79 46 I bt na i, aoe Pag ae S. a
Dr. Herfchel’s garden; it is fearcely vifible; near 1
a {mall ats follow- diam. L.
ing 24 63 | IIL | 62 |v.un.r1% 53 47°48!

vi b I Zl |v. ve hee 77° SUN. £.-2 9d 41 # | IV | 62 ee Riek. a
ftar_ near. ene rather {mall ftar [eateely vilible.
ana ee the {mall ftar o I 3 Vs} 64 |v. ve un. 33" 45", pof. 72°28

: ne lucid point. S.f.
43 |near. N. | 48 i 32 Iv. ae v. minute, 88° 24 40 87} TLL | 64) |v: 4 UB 10! 20", pof. 19° 37

20 o | IV | 30 lv. un. 26" 30", pof. go° N. i 64 |In the f i

II y | V_ | 34 |54" 48", pol. 44° 10! N.p. ; “an. pot. 79° N ay Mi

c | VI } 34 fa rich fpot. 26 III | 68 Jeg. 6" 6", !

4 16) I | 35 |p. un. pof. 24° S. f. mn By es apkeces aa

between |@y I 38 |p. un. pof. 2° 24! S. p. I Vv Wao Pr3

i i TW) | sq ea ipt 494 98'S. p br WE. 9 ” 70 |v. ae 41" 49", pof. 19° 30

gt SO Tit ters) |lsuns ig! 't K V 72 Jun. 37! sol!
8 K Vs} 72 Jun. 39! 59!" a 3d ftar nearly
Eguivet, pol. 79° 37" N. f.
37 3 IV_ | 80 |vev. un. 19" 32, pof. 11° 39 49 | IV | 74 |v. un. 213", pol. 25° 3'S.p.
N. f # ] If | 75 |v. un. pol. 44° 45' N. p.
62 Iprec. t! | 4 I | 84 |p. un. pof. 35°9!S. p. sj # | IL | 75 |v. un. 4" 34", pol. 30° 351
6r } prec. 3/Y| | r_ [g6 § jminute, v. un. 18° 24! N. p, S. f beautiful.
N.15 pretty; difficult. ar y 83 |p.un. 48!"40!", pof. 19° 45'N_p.

21 ne) Gel 86 ip une ol a2" hi not) 5t30 ae é | TIE | 80 lequal.r3'43!, pol. 85°23'N. p.

N, f. a 3d ftar following 37 She ve un. pof, 59° 48'S. f.
63° 3° S. Y I -q. pot. 5° 57'S. p. _ H
YDRE.
Eripant, # | IIT | 82 |p. un.12"30!", pof. 62°48'N.f.
fol, x2! | € } TIT | 94 |v. v. un.15” 21", pof. 9° 18 8 | IV | 83 |p.un. 25'43!, pol. 59°24! N.£,
S. p. difficult. 7 | IL | 85 \.v. un. pol. 54° 28%. S. f.
prec. 30! | w | IV | og |v. un. 19" 32, pof. 31° 48! 15 | V_ | 96 \v.v.un. 43" 2", pol. 70°S. f.
prec. 8 | 55 | IIL } gg {p.un. 1153, pot. peat: p: # | VI | 87 [treble.
$5 | ILL | 99 |l. un. 9! 9". 44° of N.p to | IIL |r14 (Hyd. contin. v. un. x1! 17"
43 |. a IV | 99 |v. un. pol. ae a5 5 Sf.
foll. 4! | 49} IL. | 89 |v. un. pof. 51° 36! N. p. y V_ | 86 Vv. v. un. 1! Et, pol. 75° S. f.
36 32 | IL | 93 |v. un. 4" 19!", pol. 73°23!N. p, not cafily feen.
Se eee Hypr# et Crateris.
~ | IV | 56 |v. v. uneq. 21" 31", other v. ? V1 | 99 |v. un.
fmall ftars in view. € | AV {rot \v. Nod 21!" 49", pof. 36° 54!
ct IL | 57 |uneq. pof. 32° 47! N. 1. p.
z I V 69 er a 32°47 oy P. y | IV {106 equal. a6 ryt
prec, r | UI | 6g fl. un. 615", pof. 43° 54'N. f.
foll, ialacl I a v. un. pot, 49! Ne rahe
c} Iv | 52 (lun. 25! 16 | IV | 49 |treble, a 4thand sth ttarin view
" i 12 VI Vol roll
28 § |3° Pre. EIV) 47 May »0 3 a aie
N. 6! Y 73 jun. 19! 41!, pof. 57° S. p. 8 | IV | 51 |quadruple, 2 largeft uneq. 17"!
IV / 17! 14", pol. 29° Sf a
27 f Il "3 dll pal, Bs Ws. p. 10} V_ | 52 |vevn. 5234", pol. 38°45 N-f.
7 1 | IIL | 53 |p.un. taligaltl ookes 76° 16'S. p.
Hercutis. Leonts
42 | IV | 40 |veun. 21731", pof. 3°40! S. fF. 30 54 | III | 64 jp. un. 7" 6", pof. 9° 14’ S. f
2 \ . un. pol. If’ o.t.

. j v sae iid eh pol. 30 PartN. Pp. 28 Y 1 69 |p. un. ‘wall 6 5° oct NL f. two

‘ 23 : 57 \36" 27 ftars prec. ” beautiful ; it is

3 4S 58 |v. un. pof. 20° 42! N. p. fine, now very eafy to be feen

No longer vifible.

SO AN RT EE ER RS AS SRE A A A EE SE
2

being more feparated, 1807

1! foll.

I’ prec.

No. in Flamftead.

+ o
roa

~r Oop

wn
~a

&

n
uwb nH

DOUBLE STARS.

3 jveun.37"15"", pof.70°48! N.F.

v.un. 42” 25", pof. 8° 36’ N. f.

v.v. un. 14” 35”, pol, 47° 33

N.p.

ve ¥. un. 52% 46"

lv. un. 36” 9”, pof. 12° 45! N.E.

v. v. un. pof. 26° 32’ N.F£.

lanii2o' 5! pols 54° Bons. £.

treble, neareft v. un. 5
fartheft {maller.

v..un. 33" 16!"

yv. min. one behind the other,
pol. 20° 54/S.f., with 227,
no fufpicion of its being dou-
ble ; with 932, not quite fe-
parated.

treble, two neareft very un-
equal, pof. 61° g' S. p.

Leonis Minoris.

; jv. v. uneg. $8" 18!!!

Le ports.

v.v. un. 12! 20!", pof. 89° 211

N. p. diff.

Lise.
eq. 44" 12/, pof. 40° 14! S.f.
vev. un. 17" 59!" pol. 44° 45/
N. f.

v. un. 39" 5g!!!

p. un. 47! 46!”

donble double, two firft v. un.
Glia Uplate aa IN) fe
two laft {m. and obfcure.

Lywncris.

treble, curious, v. clofe, 88° 37
5S. p. moft dift. 9! 23!

uneq. 30% 4o!"!

pretty eq. pof.11°0! S.p.

uneq. 14" 11”, pof. 46° 54/
S.p.

v.un., pof. 25° 51'S. p. a very
fine objedt.

v.v. un. 15/52", pof. 50° 48

un. a4! 5g"

v. un. pof. 8° 29! S.p,.

Lyre.
v.v.un. pof. 13° N. p. diff.
ve v. un. 37” 13!", pol. 26° 46!
S. f.

v. v. uneq. 9! 27!", pof, 66° 12

No. in Herfchel’s
Catalogue.

44

foll.

near B

foll.
do.

9h foll.
51! prec.
4! prec.

No. in Flamftead.

do.

If

Clafs.

Zone.

96

peun.25" 42", pof. 31° 51'S.5
un. 38 8", pol. 26° 18! N. f£.
|p. un. pof. 56°

| in the fame
N.f A f field, a beau
oe dee POM A tiful objed.

72ers! Saks

vv. un. 19! soll

p. un. 41" 98!, pof, 62° 187

treble.

1! 30!"

vev. un, 4542!", another dou
ble ftar a little S. very fain
objet.

quadruple and variable, dif. o
ift and 2d 43" 57", po
60° 28/S.f.

treble.

v. v. un. pof. 16° 48" N. p.

l. un. pof. 75° S. p. very fain

treble, v. ve un. 56” 47!", po
28° 27! S.f.

Monocerortis.

multiple.

v.v. un. pof. 23° 39! N. p;

treble, curious, firlt largerft
other two equal; two neare:
Diep 32) aSaike

a clufter round.

p: uneq. 12! 30!, pof, 60° 1.
N. f

a fine clufter round it.
ina clufter of 30 p. large fta
v. v. un. pof. 61° 57'S. p.
eq ty Aull, RAL BS!
v.v.uo. 11! 16!", pof, 22% 2,
N. f.
Orutucul.

v. ve un. S/!

ve un. 32! axl

p. un. pof. 46° 24! N. p.

v. minute, p. un. pof. 2° 4
S.p. diff. requires 460.

v. un. pof, 14° 30! N. f. ver
beautiful.

v. un. 20" 27!", pof. 3°9! S.

un, 1g"! gl

v. un. pof. 60° 48’ N. p.

p- un. pof. 9° 14'S. p.

un. 61° 36! N.p. one behin
the other, clofeft of all, hare
ly fufpe&ted with 460, r
quires 932.

p- un. pol, 82° 10'S. p.

v. un. pof. 14° 30! N. f. wit
932.4 of S.a clofe and beat
tiful double ftar.

DOUBLE STARS.

Orionis.

4!"
treble, un. 37", fartheft v. un.

uneq. pof. 69° 41'S. p.
equal 18!

p. un. pof, 52° 10'S. p.

uneq. pof, 50°51! N. f. one
foll. do. III.

p-un. 269", pof. 59° 33! N. Ff.

p, un. pof. 61° 23! N.f. pretty
object, ny feen.

un. pof. 84° 54'S. fF.

p-un. 13!" 40!" ae 37 °3'N. f,

v.v.un, 37!" 15!", pol. 65° S.f.
{mall {tar, feaveely vilible,
not v. diff.

v. un. 30!

v. v. un. pof. 13° 6! S. p

double treble, or two fets of
treble ftars, fimilarly fituated.
pretty.

v.un. 25", pof. 83° N.f.

in aclufter, v. v. un. pof, 26° 5
N. f.

multiple, two fets, double tre

ble and treble.

v. un, 30!

ve v. un. 6! 24", pof, 68° 12!

S. p. beft os {mall power.

v. un. pol. 52° 24'S. f.

un. dift. 5 20, pof. 45° 28

N.F.

quadruple, v.un. telefeopictra-

pezium in the nebula, two

{tars prec. dift. 8", fouthern

{tars 12",twofoll. 15", uorth-

ern ftars 207!

treble, dift. of neareft 12! 5!",

pof. 43° 51/f. dift. fartheft

48!! 51"; pof. 11° 19'S. £.

veun.dift. 52", pof.88° ro!N. p.

ve un. pot. 42° 48! N.p.

v. un. pof. 43° Pag! Nok

v. un. pof. 35° 42! N. p.

multiple, in a nebulous fpot,

v.un. pof. 19° 48! S. f.

treble, v. v. un. fmall ftars,

mere points.

PEGAst.

= 2, = ao é
m2 fe 3 5
aloes cs O N
a %
o °
Zz Zz
foll, 2 Vie
foll. 02 V 76
foll. 40h fF 2 | IIL
20 52 I 83
6! folk. 52 [Vv
25 a I 84
foll, 76 II
m IV | 86
22 n I
68 {near 10 IT 88
oll. 4! 1o | III
Ao lle
‘oll. 31 Vv gl
do. do. Vv
10 :
17 } o Il 92 |
2U 4 IV
26. jnear ¢ Il | 94
13 E
: i | It jos{
25 7 Vv 97
33 Pupsil | 98
foll. e II
r II | 80
I ) III | 95
12 H MII | 95
r) Vario
Bo Nats 25 I 88
53/10! prec. | 30 I 87
54 |prec. 7 I 97
sion LE {
57 jpreee ON) or Irs
61 |near w Teo
Bey, Vi. 1 7°
20, é V 71
near 3 II | 84
4 IV | 34

9.un, oe 45" 3!, pof. 89° 12/
N. f.

v.un. 35" 5, pof, 38°19’ N.p.
|.un.pof. 88° 24! N.p. 3-diam
S.

PErsEl.
v. uneq. 26", pof. 20° 5! N. ps

4
3
Zs
it)
mo
a
as
Es
6
4
prec.
near
22
at
2! prec,

39
37
at prece

9

49

5O

47

1’ prec.

prec.

oll.

prec.

foll,

foll.
do.

foll.
do.

foll.

2! foll.
1! foll.

No. in Flamftead.

guy

a
ow

Se] RRN

65

Tcap,

Id

Clafs.

Zone.

un. 50"

v.v.un.13"31!", pof. 20° N. p.
veun, rig

p- un. 21! Soll!

v. v. un. pof. 81° 28! S.f.
ae 14! 2!", pof. 30° 30

eq. pof. 8° 24! N. p.

v. ve un. 14! 59", {mall ftar,
{carcely vifible.

double double ftar.

treble.

3 |multiple, an aftonifhing num.

ber of {mall ftars.

Piscium.

equal, pof. 30° 57! N. p.

eq. 29", pof. 68° 24!

aa"! sul; pol. 80> S. f

v.un. 15! 49", pof.62°15'N. f.

eq. 5 gyi 16!"

p. uneq. 1552", pof. 5° N. fF.

uneq. pof. 59° 6’ N. p. third
ftar in view i! 45!

p.un, 12" 30", pof. 58° 54'S. .

o. un, pof, 25° 3! S. p.

v. un. = 29", pof. 0°36! N. f.

lun, 20" 37", pof. 4° 48' Nf.

pun. 57!" pol. 67° 23!N. p-

p- un. 22" r2!", pof, 22° 37!
N. f.

v. un. dift. 48", pof. 15° 28!
Nao! P 5°

SAGITTE.

I |v.un. 37!5!", pof. 34°10! N.p.

v. un 14° N. p. largeft and
moft fouthern of a clulter.

Biegil

v.v. un. 32" agit

treble, 23! 2!!!

v. veun. pof. 74° 57! NAF.

v. un, fartheft vy. v. un.

p. un. 38! 36!

treble, two rope v. un. diff,
ri" 8!" dift, fartheft 1/7!

SAGITTARII.

vevn. 1420", pof. 73° 48'N. f.

minute un. pof, 84° 48! N. p.
diff. i

treble, dift. neareit 30!

Score.
ve un, m4! 23! pol. 64° 51
Nu f. ;
v. un. dift, 38” 20!, pof. 695
28’ N. p.

ne.

Io

42
40

Catalog)

DOU

| 2 oO S
a
SERPENTIS.
49 I 75 \uneq. pof. 21° 33! N.p. v. mi
nute and beautiful.
lFoll. do. | II v. v. un. pof. 44° 45’ N.p.
foll. 39° | ‘IL 5\'76 |v. un. pol. 53° 9! S.f.
3 1 78 |p. un. pof. 42°48! S. p. beau-
tiful.
i) IV 86 eq. 19! agit
9! foll a II | gt |v. v. un. pof. 46° og! N. p.
d I go |v. uneq. pof. 44° 33! N. p.
B IV v. un. 24", pof. 3° or 4° S. p.
y Vi jro2 fun. 35!
prec, v I 66 jl. un. pof. 49° 45! S. p.
Tauri.
Q V 63 legit 36"
2! foll. rr | IIL | 65 |v.un. 13!39!", pof.89°51'N. £.
7 IV | 66 lv.un. 19! 50!", pol. 23°15! N.F.
D) Vi | 68 Ww. one si! gal, poly? 5a!
4p:
prec. 8 I I |}. urieq. pof. 82° 48'S. f.
foll. do. | iI | 71 lequal 7" 10!, pof. 87° 15!
'
ee, } E II | 71 lv. v.un. pof. 68° 42'S. p.
toll. 3 IV | 72 |v.un. 103 1!", pof. 25°45! N.F.
117 | III neareq. 12/12", pof.52°27/S.£.
foll. 137 L 75 |p. un. pof, 19° 48/ S.f. in a
clufter of 12 or more nebu-
lous ftars in finder.
foll. 48 | IV | 79 lv. v. un.
7'prec. | dj IV | 80 |v. un. 2335", pof. 61°36'S. f.
x | IV | 64 |18"
orec. 4 I 69 |the corner of a rhomboid made
of this and two more, pof.
36° 24'S. p.
r18| IL | 65 | ur. 4! 41", pof. 77° 15!
|
TRIANGULI. .
t' foll. d | ILI | 56 jun. 6! or 7M
a IV | 62 jun. 17" or 19”
Between the triangle and
neck of Taurus one of III.
clafeveq. rl 17"

Dovusre Superfluous, or redundant intervals, in Mufic, are
fuch as are two major commas greater than a true confo-
nance, as double fuperfluous Tuirp, Firru, &c., which fee.

Dovusve Tenaille. See Tenairye.

Dous re Time. See Time.

Dovusre Tongue, in Botany, a name fometimes given to the
butcher’s broom. See Ruscus.

Dovusre Tonguing, on the German Flute, is articulating
with the up of the tongue and management of the breath
every note of the moft rapid divifion. It was faid of Dothel
Figlto, a celebrated performer on that inftrument about the
middle of the laft century, that he flit his tongue in order to
perform this feat better than his neighbours, as the tongues of

parrots and magpies have been double pointed to help their

articulation, and augment their mechanical prating powers.

me
&
ra
20
|
foll. 2!
rol foll.
44
14! foll.
15
8! prec.
prec.
do.
foll,
45
isTe)
prec.
2
73
> rolls
72
2
29
33. |prec.
I

No. in Fhmftead.

iy

DOU

re

37
36

e un. 6o"” N. p.
| VirGintis.

|
lun. 24! 28, pof. 56° 30’ S.f.
ve uni 23" or", pol. 15° 54!
jp-vn.20" 9", pol. 58° 21'N. p.
7 V. un. pof, 29° 5!
jequal pof. 58° 24! N. p.
|equal 7 1olll, pof. 40°44’ S.F.
jun. 12" 58"!, pof. 79° N. p.
lv. un. 96" 4a!
lv. v. un. pof. 52° 24'S. fF.
an. 41! 5S
l. un. pot. 75° N. p.
eq. pol. 41° 12'N. f. or S. p.

Ursz.

v. un. 7! 56", pof. 13° 'N. p.

v. un. 12! 34!4, pof. 87° 42!
N. p.

un. 19!" pof. 10° 12! N, f.

p. un. 14/30!) pof. 56° 46'
S.f.

lv. un. pof. 36° 45! N. p.

pof. 41° 21! S.p. un.

ve¥. un. pol. 53° 45! N. fa
third ftar near, v. diff.

AR 11° 28", PD 43° 33! un.
pretty.

un. pof. 53° 47’ S. f. with
222% diam. L, a pretty ob-
ject, not very difficult.

v. un. dift, 19 14!, pof. 3° 14'
N.p. 7

u. un. dift. 48!
47'S: p.

lun. pof. 2° 6!

59", pof. SoX

Ursa Minors.

v.v. un. 17! 15", pof, 66° 42!
S. p.
26" 24", pof. 3°12! N. f.

Dous te Truffing, pieces of wood bolted in pairs, one of a
pair on each fide of the principal rafters.

Dovuste Vault

See VauLrT.

Dovuste Vefel, in Chemiftry, is when the neck of one bolt-
head, or mattrafs, is put, and well luted, into the neck of

another.

Of thefe there are divers kinds and forms ufed in

the Srculation of fpirits, in order to their being exalted and
See C1rRCULATION.

refined as high as can be.

Dovete Voucher, recovery with.

Dousre Wheeled Plough.
Dousre Winding Stairs.

DOUBLED Column.

See Recovery.

Sce Proucu.
See Stairs.

See Cotumn.
DOUBLER of Eledricity, is an inftrument capable of
augmenting a very {mall quantity of ele¢tricity fo as render it

more

DOUBLER.

more than fufficiently manifelt by means of an eleCtrome-
ter, or even capable of affording {parks.

In the year 1787, the Rev. Abraham Bennet announced to
the {cientific world an ingenious contrivance of his, to which
he gave the name of a Doubler of Ele@ricity, and which he
principally ufed for detefting very weak atmofpherical elece
tricities, in order to form, in an eafier and more fatisfa€tory
manner, an eleétrico-meteorological diary. ‘The defcription
is contained in the fecond part of the 77th vol. of the Philo-
fophical TranfaCtions for the above-mentioned year, and is as
follows:

“TI place,” Mr. Bennet fays, ** upon my electrometer
(viz. the gold-leaf eleGrometer) a circular brafs plate, three
or four inches in diameter, polifhed and thinly varnifhed on
the upper furface. On this I place another brafs plate, of
equal diameter, polifhed and varnifhed on both fides, with an
infulating handle attached to one edge cf ir, A third plate
is alfo provided, of equal diameter, polifhed and varnifhed on
the under fide, and with a perpendicular infulating handle
from the centre of the upper fide.””

«The method of colleéting eleGtricity from the atmofphere,
and continually doubling it-as much as required, is as fo!l-
lows. Ifthe weather be dry, I carry into the open air a
lighted torch, not liable to be eafily blown out, or a {mall
lantern with a lighted candle in it, to the bottom of which is
fixed, by means of a focket, an infulating handle of glafs co-
vered with fealing-wax ; in the other hand is carried a coated
phial ; then elevating the flame a little higher than my head,
I apply to it the knob of the phial, holding it in this fituation
about halfa minute. Then returning into the houfe (where
the above-defcribed doubler is kept dry, by being placed on
atable not far from the fire) 1 apply the knob of the phial
to the under fide of the firft plate, which lies immediately upon
the ele&trometer, and at the fametime touching the fecond plate
with a finger of theotherhand, (fee Platel Il. Eledricity, fig. 18.)
Then laying afide the phial, I lift up the fecond plate by its
infulating handle, and if the eleétricity be not now fenfible
by the ele&trometer, I place the third plate, by means of its
infulating handle, upon the fecond plate thus elevated: then
touching the third plate, by ftretching a finger over the junc-
ture of its infulating handle, and again withdrawing the fin-
ger (fig. 19.) I then again feparate the third plate from the
fecond. In this fituation it will be apparent to ele€tricians
that two of the plates are of one kind of ele€tricity, and
nearly of equal quantity, and oneonly of the other. I then
apply the third plate to touch the under furface of the firft
plate which remains on the electrometer, and at the fame
time covering the firft plate with the fecond, (fg. 20.) I
then touch the fecond plate by ftretching a finger over the
juncture of its infulating handle; and firlt taking away the
third plate, and then withdrawing my finger from the fecond,
and lifting it up from the firlt plate, the eleCtricity becomes
doubled. If by this firft operation the quantity of cle@tricity
does not become fenfible by the electrometer, I repeat the
procefs to ten or twenty times, which, by doubling it every
time, makes vifible the fmalle{t conceivable quantity of elec-
tricity, fince at the twentieth operation it is augmented to
above 500,000 times. And though in defcription the above
procefs of doubling to twenty times may appear tedious, yet
when the operator can perform it with fufficient readinefs
(which is foon acquired) it takes lefs time than 40 feconds.”

TF it be required to produce {parks, the plates ate to be
placed upon an infulating ftand, without an ele&rometer,
and the procefs repeated as above till the {parks appear.”

«© The experiment which proves that the eleétricity is
doubled by each operation is this. If the two flips of pen-
dulous leaf-gold of the eleSirometer be made to diverge to a

Vou, XII.

certain diftance by the above procefs, that diftance will bs
nearly doubled by repeating the operation, Anoth:! Droof
of this duplicate accumulation is, that, when the thiid piart
is applied to the firlt, the divergency of the leaf-pold is ap-
parently uodiminifhed, though in this fituation theirdeleG@ri-
city is diffufed over double the quantity of {urface.”?

* Tt is obvious that fome caution is neceffary in managing
experiments of fo much nicety, fince, by the leatt fr ion of
the hand on the varnifhed fides of the p.ates or infulating
handles, or if the metallic fide of oné plate he accidentally
rubbed againit the varnifhed fide of the othcr, fome degree of
ele&tricity is produced, which, becoming fenfible by the ope-
ration of doubling, may render the experiment equivocal,’’

“©To obviate thefe inconveniences, I join a conduing
handle, by means of an infulating nut, to each of the plates,
This handle confilts of turned unbaked mahogany, about
three inches long, into one end of which is inferted a put of
baked wood, about half an inch long, covered with fealing~
wax, upon the other end of which nut the brafa focket of the
plate is fixed ; by this means it is not neceflary to touch the
fealing-wax of the infulating nut, but occafionally to ftretch
a finger over it to touch the plate, whilft the mahogany han-
dle is held in the fame hand.”

«« Having found, by repeated experiments, that two clean
metallic plates, or two equally varuifhed plates, rubbed to-
gether, produce no electricity, I varnifhed the fecond plate on
both fides, but more thinly than when one fide only was
varnifhed, and in fome experiments ufed thimbles on the
ends of the touching fingers. In this way the inconveniences
of accidental friction were in fome meafure obviated, but
much lefs than I firft expeéted ; for, notwithftanding the
utmott care, eleciricity is produced without previous com-
munication: therefore, in experiments requiring the eleétri-
city to be often doubled, its communication may yet be
afcertained by applying it to the firft and fecond plates al-
ternatcly ; fo that pofitive electricity communicated to the
firft plate appears pofitive by the ele&rometer; but the fame
eleétricity, apphed to the fecond plate whilft the frit is
touched, produces negative in the electrometer,”

It appears from the laft paragraph, that Mr. Bennet was
fenfible of his doubler being capable of fhewing an ele@tric
power when no electricity had been communicated to it;
yet he flattered himfelf that the inftrument might be ufe-
fully employed for dete&ting very minute quantities of elec-
tricity, and fuch indeed as could not be perceived by means
of any other inftrument known at that time. The account
of this inflrument was no fooner read at the Royal Society,
than the ufe of it was adopted by various able philefophers,
and efpeciaily by Mr. Cavallo, who gave a full account of
his experiments and obfervations relative to this” inftrument
to the Royal Society. (See the Phil. Tranf. for the year
1788, P. 1.) «As thefe experiments and obfervations, be-
fides a thorough examination of Mr. Bennet’s doubler, ex-
plain feveral interelting particulars concerning the nature of
fimilar inftruments, as well as of the natural difperfion of the
eleGtric fluid, we fhall now fubjoin the account of the moft
ufeful part in Mr. Cavallo’s own words.

‘* As foon,” he fays, ‘* as I underflaod the principle of
this contrivance, I haftened to conftruét fuch an apparatus,
in order to try feveral experiments of a very delicate nature,
efpecially on animal and vegetable bodies, which could not
have been attempted before, for want of a method of afcer-
taining exceedingly {mall quantities of cle&tricity ; but after
a great deal of trouble, and many experiments, | was at lalt
forced to conclude, that the doubler of cleétritity is not an
inftrument to be depended upon, for this principal reafon,
viz. becaufe it multiplies not only the electricity which is

We willing ty

DOUBLER.

willingly communicated to it from the fubftance in queftion ;
but it multiplies alfo that ele&tricity which, in the courle of
the operation, is almcft unavoidably produced by accidental
friGion, or that quantity of electricity, however {mall it may
te, which adheres to the plates in {pite of every care and
precaution.”

« Having found, that with a doubler conftruted in the
above-deferibed manner, after doubling 20 or 30 times, it
always became ftrongly electrified, though no electricity had
b-en communicated to it before the operation, and though
every endeavour of depriving it of any adhering eleGtricity
had been praGtifed; I naturally attributed that electricity,
which appeared after repeatedly doubling, to fome friction
given to the varnifh of the plates in the courfe of the opcra-
tion. In order to avoid entirely this fource of miftake, or
at leat of fufpicion, I conftructed three plates without the
leaft varnifh, and which, of courfe, could not touch each
other, but were to fand only within about one-eighth of an
inch of each ether. ‘To effe& this, each plate ftood vertical,
and was fepparted by two glafs flicks, which were covered
with feal <. AB, figs. 21 and 22, isa wooden pedettal
“I inches long, 2% broad, and 14 inch thick; C and Dare
the two olafs Ricks cemented into the ftand or pedettal A B,
and likewife into the piece of wood E, which is faitened to

. the Lack-of the plate. The plate itfelf is of ftrong tin, and
meafures about eight inches in diameter. The itand AB
projects very little before the plate, by which means, when
two of thofe plates are placed upon a table facing each other,
the wooden {tands {till prevent their coming into actual con-
ta@t, as may be clearly perceived in fig. 23.”

«I need not deferibe the manner of doubling with thofe
plates, the operation being effentially the fame as when the
plates are conftrucied according to Mr. Bennet’s original
plan, excepting that inftead of placing them one upon the
other, mine are placed facing each other, and in performing
the operation they are laid hold of by the wooden ftand A B;
fo that no friGion, &c. can take place.” :

« Having conftruéted thofe plates, I thought that I
might proceed to perform the intended experiments without
any farther obftru@tion; but in this I found mylfelf quite
miftaken; for on trying to multiply with thofe new plates,
and when no ele@tricity had been previoufly communicated to
any of them, I found that after doubling 10 or 15, or at
mott, 20 times, they became fo fell of electricity as to afford
even fparks. All my endeavours to deprive them of elec-
tricity proved ineffectual. Neither expofing them, and efpe-
cially their glafs ticks to the flame of burning paper, nor
breathing upon them repeatedly, nor leaving them untouched
for feveral days, and even for a whole menth, during which
time the plates remained connedted with the ground by
means of good conductors, nor any other precaution I could
think of, was found capable of depriving them of every vel-
tize of eleGtricity ; fo that they might fhew none after doubling
10, or 15, or at moft 20 times.” '

« The ele€tricity produced by them was not always of the
fame fort ; for fometimes it was negative for two or three
days together; at other times it was pofitive for two or three
days more; and it often changed in every operation. In
fhort, the eleGtricity which was produced by the plates was
of a flu@uating nature, even when, inftead of touching the
plates with the finger, they had been touched with a wire,
which was conneéted with the ground, and which I managed
by means of an infulating handle.’”

« At lait, after a great variety of experiments, which it
is unneceflary to defcribe, I became fully convinced that thofe
plates did always retain a {mall quantity of electricity, per-
haps of that fort with which they had been laft electrified,

5

ng-

and of which it was impoflible to deprive them. The va-
rious quality of the eleétricity produced was owing to this

viz. that 2s one of thofe plates was pofleffed of a {mall quan.
uty of pofitive cl-@ricity, and another was poflciled of the
negative eleGiricizy,that piate which happened to be the moit
powerful, eccalioned a contrary eleGtricity in the other plate

and finally produced an accumulation of that particular fort
of eleGricity.”’

« As thofe plates, after doubling only four or five times
fhew no figns of eleéiricity, none having been COnEnUTetend
to them before, Timagined that they might be ufeful
fo far only, viz. that when a fmall quantity of eleétricity
is communicated to any of them in the courfe of fome expe-
riment, one might double it with fafety four or five times
which would even be of advantage in various cafes; but oe
this alfo my expectations were cifappointed. Having ob-
ferved, after many experiments, that, ceferis paribus, Fe I
began from a certain plate, for inftance, A, the electricity
which refulted was generally pofitive; and when I began
from another plate B, viz. confidered this plate Bas the
firft plate, the refulting electricity was generally negative :
I communicated fome negative eleGricity to the plate A
with a view of deftroying its inherent pofitive eleGtricity.
This plete A being now electrified negatively, but fo weakly
as jult to affcé an ele@rometer, I began doubling; but after
having doubled three or four times, I found, by thehelp of an
electrometer, that the communicated negative eleiricity in
the plate was diminifhed inftead of being increafed; fo that
fometimes it vanifhed entire:y, though by continuing the
operation it often began to increafe again. after a certain
period. This fhews, that the quantity of eleGricity, which
however {mall it may be, remains in a manner faftened to the
plates, will help either to increafe or to diminifh the accu-
mulation of the communicated eleftricity, according as it
happens to be of the fame, or of a different nature.”

«« After all the above-mentioned experiments made with.

thofe doubling-plates, we may come to the following con-
clufion, viz. that the invention of the doubler is very inge-
nious, but its ufe is by no means to be depended upon,”

The obitinate adhefion of ele&ricity to the plates of the
doubler, induced Mr. Cavallo to inquire into the eleGirical
equilibrium of fuch bodies as are faid not to be eleGrified,
and from the experiments and computations, which are
{tated at large in the fame above-mentioned paper, he was led
to conclude, that, ftri€ly fpeaking, every fubitance is always
electrified, viz. that every {ubftance, and even the various parts
of the fame body, are not exa@ly poffefled of their propor-
tionate fhare of electric fluid ; for though when much con-
denfed, the cle&tric fluid eafily pafles from thofe bodies
which are overcharged to thofe which are undercharged ; yet
when its denfity is inconfiderable, its paffage from one body
to another, or even from one part to another of the fame
body, is extremely difficult.

Mr. Bennet’s original doubler not being eafily managed on
account of the three feparate plates, which was alfo the cafe
with Mr. Cavallo’s vertical plates, and the remarkable effect
of the inftrument ftill appearing capable of ufe, feveral per-
fons endeavoured to fimplify the conftru@tion, and the ma-
nagement of it. A doubler was made with vertical plates,
which ftood upon an horizontal frame, and fome of which
moved backwards and forwards by means of a rack and
pinion, which was moved by means of a handle; buta mett
excellent conftru@ion was invented by Mr. Nicholfon, and
is defcribed in the fecond part of the volume of the Phil.
Tranf. for the year 1788. He calls it “an inftrument,
which, by the turning of a winch, produces the two ftates
of cleftricity without fri€tion or communication with the

earth.”

1

DOUBLER.

earth.” But, in fa&t, it is a revolving doubler, in which
“Mr. Cavallo’s improvement of placing the plates not in con-
tact with cach other, 1s adopted ; and whofe perts are cif-
pofed fo as to efle& the neceffary communications withont
any farther interference of the operator, befides his merely
turning a winch. The defcription of this curious machine
is as follows:

Fiz. 24, Mr. Nicholfon fays, reprefents the apparatus fup-
ported on a glafs pillar GL inches long. It confilts of the
following parts. ‘Two fixed plaes of braf3, A and C, are
feparately infulated and difpofed in the fame plane, fo that a
revolving plate B may pafs very near them, without touch-
ing. ach of thefe plates is two irches in diameter; and
they have adjufting pieces behind, which ferve to place them
accirately in the required pofition. D i» a brafs ball, like-
wile ef two inches diameter, fxed cn the extremity of an
axts that carriesthe plate B. Befidesthe more effential pur-
pofe this ball is intended to an{wer, it is fo loaded within on
one fide, that it {«rves as a counterpoife to the revelving
plate, and enables the axis to remain at reft in any pofition.
‘The other parts may be diltinétly feen in fg. 25. The fhaded
parts reprefent metal, and the white reprefent vernifhed
gifs. ON isa brafs axis, pafling through the piece M,
which laf fuftains the plates A and C. At oneextremity is
the ball D, already menticnec : znd the other is prolonged
by the addition of aglafs lick, which futtains the handle L
and the piece GC H {eparatcly infulated. E, F, are pins rifing
our of the fixed plates A and C, at unequal diftances from
the axis. The crofs-piece GH, and the piece K, lie in
one plane, and have their ends armed with {mall pieces of
harpfichord-wire, thet they may perfe&tly touch the pins
E, F, in certain points of the revolution. There is likewife
a pin I, in the picce M, which intercepts a {mall wire pro-
cceding from the revolving plate B.

“The touching wires are fo adjufted, by bending, that
when the revolving plate B is immediately oppofite to the
fixed plate A, the crofs-piece GH connedis the two fixed
_plates, at the fame time that the wire and pm at I form a
communication between the revolving plate and the bail.
On the other hand, when the revolving plate is immediately
oppofite the fixed plate C, the ball becomes conne&ted with
this laft plate, by the touching of the piece K again F;
the two plates, A and B, having then no connection with
any part of the apparatus. In every other pofition the
three plates and the ball will be perfe€ily unconnected with
each other.”

«« Mr. Cavallo’s difcovery, fo well explained in the laft
Bakerian leéture, that the minute differences of eletrization
in bodies, whether occafioned by art or nature, cannot be
completely deftroyed in any definite time, may be applied to
explain the a@ion of the prefent inftrument. When the
plates A and B are oppofite each other, the two fixed plates
A and C may be contidered as one mafs; and the revolving
plate B, together with the ball D, will conttitute another
mafs. All the experiments yet made concur to prove, that
thefe two mefles will not poflefs the fame eleétric fate ; but
that with refpeét to each other, their eleAricities will be
plus and minus. Thefe flates would be fimple and without
any compenfatior, if the mafles were remote from each
other; but as that is not the cafe, a part of the redundant
electricity will take the form of a change in the oppofed

_ plates A and B. From other experiments I find that the
effect of the compenfation on plates oppofed to each other,
at the diflance of one-fortieth part of an inch, is fuch that
they require, to produce a given intenfity, at leaft one hun-
dred times the quantity of eleétricity that would have pro-
diced it in either, fingly and apart. The redundant elec-

tricities in the mafles under corfideration will therefore be
unequally ditribnted : the plate A will have about 99 parts,
and the plare C one; and, for the fame reafon, the revolv-
ing plate B wil have gg parts of the oppofite eleGrici
and the ba!l D one. The rotation, by defroying the con-
tacts, preferves this unequal diltribution, end carries B from
A toC, at the fame time that the tail K conncéts the bell
with thepleteC In this fituation, the eleCtricity in B acts
upon that in C, and produces the contrary ftate, by virive
of the communication between C and the ball; which lait
muft therefore acquire an electricity of the fame kind with
that of the revolving plate. But the rotation again dcftroys
the conta, and reitores B to its firft fituation oppolite A.
Here, if we attend to the effeét of the whole revolution, we
fhall fiad that the eleStric fates of the refpective maffes have
been greatly increafed: for the 99 parts 1 A and in B re-
main, and the one part of electricity in C has been increafed
fo as nearly to compenfate oy parts of the oppolite electri-
city in the revolving plate B, while the communication pro-
duced an equal mutation in the ele&tricity of the ball. A
fecond rotation will, of courfe, produce a proportional
augmentation of thefe increafed quantities ; and a continu-
ance of turning will foon bring the intenfities to their
maximum, which is limited by an explofion between the
plates.”

‘© If one of the parts be connected with an eleG@rometer,
more efpecialiy that of Bennet, tnefe eficéts will be very
clearly feen. The fpark is ufually produced by a number of
turns between rr and 20; and the eleétrometer is fenfibly
ated upon by flill fewer. When one of the parts is occali-
onally conneéted with the earth, or when the adjuftment of
the plates is altered, there are fome variations in the effets,
not difficult to be reduced to the general principles, but
fufficiently curious to excite the meditations of perfons he
moft experienced in this branch of, natural philofophy.”

If the ball be conneéted with the lower part of Ben-
net’s electrometer, and the plate A with the upper part,
and any weak eleétricity be communicated to the cleétrome-
ter, while the pofition of the apparatus is fuch that the
crofs-piece GH touches the two pins; a very few turns
will render it perceptible. But here, as well-as in the com-
mon doubler, the effeét is rendered uncertain by the condi-
tion, that the communicated eleCtricity mult be ftrong enough
to dettroy and predominate over any other electricity the
plates may poflefs. I fcarcely need obferve, that if this
difficulty fhould be hereafter removed, the inftrument will
have great advantages as a multiplier of eletricity in the faci-
lity of its ufe, the very fpeedy manner of its operation, and
the unequivocal nature of its refults.”’

If this remarkable machine be not ufeful for afcertaining
any fmall quantities of eleGtricity in various cafes, furely it
may be applied to other ufes. Mr. Read of Knightfbridge,
in his “ Summary View of the fpontaneous Elettricity of
the Earth and Atmofphere,” fays, * Query, would not a
doubler of eleétricity, properly mounted with large brafs
plates, an{wer all the purpofes of the molt powerful eletri-
cal machines? I think [ can conceive how it may be done.
It will no doubt be difficult to make the revolving plate
gradually recede in proportion as the charge advances.”

{t is remarkable that notwithftanding this hint, and the
very promifing appearance of fuccefs ; no philofophical in-
ftrument-maker has, as yet, been induced to attempt the
conftruction,

We fhall, laftly, barely mention, that the doubler of elec-
tricity has likewife been conftruéted under other forms fome-
what different from, but not fuperior to, the above. A
contrivance ‘has alfo been fan for applying the-doubler *

2 the

D.O U
the pendulum of a clock, viz. fo that the bob of the pen+

dulum rod of a clock, in the form of a flat plate, might, in
the courfe of the vibrations, perform the office of the re-
volving plate of a doubler; but fuch conftrugiton weuld be
capable of a very inconfiderable effect, at the fame time that
it would difturb the regular vibrations of the pendulum,

DOUBLES, in our Statutes, fignify as much as letters
patent, being a French word made of the Latin diploma.
Anno 14 Hen. VI cap. 6.

DOUBLETS, among Lapidaries, denote cryfta's wrought
into fuch a form, and fo colovred, that the furfaces of two
pieces thus coloured being laid together, might produce
the fame effe& as if the whole fubttance of the cryftal had
been tinged. For this purpofe, two plates of eryttal muft
be cut in the manner of a brilliant, and fitted fo exaétly,
that no divifion can appear when they are laid together.
The upper part mutt be polithed ready for fetting, and then
the colours may be put between them by the following
procefs ; take of Venice, or Cyprus turpentine, two feru-
ples, and add to it one fcruple of the grains of pure maf-
tic powdered. Melt. them together in a filver or brafs
f{poon, ladle, or other veffel, and mix with them any of the
coloured fubftance propofed, well powdered. Warm the
doublets to the fame degree of heat with the mixture,
and paint the upper furface of the lower part, and put the
upper one inftantly upon it, prefling them everly together.
When the cement is quite cold, fcrape the edges, and let
the doublets be fkilfully fet, by carrying the mounting over
the joint, fo that the two pieces may be well fecured from
feparating. The colour of the ruby may be imitated, by
mixing a fourth part of carmine with fine crimfon lake ; the
fapphire and amethyit may be counterfeited by mixing very
bright Proffian blue, with a fmall quantity of crimfon lake;
the emerald may be imitated by diftilled verdigrife, with a
little powdered aloes; the garnet may he counterfeited by
dragon’s blood, the brightnefs of which may be improved by
the addition of a {mall quantity of carmine; the yellow to-

azes may be imitated by mixing the powdcred aloes with
a little dragon’s blood. Glafs may be alfo prepared in the
fame manner.

Doublets may be eafily diftinguifhed, by holding them be-
twixt the eye and the light, in fuch polition, that the light
may pafs through the upper part and corner of the ftone ;
which will then fhew fuch parts to be white, and that there
ie no colour in the body of the ftone. Handmaid to the
Arts, vol. ii. p. 328, &c.

DOUBLETTE, in Au/ic, the principal, or o€tave ftop
in French organs.

DOUBLINGS, in Heraldry, the lining of robes, or
mantles of ftate; or of the mantlings in atchievements.

Dovusiine, in a Military Senfe, is the putting of two
ranks, or files of foldiers, into one.

When the word of command is, “ double your ranks,”
then the fecond, fourth, and fixth ranks are to march up
into the firft, third, and fifth; fo that of fix ranks they
make but three, leaving double the interval there was be-
tween them before. But it is not fo when they “ double
the half files,’ becaufe then three ranks ftand together,
and the three others came up to double them; that ie, the
firft, fecond, and third are doubled by the fourth, fifth, and
fixth ; or on the contrary.

“ Pouble your files,” dire&ts each to march to that next
to it on the right or left, according to the word of com-
mand; in which cafe the fix ranks are turned into twelve,
the men ftanding twelve deep; the diftanee between the
files being now double of what it was before.

Dovstine @ Cape or ae in Navigation, fignifies the

DO. U0

conige up with it, pafling by it, and leaving it behind the
hip.

The Portuguefe pretend to be the firft that ever doubled
the Cape of Good Hope, under their admiral Vafquez de
Gama; but we have accounts in hittory, particularly in He«
rodotus, of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, &c. having done
the fame long befare them.

Dovustine nails, among Shipwrights, are the nails coms
monly ufed to falten the lining of the gun-ports, &c.

DousinG-upon, in a Naval Engagement, is the art of
inclofing any part of a hoflile fleet between two fires, or of
cannonading it.on both fides. It is ufually performed by
the van or rear of that fleet which is fuperior in number
taking the advantaye of the wind ; or of its fituation, and
tacking, or veering round the van or rear of the enemy, who
are thereby expofed to great danger, and can fcarcely avoid
being thrown inro a general confulion,

DOUBLON, Dvustoon, a Spanith and Portuguefe
coin, being the double of a piltole: See Pisrore and
Corn.

There are alfo double dubloons formerly current among
us for three pounds twelve fhillings. j

DOUBS, ‘he department of the, in Geography, is .the
third ‘department ot the fourth, or eaftern region of France,
It derives its name from the river Doubs, by which it is
nearly encircled, and was formerly part of the province of
Franche Comté. B<fangon is tts chief place.

The department of the Doubs.is bounded to the north by
the department of the Upper Rhine; to the eaft, and fouth-
ealt, by the Helvetian republic; to the fouth-weil, by the
department of the Jura, aud to the north-welt, by that of
the Upper Sadae. Its principal rivers are the Doubs, the
Louve, the Oignon, and the Dcfouvre. The furface is di-
verfified by hills and plains, which preduce wheat, oats, and
wine. ‘Towards Switz-rland it is bounded by lofty moun-
tains, covered with a few dwarf trees, and yielding but a
very fcanty pafture. In the interior there are fome fine ex-
tenlive forelts, iron and coal mines, quarries of marble, jaf
per, agate, and free ftone, and abundance of turf. It has
feveral extenfive marfhes, which want draining, chiefly near
Befangon, Ruffey, Morteau, Pontarler, and Saint Marie.

The territorial extent of the department of the Doubs
is 1,049.351 arpens, or 53094 fquare kiliometres, equal to
about 251 {quare leagues. Its torelts cover a furface of
244,864 arpens. Its population amounts to 227,075 indi-
viduals, or goS inhabitants to the {quare leaguz. [t con-
tributes annually to the expences of che ftate 1,886,533 li-
vres, which averages 8 livres 31 centimes, or about 75.
fterling, for each individual,

The department of the Doubs is divided into four dif-
triéts, Befangon, Baume, St. Hypolite, and Pontarlier, 25
cantons and 605 communes. It has feveral manufaCtures, of
which thofe of calt iron, hardware, pins, cutlery and
watches are the principal, (Herbin. Statiftique de la
France.)

Douss, the, is a river of France, which gives its name to
the third of its eaftern departments. It has its fource in the
mountains called Jura, near Mouthe, to the fouth of Pon-
tarlier, flows round the Jura, divides the department to
which it gives its name from the Helvetian republic, paffes
by Saint Hypolite and Montbeliars, runs to the welt of
Baumes, Befangon, and Dole, and after having taken up the
Louve, falls into the Saxe near Verdun, in the department
of Sadne and Loire. Its courfe is remarkable both for ita
fingularity, and for its length, which is about 180 Englifh
miles, or more than 300 kiliometres. It abounds in fifh,
efpecially carp of an excellent kind.

The

DOU

The river Doubs is not navigable; but there are feveral
projects to render it fo, and to form canals by which it is
to communicate with the Rhin-, the Sadne, and the Rhéne.
It frequently overflows its banks.

DOUBTFUL Isranp, an ifland in the fouthern Pacific
ocean, difcovered by M. Bougainville and feen by captain
Cook, in his fecond voyage, Auguft 1773. S. lat. 17° 20/.
W. long. 141° 38’.

Doustrrut Harbour, a bay on the W. coaft of the
fouthernmoit ifland of New Zealand, in the fouth Pacific
ocean. S. lat. 45° 6!. W. long. 168° 5’.

DOUBTING, the a& of with-helding a full affent from
any propofition; on fufpicion, that we are not thoroughly
apprifed of the merits thereof; or from our not being
able peremptorily to decide between the reafons for, and
againit it.

The Sceptics and Academies doubt of every thing ; the
chacacter of their philofophy is, not to allow any thing for
truth ; but to with-hold the affeat, and keep the mind free,
andinfuipence. Sce Scerrics.

The Epicureans trult their fenfes, and doubt of their rez~

‘fon ; their leading principle is, that our tenfes always tell
truth; that they are the firlt and only criterions of truth;
and that if you go ever fo little from them, you come within
the proper province of doubting. \

The Cartefians, on the contrary, of all things bid us
doubt our fenfes; they are perpetually inculcating the
deceitfulnefs of our fenfes; and tell us, that we are to
doubt of every one of their reports, till they have been
examined, and confirmed by reafon. See CarTesians.

Dovsrine, in Rhetoric, a figure wherein the orator ap=
pears fume time fluctuating, and undetermined what to do,
or fay. See Apogia and Diaporesis.

Tacitus furnifhes us with an inftance of doubting, almoft
to a degree of dillraction, in thofe words of Tiberius, writ-
ten to the fenate: ‘* Quid feribam, P. S. aut quomodo
{eribam, aut quid emnino non fcribam hoc tempore, dit me
a ag pejus perdant quam perire quotidie fentio, fi

cio,””

DOUBTLESS Bay, in Geography, a deep bay of New
Zealand, 7 leagues to the weltward of the Cavalles iflands,
running in to the land S.W. by W. and W.S.W.; the en-
trance being formed by two points, which lie W.N.W. and
E.S.E.; 5 miles diftant from each other. S. lat. 34° 47’.
W. long, 186° 21’.

DOUG, in Zoology. See Simia Nemeus.

DOUCETS, or Dourcers, among Sport/men, denote
the teftes of adeer or ftag. Did. Rutt.

DOUCINE, in Architefure, a moulding, or ornament,
on the highcft part of the corniche, in form of a wave, half
convex, and half concave.

The doucine is the fame with a cymatium, or gula. See
Cymatium, and Gua reéa, and inver/a.

DOUDEVILLE, in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department of the Lower Scine, chief place of a can-
ton, in the diltric&t of Yvetot; 27 miles N.W. of Rouen,
and 12 miles S. of St. Valéry. The number of its inhabit-
ants is 2929; thofe of the canton amount to 11,797, dif-
perfed in 2c communes, on a territorial extent of 85 kilio-
metres:

DOUDYNS, or Dopvens, Wittiam, in Biography, a
painter of hiftory, was born at the Hague in 1630; and
having acquired a competent knowledge of drawing and de-
fign trom Alexander Petit, an inconfiderable artift, he went
to Italy, purfuing the art of painting as an amufement more
than as a profeffion, becavfe his family was very rich. But

i

DOV

«

his attachment to it increafing, heat length made it his {ole
employment. Having {pent 12 years at Rome, he returned
home, in compliance with the importunate wifhes of his fa-
mily ; was immediately employed in feveral grand works,
and was appointed direCtor of the academy in deference to
his merit. His manner of defigning and compofing his
fubjects was grand; and he was diftinguifhed by correctnels
of outline, and clegance of form. His draperies are well
caft, broad, light, and natural, and his pencil is free and
firm ; fo that the beft judges confidered his piftures as the
productions of an Italian invention, tafte, and defign. He
died in 1697. Pilkington.

DOUE, or Dog, in Latin Theotvaldum, in Geography,
an ancient but fiall town of France, in the department of
Maine and Loire, chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of
Saumur, with a population of 1805 individuals; g miles
S.W. of Saumur, remarkable for the ruins of the palace of
the ancient dukes of Aquitaine, for its beautiful fountains,
and for a ftud lately eftablifhed by general Harville. Its
canton contains an extent of 230 kiliometres, 18 communes,
and 10 867 inhabitants.

DOVE, a river of England, in the county of Derby,
which runs into the Trent near Burton.

Dove, Cape, a cape on the coaft of Nova Scotia. N.
lat. 44° 20', W. long. 64°.

Dove, in Adythology, was an objec of reverence, and even
of worfhip, in the Eattern nations; and more efpecially in
India, Arabia, Syria, and Affyria. This refpect fhewn to
the dove, is traced by Bryant to the deluge; and to the
dove which returned to Noah with a leaf of olive, whence it
was inferred that the waters of the deep were afluaged. To
this circumftance, as he conceives, it was owing that this
bird was held in many nations as particularly facred. It
was looked upon as the peculiar meflenger of the deity,
and an emblem of peace and good fortune; whereas the
raven, which difappointed the hopes repofed in him, and
which never returned, was for the moft part efteemed a bird
ofillomen. The name of the dove, fays this learned ety-
mologilt, among the ancient Amonians, was lén and lonah,
fometimes exprefled I5nas, whence came the Owzs, Oinas,
of the Greeks. It was efteemed an interpreter of the will
of the gods to man; and, on that account, in the firit ages
was looked upon as a bird of prefage. Among mariners it
was thought to be particularly aufpicious; who, in their
voyages, ufed to let a dove or pigeon fly from their fhips,
in order to judge from its movements of the fuccefs of their
voyage. The moft favourable feafon for fetting fail was at
the heliacal rifing of the feven {tars, near the head of T'au-
rus; and they, fays Bryant, are in confequence of it called
Peleiades (Pleiades), or the doves. It was at the time of
their appearance that the Aronauts were fuppofed to have
{et out upon their expedition. (Theocrit. Idyll. 13. v. 25.)
It was thought a fortunate time for navigation in general,
as we learn from Ovid (Fetti, |. v. v. 65.) The Argonauts
are f{aid, ina time of difficulty and danger, to have made the
fame experiment with a dove, ‘as was {uppofed to have been
made by Deuvalion, and to have formed from it the like for-
tunate prefage. (Apollon. Rhod. |. ii! v. 328 ) Frem the
prophetic bird Ionah and Idnas, the Greeks formed many
terms, which related toaugury. As the dove was efteemed
the interpreter of the will of the deity, the priefts and
foothfayers were from that circumftance ftyled Idnah, or
doves. And as Theba, in Egypt, was originally the temple
of the ark, it is natural to look for prielts of this denomi-
nation in a fanétuary of that name. Some of thefe are fup-
pofed to have carried the rites of Theba, or the ark, to Libya,
and others to Dodona in Epirus, where Deucalion was fup-

poked

DOV

pofed to have fettled. See Donona. The dove, under its
ancient and true name, Ionah or I6nas, was almo!t univer-
faily received as a facred emblem; fer not only the Miz-
yaim, and the reft of the line of Ham, fo efteemed it, but
it was admitted as an hieroglyphic among the Hebrews; and
the myftic dove, fays Bryant, was regarded as a fymbol
from the days of Noah, by all thofe who were of the church
of God. The prophet who was fent upon an embaffy to
the Ninevites, is ftyled Idaas; a title probably beftowed
upon him as a meflenger of the deity. The great patriarch
who preached righteoufnefs to the antediluvians, 1s by Be-
rofus and Abydenus ftyled Oana and Oannes, which is the
fame name as Jonah. ‘The author of the Apocalypfe is de-
nomiuated in the like manner; whom the Greeks ftyle
Iwawaz, Loannes. And when the great forerunner of our
Saviour was to be named, his father induftrioufly called him
Tnewns, for the fame reafon. John, continues our author,
fignifies a dove, and alfo means an oracular perfon, by whom
the voice of the Moft High is made known, and his wiil ex-
plained. The dove, it is faid, was a truly facred fymbol,
and fo acknowledged in the times of the moft pure worthip.
But the fons of Ham perverted that which was intended to
be only typical, and carried their regard for it to a degree
of idolatrous veneration. They inhabited the regions of
Chaldza and Babylonia, where they conftituted the firit
kingdom upon earth, and whence we obtain the earlieft ac-
count of thofe rites and myfteries, which prevailed in the
Gentile world, in confequence of the deluge. The dove, or
Tdnah, was of courfe a favourite hieroglyphic among the
Babylonians and Chaldeans; and from them it was tran{-
mitted to other nations, It was depiéted on their military
ftandard, when they went to war, and hence they feem to
have been ftvied Ioaim, or the children of the Dove, and
their city lonah. (See Jerem. xxv. 38. xlvi. 16, ol. 16.)
"Tne Cathites brought with them to Samaria the enfign of
their country, aud fhewed a great veneration for the dove.
Hence it was reported that the Samaritans worfhipped a dove,
and that they hada reprefentation of it on mount Gerizim.
(Bochart. vol. ti. c. 1. p. 6.) Hence originated a trad:tion,
that the ftindard of Semiramis was a dove.

The dove with an olive branch was an emblem of peace;
it was a token of the deity to man, afluring him of an evil
being palt and of future plenty and happinefs. According
to Bryant, Semiramis was an emblem under the figure of a
dove, or pigeon ; and not areal perfon. (See Semiramis.)
Venus alfo, fays this writer, was no other than this ancient
S6oah ; and accordingly we find in her hiftory numberlefs
circumilances relating to the Noachic dove and to the deluge.
(See Venus.) For other allufions we muft refer to Bryant’s
Analyfis of Anc. Myth, vol. i.

Dove, in Ornithology. Sve Corumba.

Dove, ring. See CorumBa Palumbus.

Dove, turtle. See CorumsBa Turtur.

Dove, fea-turtle, or Greenland-dove.
Grylle and Auca Alce.

Dove, order of the, or of the Hely Ghof, an order infti-
tuted in Spain, according to fome writers, in the year 1379,
by John I. king of Ccftle, or, as others fay, by his fon
Henry, in the year 1399; but whenever it was initituted, it
foon fell into decay. The badge of the order was “a dove
difplayed argent, on rays of gold,” pendant toa collar of
two chains of gold.

Dove cots. See Prce0N-houfe.

Dove’s foot, in Botany. See GERANIUM.

Dove-tail piles, or plank-piles, in Carpentry, piles of wood
with grooves in their fides to receive tongues or flips of wood

See Corymsaus

D-Onv

after they are driven clofe together, to preveat water from
palling. See Plate 1V. Canals, fig. 39.

Dove failing, a method of toothing two pieces of wood
together, by cutting the ends of both pieces into notches, fo
that the proje€ting parts of the one picce are adapted tothe
hollows of the other, and that the piece which contains the
projeGting parts can only be drawn in one diretion out of
the other, or that only one of the pieces can be crawn out.

Dove-tailing is of three kinds. .The moft common
fhews the ends of the teeth in the form of trapezoids, or in
the form of the tail of a dove, whence the name dove-
tailing feems to be derived. On the other fide, which con-
tains the angle, the teeth or projecting parts, or indeed the
whole joinings, appear as reftangles. “Che fecond is called
lap dove-tailing, which conceals the dove-tails, but thewsa
ftraight joint parallel to the angle, and a part of the thick-
nefs of the ends cf one of the pieces. The third is called
mitre dove-tailing; this not only conceals the dove-tails but
the joint aifo, which is only inthe angle of the two planes.
The fiutt kind is the frongeft, but the lafgis the mott beau-
tiful. The frit mode is employedin al! work where firength
is more regarded than beauty, and the laft mode where
beauty and ftrength are both neceffary.

DOVEIN, in Geography, atown of Egypt; 7 miles
S.S.E. of Siit.

DOVELLA, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Maf-
filians to the fith called the donzellina by the Italians: itis
the julia, or julis, of authors; and according to the Artes
dian fyftem, it is a f{pecies of the labrus. That author
ditinguifhes it by the name of the labrus of variegated coz
lours, with two large teeth in the upper jaw. See Laurus.

DOVER, in Geography, a fea-port, cinque-port, and
market-town of Kent, England, is a place of confiderab'e
note in the hiftorical annals of Great Britain. Itis feated
in a valicy, nearly furrounded by lofty chalk hills, and is
the nearelt Englith fea-port to the coalt of France, being
only 7% Englifh leagues from the fhore of that empire. The
port, caftle, fortifications, and white-cliifs of Dover, are
objects of much importance; have cach afforded a theme for
poetic and hiftoric narrative ; and will therefore demand from
us a more circumttantial defcription than we ufually appro-
priate to topographical articles. The contiguity of this
place to the continent mutt have rendered it important as a
port, or harbour, at the earlicft period of commercial, or
warlike intercourfe between this tfland and the maia Jand:
but all attempts at identifying the time when, or perfons by
whom, theftation was firft occupied, mut be nugatory.
That the ancient Britons poffeffed it as a military poft an-
terior to the Roman conquelt is extremely probable: and
that the Romans fortifiedand adapted it to their fyftem of
tatics is admitted by the mo{t authentic and difcriminating
writers. Various relics and vettiges of this have been dif-
covered here ; {ome of which have remained till a late period.
Mr. King, in his Munimenta Antiqua, vol, i. repeats and
fan€tions the old tradition, that * Arviragus, the Britifh
chief, here fortifi-d himfelf, when he refufed to pay the tri-
bute impofed by Julius Czfar; and that here, afterwards,
king Arthur alfo held his refidence.” Darrell, in his “* Hif-
tory of Dover Caftle,”? has given currency to another tra-
dition, which affigns the foundation of this fortrefs to Ceefar
himfelf ; and Lambard quotes Lidgate and Rofle, as faying,
that ‘ they of the caftle kept till this day certeine veflels of
olde wineand falte, which they affirme, to be the remayne
of fuche provifion as he”? (Czfar) “brought into it”? From
what we know, however, of Czfar’s operations in this
country, asdetailed in his own commentaries, the aflumed

fae

DOVER.

faé&t may be confidered as wholly devoid of truth; though
the ancient Pharos, which ftill remains on the upper part of
the Caftle hill, furnifhes unqueftionable evidence of Roman
workmaulhip; and as the importance of this fituation mult
have pointed it out as an obje&t of primary regard, there 1s
{trong prefumption that it muft have been one of the firtt
places fortified by the Romans. ‘The outline of the Roman
camp may yet betraced, which, inthisinftance, partook of
a cuftomary deviation, according to the nature of the ground,
and had more of the oval in its figure than of the paralielo-

gram. The form of the Roman Pharos 1s o@agonal without;-

but fquare within: the fidesof the internal fquare, and each
fide of the external o@agon, being about fourteen of cur
feet, orabout fourteen and half Roman feet, in dimenfions:
the thicknefs of the wail, in the lower part, is about ten
feet. The foundations were laid in a bed of clay, notwith-
ftanding it is built ona chalk rock ; acircumftance that has
alfo been obferved in other Roman buildings. It has an
arched door way, about fix feet wide onthe eaft fide: on
the other three fides of the internal {quare were Roman
arches, and narrow {paces for windows, about thirteen feet
and an half high, and nearly four feet wide: thefe have been
much altered in fubfequent ayes, to convert them into loop-
holes. The old arches at the top of thefe receffles were
turned with Roman tiles, and with pieces of ftalaCtitical con-
cretion cut wedge-fhaped, about four times the thicknefs of
the tiles, and placed alternately with them. The compo-
nent parts of this Pharos plainly fhew its age: for it is com-
pofed (inthe ufual Roman ftyle) of long, thin, irregular
bricks; but inthe intermediate courfes, both the facing,
and great part of the interior fubltance of the wall, was
filled up, not, as might have been expected, with flints and
chalk-rubbifh from the neighbouring country, but with
maffes of hard flala€titical incruftations, cut into blocks of
various dimenfions, that could not have been met with
nearer than the more northern coafts on the ealt fide of the
ifland ; and therefore could not have been obtained by any
Roman commander prior to Agricola, who firft circumnavi-
gated A bion. Immediately contiguous to the Roman
Pharos, are the ruins of an ancient church, which is gene-
rally ftated to have been built by king Lucius inthe fecond
century. The roof isentirely deftroyed, end the walls much
dilapidated. Whatever may be the fact as to a Chriltian
edifice having been founded here at that early period, the
remains of the building are certainly of much later date ;
though, asin St. Martin’s church at Canterbury, Roman
tiles have been worked up in the walls, particularly of the
tower. Thefe remains, with the Pharos, and the foundations
of a building, fuppofed to have been a Roman bath, which
have been feveral times laid open in digging graves near the
weit endof St. Mary’s church, are all the vettiges of Roman
occupation that are now known in this town.

In the Itinerary of Antoninus, Dover is called 4d Portum
Dubris. Lambard fuppofes its name to have been derived
from the Britih Dw/yrrha, fignifying a fteep place; and
Camden agrees with him in this derivation. The Saxons
called it Dorfa and Dofris, which inathe Domefday book
is foftened into Dovere. ‘The third Iter of Antoninus pro-
ceeds immediately from London to this port, ‘a Londinio
ad Portum Dubris;’? mentioning only the intermediate fta-
tions of Rochefter and Canterbury: the traé of the old road
over Barham Downs can be eafily traced. Itis probable
that the Roman town was on the fouth fide of the river
which flows through the valley into Dover harbour, and that
the Watling-fteet, coming ftraight from Canterbury over
pee Downs, entered it where Biggin gate formerly

ood, : ‘

The Saxons are fated, by Darell, to have made them-
felves mafters of Dover at an early period; and foon after
their converfion to Chriftianity, the ancient church within
the walls of the caitle is faid to have been re-confecrated
by St. Auguftine, at the requeft of king Ethelbert, whofe
fon and fucceffor Eadbald founded a college near it for fe-
cular canons, under the government of aprovolt. In the
regu of Edward the Confeffor, and probably before, the
great earl Goodwin was governor.of Dover caltle, and is
recorded to have ftrengthened it by aditional works.

The importance of this caftle was fo well known to Wi!-
liam the Norman, that when he was contriv'ng the conquelt
of England, he refufed to permit eari Harold to Gepart from
Rouen, ’till he had bound him by a folemn oath to deliver up
after Edward’s death, the ca/ile of Dover, with the well of
water mM it.

From Domefday book we learn thet ‘in the time of king
Edward, Dovere paid 18/., of which fum Edward had two
parts, and. the earl Goodwin the third part of one moiety,
and the canons of St. Martin the other. The burgefles
have furnifhed the’ king with twenty fhips once in each year
for fifteen days, and in each fhip were twenty-one men 3;
this they had done becaufe he had freed them from fac and
foc. When the king’s meffengers have come there, they
have given for the paflage of a horfe, 3d. in winter and
2d.in fummer; but the burgeffzs found a fteerlman, and
one other affiftant : if more were necellary, they were pro
vided at the expence of the king. Whoever coaftantly re-
fided in the town, and paid cultom to the king, was quit of
toll throughout England. Ail thefe cultoms were in ufe there
when king William came into England. At his firfi coming,
the town itfelf was burnt; and therefore the value of ic,
when the bifhop of Baicux received it, could not be com-
puted: now it ts rated at 4o/., though the bailiff renders
from thence ¢4/. In Dover are twenty manfions, of which
the king has loft the cultom.’?

At this period, and during feveral fucceeding centuries,
Dover cattle was regarded as the “key and barrier of the
whole kingdom.’ * Clavis et repagulum totius repni,’”
are the words ufed by Matthew Paris; and the propriety of
this defcription may be eafily feen, when it is recolleéted,
that in every civil broil the poffeflion of this fortrefs was
eagerly fouzht by the contending powers. Henry II., on
his arrival from Normandy, re-built the keep on the Ner-
man plan, and otherwife fortified the caille, fo that its
ftrength was materially increafed. Lewis, the dauphin, be-
fieged it whem he landed to affift the difcontented barons;
but was repulfed. with great lofs, by Hubert de Burgh,
then governor, with a garrifon of only 140 men.

Many alterations were made in the fortifications and
apartments of the caftle by different fovereigns, previous to
the time of the civil war of the 7th century, when it was
wreft=d from the king by a merchaat named Drake, wlio was
a zealous partizan for the parliament, and on the night of
Auguk 1, 1642, took it by furprize, with the aid of ten or
twelve men only. By the means of ropes and f{caling lad-
ders, he contrived to lead his party to the top of the ciff on
the fea-fide, which being confidered as inacceflible, was left
unguarded, After the terrors of civil commotion had fub-
fided, this ftrong pile was, for upwards of a century, left to
moulder into ruins; though on one occafion, in 1745, bar-
racks had been built here fufficiently large to contain a regi-
ment of foldiers. The eff:@&s of the French revoltition,.
however, and the many threats of invalion thrown out by
the fucceffive rulers of the French empire, have occafioned a
vatt alteration in the defenc<s of this coalt; and government
has thought it advifeable to put Dover cattle into a {tate of

fufficient

DOVER,

fufficient flrength, to enable it to withfland any attempt to
carry it by conp-de-main, or any thing fhort of a eontinued
fiege.

Dover caftle, in its prefent fate, confilts of an immenfe
congeries of almoft every kind of fortification which the art
of war has contrived to render a fortrefs impregnable; though
its confequerce has been materially leffened fince the inven-
tion, and general ule of cannon; the eminenees to the north-
weft by weft, and fouth-weit, b:ing much higher than the
fite even of the keep itfelf. The buildings occupy nearly
the whole fummit of ‘the high emirence which bounds the
fouth-eaftern fide of the deep vailey in whieh Dover is built.
In a general way, this caflle may be defcribed as confilting of
two courts, a lower end an upper, defended by deep, broad,
and dry ditches, from which communications with the inner
towers have been made by weil-like fubterraneous pailages.
‘The lower court is furrounded by an irregular wall, excepting
onthe fide next the fea, where a confiderable part of the cliff,
with the remainder of the wail, was thrown down by an
earthquake on the 6th of April, 1680. This wall is called
the curtain, and is flanked, at unequal diftances, by a va-
riety of towers of different fhapes, femi-circular, {quare, po-
lygonal, &c.- Thefe are the workmanhip of different ages :
the oldeft of them, which is on the eaftern fide-of the caftle,
is faid to have been built by ear! Goodwin, and {till bears
his name; though this, as well as mof of the othe-s, have
been much altered fince their original ereGtion. Nine of the
other towers are ftated to have been buiit in the Norman
times, and to have derived their names from fir John de
Fiennes, and the eight approved warriors whom he had f{e-
JeGed to affilt in the defence of this fortrefs. Thefe towers,
according to their relative fituation on the wall, beginning
from the chff on the weiftern fide, are, 1. The Old, or
Canons’ tower, which anciently had a drawbridge and bat-
tery: 2. A pentagonal tower, originally named after its firlt
coramander Albrancis, bet afterwards Rokefly tower, from
one of its captains: 3. Chilham, or Calderfcot tower, built
by Fulbert de Lucy, lord of the manor and caltle of Chil-
ham: 4. Hurft: 5. Arfic, or Sayes: and, 6. Gatton towers.
Thefe three were named after adjacent manors appropriated
to their repairs: 7. Peveril, Beauchamp. or Marfhal’s tower,
fo fucceffively called after William de Peveril and Hugh de
Beauchamp, ancient commanders, and the marfhalmen who
had the fuperintendence of military ftores, &c.: 8. Port, or
Porth’s tower, which took its name from William de Porth,
and was alfo called Galtings, from one of its captains; but
now bears the name of Mary’s tower, from queen Mary, by
whom it was re-built: 9. Fiennes tower, as tt was origi-
nally named, after fir John Tiennes, now more generally
called New-gate, to diftinguith it from the ancient entrance;
and Conftable’s tower, from its having been the occafional
refidence of the conftable or governor ot the caltie: 10. Ciop-
ton’s tower, built by Edward IV., and deiiving its name
from the lord of a manor affigned for its repair: 11. Gods-
foe tower, fo called from an ancient commander: 12. Creve-
que:’s, Craviile’s, or the earl of Norfoik’s tower, a work of
preat magnificence, which has a {ubterraneous paflage lead-
sig toa vault of vail extent, and itrongly defended: 13. Fitz-
Wiiliam, or St. John’s tower, whicn derived its formér name
from Adam Fitz-Wiiiam, to whom, for his valour at the
battle of Haftings, the conqueror gave the {earf from his
own arm, and its latter name from lord St. Joha, who held
the lands allotted to it: 14. Averanche’s, or Mauntel’s
tower, a fine remain of Norman workmanfhip, fo named
from Averanche, an ancient commander of this caftle, and
his fuceffor Maunfel, who was lord warden of the cimque
ports in the reign of Henry LIL: 15. Veville, or Pinceiter

tower, fo called from two of its commanders, the Jatter of
whom affifted Hubert de Burgh in the defence of the caitle
againft the Dauphin: 16. Earl Gocdwin’s tower, built by
that nobleman when governor of the caitle, in the time of
Edward the Confeffor.

‘The upper court of the caftle is, like the lower one, fur-
rounded by a {trong wall and various towers; and near the
cen're ftands the {pacious keep, ereGed in the beginning of
Henry ILI.’s reign. This nob‘e building is fill in fine pre-
fervation, and is conftruéted on a fmilar plan to thofe built
by bifhop Gundulph, and particularly to that at Roch«fter.
It is now ufed as a magazine, the roof having been rendered
bomb-proof for additional fecurity. On the caflern fide of
this court are three towers, which cerived their names from
Gilbert de Maminot, or Mainmouth, who was one of the

knights that accompanied the cenqueror to England, and

was appointed marfhal of this caitle by Jorn de Fiennes;
thefe towers command the whole vallum and afcent leading
to the principal entrance to this court; near the fouth an-
gle of which is another entrance, by a gate called Palace,
or Subterranean Gate. The new works recently formed
for the defence of this important fortrefs confifl of different
barteries, furnifhed with a very formidable train of artillery,
cafemates dug in the folid chalk-rock, magazines, covered-
ways, and various fubterranean commucications ard apart-
ments for foldiery: the latter are fvfficiently fpacious for the
accommodation of about two thoufand men, and, with their
inhabitants, form a very curious {peCiacle: light and air ere
conveyed iato them by well-I:ke apertures cut in the chalk,
and by other cpenings in the face cf the clifis. A new
road has alfo been made, under the direction cf the Board
of Ordnance, from the town to the top of the hill (where it
unites with the Deal road) in a dircێtion to be commanded
by the batteries, the old road having become fo hollow, as
rather to proteét than obitruét the approaches of an enemy :
a branch from this road turrs to the right nearly oppofite
Gatton tower, and enters the caftie by a new bridge and
gate. Near the edge of the cl ff ltands a piece of brafs ord-
narce, twenty-four feet long, calt at Utrecht in 1544, and
called Queen Etizabeth’s Pocket Fittol, it having been a
prefent trom the fates of Holland to that queen.

Tiris fortrefs occupies about thirty-five acres of ground :
the hill on which it ftands is very ftcep and rugged on the
fide of the town and harbour; and towards the fea it is a
complete precip'ce of upwards of 320 feet from its bafe on
the fhare. Like other royal caftles, it wes formerly both ex-
tra-parochial aud extra-judicial ; but as feveral of the ancient
franchifes are either loit or d fufed, the civil power has of
Jate years been exercifed within its limits, ‘independently
of any controul from the lord warden. Since the re-com-
mencement of koltilities, in1S03, the heights oa the weftern
fide of Dover have been itrongly fortified, agreeably to the
moderna {yftem, and a new military road leading to them
made. The other fortifications are Archliff fort, at the
extremity of the pier, and Ambherft battery, at the north
Picr-head; thefe aGing in conjunction with the heights and
caille, entirely commard the road to Dover. During the
American war two other forts were ere€ted: North’s bat-
tery on the Rope Walk, and Townfend’s battery on the
fouth Pier-head: thefe have been rendered ufelefs by in-
roads of the fea, and are now wholly decayed, except the
guard-houfes and magazines. .

It is.evinced by feveral concurrent circumftances, that, in
ancient times, the fea flowed over the greateft part of the
valley in wh:ch Dover is now fiiuated, and that the harbour
was confiderably more inland, towards the north-eait, than
at prefent. At° what particular era the ancient haven he-

came

es

\

DOVER.

eame vfelefs is not exaGly known. From the number of
fhips furnifhed by the burgeffzs of Dover for the king in
Edward the Confeffor’s time, as we have already mentioned,
it may be conjectured that the harbour was then flourifhing.
OF the prefent harbour, little is recorded till the time of
Henry the VIIth, in whofe fifteenth year, anno 1500, a
round tower was built, on its fouth-wett fide, to protect the
fhipping from the violence of the fouth-welt winds: to this
tower the veflels were moored by rings ; and it is faid to have
made that part of the haven fo pleafant, that it was called
Little Paradife. Confiderable fums were alfo expended in
this reign on other works ; but it was at length found that
nothing but the con{truétion of a pier could effeGuaily be-
nefit the harbour. Accordingly, in the next reign, a plan
was laid down by fir John Thompfon, who at that time held
the living of St. James in this town, and this being approved
by the king, was commenced in 1533, under the direCtion
of Thompfon as chief furveyor. ‘The pier was begun at
Archcliff, on the fouth-weft fide of the bay, and carried out
dire&ily eaftward into the fea, to an extent of 131 rods. It
was compofed of two rows of main pofts, and large piles of
about 26 feet long, fhod with iron, and driven into the main
chalk, and faltened together by iron bolts and bands. The
bottom wes laid with vaft ftones, of twenty tons weight,
brought from Folkttone by water, on rafts fupported by
empty cafks; and the whole was filled up with beach-ftones,
chalk, &c. The king himfelf came feveral times to Dover,
fo view the works, and is ftated by Uiarris (from the Dering
Manufcripts) to have expended about 80,000/ on this pier;
yet his abfence at the fiege of Boulogne, and fubfequent
illnefs and death, prevented its completion. Slight attempts
were made in the two following reigns to forward the work,
but no effectual advance was made till the time of Elizabeth,
to whom a memorial on the fubjet was prefented by fir
Walter Raleigh, who ftated that ** no promonrory, town,
or haven, in Chriftendom, is fo placed by nature and fitua-
tion, both to gratify friends, and annoy enemicsas this town
of Dover.” About this ime, the immenfe quantity of
beach thrown up by the fea, had formed a bar acrofs the
harbour which totally impeded the paffage. Several projects
were then formed to make a proper channel ; and the queen
granted the town the free exportation of 30 009 quarters of
wheat, 10,000 quarters of barley, and 4000 tons of beer,
in aid of the expence; and for the fame porpofe, in her
twenty-third year, a duty of three-pence per ton was laid on
every veffel pafling this port above twenty tons burthen:
this duty produced about rooo/. annually. A commiffion
was then iffued for the repairs and improvements of the har-
bour ; and after feveral failures and alterations in the plan,
a fecure haven was at length con{truéted: and its preferva-
tion and repairs have been provided for by feveral grants and
adts of parliament in the feventeenth and eighteenth centu-
ries) The harbour at the prefent time is ina refpeétable
condition. Agreeably to the idea of captain Perry, in his
report aftera furvey in 1718, feveral j-ttics have been erected
towards the eaft, to prevent the encroachments of the fta;
and though the ftrong fouth-weft winds ftill throw up large
quantities of beach at the mouth of the harbour, the fluices
have been fo conitruéted, that, with the aid of the back-
water, they generally clearit in one tide. Ships of 400 or
00 tons may now enter in fafety ; the depth at {pring tides
being between eighteen and twenty feet, and at neap tides

about fourteen.

Dover was the firft of the cinque ports incorporated by
charter, which was granted by Edward 1. who had a mint
here; and who, by letters patent in the twenty-feventh of his
reign, appointed * the table of the exchequer of money”’ to

Vor. XI,

be held here, and at Yarmouth. Shortly before this, the
greateft part of the town had been burned by the French,
though two cardinals from France were then in England to
treatof peace. In the 17th of Edward IL., as appears from
the patent rolls of that year, Dover was divided into twenty-
one wards, each of which wascharged with one fhip for the
king’s ufe, and on that account each had the privilege of a
licented packet-boat, called a Paflenger, to convey goods
and paflengers from this port to Whitfan in France, which
was then a common place of. embarkation to this country,
In the roth of Edward ILT., it was enaéted that © all mer-
chants, travellers, and pilgrims, going to the continent,
fhould not go from any other place than Dover ;”? and tie
price of conveyance, as regulated in the next rein, was, in
fummer, for a fingle perfon 6d. and for a horfe ts. 6c. ; and
in winter, for a fingle perfon 1s. and for a horfe 25. iis
probable that the above law for confining the intercourfe
between England and the continent to this port, was not
duly obferved, as, in the 4th of Edward 1V., another ftatute
was pafled, ordaining that none fhould take fhipping for
Calais but at Dover. This laft aQ@ was repealed 21 James I.
In the year 1665 the great plague, which made fuch
dreadful ravage in the metropolis, extended itfelf to this
town, and carried off goo of its inhabitants.

The ancient town of Dover was defended by a ftrong
embattled wall, which included a {pace of about half a mile
fquare, and in which were ten gates ; though not a trace of
any now remains, except a part of Cow-gate. The form of
the town is fingular, and from the hills above, it has a moft
interefting and romantic afpe@. Tt confilts of three long
ftreets, extenting in contrary direGions, to the eaft, fouth-
welt, and north, and meeting at ove point in the centre.
The town is now divided into the two parithes of St. Mary
the Vi-gin, and St. James the Apoitle: there were formerliy
fix, each of which had its diftin® church; four of thefe
edifices have long been detiroyed, with the exception of fome
parts of thofe of St. Nicholas and St, Martin le-Grind.
The latter church was fourded by king Wodred in 69t for
fecular canons: thefe were fuppreff=d by Heary I., at the
inttigation of archbifhop Corboy!, who formed a defizn to
replace them by a priory of canons regular, the buildings
for which he begun, but dying before he completed them,
they were finifhed by hia fucceflor, Theobald. Great part
of the priory buildings ftill remains: the gateway and refeo-
tory are nearly entire; and a portion of the church js yet
ftanding. ‘This priory was, for a long period, called the
Newark, to dittinguifh it from the ancient foundation from
which it {prung. On the left of the entrance to the town
was a maifon dieu, or hofpital, built and endowed by Hubert
de Burgh the great juiticiary of England, about the begins
ning of the reign of Henry III., who made confiderable
additions to the endowment. After the diffolution. it was
converted by queen Mary into an office for vitua ling the
navy, to which ufe it is ftillappropriated, Ta times of war,
much bufinefs is done here, this being the only eltablifhed
office between Portfmouth and Sheernefs; and all fhips in
the Dowis, belonging to the royal navy, are fupplicd hence
by veifels engazed ter that purpofe. They ful from the
Vidtua ling quay, near the old dock, at the bottom of Snare
gate-itreet, where there are ftorchoules for the ufe of govern-
ment, and whence ail {tores are fhipped. The buildings of
this office, though much altered and modernized, evince the
maifon dicu to have been an extenfive an {plendid efablifh.
ment. Another hofpital, conneéted with this town, though
ftandimg in the adjoining parifh of Buckland, was built for
lepers at the joint expence of Henry II., and the monks
of St. Martin’s priory, to whom it was fubje@; nota veltige

fs e

DOVER.

of the building is now remaining, though an ancient fair is
fill kept on the f{pot, on the anniverfary of St. Bartholomew,
to whom the hofpital was dedicated.

Of the two churches in this town, St. Mary’s is the prin-
cipal: this is a fpacious and curious edifice, in length about
120 feet, in breadth 55, confifting of a nave and ailes, with
_ atower at the wet end. It is faid to have been built by
the priory and convent of St. Martin, in the year 1216 ;
yet, as the architeQure of the tower, and part of the weit
end, is that of an earlier age, it feems probable that this
was one of the three churches in Dover, which are record-
ed in Domefday book as being fubjeA to St. Martin, and
of courfe its origin muft have been prior to the date men-
tioned. The weit front is of Norman architefture, as are
alfo the three firft arches and their fupporting columns on
each fide of the nave. Among the numerous monuments in
this church, the molt obfervable is one to the memory of
Philip Eaton, efq., who died in January, 1769. ‘Two years
after the dffolution, this church, which had previoufly be-
longed to the maifon dieu, was given to the parifhioners by
Hen-y VIII., who was then at Dover; and every houfe-
keeper, paying feot and lot, has now a right to vote in the
cleGiion of a minifter. The other church, St. James’s, is
an irregular flruéture, and its interior, which is kept parti-
cularly neat and clean, difplays its origin to have been Nor-
man: it hasa {quare tower at the welt end.

Dover, in its prefent civil jurifdition, is governed by a
mayor, twelve jurats, and thirty-fix common-councilmen 3
from the latter of whom a town clerk and chamberlain are
aanually chofen., The mayor is eleéted by the refident
freemen, in St. Mary’s church, on the eighth of September,
the nativity of the Virgin. The two members of pariia-
ment are alfo chofen in St. Mary’s church by the whole
body of freemen, refident and non-refident, in number about
160>. Freedom is acquired here by birth, fervitude, mar-
riage and burgage tenure: the franchife obtained by mar-
riage ceafes at the death of the wife, and that by tenure at
the alienation of the freeho'd. The ancient charter of
Dover was furrendered to Charles II., and in Auguft 1684
a new one was granted, according to the general provifions
of which, though the charter itfelf is loft, the town is now
governed,

The trade of Dover is extenfive; and, in times of peace,
the genera! pufinefs is particularly great, this being ftill the
principal place of enbarkation for the continent. Pre-
vioully to the prefent war, thirty veff-is, exclufive of packets,
were employed in the paffige to the oppofite fhores: they
were about fixty or feventy tons burthen each; were fitted
np in an elegant mancer ; and were confidered as the hand-
fomelt floops in the kingdom. With a favourable wind, they
have frequently reached Calais in three hours: the fhortett
paflage ever kaown was two hours and forty minutes. A
*« Fellowship of Trinity Pilots’? wasettablifhed here in 1515,
under the direétion of the court of Load-manage, whofe
bufinefs was to pilot veflels into the Thames. King Wil-
liam, in 1689, reftored to the pilots their ancient right of
choofing a matter and wardens from their own body ; and ap-
pointed the lord warden and his deputy, the mayors of Dover
and Sandwich, with the captains and liertenants of Deal,
Walmer, and Sandown caftles, commiffisners of load-manage.
In 3 George I. the pilots obtaified an a& authorizing an
eftablifhment of fifty pilots at Dover, fifty at Deal, and
twenty in Thanet : fince that time the mayor of Sandwich
has Jolt his commiffion, but the other commiffioners are the
fame as before. The inftrument by which a pilot is admit-
ted is called a branch, and the feal of the admiralty and
chancery courts is affixed to it.

Various improvements have been medz at Dover fince the
year 1778, when an a@ was obtained for the better paving,
cleanfing, lighting, and watching the town: and duties of
fixpence in the pound on every houfe, a fhilling on every
chaldron of coals, and a toll on all carriages eqzal to that
given by the turnpike aét, payable at the gate on the Lor-
don road, were granted to defray the neceflary expences 5
the paving and lighting are, however, but very indifferent.
The upper road to Folk {tone having become very dangerous
from the falling of the cliffs, a new one was made a few years
ago, pafling through the valley by Maxwell and Farthing-
loe, and joining with the upper road about three miles
from Dover. In 1784, an act was paffed for the recovery
of {mall debts above 2/. and under 40/. in the liberties of
Dover and Dover caftle, and fourteen adjacent parifhes.

Dover is ftuated 72 miles E.S.E. from London; has
markets on Wednefday and Saturday ; and an annual fair,
which continues three market days, and appears to have
been originally granted to king Widred’s foundation. The
inhabitants of the two parifhes, as returned under the late
ad, amounted to 7054, the number of houfes to 178Se
This return conveys but an imperfect idea of the popula-
tion, as the number of inmates, who have not a fixed refidence,
is generally very great ; and the whole, including the garri-
fon of Dover cattle, and the heights, together with thofe dif-
tricts comprifed under the libertics of Dover, may, with
much probability, be fixed at from 18,000 to 20.000.

Dover has, of late years, and particularly in the bathing fea«
fon, become a favourite fummer refidence of many refpectable
families. The attra@lions are numerous, and the prof{peés
particularly interefting. The broad beach lying at the
embouchure of the valley, the romantic view of the cliffs
and caftle, the fingular fituation of the buildings, the en-
trance of the port terminated by an extenfive fea-profpedt,
with the French coaft in the diftance, and the many veffels
paffing up and down the channel, combine from various points
in the compofition of a feries of views, which, for grandeur
and impreffive effe€t, are not to be cqualled by any on the
fhores of Britain.

On the fea beach, below the caftle hill, is a very fingular
villa, belonging to the brave fir William Sidney Smith, by
whofe father, the late captain Smith, who had been aid-de-
camp to lord George Sackville, at the battle of Minden, it
was erected. It is conitructed of flints and chalk, and con-
fits of different low buildings, inclofing a {ma'l court, and
in its general afpe&t refembles a fort: the roofing is com-
pofed of inverted fea-boats of the largeft fize, ftrongly

itched. '

E On the top of the hill, on the weft fide of Dover caitle,
are remains of a circular camp, which has been furrounded
by a fingle ditch and rampart, both of which are itill very
apparent; though the former is partly filled up, and the
latter much broken: the road to Eaft Langdon croffes the
centre of the area.

The bold and high cliff that breafts the furge on the fouth-
weft fide of Dover-harbour, in front of the heights, bears
the name of the immortal Shakefpeare, whofe fublime
defcription of this {pot is almoft without parallel: and its
appofite character muft juftify us in quoting it on the prefent
occafion.

« There is a cliff whofe high and bending head

Looks fearfully on the confined deep—
Here’s the place :—how fearful
And dizzy ’tis to ca{t one’s eyes fo low !
The crows and choughs that wing the midway air,
Show fearce fo grofs as beetles :—half-way down
Hangs one that gathers famphire: dreadful trade !
Methinks

DOV

Methinks he feems no bigger than his head.

The fifhermen that walk upon the beach,

Appear like mice ; and yon tall anchoring bark,
Dimioifh’d to her cock ; her cock, a buoy

Almoft too {mall for fight. The murm’ring furge,
That on the unnumber’d idle pebble chafes,

Cannot be heard fo high :—1’Il look no more,

Left my brain turn, and the deficient fight

Topple down headlong.” King Lear, a@ IV.

Among the more diftizguifhed natives of Dover, were
Dr. White Kennet, bihop of Peterborough, of literary cele-
brity, who was bornin Augnit, 1660, and died in December,
1728 :—and that illufrious ftatefman, Philip Yorke, eail of
Hardwicke, who was born in December, 1690, and having
acquired great eminence at the bar, and filled the important
fituation of folicitor and attorney-general, was appointed lord
chief jultice of the king’s bench in 1733, and lord chancellor
an 1736; the fun&ions of which high ftation he exercifed
for twenty years with fuch undeviating fidelity and juttice,
that only three of his decrees were appealed from, and even
thofe were affirmed by the houfe of lords: he refizned the
great feal in November 1756, and died in March, 1764.

On the high ground, about three miles fouth-welt from
Dover, are thv’remains of Bradfole, or St. Radizund’s abbey,
which was founded for Premonftratenfian canons about the
year t191, but by whom is uncertain. The walls of the
out-buildings, gardens, &c. include a confiderable extent of
ground: and the whole appears to have been furrounded by
a broad ditch and rampart, inclofing an exterfive circular
area, Hiafted’s Kent. Darell’s Hittory of Dover Caftle.
King’s Munimenta Antiqua. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. viii.

Dover, a townfhip of America, in the flate of Mafla-
ehufetts and county of Norfolk, incorporated in the year
1650; containing 511 inhabitants, and lying 17 miles fouth-
ward of Boiten.—Alfo, a eonfiderable polt-town in Straf-
ford county, New Hampthire, and the fhire-town of the
county ; fituated on the fouthern fide of Cocheco river, about
four miles above its junétion with Salmon-fall river, which
together form the Pifcataqua; 12 miles N. W. by N. from
Portfmsuth. By the Indians it was called Winichaknaut
Cocheco, and by the firft fettlers Northam. It was incorpo-
rated in 1633, and contains 2062 inhabitants. The public
buildings are a congregational church, court-houfe, and gaol.
At Dover isa high neck of land, between the main branch
of Pifcataqua and Black river, about two miles long and haif
a mile wide, rifing gently along a fine road, and declining on
each fide like a fhip’s deck. It commands an extenfive and
variegated profpect of the rivers, bays, adjacent fhores, and
diftant mountains, and has often been admired by travellers
as an elegant fituation for a city, and by military gentlemen
for a fortrefs. The firlt fettlers pitched here, but the trade
has been long fince removed to Cocheco falls; and this beau-
tiful {pot is almoft deferted of inhabitants. N. lat. 43” 11’.
W. long. 70° 50’.—Alfo, a townfhip of Monmouth county,
New Jerfey, between Shrewfbary and New Stafford, and
extending from the fea to the county line. It is a large
townfhip, but contains only gio inhabitants, who moftly live
upon the fea-fhore. It has one church, erected by the be-
nevolence of an individual; and open to minifters of a!l deno-
minations.—Alfo, the metropolis, and a polt-town of the
ftate of Delaware and county of Kent, onthe S. W. file of
Jones creek, about 44 miles from its mouth, in the Dela-
ware; 12 miles from Duck creek, 48 from Wilmington, and
46 §.8.W. from Philadelphia. Ia contains 105 houfes,
dillributed into four ftreets, which interfe€&t one another at
right angles in the centre of the town, and inclofe a foacious

DOU

parade, having on its eaft fide an elegant flate houfe. ‘This
town, which has a lively appearance, carries on a confider-
able trade with Philadelphia, chiefly in flour. N. lat. 39° 10".
W. long. 75° 34/—Alfe, a town in York county, Pennfyl-
vania, op Fox-run, which falls into Conewago-creek, near
its mouth in the Sufquehanna. It contains a German Lu-
theran and Calvinift church united, and about 40 houles.
Morfe.

Dover’s Powder, in Pharmacy, Pulvis Ipecacuanhe Com-
poftus, P.L., a molt excellent medicine, which bears the
name of the inventor, and is compofed of one part of tpceca-
cuanha, one part of opium, and eight parts of vitriolated
tartar; the latter of which ingredients has probably no other
ufe than to divide the two others, and to increafe the bulk
to aconvenient form. In this excellent medicine the emetic
property of the ipecacuanha is corrected by the opium, and
the two united have a molt powerful fudorific effeét, which
is, on the whole, more certain in its operation than any other
medicine of this kind. The dofe to an adult is from 15 to
20 or £5 grains, which is beit given in the form of a bolus;
and as, notwithftanding the opium, it produces fome degree
of naufea, nothing clfe fhould be taken into the ttomach till
about an hour afterwards. The Dover’s powder is particu~
larly ufed in thofe cafes where a copious fweating is re-
quired, asin rheumatifm. By repeating it about every fix
or eight hours the fudorific effe&t may be prolonged for many
hours.

DOVERA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan;
24 miles W. of Milan.

DOUGE, The, a {mall river of France, which has its
fource in the department of the Gers, flows by Bafkele
d’Armagnac, Roquefort de Marfan, Mont de Marfan, and
‘lartas, in the department of the Saades, where it dilcharges
itfelf into the river Adour.

DOUGIELISKI, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Wilna; 16 miles N.N.E. of Wilna.

DOUGLAS, Dr. Jou, in Biography, bifhop of Salif-
bury, was born in Scotland, but removed, at an. early age, to
England for education, and entered a ftudent at Baiiol col-
lege, Oxford, where he took the dezree of mafter of arts,.in
the autumn 1743. Soon after he had taken orders he was
prefented to the rectory of Eaton Conitantine, in Shrop-
fhire, where he refited, commenced his literary career, and
laid the foundation of his future advancement in his pros
feffion. Tarly in the year 1747, William Lauder, a Scotch
{choolmatter, made a mot flagitious attempt to fubvert the
reputation of Milton, by fhewing that he was a mere copier,
or tranflator of the works of others, and that he was in-
debzed to fome modern Latin poets for the plan, arrange-
ment, &c. of bis Paradife Loft. Many perfons of confider-
able literary talents gave credit to the tale of Lauder, among
whom was the celebrated Dr. Johnfon, who, perhaps, was led
away more by his prejudices than judgment. Mr. Douglas,
however, examined the merits of the cafe, confidered molt
accurately the evidence adduced by Lauder, and foon found
that the whole was a moft grofs fabrication. He publifhed
a defence of Milton againit Lauder, entitled, ** Milton vine
dicated from the Charge of Piagiarifm,’? &c. which ap-
peared in the form of a letter addreffed to the earl of Bath.
Having juftified the poet, he proceeded to charge the ac-
cufer with the moft grofs and manifelt forgery, which he
fubftantiated to the entire fatisfaction of the public. The
deteétion was indeed fo clear and maniteft that the criminal
acknowledged his guilt. In 1754, Mr. Douglas publified
* The Criterion, or Miracles examined, &c.”” This was de«
figned as a refutation of the {pecious objections of Mr. Hume
and others to the reality of the miracles recorded in the

Le New

DOUGLAS.

New Teftament. The hiftorian had maintained that there
was 23s good evidence for the miracles faid to have taken
place among the ancient heathens, and, in later times, in the
church of Rome, as there was for thofe recorded by the evan-
gelitts, and faid to have been performed by the power of Chrilt,
Mr. Douglas, who had fhewn himfelf an acute judge of
the value of evidence, pointed out the diftinGion between the
pretended and true miracles, to the honour of the Chriflian
religion. A new edition of this excellent work was lately
publithed. In 1756, he undertook to fhew that the hiltory of
the popes, by Bower, could not be depended upon, and that
the author had fhewn himfelf capable of much mifreprefent-
ation and falfehood, which he had indulged to fecure the pa-
tronage of the proteftants in this country. Thefe publica.
tions in the caufe of literature and religion obtained for the
anthor much and well merited reputation. Among thofe
who became his patrons was the earl of Bath, who, on his
death in 1769, bequeathed to him his whole valuable li-
brary. In 1760 he went to Oxford, and took nis degrees
of B.D. and D.D. In 1762 he was made canon of Wind-
for, and in 1766 a canonof St. Paui’s. After various other
inftances of preferment, he was made bifhop of Carlifle on
the death of Dr. Law, and m 4791, on the removal of Dr.
Barrington to Durham, he was tranflated to Sal:fbury, and
made chancellor of the order of the garter. On the return
of the fhips that had been fent out ona voyage of difcovery
under captain Cook, he arranged and prepared for the prefs
the journals and obfervations which had been made during
the expedition, and to the whole he prefixed an elaborate and
excellent introduction, in which he gives a fuccinét view of
the progrefs of maritime difcovery down to the time of cap-
tain Cook, and points out the great benelits likely to refult
from the voyages of that navigator.

Dr. Douglas died at Windfor, May 13, 1807. He was
unqueltionably an enlightened fcholar, and a warm friend to
men of learning and genius, and his charaéter ftands very high
for fidelity and a confcientious difcharge of the public duties
of his ftation, and for benignity and amiablenefs of temper
and behaviour in the intercourfes of private life.

Doveras, Gawin, a Scotch prelate, diftinguifhed for
poetical talents, third fon of Archibald, earl of Angus, was
born in 1474-5. Having received a liberal education in his
own country, he went to Paris to finifh his ftudies. When
he came back he entered into the church, and obtained fome
very valuable preferments. He was indeed nominated to the
archbifhopric of St. Andrew’s; but a {trong oppofition ren-
dered the nomination of no effet; he, however, obtained, in
its ftead, the bifhopric of Dunkeld. The duties of this high
office he performed with exemplary diligence ; and was at
the fame time the promoter of many ufeful public works, and
finifhed a ftone bridge over the river Tay, which had been
begun by his predeceffors. The bifhop, in order to avoid the
diforders which raged ia Scotland, retired to England, and at
that junG@ure war broke outbetween thetwo countries: he was
accordingly reprefented by his enemies as a difaffected perfon,
and all his epifcopal revenues were fequeftered. Having now
no motive to return, he determined to remain in England, and
king Henry VIII. granted him a penfion as a man of learn-
ing, and perhaps as a reward for his attachment tothe Englifh
caufe. He died of the plague at London, in 1521-22, and
was buried in the Savoy church. © The bifhop has been juftly
eiteemed as the improver of Scottifh poetry. In early life he
tranflated Ovid, ‘* De remedio Amoris;” but his principal
work is a tranflation of Virgil’s Aineid into Scottifh heroic
verte. According to Mr, Warton, this is the firft metrical
tranflation of a claffic in the language of Great Britain, un-
Jefs one of Bocthius be an exception. It was written in a

few months about the year 1512, and is exeented with
{pirit and fidelity. ‘To each of the books is prefixed:a pro-
logue in verfe, of which feveral are highly poetical. Two
of them, fays his biographer, which defcribe the month of
May, and the winter feafon, abound in lively and characters
iftic imagery. Difhop Douglas likewife compofed am origi-
nal poem entitled ** The Palace of Honour,” which is a moe
ral vifion in the manner of the table of Cebes, and an alle-
gorical poem called «* King Hart,” firft publifhed in Pin-
kerton’s ancient Scottifh poems. The bifhop has ever been
regarded as a man of a mild and temperate charafter, more
attached to letters than to the turbulent poiitics of the time.
Brit. Biog,

Dovuctas, James, M. D. fellow of the Royal Society,
and reader of anatomy to the company of Surgeons, was -
born in Scotland in 1675. After completixg his education,
he came to London, and applied himfelf diligently to the
ftudy of anatomy and furgery, which he both taught and
practifed feveral years with inccefs. Haller, who vifited
him when he was in Ingland, {peaks of him in high terms of
approbation. He faw, he fays, feveral of his anatomical pres
parations, made with great art, and ingenuity, to fhew the
motion of the joints, and the internal ftruGure of the bones,
He was then meditating an extenfive analpmical work,
which, however, he did not live to finith, and has not been
fince publithed.

When M-z., afterwards Dr. William Hunter, came to
London, he called upon Dr. Douglas, to econfult with hina
on the method that would be moft advifeable for him to
follow to improve himfelf in anatomy; Dr. Douglas took
him into his houfe, to affitt him in his diffections, at the fame
time he gave him an opportunity of attending St. George’s
hofpital. This was towards the end of the year 1741,
The year following Dr. Douglas died. Befides feveral coms
munications to the Royal Society, which are publifhed in
their TranfaCtions, containing the anatomy of the uterus,
with the neighbouring v-flels, and fome cafes in furgery,
the doétor publifhed, in1707, ‘‘ Myographiz comparate {pes
cimen,” or a comparative defcription ot all the muf{cles ina
man, and in aquadruped (a dog), 12mo. It contains the
moft correct defcription of the mufecles that had been feen
to that time. ‘ Bibliographiz anatomic {pecimen, feu cas
talogus pene omnium auctorum qui ab Hlippocratead Hare
veium rem anatomicam illyftrarunt.’? London, 1715, Svo.
Ic contains a tolerably corre& account of all the books that
had been written on the fubjeét, with fhort notices of the au-
thors, An improved edition of this ufeful work was pub-
lithed at Leyden in 1734. ‘* A defeription of the perito-
neum, and of that part of the membrana cellularis which
lies on its outfide, &c.?? London, 1730, 4to. This is a
very accurate and valuable work. A hittory of the lateral
operation for the ftone,’”? 1726, 8vo. repubhfhed with an
appendix in 1733. it contains a comparifon of the me-
thods ufed by diiferent lithotomifts, particularly of that
practifed by Chefelden.

Dr. Douglas colle&ed, at a great expence, all the edi-
tions of Horace, which had been publifhed from the year
1476 to the year 1739. Dr. Harwood, who mentions this
circumftance, in his view of the Greek and Roman claflics,
obferves, that this one author, thus multiplied, muft have con«
ftituted a very confiderable library. A very accurate detail
of thofe different editions is prefixed to the firft volume of
Watfon’s. Horace. Haller Bib. Anat. et Chir, Gen,
Biog.

Dove tas, Joun, brother to James, furgeon to the Weft.
min{ter infirmary, was author of feveral controverfial pieces ;
in one of them, which he called ** Remarks on a late pompous

wor. co

DOU

work,” London, 1735, 8vo; he cenfures, with no fmall degree
of feverity, Chefelden’s anatomy of the bones ; inanother, fome
account of the flate of midwifery in London, publifhed in
1736; he criticifes with equal afperity the works of Chamber-
len and Chapman, on the fubje& of midwifery ; and ina third
he decries the new invented forceps of Dr. Smellie. He
alfo wrote a work on the high operation for the ftone, which
he praétifed, a differtation on the venereal difcafe, pub-
lifhed in 1737, and “ An account of mortifications, and of
the fuprizing effe&s of the bark in putting a ftop to their
progrefs,” London, 1729. ‘The praétice recommended in
this little work is ftill followed. Haller Bib. Ch. Eloy.
Did. Hitt. ; ‘

Dovctas, in Geography, or, according to its ancient
orthogrephy, Dufglafs is now the moft extenfive and
populous town in the Ifle cf Man. This ifland 1s fituated
in the Irifh fea, between the counties of Down in Ireland
and Cumberlandin England. The town rifes ina triangular
form from the fouthern part of the bay, and commards a
fine view of the neighbouring country, as well as a molt
extenfive profpe& of the fea, and many parts of Cumberland
and Lancafhire. Scarcely a century paft, it was little more
than a group of clay-built huts, though it now enjoys the
greateft portion of the commerce of the ifle. he ftreets
are yet extremely irrecular, many of the beit houfes being
environed with miferable cottages. The refidence of the
duke of Athcl, near the town, is'a fpacious and {tately
building ; it was ere@ed at a contiderable expence, by a
merchant, a fhort time previous to the fale of the ifland ; but
foon after that tranfa&tion, was fold to the duke for 300/.,
the general confternation which then prevailed having excited
an apprehenfion that all property was infecure. The advance
of Douglas to importance may be eftimated by its convivial
fociety, aflemblies, race courfe, and theatre: the latter was
erected a few years ago by captain Tenifon, with the be-
nevolent defign of contributing to the relief of the poor.
Doring the herring fifhery, Douglas is a {cene of general
feflivity. This fcafon is a jubilee for the fifhermen when the
Manks-man fhakes off his wonted floth and melancholy. and
affumes an air of gaiety and mirth. The day is paffed in
banquetting, and flowing cups go round; gladnefs {miles in
every eye; the fong echoes from every corner; and, not
unfrequently, dances conclude the feftivity of the night. In
Douglas is a free-fchool, and a {mall chapel, dedicated to
St. Matthew; and on an eminence welt of the town, is St,
George’s chapel, a fpacious and elegant modern building,
with galleries and an handfome organ. This was propofed
to be crefled by fubfcription, and the funds were lodged in
the hand of Dr. Mafon, late bifhop of the diocefe; but the
prelate dying infolvent, the perfons employed ia its conftruc-
tion have never been paid. The town is in the parifh of
Kirk-Bradden: the parochial church is two miles diltant,
beautifully fituated amid{t a group of aged trees. Donglas
is 15 leagues from Whitehaven, and 24 from Liverpool: the
number of houfes is about goo; the population nearly 3000,
of which the labouring claffes derive their chief fubfiltence
from an extenfive linen manufactory, fome tan-yards, {nuff
and tobacco fatories, breweries, &c. The town is defended
by a ftrong fort, which renders it almoft impregnable by fea.
In the vicinity was anciently a convent ; the ruins of its cha-
pel and monuments are {till remaining.

The Bay of Douglas is in the form of a crefcent, about
three miles in extent from Clay-head to Douglas-promontory.
The neighbouring high-lands render it an afylum for veffels
from the tempetts of the north-weft and fouth; but to the
ftorms of the eaft it is much expofed: both points prefent a
dangerous and rocky fhore. ‘The bay is vifited by abundance

DOU

of fifh, particularly cod and falmon: the latter are {mall but
of extremely fine flavour, Gobbock, or dog-fifh, are alfo found
in great plenty, and are frequently eaten by the lower clafles.
At low water the bay is entirely dry, and is confidered the
beft dry harbour in St. George’s channel ; its depth is fuf-
ficient for veflels of 500 tons. A very handfome new pier
and lighthoufe (the ancient having been deftroyed by a ftorm
in 1786) have been lately erected, at an expence of upwards
of 20,000 /. granted by government: the firft {lone was laid
by the duke of Athol in 1793. The walks round the pier
and bay are exceedingly pleafant. Near the month of the
harbour are the ruins of an old round tower, now ufed as a
temporary prifon for criminals. Robertfon’s Tour through
the Ifle of Man, Felthem’s Tour to the Ifle of Man.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iii.

Douctas, atownfhip of America, the fouthernmoft in
Worcefler county, Maflachufetts, having the ftate of Rhode
ifland on the fouth, and that of Conneticut on the fouth-
weft ; and though it pafles the middle road from Bolton to
New York, it is very rocky, contains 1140 inhabitants, and
lies 18 miles S. of Worcelter and 48 S. of Bofton.. It was
incorporated in 1746, and received its name in honour of
William Douglas, M.D. of Botton, a native of Scotland,
and aconfiderable benefaétor to the town.—Alfo, a town-
fhip in Montgomery county, Penofylvania, on the north fide
of the Schuylkill, and has 1297 inhabitants.— Alfo, a cape
on the N, W.coaft of North America, fo called by Capt.
Cook in his third voyage in 1778, in honour of Dr. Douglas,
late bifhop of Salifbury, and torming the welt fide of the
entrance into Cook’s river oppofite to point Bede, which
forms the eait fide.. This is a very lofty promontory, whofe
elevated fummit formed two exceedingly high mountains,
which appeared above the clouds. It is fituated in N. lat.
58° 56, and E. long. 206° 10’; ten leagues to the weftward
of “ Barrenifles’? in N. lat. 59°, and 12 from * Point
Banks,” in the direction of N. W. by W. £ W. Between
this point and cape Douglas, the coaft feemed to form a large
and decp bay, which, fromfome {moke that had been feen
on Point Banks, obtained the name of * Smokey bay.”?

Doveuas River, or Arland River, in Lancefhire. This
river is made navigable for barges from its afflux into the
Ribble river at Hafketh to the Leeds and Liverpool canals
at Briers Mill, and the fame is now incorporated with that
concern. See Cana.

DOUGLASSIA, in Botany, (in memory of James
Douglas, M. D. author of a defcription of the Guernfey
Lily, anda hiftory of the Coffee-tree,) Schreb. Gen. 809.
Mart. Mill. Di. v. 2. Aiouea; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 310.
t. 120. Juff. 80. Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Lauri, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, turbinate, perma-
nent, regular, with fix ovate, acute, coloured fegments.
Cor. none, except, with Linnzus in Laurus, we reckon the
calyxfuch. Nedaries fix, ovate, fringed at their bafe, al-
ternate with the ftamens. Svam. Filaments fix, capillary, in-
ferted intothe rim of the calyx, alternately with the neéta-
ries, but oppofite to the fegments of the calyx, which
rather exceed them in length; anthers vertical, ellipticak,
of two cells, burfting by two valves on their infide whick
fhrivel up and remain at the top; pollen large, yellow.
Pift. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length
of the ftamens ; ftigma in fix fegments. Peric. Berry ovate,
acute, of onecell. Seed folitary, witha brittle coat.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fix-cleft. Neétaries fix glands between
the ftamens. Anthers burfting by two valves. Berry fu-
perior, with one feed. ;

The analogy of Laurus, near to which Juffiev refers this

genus,

D.0 B

genus, and a fimilar ftruGture of anthers in Zpimedium and
Leontice, help us to underftand its charaéters, which Aublet
and Schreber have made more wonderful than nature will juf-
tify, the latter writerhaving taken the pollen for antliers,
which led him to referit to the clafs Polyadelphia.

1. D. Jaurina is the only {pecies, (Aiouea guyanenfis;

_Aublet t. 120,) anative of the woods of Guiana, 30 miles
from the fea. It forms afmall tree; itssruné five feet high
crowned with fix, feven, or more branches. Leaves alternate,
ftalked, ever green, lanceolate, {mooth, firm, entire. W/owers
fmail, yellowiih, in exillary, redJth, corymbofe panicles.
Berry black, with vilcid pulp. Seed oly aed aromatic. It
flowers in OGober, and is calied by the natives cf the country
Aiouve, The wood is white andcompzét. Aub/.

DOUGLEDY, or Dovctepye, in Geography, a river
of South Wal<s, which joins the Clethy, about three miles
S. from Haverford-weft, in the county of Pembrcke. This
river is navigable from Milford haven, at a place called
Landhipping, to the ttone bridge of feveral {mall arches,
over the famein the town of Haverford-weit, up to which
place the tide flows. (See our article Canav.) Ships go no
further up than Little-M:lford and Frayftrap, where they
take in coals, brought in carts and waggons from the coal
mines near thofe places. Lime-fone and deals are among
the principal imports by this navigation,

DOULA Bassenpar. a town of Aiia,in the country of
Kemaoon ; 17 miles N.of Lucknow.

DOULAINCOURT, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Marne, and diltriét of Joinville; ro miles
S. W. of Joinville.

DOULEIA, Acvasz, among the Athenians, a kind of
punifhment, by which the -criminal was reduced into the
condition of aflave. It was never inflicted upon any but the
anor, fojourners, and freed fervants. Potter’s Archzxol.
Gree. lib. 1. cap. tom. i. p. 130.

DOULEVENT, in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department of the Upper Marne, chief place of a
canton, inthe diftriG of Wafly, with a population cf 643
individuals. The canton has an extent of 2474 kiliometres,
19 communes, and 7798 inhabitants.

DOULLENS, Dou ens, or Dourlens, a {mall town
of France, with an ancient caltle on the river Authie, in the
department of the Somme, 18 miles N. of Amiens, and 21
miles W. of Arras. \[t has a population of 2946 individuals,
and is the chief place of a diftri&, confifting of four cantons,
89 communes, 725 kiliometres in extent, and containing
45,027 ishabitants. Its chief manufactures are thofe of linen
cloch ; its principal articles of trade are corn, cattle, hemp,
ard cyder.

As chief place of adiftri@, Doullens has a fub-prefe&, a
court of juftice, a regifter office, anda ranger. Its canton
contains 12,786 inhabitants in 15 communes, on a territorial
extent of 155 kiliometres.

DOULON, a river of France, which runs into the
Aliter, near Brioude.

DOUR, a town of France,in the department of Jem-
mape, chief place of a canton in the diftri€ of Mons, with
4290 inhabitants. The canton hasan extent of 100 kilio-
Micires, 17 communes, and a population of 14,148 indivi-
duals.
~ DOURDAN, a town of France, in the department of
Seine and Oxfe on the river Orge, in the difri@ of Etampes,
27 miles N. E. of Chartres, none miles N. W. cf Etampes,
and 57 miles S. E-ot Paris. Its whole population amounts
to 2870 individuals: but it ts divided into two parts, each of
which is the chict place of a canton. The northern part
has 143 and its canton 11.540 inhabitants, difperfed into 18

4

or
25.

Dov

communes; the fouth reckons alfo 1435, but its canton has
only S44, inhabitants difperfed in 23 communes. The ter
ritorial extent of both cantons is 5523 kiliometres.

Dourdan has a very confiderable manufafiure of filk
hofiery. Its knitted fi'k fockings are of a fuperior quality.

DOURGNE. a final! town of France, in the department
of the Tarn, 13 miles S. FE. of Lavaur. It is the chief
place of a canton in the diftri@ of Catlres. “The number of
its inhabitants is 1661, and of the canton 11,636. The
latter livein 17 different communes, on a territorial extent
of 2124 kiliometres.

DOURLACH. Sce Durvaca.

DOURLENS. Sce Douttens.

DOURLERS, or Douvers, atownof France, in che
department of the North and diltrict of Avefnes; two leagues
S. of Mauberge. ,

DOURO, ariver of Spain, which fpriogs near the ruins"
of ancient Numantia, the courfe of which may be com-
puted at 350 geographical miles. See Duero.

DOUSA, Janus, in Biography, an intimate friend and
zealous admirer of George Buchanan, wasborn at Noort-
wyck in Holland, in the year 1545, and, like Buchanan,
was a poet anda ftatefman. He enjoyed fome of the higheft
civil offices which his country could beltow ; and having been
appointed governor of Leyden, he defended it, during a
memorable fiege, with diftinguifhed bravery. He was one
of the firft curators of the univerfity founded in that city
int575. He died in the year 1604, much lamented by the
republic of letters. His moral character was blamelefs, and
he held a very refpe@table ftation among the fcholars of that
learned age. Hismerits are highly celebrated in the poems
of Jof. Sealiger, Grotius, Heinfius, and Baudias. His
reading, according to Meurfius, was multifarious: his me-
mory almoit incredible. He was the Varro of Holland,
and the common oracle of the uaiverfity; nor was he more
confpicuous for his learning than for his humanity, candour,
urbanity, and modelty. His amiable family was fingularly
attached to letters. Five of his fons, viz. Janus, Franc.s,
George, Stephen, and Theodore, are well known as author s ;
andthe Latin poems of the firft, who died before he had
compleated his 26th vear, have been preferred by Grotius
to thofe of his father. Irving’s Memoirs of George
Buchanan.

Douse, Zo, in Sea Language, is to lower fuddenly, or
flacken ; and it is appled to a fail in a {quall of wind, an
extended hawfer, &c. :

DOUSES, or Locks, among Miners, are cavities or
open places in a rock or vein, having their infides lined with
cryftallized incruftations; from locks it is that moft of the
beautiful fpars of Derbyfhire are obtained. See Locu.

DOUTY’s Facts, in Geography, fituated in the county
of York, and ftate of Ma‘ne in North America, wherea
polt-office is kept; 7 miles from Berwick, and 8 from San
ford; 563 N. from Wafhington.

DOUVAINE, a fmall town of France, in the depart
ment of the Léman, chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Thonon; g miles S.W. of Thonon, 7 miles N. E. of
Geneva, and 87 miles N.N.E.’of Chambery. It has a po-
pulation of 742 individuals. Its canton occupies a territos
rial extent of 1174 kiliometres, and contains 15 communes,
with 6357 inhabitants:

DOUVEN, Joun Francis, in Biography, a painter of
landicapes, animals, portraits, and hiltory, was born at Rure-
monde, in 1656, and having received fome inftruStion from
Gabriel Lambertin, at Liege, and Chriitopher Puitlink,
owed his chief improvement to the coileGion of Don John
de Velafco for Charles Il. king of Spain, At the fone

0

DOU

of Dufleldorp, to which he was invited, he was employed in
painting portraits, and fucceeded fo well that he made this
branch of the art an object of particular attention, At the
age of 28 years he was appointed principal painter to that
court. He afterwards attended the duke to Vienna; and
he was likervife employed at the courts of Portugal, Den-
mark, Modena, and Tufcany. The piétures of this matter
are well culoured and well pencilled ; and poflefs much force
and fpirit, with a ftriking hkenefs, and an amiable as well as
majetic air. In the ftyie of painting hiftory in {mall, which
he frequently pra€tifed, his compofition is good, his defign
corre&t, and very much in the tafte of the Italian fchoo!.
He died in 1727. Pilkington. ‘

DOUVRES, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of Calvados, chief place of a canton, in the
diflriét of Caen, with a population of 2239 individuals.
The canton contains 18 communes, and 13,783 inhabitacts,
on a territorial extent of 1274 kiliometres.

DOUW, Geruarp, in Biography, a painter of portraits,
converfations, and fubjeéts of faacy, was born at Leyden
in 1613, and after receiving (ome previous inftructions in
drawing and defign, he became, at the age of 15 years, a
difciple of Rembrandt ; from whom, in three years, he learned
the true principles of colouring, and obtained a complete
knowledge of the chiaro-feuro; adding to this knowledge
a delicacy of pencil, and a patience in working up his colours
to the higheft degree of neatnefs, fuperior to any other
matter. His piflures are ufually of a {mall fize, with figures
fo exquifitely touched, and fo wonderfully delicate, as to
excite aftonifhment as well as pleafure. He defigned every
obje& after nature, fo that it appears a juft refemblance of
nature itfelf, in colour, frefhnefs, and force. In painting
portraits he generally ufzd a concave mirror, and fometimes
looked at the objeét through a frame with many exact
fquares of fine filk. The pi€tures of Douw fetch at this
day a very high price, not only in his own country, but
even in Italy, and every part of Europe, where any atten-
tion is paid to the fine arts. His patience in finifhing the
mot inconfiderable parts of his pi&tures was moft aftonifhing.
As an inftance of this it is mentioned, that a broom in one
of his piétures was particularly noticed and admired for its
neatnefs; upon which he told them, that he propofed to
{pend three days more in working on that broom, before he
fhould think it complete. In another picture he {pent five
days for finifhing the hands of a lady that leaned on her
arm.chair. Perfons of lefs patience than himfelf were indif-
pofed to fit to him for their portraits, and, therefore, he
chiefly indulged himfelf in works of fancy. It is faid that
his great patron, ~-Mr. Spiering, allowed him 1coo guilders

a year, as a compenfation for the option of every picture,

painted by him, befides the full price at which it was rated.
The colouring of Douw’s pictures, poffefliag ali the true
and lovely tints of nature, without any feeming labour and
fliffnefs, is much admired ; his piétures are remarkable, not
only for retaining their original luftre, but tor having the
fame beautiful effect at a proper diltance, as they bore when
brought to the neareft view. The moft capital pidture of
this mafter in Holland, 3 feet high by 2 feet broad, repre-
fents two rooms with a variety of objeéts. At Turin are
feveral of his pictures, particularly one of a doGtor attending
a fick woman, and furveying an urinal. In the gallery of
Florence there is a night-piece by candle-light, exquifitely
finifhed ; and alfo a mountebank attended by a number of
figures, which is admirable. Piikington.

DOU-WAR, among the Arabs, a collection of tents,
ufuaily pitched in a circle, with their doors opening towards
Mecca, which were the habitations of thofe Arabs, called

DOU

Bedoweens, who were commonly the inhabitants of the
plains; whereas the Kabyles ufuaily live upon the moun-
tains, in little villages called dafkrahs, compofed of mud-
walled hovels. The tents of the Bedoweens are called
HHhymas, from the fhelter which they afford the inhabitants,
and dert el fhar, i. e. houfes of hair, from the materials or
webs of goats’ hair, of which they are made. They are
the fame which the ancients called Mapalia (Liv. 1, xxix.
§ a1. ‘Tacit. Annal. lL. iv. § 25.)3 and being then, as they
are to this day, fecured from the weather by a covering only
of fuch hair-cloth, as our coal-facks are ufually made of,
might very jultly be deferibed by Virgil to have (rara teda)
thin roofs. The colour of them is beautifully alluded to,
(Cant. I. 5.) «1 am black, but comely, like the tents of
Kedar.” For nothing can afford a more delightful prof-
pect than a large extenfive plain, either in its verdure or
even fcorched up by the fun beams, with thofe moveable
habitations pitched in circles upon them. ‘The fafhion of
each tent is of an oblong figure, not unlike the bottom of a
fhip turned upfide down, as Salluft (Bell. Jugurth. § 21.)
has long ago defcribed them. They are of different fizes,
and are {upported by either a fingle pillar, or with two or
three pillars, if their bulk require them; and a curtain, or
carpet, occafionally let down from each of thefe divifions,
turns the whole into fo many feparate apartments. The
pillarsy which are ftraight poles, 8 or 10 feet high, and 3 or
4 inches in thicknefs, ferve not only to fupport the tent,
but being full of hooks, the Arabs hang upon them their
cloaths, bafkets, faddles, and accoutrements of war. ‘I'he
tents are kept fleady by cords ftretched down their eaves
aod tied to hooked wooden pins, driven into the ground
with a mallet, Shaw’s Travels, p. 220.

DOVY, in Geography, a river of Wales, which rifes in
the S_E, part of Merionethhhire, paffes by Machynlleth, &c.
and runs into the fea about 7 miles N. of Aberyitwith.

DOUX, in Geography. See Douns.

Doux, Fr. fott, the fame as dolce and piano, in Ita-
lian. Dolce, however, in Italian, means fomething more
than foft, or the echo of a fhort mufical phrafe, as piano at
firft implied. But purifls among the Italians fay, that the
indifcriminate ufe of dolce for piano, is an abufe of words.
Befides the diminution of force, dolce indicates a more
{weet and expreflive manner of playing, by fultaining the
tones, and marking the firft note of a bar fomewhat more
forcibly than the reft.

Doux in French, as well as piano in Italian, has three
fhades, which ought to be diftinguifhed ; as doux, plus doux,
and tres doux ; piano, pit piano, and pianiffime.

DOUXIEME, the r2th, or ofave of the 5th. Every
fonorous body gives with the principal, the 12th rather than
the 5th, becaufe the 12th is produced by an aliquot part of
the whole ftring, which divides itfelf into three parts, or
ottaves of the 5th of the entire ftring ; whereas the two 3ds,
which conftitute the sth, are not aliquot parts of the fame
ftring..

DOUZE, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the
department of the Dordogne; 9 miles S.E. of Perigueux.

Douze, a river of Trance, which runs into the Adour,
near ‘Tartas.

DOUZENS, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Aude; 12 miles E. of Carcaffonne.

DOUZEAVE, in Mufic, fignifies the common fy ftem
of 12 founds within an oétave, in which cafe each interval
is not very diftant from equal among themfelves, and are
called half notes; whereas by confidering the feale as a
feptave (or o€tave) five of the intervals are nearly double ia
value to the other two refpectively, called notes and half-

notes;

DOW

notes: for fome of the chief properties of douzeaves, fee our
article Temperament: fee alfo the Philofophical Maga-
zine, vol. xxvil. p. 316. xxix. p- 348, &c.

DOUZY, in Geography, a {masi town of France, in the
department of the Ardennes; 6 miles S. E. of Sedan.

DOWAGER, Dorissa (g.d. a widow endowed, or
‘that has a jointure), a title, or addition, applied to the wi-
dows of princes, dukes, earls, and perfons of high rank
only,

Dowacer, queen. See QuEEN.

DOWER, Dotarium, Doarium, or Dos, a portion
of lands, or tenements, which a widow erjoys for term of
life, from her hufband, in cafe the furvives him; for her
own fultenance and the nurture and education of the younger
children. (Brat. 1. it. c. 39. Co. Litt. 30.)

Dower out of lands feems to have been unknown in the
early part of our Saxon conftitution; forin the laws of
king Edmund (Wilk. 75.) the wife is direéted to be fup-
ported wholly out of the perfonal eftate. Afterwards, as
in gavel-kind tenure, the widow became entitled to a con-
ditional eftate in one-half of the lands, with a provifo that
fhe remained chafte and unmarried (Somner. Gavelk. 51.
Co. Litt. 33. Bro. Dower. 70.); as is ufual alfo in copy-
hold dowers, or free bench. Yet fome (Wright. rg2.)
have afcribed the introdu&tion of dower to the Normans, as
a branch of their local tenures, though we cannot expedct
any feodal reafon for its invention, fince it was not a part of
the pure, primitive, fimple law of feuds, but was firlt of all
introduced intothat fyftem (in which it was called triens,
tertia, and dotalitium) by the emperor Frederick the fecond,
contemporary with our king Henry ILI. (Crag. J. i. t. 22.
§ 9.) with us it might poflibly be the relic of a Danith
cultom; fince, according to the hiftorians of that country,
dower was introduced into Denmark by Swein, the father of
our Canute the Great, out of gratitude to the Danifh ladies,
who fold all theirjewels to ranfom him when taken _prifoner
by the Vandals. (Mod. Un. Hitt. v. xxxit. gt.)

Judge Blacki{tone, in treating of thiseftate,(Comm. b. ii.)
confiders, cvho may be endowed; of what fhe may be en-
dowed; the manner how fhe fhall be endowed; and how
dower may be darred or prevented.

The perfon who may be endowed muft be the a&ual wife
of the party at the time of his deceafe, not divorced @ vinculo
matrimonii; but a divorce a menfa et thoro only, doth not
deftroy the dower, not even for adultery itfelf by the com-
mon law. (Braét. l.ii.c. 39. Co. Litt. 30.32.) But by
the ftat. Weftm. 2. (13 Edw. I.c. 34.) if a woman volun-
tarily leaves, or elopes from her hufband, and lives with an
adulterer, fhe fhall lofe her dower, unlefs her hufband be
voluntarily reconciled toher. As an ideot cannot marry,
the former doétrine, that his wife might be endowed, cannot
now take place. By the ancient law the wife of a perfon
attainted of treafon or felony could not be endowed ; how-
ever, the ftatute 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. abated the rigour of the
common law, and ailowed the wife her dower. But a fub-
fequent ftatute (5 & 6 Edw. VI.‘c. 2.) revived this feverity
againft the widows of traitors, who are now barred of their
dower (except in the cafe of certain modern treafons relating
to the coin), but not the widows of felons. An alien cannot
be endowed, unlefs fhe be queen confort, for no alien is ca-
pable of holding lands. (Co. Litt. 31.) The wife muft alfo
be above nine years of age, at the time of her hufband’s
death, otherwife fhe fhall not be endowed. (Litt. § 36.)

To the inquiry of what a wife may be endowed, it Js re-
plied that fhe is now by law entitled to be endowed of all
lands and tenements, of which her hufband was feifed in
fee-fimple or fee-tail at any time during the coverture ; and

DOW

of which any iffue, which fhe might have had, might by
poffibility have been heir. (Litt. § 36. 53.) In fhort, a
widow may be endowed of all her hufband’s lands, tenements,
and hereditaments, corporeal or incorporeal, under certain
reftrictions, unlefs there be fome fpecial reafons to the con-
trary. Thus, a woman fhall not be endowed of a cafile,
built for defence of the realm (Co. Litt. 31. 3 Lev. 4o1.);
norof a common without ftint, for as the hcir would then
have one portion of this common, and the widow another,
and both without ftint, the common would be doubly ftocked.
(Co. Litt. 32. 1 Jon. 315.) Copyhold eftates are alfo not
liable to dower, being only eftates at the Jord’s wili; unlefs
by the fpecial cuftom of the manor, in which cafe it is
ufually called the widow’sfree-bench. (4 Rep. 22.) But,
where dower is allowable, it matters not though the huf-
band aliere the lands during the coverture; for he alienes
them liable todower. (Co. Litt. 32.)

With regard to the manner in which a woman is to be
endowed, there were formerly five kinds of dower fubfilting
in this kingdom: viz. ¥.. Dower by the common lazy which
is a third part of fuch lands or tenements above defcribed,
which the widow is to enjoy during her life. 2. Dower by
cuflom, fo that the wife may have half the hufb ind’s lands,
orin fome places the whole, and in fome only a quarter.
(Litt. § 37.) 3. Dower ad oftium ecclefi2, which 1s where
tenant in fee-fimple of fullage, openly at the church door,
where all marriages were formerly cclebrated, after affiance
made and troth plighted between them, doth endow his
wife with the whole, or fuch quantity as he fhall pleafe, of
his lands; at the fame time fpecitying and afcertaining
the fame; on which the wife, after her hufband’s death,
may enter without farther ceremony. (Litt. § 39.)
4. Dower ex affenfu pairts, which is only a {pecies of dower
ad oftium ecclefiza, made when the hufband’s father is alive,
and the fon, by his confent, exprefsly given, endows his
wife with parcel of his father’s lands. In either of thefe
cafes, in order to prevent frauds, they mult be made in
facie ecclefie et ad ofiium ecclefie. (Litt. § 40. Bra&. 1. 2.
c.39.§ 4.) Dower de la plus belle, which was where the wife
was endowed with the faireft part of her hufband’s eftate.
But this was abolifhed together with the military tenures
of which it was the confequence.

Judge Blackftone traces the feveral revolutions, which
the doctrine of dower has undergone fince its introduétion
into England. It feems firit to have been of the nature of
gavel-kind, wiz. a moiety of the hufband’s lands, but for-
feitable by incontinency or a fecond marriage. By the chbar-
ter of Henry I. this condition, of widowhood and chaf-
tity, was only required in cafe the hufband left any iffue.
(Cart. Hen. I. A.D. rtor.) Under Henry If. the
dower ad oflium ecclefie was the moft ufual {pecies of dower 5
nor was the hufband, in thofe days of feodal rigour, al-
lowed to endow his wife ad offium ecclefie with more than
the third part of the lands, wkereof he was then feifed,
though he might endow her with Jefs; but if no fpecific
dotation was made at the church-porch, when fhe was
endowed by the common law of the third part, called
her dos rationabilis, of fuch lands and tenements as the
hufband was feifed of at the time of the efpoufale, and
no other, unlefs he {pecially engaged before the prieft
to endow her of his future acquifitions: and, if the
hufband had no Jands, or endowment in goods, chat-
tels, or money at the time of efpoufals, it was a bar of any
dower of lands, which he afterwards acquired. (Glanv.
e.2.) In king John’s magna carta, and the firft charter of
Henry III. (A. D. 1216. c. 7.) no mention is made of
any alteration of the common law, in refpect of lands fub-

I jeat

DOW

je& to dower; but in thofe of 1217 and 1224, it is parti-
cularly provided, that a widow fhall be entitled for her
dower to the third part of all fuch lands as the hufband had
held in his life-time ; yet in cafe of a fpecific endowment of
lefs ad offium ecclefiz, the widow had ftill no power to waive
it after her huiband’s death. This continued to be the law
curing the reigns of Henry III. and Edward l. In the
time of Henry IV. it was denied to be law, that a woman
can be endowed of her hufbind’s goods and chattels; (P. 7.
Hen. IV. 13, 14.) and under Edward IV., Littleton, (§ 39.)
Jays it down exprefsly, that a womin may be endowed
ad oftium ecclefie with mor€ than a third parts and {hall
have her election, after her hufband’s death, to accept fuch
dower, or refule it, and betake herfeif to her dower at com-
mon law. This {tate of uncertainty was probably the rea-
fon, that thefe f{pecific dowers, ad oflium ecclefie, and ex a/-
Jenfit patris, have fince fallen into total difufe.

As to the method of endowment or aflizning dower, by
the common law, which is now the only ufual fpecies, fee
AssiGNMENT of dower. .

A widow may by darred of her dower not only by elope-
ment, divorce, being an alien, the treafon of her hufband,
and other difabiltties already mentioned ; but alfo by detain-
ing the title deeds, or evidences of the eitate from the heirs,
until fhe reitores them (Co. Litt. 39.) ; and by the ftatute
of Gloucefter, (6 Edw. Ic. 7.) if adowager alisnes the land
affigned her for dower fhe forfeits it ip/o fado, and the heirs
may recover it by aétion. A woman may be alfo barred of
her dower, by levying a fine or fuffering a recovery of the
lands, during her coverture, But the moft ufual method
of barring dowers is by jointures, as regulated by the f{ta-
tute 27 Hen. VIII. c. ro. See Jornrure.

Dower, admeafurement of. See ADMEASUREMENT.

Dower, affignment cf. See AssiGNMENT.

Dower, ¢enant in. See TENAwr.

DOWLAND, Joun, in Biography, an Enclihh mufi-
cian, and an eminent performer on the lute, was born in
1562, and admitted to a bachelor’s degree in mufic at Ox-
ford in 1588, at the fame time as Morley. He is ftyled
doGor by Temkins, Peacham, and Ravenfcroft; but
Ant. Wood is filent concerning his ever having obtained
that honour, He was fo much celebrated for his perform-
ance on the lute, that Ant. Wood (Fafti 1588), who ne-
ver could have heard him, ferupled not to fay, that ‘ he
was the rareit rufician that his age did behold.”

After being at the pains of feeing feveral of Dowland’s
compofitions, we have been equally aftonifhed and difap-
pointed at his fcanty abilities in counterpoint, and the great
reputation he acquired with his cotemporaries, which has
been courteoufly continued to him, either by the indalence
or ignorance of thofe who have had occafion to {peak of
him, and who took it for granted that his title to fame, as
a profound mufician, was well founded. There are among
the Lamentations, publifhed by Leighton, feveral by Dow-
Jand, which feem to be inferior in every refpeét to the ret ;
for, befides want of melody and defign, with the confufion and
embarraflment of a principiante in the difpofition of the
parts, there are frequently unwarrantable, and, to our eara,
very offenfive combinations in the harmony ; fuch as a fharp
third, and flat fixth; an extreme flat fourth and fixth,
&e.

We make no doubt but that Dowland was a captivat-
ing performer on the lute, to which Shak{peare has borne
Morven LT.

DOW
teftimony in his * Paffionate Pilgrim,” (No. VI.)
addrefiing his friend, he fays:

vhere,

If Mufic and {weet Poetry agree, :
As they mnft necds, the fifter and the brother,

Then moft the love be great ’twixt thee and me,
Becaufe thou lov’{t the one, and I the other.

Dowtanp to thee is dear, whofe heav’nly touch
Upon the lute doth ravifh human fenfe :
Srenser to me, whofe deep conceit is fuch,
As paffing all conceit needs no defence.

Thou lov’% to hear the {weet melodious found
That Picebus’ lute, the Queen of Mufic makes;
And J in deep delight am chiefly drown’d,
When as himfelf to finging he betakes.

One god is god of both, as poets feign ;
One knight loves beth, and beth in thee remain.
2 Suppl. to Shakfpeare, vol. i. p. 713.

It has frequently happened that a great performer has
been totally devoid of the genius and cultivation neceflary
for a compofer ; and, on the contrary, there have been emi-
nent compofers whofe abilities in performance haye been very
far from great. Clofe application to the bufinefs of a com-
pefer equally enfeebles the hand and the voice, by the mere
action of writing, as well as want of praGtice; and if the
art of compofition, and a facility of committing to paper
mufical ideas, clothed in good harmony, be not early ac-
quired, even fuppoling that genius is not wanting, the cafe
feems hopelefs; as we never remember the difficulties of
compofition thorough!y vanquifhed, except during youth,
and we think we may venture to own, from the works of
Dowland, which we have had an opportunity of examining,
that he had not ftudied compofition regu'arly at an carly
period of his life; and was but little ufed to writing in
many parts. In his prefaces, particularly that to his « Pil-
grim’s Solace,” he complains much of public negleé&; but
thefe complaints were never known to operate much in fa-
vour of the complainants, any more than thofe made to a
miftrefs or lover whofe affeGion is diminifhing, which fel-
dom has any other eff. than to accelerate averfion. As
a compofer, the public feem to have been right in with-
drawing that favour from Dowland, which had been grant-
ed on a bad bafis; but with regard to his performance, we
have nothing to fay: as at this diltance of time there is:no
judging what preportion it bore fo that of others who were
better treated.

The king of Denmark was fo much pleafed with Dow.
land, that he requefted king James to permit him to leave ~
England. He accordingly went to Denmark and died
there. Malone’s note to a Sonnet in the iit Vol. of the fup-
plement to Shakefpear’s plays.

DOWLATABAD), in Geography, a province of Hin-
dooftan, formerly called mednagur, which fee. Mr. Frafer,
in his life of Nadir Shah, ftates the revenue of this province
under Aurungzebe at 25y lacks of rupees.

Dowratarap, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan,
which has given name to a confiderable province in the
Deccan, and fuperfeded that of Amednagur. The fortrefs
is fituated on a fteep rock, not to be alcended by a horfe
or camel; the town is at the foot of the rock, and was
once very flourifhing, but the wars have ruined it; 9 miles
N. W. Aurunpabad, and 92S. of Burhampour. Lieutenant
Wilford, in his examination of Arrian’s Periplus, has fhewn
that the pofition of the modern Dowlatabad is the fame
with that of the ancient Tagara, and that the bigh grounds

2A acrots

DOW

acrofs which goods were conveyed to Baroach, are the
Ballagaut mountains. Af. Ref. vol. i. 369.

DOWLE and Dest, in our O/d Writers, are ufed to
fiznify a divifion. The word comes from the Saxon dal,
i.e. divifto, and that from delan, dividere ; whence our Eng-
bth word dealing is formed.

In this fenfe it 1s, that the ftones laid to the boundaries of
Tands are called dowleftones.

DOWN, in Botanical Pkrafeology, is not only ufed in its
common acceptation for any foft woollinefs or pubefcence
clothing any part of a plant, but technically for the Pappus,
Seed-down, which crowns the {ced of compound flowers, 2s
well as for the hairy appendages of feveral feeds enclofed
in capfules, as in the Willow, Poplar, Cotton, Willow-
herb; and many others. Gaertner, however, reftrains the
term pappus to the feed-down of compound flowers, ufing
coma for the hairy crown of any feeds in a capfule, and
pubes for hairs {pringing from the bafe or fides of fuch
feeds. The feed-down of compound flowers is cither hairy,
feathery, chaffy, briltly, fimple, or compound, and is
of the greatelt ufe for generic difcrimination. It
is truly of the nature of a partial calyx. Valeriana too,
though a fimple flower, has as genuine a poppus or feed-
down as any plant whatever. “ The ufe of this organ is
to tranfport feeds to a diflance from their native {pot, either
by refigning them to the power of the wind, or by attach-
ing them to the fhaggy coats of animals. In due time the
feathery crown feparates, and leaves the feed behind it.”
Sm. Introd. to Bot. 300.

Down, in Geography. See Doon.

Down, a large and populous county, in the province of
Uitter, Ireland. It lies on the fouth of Antrim, from which
it is feparated, except for a {mall part, by Belfaft louzh, and
the river Lagan. Lough Neagh touches upon its north-
weftern extremity, and the valley through which the
Newry canal is carried forms the greater part of the weft-
ern boundary, dividing it from the county of Armagh.
The Irifh fea and Carlingford lough are on the ealt. fouth,
and fouth-weft. Its greateft length from north to fouth is
40 Irifh (51 Englifh) miles, and its greateft breadth from
eaft to welt 31 Irihh (39% Englih) miles. The figure, how-
ever, is very irregular, and in fome parts has not half this
extent. The area of this county is 348 550 Inh acres, or
544 {quaré miles, which is equal to 559.995 acres, or 874
iquare miles, Enghfh meafure. There are 60 parifhes,
partly in the diocefe of Dromore, and partly in that of
Down and Connor. ‘The population is very confiderable.
In 1792, the number of houfes was 36,636, which, at fix
to a houfe, gives about 220,000 inhabitants, a number which
has probably increafed fince that time.

In confidering the face of the country, we may divide it
into three diftriéts, the peninfula of Ardes in the eaftern part,
the land between Strangford lough, and the county of
Armagh, extending northwards to the boundaries of Antrim,
and forming the principal divifion; and the mountainous
country in the fouth extending towards the centre. The
Ardes, as it is ufually called, is a level country, having a
deep clayey foil, which being well manured is very produc-
tive. Lime is brought for this purpofe by water from Car-
lingford; and marle, fhell fand, and fea weed, are alfo much
ufed. The grain produced is excellent. In this diftriét
there are no bleach greens, through want of water proper
for the purpofe. There are fome bogs, but here, and in
every part of the county, they are not fufficient to an{wer
the demands for fuel, turf being much preferred to fea coal,
even where the latter can be procured at a moderate price,
on account of its greater cleanlinefs. In the more extenfive

DOW

diftri&, weft of Strangford lough, the foil is various, but is.
chiefly loam mixed with @ confiderable quantity of ftones,
fometimes having clay below it, and fometimes gravel, in_
which latter cafe it requires conftant manure. It may,
however, be reckoned on the whole fertile. Except on the
banks of rivers the land is moftly arable, and is, in general,
badly managed. The produce is chiefly flax, potatoes, and
oats, the latter of which isa principal article of food. In
the north-weftern part there is limeftone cravel, and in the
neighbourhood of Moira the white limeftone, which is fo pre-
valent in the adjoining county of Antrim, Near the banks
of rivers, where the waters naturally overflow and promote
fertility, the ground is chiefly under meadows, or laid out in
bleach greens. The dairies, in thefe parts, prepare a confis .
derable quantity of butter for exportation. This is not a
well-wooded country, though fome particular {pots thew how
favourable it is to the growth of timber. It is, however, in
moft parts, delightful to the eye, efpecially in the neighbour- -
hood of the rivers Bann and Lagan. The irregularity: of
the ground, well-watered, abounding in bleach greens, and
full of neat and cleanly habitations, with an orchard to al-
molt every cottage, affords a moft cheerful and pleafing
profpe€t, as it proves the opulence and comfort of the in-
habitants. Such are the happy effects of the linen manu-
fa&ture, which extends through every part of it; though
much may alfo be attributed to a number of refident pro
prictors, paying attention to improvement, which does not
happen in molt counties of Ireland. The remaining diftri@,
which confilts of the Mourne and Sliebh-droob mountains,
though very rough, affords fupport in molt places toa hardy
race of cattle, which are fold at the fairs in the adjoining
towns. Ther2is here a native breed of fheep, which is
much prized for the delicacy of the mutton, and fome of
which have wool of a very fine texture, Thefe fheep are
{mall and hardy, and moft of them horned. Tne vallies
amidft thefe mountains fometimes afford grafs, and fome-
times turf bogs, which are very valuable to the proprietors.
Some {mail tra€&ts have been lately planted, and the larch is
found to grow luxuriantly in {pots which can be applied to
no other purpofe, Thefe mountains confit of granite in-
terfe&ed by beds of flate. The higheft of them, called
Sliebh-Donard, is ftated to be 2800 feet high. Some moun-
tainous plants have been difcovered on them, fuch 2s vac
cinium vitis idea, (the whortle berry) faxifraga ftellaris,
papaver cambricum, &c. ; but it does not appear that they
have yet been fufficiently examined either by the bo-
tanift or mineralogift. With refpe& to the county at
large, its mineral productions, hitherto difcovered, are few
and of little importance. Some valuable quarries of free-
ftone, and the flate, which is found of excellent quality,
are the moft profitable ones. Copper and lead ores are
faid to have been found, but they have not yet been ap-
plied to ufe, and there are no collicries which offer much
encouragement. ‘lhere are fome fulphureous and chalybeate
waters, of which that near Ballinahinch is molt frequented.
The ufeful vegetable productions are probably much the fame
as in other parts of Ireland. The grafles moft generally
efteemed, and other plants fit for cattle, are found in great
variety and abundance; fo that, notwithftanding bad mas
nagement, the gencral charaéter of the whole ifland for paf-
ture is applicable to this part of it. A f{pecies of rofe has
lately been difcovered in the northern parts of it, which
differs from any Before defcribed, and to which the name of
rofa Hibernica has been applicd. It was difcovered by Mr.
Templeton. The Lagan is one of the principat rivers of this
county. It rifesin the Sliebh-droob mountains, and making
a {weep to the weft by Dromore, becomes the northern
boundary,

DOW

boundary, from the neighbourwood of Moira until it Aows
into -Belfaft lough. ‘The Bann, celebrated for the purity of
its waters, whence it obtained the epithet of Si/ver, rifes in
the Mourne mountains, and taking a north-weftern direc-
tion enters the county of Armagh, a little beyond Gillford.
The waters of this river are efteemed fuperior to any other
for the purpofe of bleaching ; and its banks are accordingly
crowded with bleach greens. This is generally called the
South or Upper Bann, to diftinguifh it from that which flows
from Lough Neagh to the northern ocean. A mufcle
found in this river, and the river Lagan, produces pearle,
fome of which have been much valued. ‘The Newry river
is af{mall ftream which rifes in the fame mountains of Mourne,
and after a fhort courfe falls into the bay of Carlingford.
The canal, however, which conneéts it with the Bann, and
which has thus opened a conneétion with Lough Neagh, has
rendered it of importance. Veflels of 50 or 60 tons are thus
enabled to pafs through the heart of Uliter, and the benefits
which have refulted are a ftriking proof of the advantages of
inland navigation, There are other ftreams which, though
not deferving the name of rivers, contribute greatly to the
profperity of the country. There are alfo feveral {mall lakes
abourding with fifth, which form one of the many natural
beauties of this county. There is alfo one large falt-water
‘Jake, commun‘cating with the Ivith fea by a narrow gut,
through which the tide rufhes with great rapidity. This lake
is called Lough Conn, or Strangford Lough, and covers up-
wards of 25,000 acres. (See Srrancrorp and Conn
Loven).

The affife town is Downpatrick, but Newry is the place
of greatcft importance. Four members reprefent this county
in parliament, two knights of the fhire, and one member each
for the towns of Newry and Downpatrick. This county
was early poflefled by the Englifh, and was formerly divided
into two, called Down and Newtown; it appearing that
John de Mandeville was made fheriff of Down and Newtown
in the year-1325. Lt was formerly called Ulladh, or Ullagh.
It was invaded in 1177 by John de-Courcey, afterwards earl
of Uitter, who built many cafbles, but his defcencants were
foon difpoffeffed of it. At that time, it would appear from
an old writer in Hollingthed’s coll:ftion, to have been called
Ardes, which is at prefent the name of a diftriG of it.
Dubourdteu’s account of Down. Beaufort’sMemoirs, &c.&e.

Down, a bifhopric in Ireland, united with Connor, and
in the province of Armagh. Thefe bifhoprics were both
founded in the 5th century, and united in 1454. The ex-
tent of the united fees, from the north of Antrim to the
fouthernmoft point of Down, is 70 Irifh miles. It contains
597.450 Lrifh acres, divided into 114 parifhes, but from
uuions there are only 65 benefices. The church of Lifburn
was by the patent of James I.conftituted the cathedral for
the united bifhoprics; but an aét of parliament having been
paffed for reftoring the cathedral of Down, in the city of
Downpatrick, it has been repaired in a ftyle of Gothic
archite¢ture, conformable to the venerable remains of the
ancient building. Beaufort’s Memoir of a Map of Ireland.

Down, in Natural Hiflory, denotes the firft feathers of
geele, with which beds and pillows are fluffed. The cot-
tony fubitance on the tops of thiftles, &c. is alfo thus called.

Down Dinner, in Rural Economy, a word provincially em-
‘ployed to fignify the afternoon luncheon.

Down-Ca/, aterm among Miners and Colliers, for the
finking down of the meafures or ftrata on one fide of a fault,
fiflure, or vein; and that fide of the fame where the mea-
fures are lowelt, is faid to be down-cait; it has generally
teen noticed (fee Coat and Coxviery) that the fiffure

DOW

overhangs or hades from the down-caft fide, or towards the
upcaft meafures, which fee.

DOWNE., or Douns, in Geography, a townfhip of
America, in Cumberland county, New Jerfey.

DOWNHAM, or Market Downham, a market town
and parifh, included in the hundred of Clackclofe, in the
county of Norfelk, England; is feated on the declivity of a
hill, which flopes to the river Oufe, over which is a bridge at
this place, and another very confiderable ftru€ture called
Danver-Sluice, where the waters of the Cam unite with
thofe of the former river, and jointly flow through a flat,
marfhy traét of land to Lynn, and on to the German ocean.
Spelman fays that a market was confirmel to this town by
Edward the Confeffor, and it appears that the principal
manor here, with the whole hundred, were gieen by king
Edgar to Ramfay abbey, in Huntingdonfhire. King John
granted to this abbot a fair, and in the time of Henry III.
he was authorized to- try and execute malefaétors at his
‘‘ gallows of Downham.”? Here are now two annual fairs,
and two weekly markets, one of which, on Mondays, is
chiefly appropriated to the fale of butter, which is conveyed
by water to Cambridge, and thence to Londen, where it is
known by the name of Cambridge butter. The fale of this
article was formerly averaged at 3000 firkins per week
in {pring and {ummer ; but at prefent the fale is not fo great.
Contiguous to the church were formerly fome monaflic
buildings, particularly a priory of Benediétine monks.
Downham 1s 11 miles fouth of Lynn, and 84 north from
London. In the year 1801 it contained 278 houfes, and
1512 inhabitants. Blomefield’s Hiftory of Norfolk, vol. vii.
8vo. edit. 1807.

Down-Hauter, in Sea Language; a rope which hoifls
down the flay-fails, ftudding-{ails, and boom-fails, to fhorten
fail, &c.

DOWNINGS, in Geography, a poft town of America,
in the ftate of Pennfylvatia and Chéfter county, on the ealt
fide of Brandywine creek ; 33 miles weft by north of Phila-
delphia.

DOWNPATRICK, the chief town of the county of
Down, in the province of Ulfter, [reland. It is a place of
great antiquity, being aid to have been noted before the
time of St. Patrick. ‘There is a rath or mount on the north
fide of the town, the conical height of which is fixty feet,
and its circumference 2100 feet: it is furrounded by three
great ramparts, one of which ia thirty feet high, the whole
works being three quarters of a mile in circuit. As the
Danes were frequently on this coaft in the 7th, Sth, and oth
centuries, it is probable this may have been raifed by them.
The name of the town, (which fignifies Mount of Patrick, )
is fuppofed to have been derived from it. The celebrated
De Courcey, the firft earl of Uliter, took p: ffcffion ef
Downpatrick in the 12th, and Edward Bruce deftroyed it
at the beginning of the rath century, The deftruétion of
the cathedral of Down, in 1538, was one of the articles of
impeachment againft Leonard, lord Grey, but it has beeu
lately re-built. The town is at prefent tolerably large and
populous, and is one which fends a member to the imperial
parliament. It has a good linen market, and its public
buildings are refpe€table. It is 74 miles N. by E. from
Dublin, and near 24 E.N.E. from Newry. W. long. 5° 33’.
N. lat. 54° 18’.

DOWNS, a bank, or elevation, of fand, which the fea
gathers and forms along its fhores; and which ferves it ag’a
barrier.

The word is formed from the French dune, of the Celtic
dun, @ mountain. Charles de Vifch, in his Compend.

Aae Chronolog.

p‘'O x
Chronolog, Exord. et Progrefs. Abbat. Clariff. B. Marie, de

Dunis, {ays «¢ Vallem reperit arenarum collibus (quos incolz
Duynen vocant) undique cinttam.”

Downs are particularly ufed for a famous road for thips,
along theeaftern coatt of the county of Kent ; from Dover
to the North Foreland. -

This road has excellent anchorage, and is well defended by
the caftles of Sandwich, Deal, and Dover.

‘Here it is the Eagiifh fleets generally meet.

DOWNTON, a market and boreugh town of Wilthire,
England, is fituated on the banks of the river Avon, at the
diftance of fix miles S. of Sahfbury, and go miles S. W.
of London. It is an ancient borough by prefcription,
and fent members to parliament from 23.Edward I. to
38. Edward II. ; after which no member was returned (ex-
cept once in r Henry V.) till 20 Henry VI. The return-
ing officer is the deputy {teward of the leflee of the manor;
and the right of eleGtion is ia burgage holders, in number
about one hundred. The church is a neat edifice, the
tower of which has lately been raifed move than thirty feet
at the expence of the earl-of Radnor. The poor have the
benefit of a free-fchool, which was founded by Gyles Eyre,
efq., and of a well regulated workhoufe. Tbe principal
employment of the poor is lace-making and malting.
Here are alfo a good paper-mill, a griit-mill, and tan-yard ;
alfo a confiderable branch of the tick-weaving bufinefs is car-
ried on in this town. Here was formerly a caftle; part of
the wails were ftanding within the memory of the oldeft in-
babirants, but are now totally decayed. Downton has two
annual fairs, and a weekly market; but the latter is now
merely nominal, from its contiguity to the more important
market of Salifbury. ~The parifh of Downton is returned
as containing 509 houfes and 2426 inhabitants. The living
is a vicarage, to which Nunéton chapel is annexed. In this
town was born Dr. Raleigh, (brother of the celebrated fir
Walter) who was fignalized by his fuiferings in the civil wars
of Charles I.

DOWNY, fomething partaking of the nature of down.
Thus fome leaves and fruit, &c. are faid to be covered with
a downy matter.

DOWRY Dos, is properly the money, or fortune,
which the wife brings her hufband in marriage, to have
the ufe of it, during her marriage, towards fupporting the
charge thereof.

Ir is otherwife called maritagium, marriage goods; by the
Romans dos; and it differs from dower. See Dower.

Among the Germans, it was ancient!y cuftomary for the
hufband to bring a dowry to his wife. ** Romanos non in
ufu fuit uxoribus dotes retribuere; ideo verbo genuino carent
quo \.oc dignofeitur; & rem ipfam in Germanorum moribus
iratur ‘Vacitus: dotem inquit, non uxor marito, fed uxori
maritus affert.”? Spelman.

Dowry is alfo ufed, in a monaftic fenfe, for a fum of
money given along with a maid, upon entering her in fome
religious order. 4

In France, the dowry of perfons entering a monattery, to
make profeffion of a religious life, is limited by law. That,
e. gr. given upon entering a monattery of Carmelites, Urfu-
lines, and others, not regularly founded, but eftablifhed fince
the year 1600, by letters patent, mult not exceed the fum of
80co livres, in towns where parliaments are held; nor Goco
in other places. é

DOWSEINES, a fort of kerfeys made in Devonhhire,
in length twelve yards; whence alfo their name, which is
otherwife writ dofens, dozens, or dezeins

DOXOLOGY, an appellation given by the Greeks to
_ the angelic hymn, or canticle of praife, fung by the Romans

DOZ

in the mafs; and which, in conformity to the fourteenth
verfe of the fecond chapter of St. Luke, Glory be to God in
the highefl, &c. they call Gloria in excelfis, becaufe it begins in
Greek with the word dof, glory.

This they diftinguihh in their iiturgies by the name of great
doxology; and the Gloria Patri et Filto, &c., Glory be to
the Father, &c., they call the kf doxology, as beginning
with the fame word Jof~: with this the chant or pfalm
ends.

Philoftorgius, ‘lib. iii. n. 13. gives three formulas of the
leffer doxology. The firft is, Glory be io the Father, and ‘to
the Son, and the Hely Ghoft; the fecond, Glory-de to the Fa-
ther by the Son, in the Holy Ghoft ; and the third, Glory be to.
the Father in the Son, and the Holy Ghoft.

Sozomen and Nicephorus give a fourth; wiz. Glory be te
the Father, and the Son, in the Holy Ghoft.

The firft of thefe doxologies is that in common ufe throughs.
out the weftern church. It was firft inftituted about the
year 350. by the Catholics of Antioch, then called Eufta-
thians. The three others were compofed by the Arians; the
fecond was that of Eunomius and Eudoxus, and which was
approved by Philoftorgius. The three were all made about
the year 341, in the council of Antioch, when they firkt be>
gan to difagree among themfelves. Philoflorgius affures us,
that Flavian, afterward patriarch of Antioch, was the au-
thor of the firft, or Catholic doxology ; but Sozomen and
Theodoret fay nothing of it; and Philoftorgius’s fingle au-
thority is hardly foflicient.

There were anciently very great difputes, and principally
at Antioch, as to the form of doxology ; that moftly ufed
among the orthodox was the fame as {tiil obtains; the reft
were eff-cted by the Arians, and other Antitrinitarians; yet
Sr. Bail, in his book on the Holy Spirit, defends the fecond:
as orthodox and legitimate ; and it is certainly more agree-
able to {cripture authority; to which we mult ultimately ap—
peal, as the only infallible rule of our devotion, as well! as of
our condudt: and it has been urged, that no inftance of the
former doxology occurs in the New Teftament: and ‘it
matters not much to inquire,” fays Dr. Lardner, ** when
this doxoiogy was firlt ufed, or how long it has been in ufe,
if it be not in the New Teftament.”? It has been faid, that
we have feveral different doxologies in the epiftles of the
New Feftament, but none of the former kind ; and thofe that
occur in the moft early Chriltian writers are agreeable to
thofe we find in the fcripture.

Some authors write hymnology as fynonymous with doxe
ology; but there is a difference; hymnology is applied to
pfalms, or the recitation of pfalms; and doxology only to
the little verfe, Gvory be to the Father, &c. repeated at the
end of cach pfaim.

In Italy the moft elaborate mufical compofitions for the
church have been produced by the greate!t matters to the
Gloria Patri; and, in England, befides Handel’s fublime
and reverential flyle of compofition to the doxologies, our
own countrymen, Purcell, Blow, and Crofts, have furpafled
their ufnal force and energy in fetting thefe facred words.

DOYACACE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Lemberg; 36 miles E.S.E. of Lemberg.

DOYET, a town of France, in the department of the
Allier and diftri& of Montmarault; feven miles W. of Monts
marault.. ;

DOYLSTOWN, a village of America, having a poft-
office, in the ftare of Pennfylvania and county of Bucks 3.15
miles N. of Newton, and 33 W. by N. of Pailadelphia.

DOZARY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Mictk; 36 miles N.N.E. of Minfk.

DOZEIN, Decenna, In the ftatute for view of frank-

pledge,

DRA

pledge, made 18 Edw. II, one of the articles for ftewards in
their icets to erquire of, is, if all the dozeins be in the affize
of our lord the king, and which not, and who received them.
Art. 3. See Deciners.

Dozen is alfo ufed for a fort of Devonhhire kerfeys.
Anno 5 and 6 Edw. VI. cap. 6. See Dowseine.

DOZELLINA, in /hihyology, a name by which fome
authors have cailed the muttela of the common fpectes, which
we in Englifh term the fea-loche and whiltle-fifhh. See
Gavus Mufela.

DOZZAND, in Agriculjure, a term ufed provincially to
fiznify fhrivelicd, or not full and plump.

DRA, in Geography, a province of Morocco, E. of the
province of Suz and N. of Vied-de-Nun, adjoining to the
province of Gefula; both of which are in the neighbourhood
of mount Atlas, which, in this fouthern part of the country,
extends almoft to the fea.

DRAABURG, or Oser-TraAazurG, a town of Ger-
many, in the duchy of Stiria; 56 miles E. of Clagenfurt and
42 ENE. of Brixen. N. lat. 46° 48”. E. long. 12° 49’.

Deaasurc, or Unter-Traaburg, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Carinthia; 112 miles S S.W. of Vienna, and
48 W.N.W. of Pettaw.

DRABA, in Botany, Aexfn of Diofcorides, Whitlow-
grafs. Linn. Gen. 333. Schreb. 436. Wilid. Sp. Pl. v. 3.
424. Jufl. 240. Gertn.t. 141. Clafs and order, Terrady-
namia Siliculofa. Nat. Ord Siliquofe, Linn. Crucifere, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth of four ovate, concave, flightly
fpreading, deciduous leaves. Cor. cruciform, of four oblong,
fomewhat fpreading, petals, with very minute claws. Siam,
Filaments fix, about the length of the calyx, of which four op-
pofite ones are rather longer than the other two, and flightly
fpreading; anthers fimple. Pi. Germen ovate; ftyle fearcely
any; ftigma capitate, flat. Peric. Pouch elliptic-oblong,
comprefled, entire, deftitute of a ftyle, of two cells, with a
partition parallel to the valves, which are flightly concave.
Seeds feveral, {mall, ronndith.

Eff. Ch. Pouch entire, long-oval: valves flattifh, parallel
to the partition. Style fcarcely any.

Obf. In fome fpecies the petals are feparated into two
parts, even to their very claws; in others they are merely
notched at the fummit; while in others again they are entire.
The form of the pouch, as above exprefled, is the impartant
charaéicr.

Willdenow enumerates 16 {pecies of Draba, of which rr
have a naked ftem, or ftalk, and the reit a leafy ftem.
D. aizoides, Curt. Mag t.170, Engl. Bot. t. 1271, isa
very hardy perennial, forming tufts of cluttered leaves, and
bearing bright yellow bloffoms in March and April, very fit
for the ornamenting of rock-work. D. verna, Curt. Lond.
fafc. 1. t. 49, Engl. Bot. t. 586, an annual whiie-flowered
{pec#s, common on wall: and dry barren groucd, is one of
our firft harbingers of {pring. Both thefe have naked ftalks,
and there are feveral alpine {pecies akin to them. D. pyre-
naica, Jacq. Aultr. t. 228, decorates the loftieft mountains
of Europe with its pale purple diminutive flowers, in the
fpring and early fummer, and vies with the neighbouring
Androfaces and Aretie in beauty. Of the leafy-ftalked kinds,
D. muralis, Engl. Bot. t. 912, and D. incana,t. 338, are the
principal. They have a rough herbage, and {mall white
flowers. The flavour of the whole genus is acrid and muf-
tard-like. The name Whitlow-grafs has been applied to this
genus, becaufe D. verna is one of the plants that have been
taken for the Iepovuxi% of the ancients, but its virtues in
curing whitlows are not much relied on at prefent. Sheep
are faid to be fond of it.

Drasa, fee Cocurearia, fp. o.

DRA
DRABESCUS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Thrace,

which belonged to Macedonia, when this kingdom extended
to the eaft; W. of Philippi, towards the river Strymon.
DRABICIUS, in Biography, a divine of note, was bora
about the year 1587. at Stranfaitiz in Moravia, and,. after
the ufual preparatory fiudics, he was admitted a minilter
among the Proteftants in the year 1616. The dutics of his
ftation he contirued to exercife wll the year 1629, when the
imperial ediéts againft thofe who profefled and taught the
reformed religion, forced him from his native country to
Lednitz, a town in Hungary, where he engaged in trade, in
order to furnifh the means of fupporting his family. This
ftep, which was as honourable to an aétive mind as prudent,
gave offence to his brethren, who regarded it as difgraceful
to the minifterial chara@ter. Soon after this he was re-
proved, and, at length, fufpended from the duties of his pro-
feflion, for the vice of drunkennefs. Openly he exhibited
marks of penitence and reformed manners, but it was fupe-
poled that he ceafed not, in private, to indulge in propenfities
that had been habitual to him; and to this courle of intem-
perance was imputed a derangement of his intelleéts, which
induced him to believe, at leaft to avow, that he was fa-
voured with divine communications, and that he was chofen
by Almighty God to fultain the chara€ter of a prophet.
Under this kind of influence, he denounced vengeance againft
the hoofe of Auftria, and prediéied to himfelf, and his bro-
ther refugees, a fpeedy reftoration to their country and their-
rights, by means of armies which fhou!d come from the north
and from the eaft, the latter of which was-to be commanded
by Ragotfki, prince of Tranfylvania. Unfortunately for the
credit of the prophet, almoft all his prediftions were falfified
by iubfequent events: and thofe who had hoped rather than
expected the deliverance which he held out, abandoned him
to contempt. Drabicius was not, however, cured of his
folly, he continued to threaten on the one hand, and to pro-
mile falvation on the other; and, about the year 1650, Co-
menius, being brought into Husgary by buiinefs, was vilited
by the prophet, who explained to him all his expectations,

‘ Comenius feems to have been fatisfied with the pretentions

of his friend to divine in(piration, was admitted into his con-
fidence, and declared coadjutor in the miflion. They united
in invoking the aid of Sig ifmund Ragotki to carry into effe&
the divine judgments. Finding him unwiliing to co-operate
with their defigns, they entreated, they even threatened him
with the vengeance of Almighty God; {till he refufed to
aét, and continued in peace till his death, in the year 1652.
To George Ragotfki, the brother and fucceffor of Sigifs
mund, they now applied, and were in fome degree counte-
nanced by his authority. Drabicius was re{tored to the ex-
ercife of his miniftry, and his vifions became more freqnent in
proportion to the rank which he held in the eftimation of the
public. To Comenius he commuricated all his projeés,
who was now in Poland, and who had orders to proclaim the
refult of every new vifion to all nations, but particularly to
the Turks and Tartars. Comenius, however. publifhed the
account only at Amfterdam, and there with a diffidence which
ill accorded with a found aed firm faith in the verity of the
tranfactions. But when Ragotfki a€tually commenced war
againit the emperor, by making an irruption into Poland, he
felt confident that the erifis was aétually arrived when the
predi@tions of Drabicius would be all accomplifhed, and he
announced their publication with much confidence, in a work
entitled ** Lux: in Tenebris.” Succeeding-events gave the
lie to all their promifed dreams, but the credit of the prophet
was not deltroyed, and he continued to announce new vi-
fions, and Comenius, encouraged by a deluded public, gave

an abridgment of his work, and afterwards publifhed the
7 whok,,

19 Rew

hole, with additions, down to 1666. From this time we
hear little of Drabicius, and the event of his fucceeding days
is not at all afcertained. According to fome writers he was
burnt as an impottor, but according to others he was obliged
to fly from Tranfylvania into Turkey. Bayle. Moreri.

DRABLER, in the Sea-Language, a {mall failin a fhip,

-which is the fame to a bonnet that a bonnet is to a courle,
‘and is only ufed when the courfe and bonnet are too fhoal to
clothe the maft. See Bonner and Courss.

DRABOWICE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Kiov; 36 miles S.W. of Czerkafy.

DRABS, in the Englith Salt. Works, a name given to a
fort of wooden cafes in which the falt is put as foon as it is
taken out of the boiling-pan. Thefe are partitions like ftalls
made for horfes; they are lined on three fides and at the
bottom with boards, and at the front have a fliding board to
put in or take out occafionally. Their bottoms are made
thelving, being higheft at the backfide, and gradually inclin-
ing forwards ; by which means the faline liquor that remains
mixed with the {alt eafily drains out from it, and the falt in
three or four days becomes fufficiently dry, and is then taken
out and laid up in large heaps for fale. In fome places they
-ufe cribs inftead of the drabs. See Cris.

DRAG, Le, in Geography, one of the principal rivers of
“the department of the Ifere, in France, which has its fource
in the department of the Upper Alps. After heavy rains, the
water pouring down from the mountains {wells it to a tor-
rent, which overflows its banks and overthrows every cb-

“sftacle to its violence. It abounds with fine trouts.

DRACA&, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, who
inhabited the parts adjoining to mount Caucafus.

DRACENA, in Botany, (Apuxawx, a female dragon, fo
applied by Vandelli, becaufe the original ipecies had been
named Draco arbor by the o!d botantits, and Draco was
preoccupied, as the appel ation of a genus in Zoology.) Van-
Gelli Diff. et Fafc. Plant. t. 2. Linn. Mant. 1. 9. Syft. Nat.
ed. 12.v. 2.246. Schreb. 224. Willd. Sp. Pl. v..2. 155.
Jul. 40. Mart. Mill. Di@.v. 2. Gertn. t. 16. ( Dianella ;
Lamarck Encycl.v. 2. 276. Jufl. 41. Redoute Lilac. t. 1.)
Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sarmen-
tacee, Linn. A/paragi, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals fix, oblong, rather f{pread-
‘ing, equal, cohering by their claws. Stam. Filaments fix,
-inferted into the claws, awl-thaped, thickened in the middle,
membranous atthe bafe, fcarcely fo long as the. corolla;
anthers oblong, incumbent. é/. Germen ovate, with fix
‘furrows ; ftyle thread-thaped, the length of the ftamens;
ftigma three-cleft, obtufe. Peric. Berry ovate, with fix
furrows and three cel's. Seeds mottly folitary, ovate-oblong,
-incurved at the fummit.

Eff. Ch. Petals fix, upright, cohering at their bafe. Fi-
laments {welling in tne middle. Berry of threecells. Seeds
mottly folitary..

The firft {pecies, D. Drazo, Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 3335
(Afparagus Draco, Sp. Pl. 451; Draco yucceformis, feu
Dracena, Vand. Fafc. Piant. 12. t. 2; Dracoarbor, Bauh.
Pin. 503 Cluf. Hitt. v. 1. 1.) 1s anative of the Eaft Indies,
with an arboreous thick /lem, branched ard level-topped,
crowned with tufts of lanceolate pungent large /eaves. Flow-
ers white, in large, terminal, compound {p:kes. The ftem
and rootsexude a crimfon refin, one of thofe kept in the
fhops underthe name of Dragon’s blood. D. terminalis,
Syft. Veg. 334, Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 2. t. 448, (Afparagus
-terminalis, Sp. Pl 450.) a native of the Eaft Indies and

South fea iflands, was found by ceptain Cook very ufeful
in making a kind of beer. The juiccs of its root are {weet
and mucilaginous. A variety with purple leaves, as figured

DRA

by Jacquin, is common in our ftoves, This is confidered 2g
afort of facred plant, and an emblem of peace and friend.
fhip among the natives of the South fea iflands, and is planted
about their places of worfhip and burial. D. enfifolia, (Di-
anella nemorofa of Lamarck, and Jacq. Hort. Schoerbr.
v.4.t. 943 Dianella enfifolia, Redout. Liliac. t. I,) grows
in the iflands of Mauritius and Bourbon, as well as inthe
Eaft Indies and New South Wales. It is now not rare in
our greenhoufes. Its lem ia herbaceous, flowers panicled,
green berries blue. D. dorealis, Ait. Hort. Kew.v.1. 454. t. 5,
arare plant in gardens, though very hardy, isa native of
Hudfon’sbay. It has elliptical /eaves, and an almoft naked
herbaceous /lem. The whole herbage is fomewhat pubefcent,
which in this genus is remarkable.

Dracaena, in Zoology, is the name of a {pecies of Ames
rican lizard. Sze Draco. :

DRACANIUM, or Dracanon, in Ancient Geography,
a mountain of Afia Minor, in Caria.

DRACHENFELS, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and capital of a diftri@ in
the electorate of Cologn, with a citadel; four miles S. E,
of Bonn, and feven N. N. W. of Linz.

DRACHM, Azaxyyn, an ancient filver coin, uled among
the Greeks; equal to the eighth part of an ounce, both ia
weight and coinage, and at a medial value nine pence
fterling. See Corn.

This they divided into fix oboli; and their larger coine
above the drachm were the didrachm, or double drachm,
worth r8d., tridrachm, or three drachms, or 2s. 3d. of our
money, and tetradrachm, or ftater, worth four drachms or
3s. fterling; and this is the largeft form of Greck filver
coins, except the tetradrachm of the Eginean ftandard,
which is worth five fhillings.

There are many fubdivifions of the drachm in filver.
The higheft is the fetrobolion, or coin of four oboli, being in
proportion to the drachm a3 our groat toa fix pence; it
weighs about 44 grains, and is worth 6d. Thenext is the
hemidrachm, or triobolion, a piece of half the drachma, or about
33 grains ; worth four-pence half-penny. The filvér diobo-
lion, or third of the drachm, weighing about 22 grains, is
worth 3d. The obolus of filver weighs about 11 grains,
and in ancient currency bore the value of 13¢. There is
likewife the hemiobelion in filver, br half the obolus, of 52
grains, worth a half-peany farthing ; and the #efartobolion,
dichalcos, or quarter obolus, which is the moft minute coin
yet found, being of 23 grains,and its current worth a farthing
andahalf. The lait coins are fo very {mall, that it is no
wonder they have perifhed; but there is one of Athens in
Dr. Hunter’s cabinet; and Mr. Stuart is faid to have brought
fome from Athens. Mr. Pinkerton ( Effay on Medals, vol. i.)
is of opinion that they alfo occur of Tarentum.

The drachm was likewife a weizht as well as a piece of
money ; andthe mina contained a hundred drachma, both
as a fum anda weight; and their talent fixty mine, and fix
thoufand drachme, both by weight and tale; and this mes
thod of reckoning was common to all Greece; fo that if
the drachma of one city differed from that of another, their
talents differed in the fame proportion.

Although in coinage, as well as in medical weight, eight
drachms went to the ounce, and the mna or mina or pound
of 12 ounces in courfe had 96; yet four were given to the
round fum to fupply defeéts inalloy, conformably to a com-
mon prattice in all ages and countries of giving fome ad-
dition to alarge weight. Thus the pound in weight had
but 96 drachme in taét, while the pound in tale had 100 ;
as the Roman libra in weight had but 84 denarii, in tale 1005

and

DRACHM.

and as one pound in tale, by an inverfe progrefs, is not a
third of our pound in weight.

We fhall here obferve, that the coins of /Egina were
famous among the Greeks for antiquity and peculiarity ;
JEgina having long maintained her glory and independence,
for in the war of Xerxes againft Greece, fhe was miltrefs of
the fea by means of anumerous navy ; and Herodotus tells
us that of all the cities engaged in that arduous confli@, fhe
bore away the palm. Some authors inform us, that the firlt
money coined at all was that {truck in the ifland of gina
by Pnidon, king of the Argives; and his reign is fixed by
the Arundelian marblesto an era, corre{ponding to about
820 years before Chrift.

The coinage of Aizina was different from the common
Greek ftandard ; infomuch that the drachma of ®gina was
worth 10 Attic oboli, while the Attic drachma was worth
only fix. Hence the Greeks gave the drachmas of Auzina
the name of raxsia», or thick, a name peculiarly applicable
to the very coins of which we fpeak. According to a juft
proportion, the drachma of /®gina fhould weigh about 110
grains; and one of the coins, preferved in Dr. Hunter’s
cabinet, very much rubbed, weighs go. The others of larger
fize, which feem to be didrachms of /Egina, weigh from 181
to 194 grains ; but an allowance of about 10 grains being
made for the wafte of 2400 years in fo foft a metalas
filver, the drachma of /Zgina would be brought to nearly its
proper ftandard. The obolus of Agina was in proportion
to its drachma of fix oboli, and is the piece of 15! grains,
and of 13, when rubbed very much; the hemiobolion is that
of eight, which, if perfect, fhould weigh nine. Gronovius
labours to prove, that the Corinthians ufed the ftandard of
/Egina, but the oldeft coins of Corinth, as well as the lateft,
are all upon the common Attic model.

The Attic drachma has been fuppofed by moft authors,
before Greaves, who firft fuggelted the contrary, to have
been the fame, among the Greeks, with the denanius, among
the Romans; which was equivalent to four felterces. OF
this opinion is Budzus, De Affe; who confirms it from the
authorities of Pliny, Plutarch, Strabo, and Valerius Max-
imus, with whom dp2xj.n is fynonymous with denarius. Plin.
Nat. Hitt. lib. xxi. fin.

A. Gellius, who refited long at Athens, and could not
be ignorant of the value of the current money of that city,
fays, that ten thoufand drachms were in Roman money fo
many denarii. Lib. i.cap. 8. See alfo Val. Maxim. lib. vii.
cap. 6. and Strabo Geog. lib. v. the formcr of whom writés,
that a certain commodity was fold for two hundred denarii;
and the latter, in {peaking of the fame thing, fays, that it
was bought fortwohundred drachmz. But thisis no ftrong
conviction, that the two coins were precifely of the fame
value; thofe authors, not treating expref-ly of coins, might
ealily render the one for the other, povided there were no
confiderable difference between them. Greaves’s Mile,
Works, by Birch, vol.i.p. 287, &e. 8vo.

Scaliger, in his diflertation, De Re Nummaria, does not
fay abiolutely that the denarius and drachma were the fame
thing ; but from the Greek paflage in an ancient law,
ec. xxvi. Mundatt, where the drachma is {aid to be compofed
of fix oboli, he concludes, that in the age of Severus, at leaft,
they were the fame. But Agricola, De Menf. & Ponder.
lib. xiv. fhews from Pliny, Celius, and Scribonius Largus,
that the denarius contained only feven ounces; and trom
Livy, Appian, Cleopatra, &c. that the drach ma contained
eight; and maintains, that when fome Greek authors {peak
of the ounce as only containing feven drachms, they do not
mean the Attic drachm, but the Roman denarivs, which
Greek authors render by dyexun, We learn from Galen,

that the writers on weights and meafures differed in the
number of drachms or denarii, which chey affiyned to an
ounce; moft of them mzking it to contain feven ard a half,
fome but feven, and others eight. De Mcd. Comp. fee,
Genera, lib. iii. cap. 3.

Gronovius agrees with Agricola, that the drachma wag
the eighth part of an ounce ; and the opinion is confirmed by
Ifidore, lib. xiv. cap. 24. by Fannius, who fays as much in
exprefs terms, and by Volufius, who divides the ounce into
twenty-four f{criptuli, or fcruples, of which the drachm
comprehended three.

It is probable, that, when the Romans became mafters of
Greece and Afia, the Athenians might find it their intere{t-
to lower their drachm to the weight of their denarius, long
before they were reduced into the form of a Roman province
by Vefpafiar. When they did this is uncertain; but it ap-
pears by the treaty between the Romans and Antiochus,
recorded by Polybius, Excerp. Leg. fe&. 35. and by Livy,
lib. xxxviil. cap. 38. which ftates the Euboic talent at eighty
Roman pounds; and fuppofing this to be equal to the Attic,
and to contain fix thoufand Attic drachms, and eighty
Roman pounds to contain fix thoufand feven hundred and
twenty denarii, thatthe weight of the Attic drachm mult
have been to that of the denariusas 6720 to 6000; and this
preportion is confirmed by an anonymous Greek fragment,
publithed by Montfaucon, which makes a hundred Attic
drachme equal toa hundred and twelve denarii. Anal.
Gree. p. 393. Paris 1688.

Greaves concludes, after weighing a number of Attic
tetradrachms, and {tating the weight of the tetradrachm at
two hundred and fixty-cight grains, that the Attic drachm
was fixty-feven grains. J. Cafpar Eifenfchmid, in his book -
De Pond. & Menf. Vet. from an ancient tetradrachm weigh-
ing three hundred and thirty-three Paris grains, and by efti-
mating the proportion between the Roman pound and Attic
talent, mentioned by Livy, lib. xxxviii. makes the drachm
83% Paris grains, oralmolt 68,4th Troy.

Mr. Raper has eftimated the weight of the Attic drachm,
by comparing it with the gold coins of Philip and Alexan-
der, which were probably formed upon that ftandard. They
both coined gold of 4, 2, 1, and 4 an Attic drachm; and-
from a mean of twenty-one Philippics, which were equivas
lent to two drachme, preferved in the Britifh Mufeum, and
in private colleétions, or mentioned by other writers, he
infers, that the tlandard weight of the Philippic was not
lefs than 133 troy grains; which agrees very nearly with
the weights of fome preferved filver drachms of Philip and °
Alexander, and with the mean weight of feven perfe& filver
tetradrachms of Alexander, which give a didrachma little
more than 1324 grains. He obferves, that the gold Phi-
hippics, both of Alexander andhis father, are fo correétly
fized, and fo perfeét, that the mean didrachm, derived from
them of 133 troy grains, muft be very near its jutt weight ;
and its half, 664 grains, that of the Atticdrachm. Then,
for the value of it, as fixty-two Englifh fhillings are coined
out of eleven ounces two penny-weight troy, of fine filver,
and eighteen penny-weight of allay, the troy grain of fine
filver is worth ,?ths of a farthing ; and fince the Greeks
and Romans uled no allay in their money, but eltcemed
what they coined to be fine filver, the Attic drachm of 664
grains will be found wortha little more than 94d. or, for
the eafe of reduction:

mts ae
The Attic drach be flated
si ic drachm may be itate bo © 9.286
The obolus a little more than oo 1

12
The chalcus about. 0. 0 o} of a farthing,
The

DRA

2, 8. de
“The mina 3.17 4.6 or 3.8697.
The talent 232 3 Gor 232.150.
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixt. part ii. art. 48.

Others eitimating the ancient Roman ounce equal to the
modern one, or to 536 French grains, and the Attic drachma
at 67 grains, and fuppofing the filver at Athens of the fame
- finenefs with ours, make it equal to 73d. fterling. See
Corn.

Dracum, or Dram, is alfo a weight ufed by our phyfi-
cians, containing juft fixty grains, or three feruples, or the
eighth part of an ounce troy, and the fixteenth of an ounce
avoirdupois.

Deacum was likewife an ancient Jewifh money ; having
on onedfide a barp, and on the other fide a bunch of
grapes.

This coin was a half fhekel; and was fo called by the
Jews. It is only the Grecks called it dsaxun. Tt was equal
‘to two Attic drachmz See SHEKEL.

DRACHONTIUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
the Mediterranean fea, near Africa ; placed by Ptolemy N.
of the promontory of Apollo, acd S.E. of the ifle of Sar-
dinia.

DRACTA, in Geography, a river of Bofnia, which runs
into the Drin; 5 miles N.E. of Orach.

DRACKEMBOURG, or DraxemeurG, 2 {mall town
of Germany, on the Wefer, 6 miles N. of Nienburg, famous
fora battle which was fought in its neighbourhood in 1547,
‘between the Auftrians and the Saxons.

DRACMA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
Aria. Ptolemy.

DRACO, Dracon, in Affronomy, a conftellation of the
northern hemilphere; whofe ftars, according to Prolemy,
are 31: according to Tycho, 32; according to Hevelius,
40; according to Bayer, 33, and according to Mr. T'lam-
fteed, 80. See ConsTELLATION. 3

DRACO, in Biography, fucceeded Triptolemus as legif-
Jator at Athens, in the 39th olympiad, 324 years B.C,
When the laws of Triptolemus were become obfolete, or
found infufficient for the regulation of the ftate, Draco in-
Atituted a new code, which was fo extremely rigorous, that
his laws were faid to be written in blood. Under his fytem
of legiflation, death was the penalty for every kind of of-
fence, in vindication of wnicn he alleged, that as {mall
faults feemed to him worthy of death, he could find no
feverer punifhment for the greatelt crimes. Such, however,
was his abhorrence of the crime of taking away life, that he
dire&ted a profecution to be inftitured even againft inani-
mate things, which had been inftrumental to this purpofe,
and fentenced a {tatue, which had fallen upon a man and
killed him to be banifhed. This circumftance, if the
report of tradition be well founded, affords fufficient evi-
dence of the rude ftate of legiflation in his time. His
laws, however, were the refuit of age and experience,
and they owed their effet to the opinion that was
entertained of his virtue and patriotifm. The Athenians
could not endure their rigour, and the legiflator himfelf was
obliged to withdraw to the ifland of Aegina. Here his po-
pularity was fuch that he was fuffocated at the public the-
atre, amid{l the applaulfes of the people. The rigour of his
difcipline was, in fome meafure, relaxed by Solon, in the
46th olympiad. See ATHENs.

Draco, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia Minor,
gshich, according to Pliny, abutted on mount T'molus on one
fide, and on the other on mount Olympus.

Deseo, in Zoology, a genus of amphibious animals of the
yeptile kind, the body of which is four-footed, tailed and fur-

nifhed at each fide with a wing-like membrane.

DRA

fid Lisnzus
fpeaks of two diltinét fpecies, the valans and prepos, the Ixit
of which he deferibes on the authority of Seba, and thefe
appear as two {pecies in the Gmelinian edition. There are
neverthelefs writers who confider the latter as a variety
only of the other, and thus admit only a fingle fpecies
in this genus, Onthe contrary the French naturalifts, Dau-
din efpecially, maintain that there are three kinds at prefent
known, and which are diftinguifhed by the appellation of the
green, the rayed, and the brown. The principal and bett
authenticated {pecies, however, appear to be the following :

Vorans. Anterior legs unconneéted with the wings.
Linn. Lacerta volans indica, Raj. Lacerta efricana volans,
s. Draco volans, Scba. Dracunculus, Bont. Jav. Flying
dragon, Shaw.

‘The length of this curious creature is about nine or ten
inches, the tail being very long in proportion to the body,
which does not exceed four inches in lecgth. The head is
of a fingular form, being furnithed on the under part with a
very large triple pouch, one portion of which defcends be-
neath the throat, while the two remaining parts projeét on
each fide ; all are fharp pointed, and feem analogous in fome
degree to the gular crefts of the Guana lizard. The
head is of moderate fize, the mouth rather wide; the
tongue large and thick at the bafe, the teeth fmall and
numerous; the neck rather fmall; the body and limbs
fomewhat flendcr, and entirely covered with f{mall, point-
ed, and clofely fet feales. The colour is an elegant pale
bine, or blucith grey, the back and tail marked by
feveral tranfverfe Gufcy undulations, and the wings with
varioufly formed patches of black, deep brown, and white;
the lower furface of the aaimal entirely pale, or whitifh
brown.

The flying dragon is an inhabitant of Africa and A fia,
and lke moit of the {maller kinds of hazards delights in
wandering about trees in fearch of infeéts and worms on
which it feeds. From the peculiar ftru@ure of the lateral
proceffes it-is enabled to {pring from bough to bough in
purfuit of its infeét food with the greatetl facility, or even
for a fhort time to follow them on the wing like the bat or
flying fquirrel. On the ground it walks ‘tndifferently, and
therefore feldom defcends from the boughs of the trees, o¢
if it does, takes as fpeedily as poffible to the water, in which
element it moves and fwims with great celerity. It is ovipa-
rous, and depofits its eggs in the hollows of trees, where
they remain to be hatched by the heat of the fun, and claim
no further regard from the parent animals.

Prezpos. Wings coalefcing with the arms, Linn. Draco
volans americanus, Seba.

This is admitted by Linneus and Gmelin as a diftin®
{pecies from volans on the teftimony of Seba, who reprefents
it as anative of America: at prefent this kind appears to
be unknown to naturalilts, and the defcription of it may
poffibly have been formed only from an accidental variety
or imperfeé& example of the firft mentioned {pecies.

Linnzus in the Amoen. Acad. and alfo in the earlier edi-
tions of the Sy{tema Nature refers this animal (volans) to
the lacerta tribe, but from this he was afterwards induced to
feparate it, becaufe though in the general form this animal
agrees with others of the lacerta, it differs altogether in the
remarkable peculiarity of the lateral membranes. Linnzus
therefore inftituted a new genus for its reception, and from
a fanciful refemblance which he conceived it bore to the de-
{cription of the dragon tranfmitted to us in the fables of an-
tiquity, gave it the appellation of Draco.

lt is {earcely to be imagined, in the prefent period, that the
reader can poffibly, from a fimilarity of names, aflimilate in any
manner

DR

manner the fabulous hiftery of that fuppofed monfter, the
dragon, with that of the little inofleniive animal now under
corfileration. Neither need any one, it is prefumed, be told
that the dragon of antiquity is a creature folely of poctic
birth. The tales related of this aitonifhing being may
amufe our infant years, but are too remote from reafon for a
moment to intereft the ferious attention of the naturalift.
There is nothing in the wide expanfe of creation’s range ap-
parent to our knowiedge thet can incline us to believe even
that the conception of the ‘* dragon”? originated from any na-
tural obje@: it js affuredly the fpontaneous offspring of a
glowing imagination created in immediate fubferviency to
the mythology of remote antiquity, and in which it confti-
tutes a pre-eminent charaéter. “Ihe exiftence of the dragon
was firmly accredited ameng the ancients of almoft every na-
tion both in the ealtern and weitern regions of the earth, as
may be clearly deduced from numberlefs authorities: it occurs
in the facred allegories of the Jews, and in the legends of the
Chinefe, from the earlieft times of which any record is pre-
ferved, and even to this period 1s an object of worfhip in
China; the like may be allo faid of Japan, and indeed of
moft oriental countries. The claflic poets of Greece and
Rome afford abundant reprefentations of this formidable
montter; the dark retreats of their geds, and their facred
groves were defended by dragons, and the Romans, Perfiins,
and various other nations, fought under its banners and pro-
te€tion. The chariot of Ceres was drawn by dragons, and a
dragon kept the garden of the Hefperides. In the Scandi-
navian mytteries the dragon was the minifter of vengeance
voder their vindiétive gods, and the Britons, like the Gauls,
entertained a fimiar idea of its vengeful powers, while en-
flaved in the trammels of Druidic fuperftition. ‘The dragon
of the ancients was reprefented as poflefling attributes fome-
times even approaching divinity: his form was that of a
ferpent with wings and fect: his fize was affirmed
to be ftupendous, and the powers he poflefled de-
firuGtive and irrefiftible: his agility in flight was compared
fometimes with that of an eagle, or fometimes with the ve-
locity of lightning ; and it was furthermore declared, that
the brilliancy of his eyes was alone fufficient to diffipate the
darknefs of midnight !—The exiflence of fuch a marvellous
moniter was believed —and may perhaps by fome be ftill ad-
mitted!—It is not to be denied that the vulgar belief in
dragons, a3 in mermen and merinaids, has the fan@ion of
the older naturalilts ; and, in truth, we muftalfo fay, of fome
eredulous writers in the prefent as well as earlier days.
There can be no donbt that all the animals defcribed and
figured by thofe authors, whether ancient or moderns under
tne {pecious names of dragons, &c. are merely fi€titious be-
ings, cither artificially compofed of the fkins of different
animals; or made by diftorting fome of the ray tribe into a
dragon-like fhape, by bending back the two fides, drawing
out the mouth into a beak-like form, fplitting the lower
appendages into the form of teet, or fubftituting the legs of
a bird or quadruped, aud twifting the tatl in a formidable
manner over the head, and which, when the creature is per-
feétly dried, will retain the pofition and appearance in which
it is firlt placed. The monitrous reprefentations to be
found in Gefner and Aldrovandus, of a feven-headed dragon
with gaping mouths, long body, fuake-like necks, and tail,
and feet refembling thofe of birds, are of alike kind, Thefe
deceptions appear to have been formerly practifed with much
fuccefs, and mifled not only the vulgar, but even menof {cience:
of this a curious example is faid to have occurred towards
the clofe of the feventeenth century, and is thus commemo-
rated by Dr. Grainger, from a note of Dr, Zachary Grey,
in his edition of Hudibras.
Vou. XII.

~

AiG VO:

“ Mr. Smith, of Bedford, obferves to me on the word dragon
as follows: Mr. Jacob Bobart, botany profeffor of Oxford,
did, about forty years aga, find a dead rat in the phyfic
garden, which he made to refemble the common piGure of
dragons, by altering its head and tail, and thrufting in taper
fharp fticks, which diftended the flcin on each fide till it mi-
micked wings. He let it dry as hard as poffible. The
learned immediately pronounced it a dragon; and one of
them fent an accurate defeription of it to Dr. Magliabechi,
librarian to the grand duke of Tufcany; feveral fine copics
of verfes were wrote on fo rare a fubje€t; but at jaft Mr.
Bobart owned the cheat: however it was looked upon as a
matter-piece of art, and as fuch depofited in the muleum, or
anatomy {chool, where I faw it many years after,”’

Another remarkable inltance, in later times, is that of a
dragon of a fimilar kind, whieh was once the property of a
merchant of Hamburgh, and was valued at an immenfe
fum. When Linnzus vifited that city, in his travels in 1735,
this monftrous production was in the poff-ffion of Spreckel-
fen, fecretary of the council, and a confiderable naturalitt,
and till that time was efteemed the moft valuable ctriofity in
Europe, being received as a pledge for the loan of ten thou-
fand marks, a fum equal to feven hundred and fifty pounds.
This celebrated article, upon an accurate examination, Lin-
nzus difcovered to be an impofture, and as he terms it “ non
nature fed artis opus eximium,”’ the whole being an artful
combination of the fkins of {nakes, jaw-bones of weafels,
and the legs of birds, ingenioufly contrived to reprefent a
feven-headed dragon. A difcovery fo injurious to the owncr
and the'credit of the univerfity, excited Linnzus many ene-
mies, and the enraged proprietor determined on a profecn-
tion againft him, for having deftroyed the reputation of his
property ; to avoid which, through the advice of -his friend
Dr. Jaenifch, Linnzus thought proper to leave the city.—
This monftrous produétion is repr<fented in the work of Seba,

In the Encyclopedia Britannica another preduétion of the
fame monftrous kind is defcribed at fome length, and repre-
fented in the 449th plate, under the name of Sea Dragon,
An account of this it appears was firft inferted in the Gentle-
man’s Magazine for the year 17493 the creature was {aid
to be taken between Orford and Soutbwould, on the coatt
of Suffolk, and afterwards carried round the country as a
curiolity by the fifhermen who caught it. ‘ Its head and
tail (fays the writer) refemble thofe of the alligator; it has
two large fins which ferve it both to {wim and to fly, and
though they were fo dried that I couid not extend them, yer
they appear by the folds to be thaped like thofe which
painters have given to diagons, and other winged montters,
that ferve as fupporters to-coats of arms. Its body is co-
vered with impenetrable {cales ; its legs have two joints, and
its feet are hoofed like thofe of an als; it has five rows of
very white and fharp teeth in each jaw, and is in length
nbout four feet, though it was longer when alive, it having
fhrunk as it became dry.—It was caught in a net witia
mackarel ; and being dragged on fhore was knocked down
with a ftretcher, or boat-hook. The net being opened, it
fuddenly {prung up and flew about fifty yards; the man who
firft feized it hed feveral of his fingers bitten off, and the
wound mortifying, he died. It afterwards faftened on the
man’s arm who fhows it, and lacerated it fo much that the
mufcles are fhrunk, and the hands and fingers diftorted ; the
wound is not yet healed, and is thought to be incurable.”?

A flight examination of this amazing prodigy will incon«
teltibly prove that the whole is a deception; the article de«
{eribed is nothing more ‘than the fin of the angel thark,
fqualus fquatina, rudely diftorted, and with very little con-
trivance difpofed into the figure in which we fee it. With

Bb regard

Dek A

regard to the difaflrous circumftauces attendant on its caps
ure, there is reafon to admit their plaufibility at leaft; the
bite of a fhark of the fize defcribed, would certainly be dan-
getous, and might eafily deprive a man of his fiagers : the
fhark is alfo both fierce and powerful. and th’s {pecies in par-
ticw/ar, by the ation of its lateral fins in its ftruggle to
efcape, might glide along a flat fandy beach to a contiderable
Giftance ; but the ftory of its flight deferves no credit. The
number of its teeth in the figure and defcription are at vari-
ance; the latter is apparently corre&, for the angel fhark,
like the reft of its tribe, have both jaws furnifhed with feve-
yal rows of teeth, and in a fpecimen, the length of four fect,
or rather more, would amount to about five rows in each:
the head has been compreffed laterally, to give it a more
elongated form: the broad lateral fins have been tortured
into the femblance of wings, by being {tretched confiderably,
and then folded in plaits; and the ventral fins, which in the
fith are oblong, prefled into the form of legs as above de-
feribed. The whole of the fkin, thus diftorted and braced
up with wire, or with any other kind of bandage ull dry,
would naturally afterwards retain the grotef{que form the
preferver had given it.—A fimilar cheat, we believe, but
with the fifh ina more recent ftate, has been very lately at-
tempted by fome artful fifhermen on one of the learned in fti-
tutions in Ireland.

Perhaps we have already digrefled too far on the art of
manufa&turing dragons, and the fpecious frauds that have
been pradufed on the unwary virtuoli, but we cannot confider
it altogether unimportant, and fincerely tru that what has
been advanced, may operate as a caution to thofe who, in
the ftudy of nature, are attra&ed only by the marvellous, to
be on their guard againft fimilar impofitions. ,

Draco, Dragon, ia Natural Hiffory, a fabulous ani-
mal, which has been reprefented under the form of a {erpent
with wiogs and feet. The ancients have given various de-
fcriptions of this animal, with refpe@ to its fize, fhape, and
colour, and have attributed many ill qualities to it, without
foundation. Tneir accounts of it are very various and con-
tradi@ery. They were probably led to the idea they formed
of it by fome extraordinary animals of the genus of ferpents,
lizards, or crocodiles, &c. which were fingnlar either on ac-
count of their figure or fize. See Draco Volans.

Draco, or Dragon, in Mythology, the animal confecrated
to Bacchus and Minerva. It is alfo the fymbol of Janus,
and alfo of Bacchus Beffarus. Dragons are likewife em-
ployed to draw the chariot of Ceres; and a dragon keeps
the garden of the Hefperides, which fee. a

It has been fuggelted that the fame Pheenician root of
the word Nahda/ch might equally ttand for a keeper, ora
dragon ; and therefore when this word occurréd o denote
the keeper of fomething of value, it was calied a dragon.
Hence were derived all thofe fables of the famous dragons,
who were fet to keep the garden of the Hefperides, the
Golden fleece, the cave at D<Iphi, and the famous fountain
of Thebes. Infteed of men they fubftituted monfters; and
what has authorifed the freedom they took in applying the
Pheenician word to that fenfe is, that to be the guardian of
any thing of worth, and to watch for its prefervation, it was
neceflary to be fharp fighted and vigilant ; which is imported
in the Greek words o¢ss and dewxuy, which Le Clerc upon
Hlefiod deduces from taloucs and degxoucs, to fee. Igitur
credibile eft eandem vocem Pheenicia lingua et Serpentem et
Cuftodem fignificafle.” The winged dragons that drew the
chariot of Medea, are fuppofed to have had their rife from
the fhip in which Jafon and Medea. embarked, which was
called the “ Dragon.”

7

DRA

Draco Arbor, in Botany. See Draczna,

Draco Marinus, in Ichthyology, tynonymous with the-
weever fith, or ftingbull, See Tracuinus.

Draco Regis, in Antiquity, the ttandard enfign, or mili-
tary colours, borne in war by our ancient kinzs, having the
figure of a dragon painted on them. Rog. Hoved. fub ann.
TIQt.

: Draco Volans, in Zoology, a {pecies of Draco; which
ee.

Draco Volans, among Meteorologiffs, is ufed for a fat,
heterogeneous, earthy meteor, appearing leg and finuous,
fomething in the fhape of a flying dragon.

This fhape is fuppofed to arife from the hind part of the
matter of this meteor being fired with greater jmpetuofity
than what comes firlt out of the cloud, and it is fuppofed,
that the broken parts of the cloud, and the fulphureous:
matter which adhere to them, form the apparent wings of
this imaginary dragon.

This fort of exhalation is principally feen on the borders
of rivers, and in marfhy places. and feldom rifes very high
from the ground, but plays and dances about the furface in
an agreeable manner; and if people go up tb it, it will ftick
to their hands or cloaths without burning or doing them any
injury. They are more common in the {ummer months than-
in the winter, and are more frequently feen in thick weather
than in clear.

DRACOCEPHALUM, in Botany, (from Apsxwy, a drae
gon, and x:GaAn, the head, becaufe of the large fweiling form
of its ringent corolla,) Linn. Gen. 298. Schreb. 395-
Wilid>Sp. Pl. v. 3. 149. Jufl. 116. Gertn. t. 66. Clafs-
and order, Didynamia Gymnofgermia. Nat. Ord. Verticile
late, Linn. Labiate, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth of one leaf, tubular, perma-
nent, very fhort. Cor. of one petal, ringent; tube the
length of the calyx; throat very large, oblong, inflated,
gapinz, a little compreffed at the back ; upper lip dire&,.
vaulted, folded, obtufe ; lower three-cleft, ite lateral feg-
ments ereét, as if belonging to the throat, its central one
pendulous, fmall, prominent at the bafe, roundith, cloven.
Stam. Filaments four, aw]-fhaped, concealed ander the up
per lip of the coroiJa, two of them rather fhorter than the:
reft; anthers nearly heart-(haped. Pi. Germen four-
lobed; ityle thread-fhaped, fituated ike the ftamens ;
figma cloven, acute, flender, reflexed. Peric. none, ex=.
cept the permanent calyx. Seeds in the bottom of the cas
lyx, four, ovate-obloag, three-angular.

Eff. Ch. Corolla with an. inflated throat, and concave
upper lip.

Obf. The calyx in. this-geuus is varioufly formed in difs.
ferent {pecies, but always more or lefs perfeétly two-lipped.

Wuldenow has eighteen fpecies, ten of which bear their:
whoris crowded into a {piked form, the refthave them axillary.
The flowers are violet, pale purple, or reddifh. The here.
bage in general is aromatic; in D. canarien/e, a common
green-houfe plant vulgarly. called Balm of Gilead, highly-
and molt agreeably fcented, as alfo in D. Moldavica, Moles.
davian Balm, a hardy annual f{pecies; while D. fbiricum is:
feetid, and compared by Wiildenow, not unaptly, to ran-
cid oil, D. aufirtacum, Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 1 t. 112, a rare-
and magnificent {pecies, was firit figured by Clufiusy. °
(iit. v. 2. 185. > Chamepitys auftriaca,). but from-
his time not oblerved by botanilts, till it was. detected:
by Hott again in s\uftria a few years ago, and by others.
in Hungary, &c. Its flowers are large, of a rich vio-
let. D. grandifforum, another fine alpine {pecies, is well
figured in Curt. Mag. t. 1009, where it is juftly ebferved

that:

DRA

that this and the altainenfe, with Willdenow’s palmatum, are
‘all probably but one fpecies.

DRACON, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, which
ran near Vefuvius ; now Dragone.

DRACONARIUS, in Antiquity, Dragon-bearer. Se-
veral nations, as the Perfians, Parthians, Scythians, &c.
bore dragons on their ftandards; whence the ftandards
themfelves were called dracones, dragons. The Romans
borrowed the fame cultom from the Parthians, or, as Ca-
faubon has it, from the Dace; or, as Codin, from the
Affyrians.

The Roman dracones were figures of dragons painted in
red on their flags ; as appears from Ammianus Marcellinus ;
but among the Perfians, and Parthians, they were like the
Roman eagles, figures in full relievo ; fo that the Romans
were frequently deceived, and took them for real dra-

ons. 7

The foldier, who bore the dragon or ftandard, was cal-
led by the Romans draconarius; and by the Greeks dgaxo-
vopios, and dpxxevreioPores; for the emperors carricd the cuf-
tom with them to Conftantinople,

Pet. Diaconus, Chron, Cafin. lib. iv. cap. 39. obferves,
that the bajuli, cercoftatarii, ftaurophori, aquiliferi, leo-
niferi, and draconarii, all marched before king Henry when
he entered Rome.

DRACONIS, Carurt. See Caput and Dracon.

Draconis, cauda. See Caupa and Dracon.

Draconis, fanguis. See Dracon’s blood.

Draconis, venter. See Venter.

DRACONITES, Joun, in Biography, a learned Ger-
man theologian, was born at Carlftadt in the year 1494. By
his great talents, and induftry he acquired great reputation,
was employed in many important negotiations, and attained
to the high rank of bifhop of Marfpurg, and Roftock, and
Sameland in the Pruffian dominions. . He publifhed Com-
mentaries on various parts of the facred writings, in which
were difp'ayed much learning, and critical acumen. He
began a Polyglott of the bible in five lanzuages, which how-
ever, he did not live to finifh, He died fuddenly April 18th
1566. Moreri,

DRACONON, in Ancient Geography, a promontory,
mountain, and town of the ifland of Icaria.

DRACONTEAS, in Botany, a name given, by Neophy-
tue, and fome others of the later Greek writers, to two
plants diftinguifhed by the epithets of the great and the
little kinds. The great dracouteas is the plant we call
dragons, and the {mall draconteas is the arum. Neoph?tus
fays, that the roots of fome {pecies of the fmall draconteas
were eatable, which we alfo know to be true at this time ;
for though with us the juice of this plant is fiery and cor-
rofive, yet we know that there are efculent arums in other
parts of the world. ‘The Greek writers, from the earliett
times we have accounts of, were not ignorant of this; and
Theophraftus in particular has defcribed an efculent root-
ed arum under the name of arum edodimum.

DRACONTHEMA, a name ufed by fome of the old
writers in medicine for what we call fanguis dragonis, or
dragon’s blood, a red vegetable refin.

DRACONTIA, in Ancient Geography, Cani, two {mall
iflands upon the coalt of Africa, over againft the gulf of
Hippone. They are mentioned by Ptolemy ; and were fi-
tuated N.N.W. of the promontory of Apollo, and E. of the
promontory Candidum.

Draconrra, or Dracontia lapis, in Natural fTi/~
fory, a name given by authors to a roundifh or oval pel.
ducid ftone, which feems no other than a cryital cut into
that form, and polifhed by the favage inhabitants of feveral

DRA

nations before the Roman conquefts, and intended to be
worn as ornaments. Authors tell a number of idle and fa-
bulous ftories about this ftone, imagining it to be naturally of
this figure and polifh, and to be found in the head of a
dragon. They are not indeed all agreed about the fpecies
of the ftone; Ficinus defcribing an aftroites under this name,
and others fome other coloured ftone ; but the generality of
writers, efpecially the old ones, make it colourlefs and pel-
lucid.

DRACONTIUM, in Botany, a geaus founded by Lin-
nus in his Corollarium Generum Plantarum, 18, to which,
on account of its affinity to rum, he applied this name.
The Apaxoyloy of Diofcorides, and probably of Theophraf-
tus, is indeed Arum Dracunculus of Linneus, and of all
recent authors. Hermann applied the name of Dracontium
to all of this natural order with divided leaves, fuch being
the cafe with 4. Dracunculus ; but this chara&ter neither ine
dicates a natural generic diftinGtiion, nor does it accord with
any technical marks in the freétification. Linn. Gen. 471.
Hort. Cliff. 434. Schreb. zq5. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 288.
Juff. 24. Clafs and order, Gynandria Polyandria, according
to Linneus, but much more correctly Heptandria Monocy-
nia, as Schreber and Willdenow have judged. Nat. Ord.
Piperite, Linn. Arcidee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Sheath boat-fhaped, coriaceous, very
large, of one leaf. Spadix fhort, fimple, cylindrical, entirely
covered with florets colle€ted into a head, each of which has
no proper perianth, uulefs the corolla be taken for fuch. Cor.
Petals five, inferior, concave, ovate, obtufe, nearly equal,
coloured. Stam. in each floret. Filaments feven, linear, de.
preffed, ere, equal, longer than the petals; anthers fquare,
two-lobed, oblong, obtufe, ere&. Piff. Germen fuperior,
nearly avate; ftyle round, ftraight, the length of the ftamens ;
ftigma fmell, triangular. Perc. Berry roundifh. Seeds
numerous.

Eff. Ch. Sheath boat-fhaped. Spadix entirely covered
with florets, Petals five, inferior. Berry with many feeds.

Linnaeus enumerates fix fpecies, Willdenow feven. They
are deftitute of pubefcence, with round ftems or ftalks, have
ing the habit of an Arum. D. pertufum, Plum. Amer. t. 56,
575 is remarkable for numerous elliptical perforations in its
leaves. D_ polyphyllum, Herm. Parad. t. 93, has repeatedly
compound aud pinnatifid aves. Its flowers grow on fhort
radical, folitary ftalks, each having alarge dark-purple fheath.
Linnzus in Hort, Cliff. fays, “when the fheath opens, it ex-
halcs a {mell like that of the molt putrid carcafe, capable of
taking away any perfon’s fenfes and underltanding ; but it
istemarkable that after a few days, when the anthers begin
to fhed their poller, this poifonous feetor in an hour’s time
abfolutely ceafes.” It grows between the trepics, in vari-
ous countries, but is fearcely known in our ftaves. Fortter
mentions it as cultivated in the Society Iflands for the fake
of its root, which, though acrid, is eaten in times of a
f{carcity of bread-fruit, being, no doubt, rendered eatable
by cookery. Chunberg hints that it is ufed in Japan to
procure abortion, and Forfter more openly declares that
it ferves the fame iniquitous purpofe among the members
of the deteftable affociations of thofe iflands, where child.
murder is authorized. What an acquifition would this root
prove to fome of our quacks, who in the public papers ad-
vertife, as openly as they dare, to render their patients the
fame pious fervice! Happy for the community if their ig-
norance in fome meafure circumferibes their powers of mif-

chief! S.
Bb2 DRACONTUS,

DRA

DRACONTUS, in Ancient Geagraphy, an ifland of
Africa, on the coalt of Libya.—Alfo, a place of Afia, in
Armenia Minor, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

DRACUNCULI, in Medicine, a name ufed by authors
for a fort of long and {lender worms, which breed in the
mufcular flefh of the arms, legs, &c. and from their being
more frequent in fome parts of Guinea than elfewhere, are
called by many Guinea-worms. They have been long known
in the world; and Plutarch quotes Agartharcides for an
account of thefe animals, which, he fays, the people about
the Red-fea were at a certain time very much afflifed with.
It is more particularly a difeafe in children, wherein they feel
a vehement itching, fuppofed to arife from thefe worms,
called dracunculi, generated of a vifcid humour under the
fin, about the back, fhoulders, and arms.

Children feized with the dracunculi become heatic, and
fcarce receive any nourifhment at all, chough they eat plen-
tifully. The difeafe, however, is not fo peculiar to children,
but that grown perfons have been fometimes affeGted with it.
The emperor Henry V. is faid to have died of it ; having
had it from his birth.

The women in Poland cure their children of the dracunculi
after the following manner: the child is wafhed and bathed
in warm water, wherein a quantity of crummed bread, and a
handful of afhes have been caft. The water being poured
off, and the bread gathered into a mafs; when they come
to break it again the next day, they find in it an infiaite
quantity of fine hairs, which fome call dog’s hairs, and
others, worms; and it is thofe hairs, or worms, which are
fuppofed to be the caufe of the difeafe.

After thus bathing the children, they rub their fhoulders
and arms with flour fteeped in vinegar, or honey; upon which
immediately there rifes on the fkin a great number of tubercles,
like poppy-feed ; fuppofed to be the heads of worms. Thefe
they {crape off as falt as they appear ; otherwife they with-
draw beneath the fkin again. ‘The operation is repeated
till fuch time as no more tubercles arife.

The dracunculi is a difeafe little known in England.
The editors of the Leipfic As, {peaking of it, in the tome
for the month of Odtober, 1682, call the bodies, which put
forth at the pores after bathing, thick hairs, ‘‘corpufcula
pilorum craffiorum inftar denfa et {piffa,” and not fine flen-
der hairs, as Degori calls them. They add, that thefe little
corpulcles are hence called crinones ; and by reafon of their
devouring the food, which fhould nourifh the children,
comedones. Velfchius, in a curious differtation on the fub-
jet, calls them capillary worms: ‘‘exercitatio de vermibus
capillaribus infantum.”

As to the nature and figure of thefe little bodies, the fame
editors obferve, that the microfcopes have put it paft doubt,
that they are real living animals, ofan ah colour, having two
long horns, two large round eyes, and a long tail, terminated
with a tuft of hair; but that it is difficult to draw them out
whole, by fcraping the child’s body; becaufe being very
foft, the leaft rubbing bruifes them, and breaks them.

They are no where fo frequent as on the Gold-coaft in
Guinea about Anamaboe and Cormantyn. The worm is
white, round, long, and uniform, very much refembling a
piece of white round tape or bobbin. It is lodged between
the interftices of the membranes and mufcles, where it infinu-
ates itfelf toa prodigious length, fometimes exceeding five ells.
Tt occafions no great pain in the begioning ; but when it is
about to thew its head a {welling and inflammation appear
on the part, which is ufually the ankle, or fome part of the
leg or thigh.

The countries where this creature is thus produced are
very hot, and fubje& to great droughts, and the inhabitants

DWwA

make ufe of ftagnating and corrupted water, in which it is
probable the ova of thefe animals lie: the white people
and negroes, who drink this water, are equally fubje& to
thefe worms,

The furgeons feldom attempt to extra& this worm by ine
cifion; but when the tumour appears, they endeavour to bring
it toa fuppuration as foon as they can; and when they have
broke the fwelling, and the head of the worm appears, they
faften it to a ftick, and continue gradually winding it round
at the rate of an inch or twoina day, till they by this means,
have wound it all out. If it be wound too haitily, it is apt
to break in the operation ; and if it does, the end is not eafily
recovered again ; and if not, there are ab{ceffes formed, not
only at the place where it breaks, but all along the whole
winding of the mufcles where the dead worm remains; fo that
often from one worm thus broken, there are produced a num-
ber of obftinate ulcers in different parts. When the worm
has not been broken, the ulcer out of which it was extra@ted
heals eafily, and there-is no farther trouble about it. Town’s
Difeafes of the Welt Indies, p. 561.

<The daily ufe of aloes, or of any other anthelmintic
medicine, is proper, during the extraGtion of the worm in
order to facilitate its difcharge. See CuatTia. ;

DRACUNCULOIDES, in Botany, the name given by
Boerhaave to the B!ood-flower, or Hemanthus, which fee.

DRACUNCULUS, fee Artemisia, fp. 40, and
Arum, fp. 2; allo AcHitLEs Prarmica, fp. 12; which
laft was named by C. Bauhin Dracunculus pratenjis, /errato
folio. See likewife Catia patustris, fp. 2, the Dra-
cunculus aquaticus or palufiris of tome authors. Polygonum
Biflorta has been called by Brunfelfius Dracunculus minor.

Dracuncutus, in Ichthyology. See Draconer.

Dracuncutus, in Zoology. See Draco volans.

DRACUS, in Ancient Gengraphy, a river of Gaul, which
difcharged irfelr into the Ifara, near Calaro (Grenoble.)

DRACUT, in Geography, a poft town of America, in
Middlefex county, onthe northern bank of Merrimack river,
oppofite to Patuchet’s falls, lying 30 miles N. by W. of
Bofton, and containing 1274 inhabitants.

DRAFF, aname given in fome places to the wafh given
to hogs; and the grains given to cows.

DRAG, in Building. A door is faid to drag; when in
opening or fhutting it hangs or grates upon the floor. _

DRAG, in Agriculiure. Drags are implements employed
both for the purpofes of clearing land, and preparing it for
putting in the feed. They are made with confiderabte differ-
ence in different parts of the kingdom. ‘The common drag
is molt generally made ufe of, but the duck-footed one,
with four rows of teeth, is preferable in many cafes, a3 it
does its work more effeGtually. A late writer recommends
an inftrument of this kind, in which the teeth are fixed in
by wedges inftead of fcrews, fo that they can be put in
and taken out readily, and be fet to any depth, as a very
ufeful tool.

Implements of this fort are commonly made of a triangu-
lar form, being about feven feet ia width behind, and having
thirteen or fourteen teeth in each of their fides, but in fiich
dire€tions as to crofs each other, being faftened at top either
by fcrews or fome other convenient means. Where fuch
implements are made ufe of, occafionally as fcarifiers, the
teeth fhould be wedged in fomewhat in the manner of
coulters, and a proper fet muft be had for the purpofe.

Drac, in Sea-Language, is a machine, confilting of a
fharp, {quare, iron ring, encircled with a net, and commonly
ufed to take the wheel off from the platform or bottom of
the decks.

Drac-Ropes. See Rove,

DRAGA,

DRA
DRAGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Felix,

olemy. ,

DRAGE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Holftein, 4 miles N. of Itzchoa,—Alfo, a river of Ger-
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, which runs into the
Netza, fix miles E. N. E. of Driefen, in the New Mark of
Brandenburg.’

DRAGEMEL, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Carniola, on the Save; fix miles N. of Laubach,

DRAGGING the AncHor., See AncHor.

DRAGHL, Gio. Barrisra, in Biography,an Italian mu-
fician, who came to England about the time of Charles I\.d’s
marriage with the infanta Catherine of Portugal, and was
appointed his majefty’s organift and maeltro di cappglla, He
afitted Lock in compofing Shadweli’s Englith opera of
Plyche, and was mutic matter to queen Anne. He pre-
ferved his ftation at Somerfet houfe to the time of that
gueen’s death. We believe him to have been the brother of
Antonio Draghi, who was opera compofer to the court of
Vienna during 40 years.

-DRAGMaA, in Pharmacy, a name ufed by the ancients
for a handful of any herb or other medicine.

DRAGMIS, a word ufed by the ancients to fignify a
pugil, or as much of any thing as can be taken up at a

inch, between the thumb and two fingers.

DRAGMUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland
of Crete.

DRAGO, Boccanex, in Geography, a ftrait between
the ifland of Trinidad and Andalufia, in the province of
Terra Firma, South America.

Deco, a village fouth of Copenhagen, in the ifland of |

Zealand, inhabited chiefly by pilots, who, in time of peace,
pilot all fhips paffing the Sound through the entrance of the
Baltic, or the Cattegat.

DRAGOE, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in the
ifland of Amack ; fix miles from Copenhagen

DRAGOGI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,
placed by Arriao with the Drang).

DRAGOMAN, Drocman, or Drogueman, is the
name of fecretaries attached to Chriltian minilters and con-
fuls refiding at Conftantinople, or in Afia and Africa, who
a% as interpreters’) between them and the officers of the
court or town where they refide.

The word dragoman is faid to be derived from the Arabic
targeman, or taragem, he has interpreted. From this the
lralians formed dragomano, and the French dragoman, truche-
man, or truchement. The latter denomination, however,
might perhaps be deduced from durcoman, an inhabitant of
Turcomania, an Afiatic province, which may have produced
the firlt, or the greateft_ number of interpreters in the Eafl.

It is only fince the year 1669 that the French, with a po-
licy worthy to be imitated by other Chriftian nations trading
with the Eaft, fent every three years fix young boys, who
chufe to go, from eight to ten years of age, to be educated
at the expence of the flate, in a convent of Capuchin friars
at Conttantinople, and to be early inflru@ted in the different
idioms of the Eaft, in order to be afterwards appointed
dragomans, or interpreters, to the French minifters and con-
fuls, who thus were not left at the mercy of Greeks and
other foreigners little attached to their nation, and frequently
feduced to betray its deareft interelts.

Dracoman, in Geography, atown of European Turkey,
in the province of Bulgaria ; 22 miles W.N.W. of Sofia.

DRAGOMESTRO, a town of European Turkey, in
Livadia; 44 miles W.N.W. of Lepanto.

DRAGOMIRNA, a town of European Turkey, in
Moldavia; 8 miles N. of Suczava,

DRA
DRAGON, in Afronomy. See Draco.

Dragon’s head, and tail, caput & cauda draconis, are the
nodes of the planets; or the two points, wherein the écliptic
is interfe€ted by the orbits of the planets, and particularly
that of the moon; making with it angles of five degrees
and eighteen minutes.

One of thefe points looks northward ;, the moon begin-
ning then to have northward latitude, and the other fouth-
ward; where fhe commences fouth,

This her deviation from the ecliptic feems (according to
the fancy of fome) to make a figure liketo that ofa dragon,
whofe belly is where fhe has the greateft latitude ; the inter-
feGtion reprefenting the head and tail, from which refem«
blance the denomination arifes.

But note, that thefe points abide not always in one place,
but have a motion of their own in the zodiac, and retro-
grade-wife, 3 minutes 11 feconds per day ; completing their
circle in 18 years 225 days; fo that the moon can be but
twice in the ecliptic, during her monthly period; but at all
other times fhe wiil have a latitude, or declination from the
ecliptic.

It is about thefe points of interfeGtion that all eclipfes
happen.

They are ufually denoted by thefe chara€ters, ¢2 dragon’s
head, and ¢§ dragon’s tail.

Dracon, in Natural Hiflory. See Draco.

Dracon, Allegorical, the emblem of the devil, in allufion
to Pfalm xci. 13. Hence a dragon pierced or trampled
upon is, in painting and ftatuary, the attribute of different
faints, particularly of St. Michael, St. George, and Ste
Margaret the Martyr.

Dracon Beams, in Architefure, are two {trong braces or
ftruts, which ftand under a breaft-fummer, and meet in an
angle on the fhoulder of the king-piece.

Dracon’s Blood, Sanguis Draconis. This fubfance is a
blood-red refin, obtained from certaindarge paim-trees, grow-
ing in the Eaft Indies, (Calamus Rotang Pterocarpus
Draco,) and alfo in South America; but the Eaft Indies
furnifh all that is ufed in this couniry.

The dragon’s blood is of a deep red colour; and the beft
fort is brought over in oval drops, obvioufly the exfudations
from the tree; but the ordinary fort is in large fhapelefs
cakes or maffes, generally impure, to the eye containing a
good deal of foreign matter. There are befides to be met
with in trade feveral artificial compofitions of ordinary gums,
and other matters, coloured like the true dragon’s blood,
and paffed off for it.

This refin, when finely pulverifed, becomes a fine crimfon.
It is totally infoluble in water, infipid and without {mell
when cold, but if heated it gives a fragrant odour, like ben-
zoin. Alcohol diffolves it almoft totally, efpecially when
affifted by heat, and the folution is of a fine deep red, which
will ftain heated marble readily and permanently, and has
often been ufed for this purpofe. Dragon’s blood diffolves
alfoin oils: like all the other refinsit burns readily, and with
a bright flame and much {moke: when burning it emits a
ftrong {mell of benzoic acid. Some of this acid, though in
very minute quantity, may be obtained from this refin, by
means of lime, as from Benzo1n, in the way mentioned une
der that article. ‘

The dragon’s blood is ufed a little in medicine, and is
fuppofed to be gently reftringent, and the folution in alco-
hol does fhew fome degree of aromatic and aftringent tafte.
It is, however, but little employed in medicine, and might
very well be expunged from the Pharmacopeia.

It the arts, however, this refin is of very confiderable uti-
lity, as a fine deep-bodied colour, totally unagted on by

8 moifturey

DRA

moifture, and very permanent. It is employed in flaining
marble, leather, wood ; in lacquering and varnifhing, and for
fimilar nfes, and is fo much valued by artifts, that the fine
famples bear a pretty high price.

Dracon Fly, in Entomology. See Liperiua.

Dracon, Gum. See TRAGACANTH.

Dracon’s Head, in Botany. See DracocerHALumM.

Dracons. See Anum and Dracontium.

Deacon reverfed, Knights of, an order of knighthood
inftituted by the emperor Sigifmund, about the year 1415,
after the council of Conftance, in memory of the condemaa-
tion of John Hufs and Jerome of Prague. This order,
which once flourifhed in Germany,and Italy, is now extinG.

Dracon, Sea. See Draco.

Dracon, Snap. See Antirewinum and Rverxia.

Dracon of Waniley ; the title of an old Yorkhire fatiri-
eal ballad of much wit and humour. It is fuppofed to have
been written early in the reign of James I., and in burlefque
of romances and the wonders of chivalry. We have a very
ample and curious hiflorical account of the origin of this
ballad, in the lait edition of “* Percy’s Reliques of Anctent
Poetry,” in which a tyrannical and rapacious landlord is
figured under the “ Dragon ;”? and “ More of More Hall”
was either the attorney or the counfellor who condudted a
fuccefsful fuit againft him on the fubje@ of tithes. But
this ballad is mentioned here among mufical articles, having
been the foundation of Harry Carey’s celebrated burlefque
opera of the “ Dragon of Wantley,” fo admirably fet to
mufic by. Lampe, in 1737, “after the Italian manner.” This
excellent piece of humour had run twenty-two nights, when
it was ftopped, with all other public amufements, by the
death of her maj-fty queen Caroline, November 2oth, but
was refumed again on the opening of the theatres in January
following, and fupported as many reprefentations as the
«« Beggar’s Opera” had done, ten years before. And if
Gay’s original intention in writing his mufical drama was to
ridicule the opera, the execution of his plan was not fo happy
as that of Carey; in which the mock heroic, tuneful mon-
fter, recitative, fpendid habits, and ftyle of mufic, all con-
{pired to remind the audience of what they had feen and
heard at the lyric theatre, more effeGually than the moft
wulgar ftreet tunes could do; and much more innocently
than the tricks and tranfaGtions of the moft abandoned thieves
and proftitutes. Lampe’s mufic to this farcical drama was
not only excellent fifty years ago, but is fill modern and in
good talte.

Dracons /Vater.

Dracon, Wild. See AnTemisiA.

Dracon’s Wort. See ArremistA.

DRAGONERA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Capitanata; 15 miles
N. of Volturara.—Alfo, a fmail uncultivated ifland in the
Mediterranean, not more than a mile from the we coaft of
the ifland of Majorca. N. lat. 39° 35’. Long. 19° E.
Peak of Teneriffe.

DRAGONET, in Jchthyology, the Englith name of the
fifhcs belonging to the Linnean genus CALLionyMus.
“The character of this genus confilts in having the upper lip
doubled up: eyes approximate: gill membrane fix-rayed,
with the covers clofed. and breathing aperture in the neck :
body naked: ventral fins very remote.

See CALLA.

Species.

1

Lyra. Anterior ray of the firft dorfal fin as long as the
body. Linn. Donov. Brit. Fifhes, &c, Gemmous Dra-
gonet.

A native of the Northern and Mediterranean feas ; about

DRA

12 inches in length, and feeds on echini or fea eggs, flar-fith,
&c. Scarce on the Englifh coaft. The colours of this fifh
are various and beautiful. =

Dracuncutus. Rays of the firf dorfal fin fhorter than
the body. Linn. Donov. Brit. Fifhes, &c. Sordid Dra-
gonet.

About the fame fize as the former or rather {maller, the
general colour livid above, beneath whitifh. It is a native
of the European feas, and has been incorrectly named by
fome Englifh writers the yellow gumard.

Inpicus. Head longitudinally wrinkled; gill covers
open at the fides. Bloch. Indian Dragonet.

A native of Afia. The body ismuch deprefled and of a
livid colour. ~

Barxarensts. No ventral fins: firft dorfal fin very
fmall: fecond with ferrated rays. Baikal Dragonet.

Inhabits the deepelt parts of the lake Baikal, and in fum-
mer approaches the fhore in great numbers. The length of
this fifh is about nine inches, the body, foft, flender, gra-
dually tapering from the head, and oily to the touch.

Ocettatus. Membrane of the firft dorfal fin ftriped
with brown, and marked with four brown ocellate {pots.
Ocellate Dragonet.

A native of the fea round Amboyna ; {mall, varied with
cinereous and brown, and {prinkled with white [pecks: be-
neath whitifh, roundifh, tapering, head much depreffed: body
fatter than the reft of the tribe.

Sacirra. Head triangular: gill membrane three-rayed ;
rays of the dorfal fins equal. Arrow-headed Dragonet.

Found in the fea about Amboyna: length three inches :
above brownith clouded with grey, beneath whitihh grey ;
body thin, depreffed near the head, and tapering downwards :
form fomewhat convex and four-lided.

Japonicus. Firft dorfal fin with a black ccellate fpot,
the firft ray terminating in two hairs half an inch longs
Japan Dragonet.

Length about nine inches; the head deprefled: eyes
targe and approximate, the firft dorfal fin with black raya,
the pofterior whitifh: the body is {mooth, roundif and va-
riegated.

DRAGONNE'E, in Heraldry. A lion, dragonnée, is
where the upper half refembles a lion; the other half going
off like the hind part of a dragon.

The like may be faid of any other beaft as well as the lion.

DRAGOON, in Ornithology, the name of a {mall kind of
carricr- pigeon called columba tabel!aria minima by Moore. It
is a baltard-breed between the two {pecies of pigcons called
the horfeman and the tumbler. They are very good breeders,
and as they are lighter than the horieman, they are fuppofed
more expeditious in flight for a few miles, but the horfeman
cutdoes chemat greater lengths. One of thefe pigeons flew
from St. Edmuncfbury to London, being a diftence of
feventy-two miles, in two hoursand a haif.

Dracoon, in War, implies a horfe foldi-r, who is at the
fame time, capable of aéting with effet when difmounted,
Formerly the heavy dragoons were armed with mufkets and
bayonets, as well as with {word and piltol, and were often
pofted in woods, having their hor‘cs in their rear, fo as to
deceive an enemy, and to gallop out whenever any break ia
his line might favour th<ir evolutions. But as the mode of
warfare throughout Europe became lefs ceremonious, and,
that in heu of meeting, as it'were by common confent, on
fome extenfive plain, to fight it out according to the mancen-
vres formerly in vogue, more adtive, and enterprizing prac-
tices have been adopted, the dragoons, with the exception
of the dragoon guards, commonly called the life guards,
are completely metamorphofed. Their heavy accoutrements

are

; DRA

are fupplanted by thofe of a compa& light conftruétion ;
and in lieu of mufkets, very light carabines are in ufe. But
even this clafs bas been confiderably diminifhed ; there being
now very few regiments of heavy dragoons in the fervice.
The Britith cavalry confilts, for the moft part, of light ca-
valry, fomething on the principle of the Auftrian hoffars,
aad armed only with fword and piftols. ‘The fuperior ef-
feéts produced in the ficid by troops fo admirably caiculated
for celerity, aud for promptnefs in remote atiacks, added to
the important advantages of the {word exercife, as now
taught in our cavalry regiments, muft give a permanence to
this part of the efablithment. Our light dragoons may, in-
deed, be competitors with thofe of any nation: Whey are
picked men, well mounted, weli taught, and led on by officers
of the greateft ability and fpirit. Hence we invariably find
their efforts eminently fuccefsful. It will, however, be ob-
ferved that the old principle of makiag the dragoons dif-
mount has, in a great meafure, become obfolete. The etymo-
logy of the word may be eafily traced to the French derivation
Dragon, which was originally given to thefe troops on ac-
count of the fiercenefs of their attack. The charge of
heavy cavalry is certainly forcible to an extreme; but the
light corps poffefs infinite advantages in other refpedts.

DRAGOT, ia Geography, atown of European Turkey,
in Albania, on the Crevaita; 36 miles S. S. E. of Durazzo.
~ DRAGS, in Agriculture. See Drac.

Dracs, ia Rope making, are formed ‘ike the after-part
of the Stepce, to which they are faftened by ropes, and
are lined with a board on the upper fide. ‘They contain
weight, as a prefs; when the rope requires more than the
ledge can carry to keep the ftrands of a proper ftretch,
and prevent their fhrinking, as they get hard, and as the
rope is brought to its intended fize.

Dracs, in the Sea-Language, are ufed for whatever
hangs over the fhip in the fea, as fhirts, coats, or the itke ;
and boats when towed, or whatever cife that, after this
manner, may hinder the flip’s way when fhe fails.

Dracs, denote alfo floating pieces of timber fo joined
togetber, that by fwimming in the water they may bear a
burden or Ioad down a river. Stat. 6 Henry VI.c. 15.

Dracs. See Drowninc.

DRAGUIGNAN, in Latin Dracenum and Draguinianum,
in Geography, a town of France, chief place of a diftri& of
the fame name, and of the department of the Var, fituated on
the river Pis in a fruitful and agreeable country, 12 miles
N. W. of Frejus, as many N. by W. of Sairt Tropez and
45 miles N. E, of Toulon. It has a population of 6561
individuals, and its canton contains 5 communes and 12,355
inhabitants upon a territorial extent of 257 kiliometres and a
half. Draguignan is at a diftance of 808 kiliometres, or about
605 Englifh miles, from Paris,

As chief place of a diftri&, and of the whole department,
Deaguignan has a prefect, a court of jultice, a regilter office,
andis a military ftation for the brigadier who commands in
the department. The foil of its dittri€t is uncommonly fer-
tile. The hills are covered with vineyards which produce
excellent, but very ftrong, wine.

The diftri@ of Draguignan contains 10 cantons, 58 com-
munes and 71.383 individuals upon a territorial extent of
2757+. kiliometres.

DRAGUSCANT, a town of European Turkey, in Mol-
davia, 48. miles E. of Jaffi.

DRAGUT, in Biography, was born of obfcure parents at
a village of Natolia oppofite the ifle of Rhodes. At an
early age he fhewed an attachment to the bufinefs of war-
fare, and entered when he was only 12 years of age under an

officer of artillery in the grand fignior’s galley. Here he

DRA

became expert in all the bufinefs conneéted with his fiat?on,.
and was enabled from his gains to fave as much money as
would purchafe a galley of his own, with which he made
feveral fuccefsful cruifes. The {kill and prowefs which he
exhibited on every occafion of difficulty and danger obtained
for him the patronage of Barbaroffa, the admiral of the Turk-
uh fleet, who in a fhort time raifed him to the command of
a {quadron of twelve galleys. With this force he did in-
credible mifchief on the coafts of Italy and the neighbouring
iflands, till he was attacked by Giannetino Doria in 1548.
To him Dragut was forced to furrender prifoner. Offrs to-
a great amount were made as aranfom, which were refufed,
and Dragut fuffered a moft rigorous confinement for four
years, when he was delivered to H. Barbaroffa, who rein-
ftated him in his former command. Dragut now looked for
revenge; he renewed his ravages with augmented fury, and
in 1552 his gocd fortune prevailed over the celebrated!
Andrew Doria, from whom he took fevera! fhips, fent out
to oppofe him. On the death of Barbaroffa, Dragut fuce
ceeded to the full command of the Barbary corfairs, with
which he performed prodigies of valour. He was after-
wards unable, by his utmoft efforts, to defend himfelf in
the ftrong fortrefs of Mehodia which he had feiz-d, and made
ufe of as the repofitory of his treafures and flores; all which
fell into the hands of the Chriftians. At the fiege of Maita
he was wounded in the head which proved fatal to him. In
hiftory Dragut is confidered rather as a pirate than a regular
commander. Moreri. Univ. Hit. :

DRAIN, or Drein, in the Military Art, a trench made
to draw the water out of a meat, which is afterwards filled
with burdles and earth or with fafcines, or bundles of rofhes
and planks, to facilitate the paflage over the mud. See:
TRENCHES. ;

Drain, a name given in the fen cowntries-to certain large
cuts, or ditches, of twenty, thirty, nay fometimes forty feet
wide, carried through the marfhy ground to fome river, or
other place capable of difcharging the water they carry out
of the fen-lands. Moft of thefe drains are made in our fen-
countries by- a body of men called the Undertakers, whofe
reward is one third of the ground they drain. They alfo
ere&t fluices at a great expence, often not lefs than two
thoufand pounds each. Yet thefe, with all the care they
employ in ere€ting them, are fubje&t to be blown up by the
valt weight of water that lies upon them when the lands-are
everflown.. Some of thefe fluices have two or more pair of
doore,-of fix, eight, or ten, feet high, which fhut when the
water in the river is higher than in the drains, by the weight
and force of it; and fo ¢ contra, throw out a body of eight feet
fquare of water for abour fix or feven hours during the ebb.
The real ufe of thefe drains is very evident from the prefent
fate of the land where they are cut, end that of it before.
ln Camden’s time all this was bog, and now itis a'l firm land.
The country about Crowland was in that author’s time fo!
foft, that it was not paflable by carriages, and thus grew a
witticifm upon it, that all the carts that entered this town
were cafed on the wheels with filver; but this is now fo firm
ground, that carriages of any kind pafs over it. The
duck-ponds ufed to be called the fen corn-fields, and they
now are fuch in reality, their bottoms being dry, and bro-
ducing oats, and rape-feed, or cole-ferd, with great-increafe.
Phil. Tranf. N° 223.

Drains are alfo more generally ufed to carry off the fu-
perfluous moifture from wet and marfhy lands, See Dratin-
ING.

DRAINE, in Ornithology, the name given by Buffon te
the Turnus vifcivorus, which fee.

DRAINING of Lawns, in Agriculture. Although it
7 has

DRAINING, -

has been clearly fhewn by the various experiments and ebfer-
vations that have been made on the nature of vegetation, that a
large proportion of water is effentially neceflary for the fupport
ofthe healthy growth of plants, and which will be flill further
explained in {peaking of the application of it to gra{s lands ;
it is evident that it may exift in fuch over-quantities, or be fo
retained in or upon foils, as to prove not only highly injurious
to the growth of the crops, whether of grain or grals, but
likewife prejudicial to the health of thole who inhabit the
ditri&s where it is {nffered thus to become flagnant; it
therefore becomes the bufinefs of the farmer, in fuch cafes,
to attempt the removal of thofe prejudicial excefics of moilt-
ure before he commences any other operations for the pur-
pofe of improving fuch lands ; as, without fully accomplifh-
ing this object in the firlt inftance, all his future exertions will
be of but littleavail. This may, in fome inttances, be eccom-
plithed by means of draining ; a praétice, the fuccefsful exe-
cution of which in a great meafure depends on a proper
knowledge of the ftru@ure of the earth, and of the various
ftrata of which it is compofed, as well as of their relative
degrees of porofity or capability of admitting or rejecting the
paflage of water through them; and likewife rhe modes in
which water is formed and conduéted from the high or hilly
elevations that prefent themfelves on the furface of the
globe, where originally formed. It has been clearly fhewn,
by finking large pits and digging into them, that they are
moftly compofed of materials lying in a {tratified order and
in oblique or flanting direCtions downward ; fome of which,
ftrata, from their nature and propertics, are capable of ad-
mitting water to percolate or pafg through them, while
others do not.allow it any paflage, but force it to run or fil-
trate along their furface without penetrating them in any
degree, and in that way to condu& it to the more level
grounds below till it_ becomes obftrugied or dainmed up by
meeting with, impervious materials of fome kind or other;
when it is readily forced up into the fupsrincumbent layers,
where they happen to be open and porous, foon rendering
them too wet for the purpofes ofagriculture. Buc where they
are of a more tenacious avd impenetrable quality, they only
become gradually foftened by the ttagnant water below them,
by which the furface of the ground is however rendered
equally moift and fwampy, though fomewhat more flowly
than in the former cafe. It may alfo be obferved, that fome
ef the ftraca which conttitute fuch hilly or mountainous tracts
are found to be continued with much greater regularity than
others, thofe which are placed neareft to the {urface, at the
inferior parts of fuch hills or elevations, being mottly broken
or interrupted before they reach the tops or higher parts of
them, while thofe which lie deeper or below them at the bot-
tom fhew themfelves in thefe elevated fituations; thus that
ftratum which may lie the third or fourth, or {til deeper, at
the commencement of the valley, may be the mott faperficial,
or form the uppermofttayer, on the fummits of hills or moun-
tainous elevations. This arrangement or diftributien of the
different {trata may have been produced partly by the circum-
flances attending the original elevation of fuch mountainous
regions, and partly from the materials of the original exterior
ftrata being diffolved and carried down into the valley by fuc-
ceffive rains, and other caufes, and thus leaving fuch as were
immediately below them in an expofed and fuperficiai ftate in
thefe elevated fituations.

_ But in whatéver way, or from whatever caufes it may have
happened that thofe itrata which are placed at confiderable
depths at the bottoms of hills, and other more elevated
regions, prefent themfelves and become {up ericial upon their
furface, it is evident they frequently prove the means of
gendering the grounds below wet and {wampy. For, from

>

the night dews and the general moifture of the atmofphere,
being condenfed in much greater quantities in fuch elevated
fituations, from their greater coldnets, or other caufes, than in
thofe level furfaces which are below, the water thus formed,
as well as that which falls in rain and finks through the
fuperficial porous materials readily infinuate themfelves, and
thea pafs along between the firlt and fecond, or ftill more
inferior {trata which compofe the fides of fuch elevations,
until their defcent is retarded or totally obftruéted, as has
been juft fhewn, by fome impenetrable fubftance, fuch as clay;
then becomes dainmed up, and the waiter is ultimately forced
to filtrate flowly over it, orto rife to fome part of the furface
aud conftitute, according to the particular circumitances of
the cafe, different watery appearances in the grounds below,
fuch as oozing fprings, bogs, fwamps, moralles, weeping
rock, from the water flawiy .ffying from various places, ‘ora
large {pring or rivulet, from the union of fmall currents
beneath the ground. ‘This is obvious from the fudden- dif=
appearance of moifture on fome parts of land, while it ftagnates
or remains till removed by the effe€is of evaporation on
others; as well as from the force of fprings being ftronger
in wet than dry weather, breaking out frequently after the
Jand has been impregnated with much morture in higher
fituations and, as the feafon becomes drier, ceafing to flow
except at the loweft outlets. ‘The force of {prings or pro=
portion of water which they fend forth depends likewife, in a
great meafure, on the extent of the high ground on which
the moifture is received and detained, furnifhing extenfive
refervoirs or colleGions of water, by which they become
more amply and regularly fupplied- On this account what are
termed box fprings, or fuch as rife in vallies and low grounds,
are confiderably ftronger and more regular in their difcharge,
than’ thofe that burft forth in the more elevated fituations
on the fides of eminences. The waters condenfed in the
manner deferibed above on the tops of elevated regions, are
fometimes found to defcend, for a very confiderable difance
among the porous fubltances between the different condu&t-
ing layers of clayey or other materials, before they break out
or fhew themfelves in the grounds below ; but it is more fre-
quently the cate to find them proceeding from the contiguous
elevations into the low grounds that immediately fur-
round, ;

The nature and regularity of the ftratum of materials on
which the water proceeding from the fummits of hills has
to filtrate and flide upon, muft confidcrably influence its
courfe, a3 well as the efletts which it may produce on fuch
lands as he below, ard tuto which it mutt pafs ; as where it
is of the clayey, itiff, marly, or impervious rocky kinds, and
not interrupted or broken by any other kind of materials
of a more porous quality, it may pafs on to a much greater
dittance, than where the ftratum has been frequently broken
and filled up with loofe porous materials, in which it will be
detained, and of coure rife up to the furface. It is for the
molt part on the clayey, fhff, clofe, marly, and unfraGtured
ilony ftrata, that water is conduéted from the hills and
more elevated grounds into the plains and valleys which
are below them. ‘Thefe forts of {trata extend to very dif-
ferent depths in different fituations and diftriéts, as has
been frequently noticed in the digging of pits and the fink-
ink of deep wells, and other fubterraneous cavities. The
clayey {trata are, however, in general, found to be more fv-
perficial than thofe of the compaét, tenacious, marly kinds
or even thofe of a firm uninterrupted rocky nature, and feldom
of fuch thicknefs. They have, neverthelefs, been obferved
to vary greatly in this refpe&t ; being met with in fome places
of aconfiderable thicknefs, while in others they fearcely ex-
ceed a dew inches. The intervening porous fubllances or

ftrata,

DRAINING.

‘
firata, where elay prevails, are found for the moft part to be
of either a gravelly or loofe nature. Stiff, marly ftrata, which
approach much to the quality of clay, though in fome in-
ftances they may prefent themfelves near the furface, in ge-
neral, lie concealed at confiderable depths under the true
clayey, and other layers of earthy or other materials: they
have been difcovered of various thicknefles, from eight or ten
feet to confiderably more than an hundred. The inter-
vening materials, where flrata of this nature are predomirant,
are moft commonly of the more fandy kinds, poficfling
various degrees of induration, fo as in fome cafes to become
perfe@ily hard and rocky, but with frequent breaks or fiffurcs
pefling through them. The loofe, friable, marly, ftrata,
are capable of abforbing water, and of admitting it to filtrate
and to pafs through them.

It may he concluded from this view of the nature and
arrangement of the various ftratified materials that con!ti-
tute the earth, and the manner in which water is formed on
the; more.elevated and hilly fituations, and brought down
from them, that the vallies, and more level grounds below,
muft conftantly be liable to be overcharged with moifture,
and, as has been already fhewn, to become in confequence
fpouty,. boggy, or of the nature of a morafs, accordiagly as
they may be circumftanced in refpe& to their fituation, the
nature of their foils, or the materials by which the water is
ob/truéted and detained in or upon them.

Where lands have a fuffizient degree of elevation to admit
of any over-proportion of moifture readily pafling away, and
where the foils of them are of an uniform fandy or gravelly and
uninterrupted texture, fo as to allow water to percolate and
pafsthrough themwith facility, theycan belittle inconvenienced
by water coming upon or into them, as it mult of neceffity
be quickly. conveyed away into the adjacent rivers or {mail
rivulets in their vicinity. But where grounds are in a great
meafure flat, and without fuch a degree of clevation as may
be fufficient to permit thofe over-proportions of moifture
that may have come upon them from the higher and more
elevated grounds, either in the way that has been fhewn
above, or from the overflowing of rivers and {maller ftreams
of water that may pafs through or near them, and from the
falling of heavy rains, to 1eadily pafs away and be carried off;
and where the foils of the land are compofed or countftituted
of fuch materials as are liable to admit and retain the ex-
ceffes of moilture that may in any of thefe ways come upon
them; they muft be expoted to much injury and incon-
venience from the retention and agnation of fuch quantitics
of water, and confequently require artificial means to drain
and render them capable of affording good crops, whether of
grafs or grains and, laitly, lands of valleys and other low
places, as well as in thofe cafes where the jevel tract on the
fides or borders of large rivers and of the fea, from the pe-
culiarity of their fituations, and their being compoled in a
great meafure of porous or {pungy materials, formed. by the
difiolution and decay of various coarfe vegetable and other
matters, which are produced on them, or which have been
gradually, for a vaft length of time, wafhed down and brought
into them from the hiils and rifing grounds by rains and
other caules, or depofited by means of floods fo as to form
different degrees of accumuiation according to the difference
of fituation or other circumflances, muft alfo frequently be
fabje& to gveat injury and inconvenience from their imbibing
and retaining the water that may be thus forced to flow up
or intoyor upon them, either through the different conduG-
ing itrata from the hills and mountainous elevations in the
neighbourhcod, or the porous materials of the foils; asin
thefe ways they, may, as we have already feen, be rendered
fwampy, and have bogs or morafles produced in them ia

RMov, KIT? ;

proportion to the predominancy of the materials by which
the water is abforbed and dammed up, and the peculiarity of
the fituation of the lands in refpe& to the means of conveying
itaway. On thefe grounds, befides 4 knowledge of thene-
ture and inclinations of the various ftrata that compofe the
interior parts of the earth, it is clear that, in order to pron
perly perform the bufinefs of draining, attention fiould not
ony be paid to the difcrimination of the differences in
regard to the fituation of the lands, or what is commonly
denominated drainage level, but alfo to the nature, dillribu-
tion and depths of the materials that conftitute the foils or
more fuperficial parts of them, as upon each of thefe fome
variety in re{pe&t to the effets arifing from water retained
in them may depend.

But though there may be cenfiderable diverfity in the
effets which water produces in or upon lands from thefe
different caufes, wetnefs of land, fo far as it refpeéts agricul-
ture, and is an objet of draining, may generally depend on
thetwo following caufes: fir on the water which is formed
and colleéed on or in the hills or higher grounds, in the man-
ner which has been espiained, filtrating and fliding down
among fome cf the different beds of porous materials that lie
immediately upon the impervious ftrata, forming fprings below
and flowing over the furface, or fagnating underneath it:
fecondly, on rain -or other water becoming, flagnang on
the furface, from the retentive nature of the foil or furface-
materials, and the particular nature of the fituation of the
ground,. The particular wetnefs which takes place in difm
ferent fituations, in the forms of bogs, {wamps, and morafles,
for the molt part proceeds from the firlt of thefe caufes, but
that fuperficial wetnefs which takes place in the fff, ten2-
cious, clayey foils with little inclination of furface, generally
originates from the latter. From the ideas which have been
fuggelted re{pefting the nature and formation of the dif-
ferent ftrata thatcompofe the earth, and of the manner in
which water flides filtrates, or pafles down, among or between
them, and forms f{prings, which, according to circumftancea,
render the grounds'below boggy, {wampy, or too wet for
the purpofes of agriculture, it is evident that the beft and
moft certain, as well as the moft expeditious ‘method of
draining, in fuch cafes, mutt be that of intercepting the de-
{cent of the water or fpring, and thereby totally removing
the caufe of wetnefs. ‘This may be done when the depth of
the fuperficial ftrata, and confequently of the fpring, is not
great, which may be previoufly known ‘by the ufe of a
draining augre, by making horizontal drains of confi ferable
length acrofs the declivities of the hills, about where the
low grounds of the valleys begin to form, and conneGing

‘thefe with others. made for the purpofe of conveying the

water thus ‘collected, into the breoks or runlets that may
be near; and as the ftrata between which the water paflcs
down to produce fuch {prings, have, for the mott part, nearly
a fimilarity of inclination with that of the furface of the
hill or rifing ground, the augre holes of the drains fhould
not, as is the general practice, be made direétly downwards,
but perpendicularly to the furface of the elevation, as in thie
way, the ftratum on which the water pafles down may be
more readily dug to, and the water drawn off ; or where the
{pring has naturaily found itfelf an outlet, ic may frequently
only be neceflary to render it larger, and of more depth,
which, by affording the water a more free and open paflaze,
may evacuate and bring it off more quickly, or fink it to a *
level fo'greatly below that of the furface of the {oi!, as te
prevent it from flowing into or over it.

But where the iprings, from the great thicknefs of the
upper ftratum, are confined at fuch agepth benesth the fur.
face as that they injare it, by rendering it couftantly moilt,

i Cec or

DRAINING,

or by imperceptibly odzing through it, but afford no marks
of any particular outlets ; and where a drain cannot be cut
fo deep as to come tothem, either on account of the great
difficulty of doing it, or the expence that mutt attend it,
or where the level of the outlet will not allow of its being
cut to that depth, it will be neceflary, after cutting ditches
in the way that has been juft explained, to perforate the foil
beneath by means of a boring intrument confiderably deeper,
. fo asto reach the f{pring, and thus give free vent to the
water colle&ed below ; a method of praétice which feems
lonz ago to have been ingenioufly fuggefted by Dr. An-
derfon, and fince more fully and particularly applied by
Mr. Eikington. Where this can be effe€tually accomplifhed,
fuch a number of perforations fhould be made, as will allow
the confined water to pafs readily into the drains, and be
conveyed by the connecting ditches to the adjoining ftreams
of the neizhbourhood: in thefe cafes the water coming
freely into the drains, feveral fect below the moift furface
of theland, and being then conducted away, will not be
forced up through the fuperincumbent materials of the foil,
to the furface which is fo much higher.

Asin cafes of this kind, where after boring in this man-
ner, the water breaks forth with confiderable violence, it
may fometimes be apt to bring up with it fuch quantities of
fand or other fubftances, as may block up the holes and pre-
vent the free exit of the water, it may be neceflarv to apply
the augre frequently in order to remove it. A ftriking in-
ftance of this kind 1s related in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, where on the fisking of a well four feet wide, and
236 teetdeep, and then boring fome feet deeper with a five
inch borer, fo much fand was forced up by the impetuofity
of the water that broke forth as to fil the well, and which
on being cleared away by buckets in its liquid ftate, fuffered
the water to flow overthefurface in the quantity of forty-
fix gallons in a minute.

There may be ftil! other fituations of lands, as where the
uppermoft ftratum is fo thick as not to be eafily penetrated,
or where the fprings formed by the water paffing from the
higher grounds. may be confined beneath the third or fourth
ftratum of the materials that form the declivities of hills or
slevated grounds, on account of fo many of them becoming
deficient on their tops, or more elevated parts, and by this
means lie too deep to be penetrated to, by the cutting of a
ditch, or even by boring: and fil from the water being ob-
flracted by the different materials forming the plains below,
it may be forced up to the furface, and produce different
kinds of injurious wetnefs.

{n fuch -cafes, the common mode of cutting a great
number of drains to the depth of five or fix or more feet
acrofs the wet moraffy grounds, and afterwards covering
them in fuch a manner, as that the water may fuffer no in-
terruption to pafling away, may be praCtifed with advan-
tage, as much of the prejudicial excefs of moifture may by
this means be celleéted and carried away, though not fo
completely as by falls.

As wateris fometimes found to be conveyed from the hills
and high grounds at no great depth beneath the furface of
the land upon thin layers of clay which have underneath
them fand ftone, or other porous or fiffured ftrata to a con-
fiderabledepth, by perforating thefe thinlayers of clay in dif-
ferent places, the water which flows along them may frequently
be let down into the open porous materials that lie below
them, and the furface land be thus compleatly drained. In
thefe fituations of land where moraffes and other kinds of
wetnefles are formed in fuch low places and hollows as are
gontiderably below the beds of the neighbouring rivers, they
may probably in many initances be effeGtually drained by ar-

refling the water as it pafles down into them from the higher
grounds, and after collecting it into them, conveying it away
by pipes or other contrivances at fuch high levels above the
wet lands as may be neceflary: or where the water that pro-
duces the mifchief can by means of drains cut in the w>*
ground itfelf, be fo collefted as to be capable of being raifed
by means of machinery, it may in that way be removed from
the land. The drainage of thofe extenfive traéts of land that
in many diftrits lic fo greatly below the level of the fea can
only be effeGted by the public, and by means of locks erected
for the purpofe of preventing the entrance of the tides, and
by wind-mills and other expenfive kind of machinery, cons
ftruGed for the purpofe of raifing the ftagnant water.

Itis well obferved by a philofophical author, that it might
bea noble work, worthy of the attention of a government that
wifhes to increafe the quantity of nutriment, and confequent
population and happinefs of the country, to employ proper
engineers, with labourers in fuch number, as to environ with
ditches, every morafly. diftri@ of whatever extent, as lies
below the level of the tides, as the fens of Lincolnfhire and
Cambridgefhire ; fuch ditches, he further remarks, fhould be
cut at the feet of the adjacent rifing grounds, or of eminences
furrounded with fens, like iflands 10 a lake, fo as to intercept
the well {prings and land floods, and convey the water, thus
colleéted- above the !evel of the morafs, into the ocean.

The fuperficial wetnefs of lands which arifes from the
ftiff retentive nature of the materials that conftitute the foils,
and the particular circumftances of their fituation, is to be
removed in moft cafes by means of hollow fuperficial drains
judicioufly formed, either by the fpade or plough, and filled
up with fuitable materials where the lands are under the grafs
fyftem, and by thefe means, and the proper conftrution of
ridges and furrows, where they are in a ttate of arable culti-
vation. Having thus explained the manner in which foils are
rendcred too wet for the purpofes of agriculture, and fhewn
the principles on which the over proportions of moifture may,
under different circumftances, be the moft eficctually removed,
we fhall proceed to the practical methods which are to be
made ule of in accomplifhing the bufinefsin each cafe.

Methods of draining boggy land.

In the drainage of wet or bogzy grounds arifing fiom
f{prings of water beneath them, a great variety of circumitan-
ces are neceflary tobe kept in view. Lands of this de{crip~
tion, or {uch as are of a marfhy and boggy nature, from the
detention of water beneath the fpongy furface-materials of
which they are compofed, and its being abforbed and
forced up into them, are conftantly kept in fuch {tates of
wetnefs as are highly improper for the purpofe of producing
advantageous crops of any kind; they are, therefore, on this
account, as well as thofe of their occupying very extenfive
traGts in many diftri€ts, and being, when properly reclaimed,’
of confiderable value, objets of great interelt and importe
ance to the attentive agricultor, Wet grounds, of thefe
kinds, from the nature of their fituations, and the modes of
draining them, are arranged by a late practical writer under
three diftinét heads; firft, tuch as may be readily known:
by the fprinys rifing out of the adjacent more elevated
grounds. in an exact or regular line along the higher fide-
of the wet furface: fecond, thofe in which the numerous
fprings that fhew themfelves are not kept to any exa& or
regular line of direGtion, along the higher or more elevated
part of the jand, but break forth promifcuonfly throughovt
the whole furface, and particularly towards the inferior parts,
conftituting fhakmg quags in every direction, that have an:
elaftic feel under the feet, on which the lighteft animals can-
fcarcely tread without danger, and which, for the molt ae

we.

DRA

fhew themfelves by the luxuriance and verdure of the grafs
about them: third, that fort of wet land, from the oozing
of fprings, which is neither of fuch great extent, nor in the
nature of the foil fo peaty; as the other two, and to which
the term bog cannot be ftri&tiy applied; but which, in refpe&
to the modes of d?aining, is the fame. In order to dire&
the proper mode of cutting the drains, or trenches, in drain-
ing lands of this fort, it will be neceflary for the operator to
make himfelf perfeGly acquainted with the nature and dif-
pofition of the ftrata compofing the higher grounds, and the
connection which they have with that which is to be rendered
dry : this may, in general, be accompl:fhed by means of level-
ling, and carefully attending to what has been already ob-
ferved refpe€ting the formation of hills and clevated grounds,
and by infpe€ting the beds of rivers, the edges of banks
that have been wrought through, and fuch pits and quarries
as may have been dug near to the land. Rufhes, alders,
bufhes, and other coarfe aquatic plants, may aifo, in fome
jnftances, ferve as guides in this bufinefs; but they fhould not
be too implicitly depended on, as they may be caufed by the
ftagnation of rain-water upon the furface, without any {pring
being prefent: where the impervious ftratum that lies im-
mediately beneath the porous, has a flanting direGtion through
a hill cr rifing back, the furface of the land below that level
will in general be fpungy, wet, and covered with rufhes on
every fide, while the higher fides of it will be found to de-
viate very flichtly from a level in any part round it; in this
cafe, which is not unfrequent, a ditch, or drain, properly
cut on one fide of the hill or rfing ground, may remove the
owetrefs from both, as fhewn in the plan: but where the im-
pervious %ratum drops or declines more on one fide of the
Aill or elevation than the other, the water will be dire&ted
to the more depreffed fide of that ftratum; the effect of
which will be, that one fide of fuch rifing ground wiil be
wet and fpunzy, while the other is quite free from wetnefs.

In the praética! management of draining land it will be ne-
ceflary, after this, to determine which of the places, et which
water iffues forth on the furface, if there be more than one,
is the real or principal fpring; end that from which the
other outlets are fed, as upon this muft depend the dire€tion
of the ditch or drain, fiace by removing that the others muft,
of courfe, be rendered cry. When on the declivity, or
flantine furface of the elevated grounds, from which the
fprings break forth, they are obferved to burft out at dif-
ferent levels, according to the difference of the wetnefs of
the feafon; and where thefe that are the loweft down con-
tinue to run, while the hiyher ones are dry, it is in general
a certain indication that the whole are conneéted, and pro-
ceed from the fame fource, and confequently, that the line
of the drain fhould be made along the level of the lower-
moft one, which, if properly executed, muft keep all the
others dry But if, as has been the too frequent praétice,
the drain was made along the line of the higheft of the out-
lets, or pl ces where the water breaks forth, without being
fufficiently deep to reach the level of thofe below, the over-
flowing of the {pring would rarely be carried away, and
the wetnefs proceeding from that caufe be removed, while
the main {pring fill continuing to run, would render the
land below the level of the bottom of the drain {till preju-
dicially wet, from its difcharging itfelf lower down over
the furface of the ground. Thus, fays the author men-
tioned above, it was the cuitom, until Mr. Elkington fhewed
the abfurdity of the practice for drainers to begin to cut
their trenches wherever the higheft {prings thewed themfelves
Detween tie wet and the dry ground, which not being of a
depth fufficient to arreft and take away the whole of the
avater, others of a fimilar kind were under the neceflity of

i DRA

being formed at different diftances, to the very bottom of the
declivity, which being afterwards in a great meafure filled
with loofe ftoneg, merely conveyed away portions of furface
water, without touching the ipring, the great or principal
caufe of the wetnefs.

DRAKE, Sir Francis, in Biography, a very eminent na-
vigator, and naval commander, was born of ob{fcure parents,
near Taviftock, in Devonthire, about the year 1545. He
was the eldeft of twelv= fens, aud was devoted to the fea-
fervice at an early period. He was taken under the care and
proteGtion of fir John Hawkins, a dittant relation, and role
to the rank of captain when he had attained the age of twenty-
two years. At the age of eizhteen he was purfer of a thiv
trading to Bifcay : at twenty he made a voyage to Guinea,
and in two years afterwards he was promoted to the command
of a fhip called the Judith. In this capacity he greatly dif-
tinguifhed himfelf againft the Spaniards, in the gulf of
Mexico, and participated largely in all the glorious a@tions
of his commander, fir John Hawkins. With him he re-
turned to England high ia reputation, but without having
improved his fortune in the fmallett degree. He had, how-
ever, acquired an inveterate enmity for the Spaniards, whick
he harboured to the lateft hour of life. He accordingly
projected an expedition againit that people in the Weft
Indies, which did not afford him the advantages which he
expected. This was in 1570. In the year 1572 he fet out
again with two ‘hips of 75 and 25 tons burdeu, manned with
lefs than four fcore perions; yet with this pigmy force he
ventured to florm the town of Nombre de Dios, on the
ifthmus of Daiien, in which he received a wound. He
afterwards attacked and took Vera Cruz, on the fame
ifthmus, which proved to him a fource of great wealth,
Among other property, he fell in with, and took 50 mules,
laden with filver, of which his men carried away all that
they were able, and buried the reft. In the profecution of
thefe enterprizes, he was aflilted by-the Indian nations, which,
like himfelf, bore great enmity to the Spaniards. Satisfied,
at length, with what he had acquired, he embarked with his
treafures for England, and arrived fafe at Plymouth in thefum-
merof 1573. It fhould, however, bementioned, that previoufly
to his leaving the American coaft, he remunerated his Indian
friends, and to their prince, Pedro, he prefented a handfome
cutlafs, which was very highly efteemed. Pedro, in return,
gave him four large wedges of gold, which Drake, with
true generofity, threw into the common ftock, with this em-
phatic obfervation; ‘* Thofe who bear the charge of fuck
uncertain undertakings on my credity, ought to fhare the
utmott advantages they produce.?? On his return, he fettled
in the mo{t honourable manner with the ewners of the fhips,
and then employed the money remaining to himfelf in fitting
out three frigates for the fervice of government in Ireland.
In thia bufinefs Drake ferved as a volunteer, and by his zea}
and prudence, as well as by generolity, he recommended him-
felf at court, to which he was introduced by fir Chriftopher
Hatton. He had long defired to make a voyage to the
South fea, and now an opportunity offered, by which he
truited he fhould be able to attain the obje& of his ambi-
tion. He implored the queen to grant him her permiffion
for the purpofe: this fhe readily conceded to a man of {o
high a reputation, and Drake quickly found means to
aflemble a fmall fleet of five veflels, of from 100 to ce
tons burden, manned with 164 men. With this force,
and with a mind above all common objitacles, he failed
from Falmouth Dec, 13, 1577. On the 27th, his
{quadron anchored off Mogadore, an ifland near the coat
of Barbary: and a friendly intercourfe was commenced
with the Moors, whofe good will Drake was anxious te

Cca2 canciliate,

D RAKE.

conciliate, as well for his own fake, 23 for the good of his
country. After a fhort flay_here, he proceeded to Cape
Bienco, feizing all the Spanifh veflels that fell in his way,
and in the month of January he arrived at, and anchored off,
the Cape de Verd iflands.

Being difappointed of a fupply of provifions, by the in-
terdiGiion of the Portuguefe, Drake proceeded on his voyage,
and pafled St. Jago on the gift. From this ifland three
cannon were difcharged at his fleet, but none of the fhot
proved fatal. In revenge Drake {eized upon a Portusuefe
veffel laden with from which he took the pilot Nuno

WINES 5

de Sylva, and difmificd the cthers. Nuno, from his know-
ledge he American coaft, proved of the moft effential fer-
g 2P

vice in the Courfe of the voyage. Our commander bad been
furnifhed with full powers by the queen, which powers ex-
tended even to the lives of thofe under his controul; and it
has been much doubted whether in one tnflance, which we
fhall mention, he did not exercife the authority delegated to
him with a feverity: unworthy of a great mind. Mr. f.
Doughty, the fecond in command, on beard his own fhip,
was accufed of difrefpe€t and even mutiny ; he was tried
and convicted of offences, which by the naval law zre capi-
tally puniflicd. Drake, however, gave him the choice of
the manner in which he would fufcr for the crimes faid to
have been committed by hirh. The terms offered were either
immediate execution ; orto be }eft on the defolate continent
with the profpe& of a lingering death throuzh want of the
common neceflaries of life ; or to be carried back prifoner to
England there to abide a due courfe of law. Doughty
made choice of the firft, and he was accordingly beheaded,
after having received the facrament in company with the
commander. Here, as in a thoufand other inftances, which
hiffory records, the religion of Jefus, which ought to con-
ciliate men, and Jead them to the fublimeit aéts of forgive.
nefs, was called to fanGion a deed which cannot but be dif-
creditable to him from whofe authority the fentence of death
iffued ; and whofe apparent regard to fuftice in the cafe of
Doughty is believed to have been diated by revenge for a
private afront.. Drake was not, however, called to account
for the a on his return, and may therefore be regarded as
having aGed juflly, though certainly without any attention
to mercy.

Drake, after the fatal deed had been executed, proceeded
to, and paffed the ftraits of Magellan ; and with his own
fhip folely proceeded along the coafts of Chili and Peru,
capturing all the Spaniih veffels that he could meet with.
He then coatted California and North America as far as the
48th degree, in the hope of finding a paflage to the Atlantic,
but being difappointed, he landed and took poffeffion, ‘in
the name of his fovereign, of the country which he named
New Albion. Having carcened his fhip, he boldly fet fail
acrofs the Pacific ocean, and in lefs than fix weeks reached
the Molucca iflands, and touched at Ternate: Thence, by
Java and the Cape of Good Hope, he proceeded homewards,
and arrived at Plymouth on Nov. 3, 1580, having com-
pieted the circumnavigation of the globe in two years ten
months and twenty days. He was the firft commander in
chief who had performed this exploit, Magellan having died
before his return. Drake came back very rich, and the
expedition became a fubje€t of much interefting difcuffion,
The Spanifh ambaffador made complaints of him as a pirate,
and reclaimed the plunder which he had taken: this opinion
was likewife maintained by many of his own countrymen
who thought the prizee were of
nation than the commerce which was likely to be interrupted
by the procedure. Others, however, were too much elated
with the reputation for valour and fill which redounded to

uch lefs confequence to the

Englifhmen from the enterprife. The court {carcely knew
which fide to efpoute; at length, in the {pring of 1581,
the queen gave a fandion to Dreke’s condu& by dining on
board of his fhip lying at Deptford, and conferred upon him
the honour of knighthood, ‘telling him; at the fame time,
that his a€tions did him more honour than his title. The
populace joined in refounding their favourite’s praife, and
his fhip -was extolled for having matched in its courfe the
chariot of the fun. Sir Francis now took for his device the
terraqueous globe, and to his motto, Divino Auxilio,’?
he added, “ Tu primus circumdedifti me.” The ship in
which he had made the expedition was preferved many years
at Deptford as a fingular curicfity, and when almoft rotten
with age, achair was made out of the materials and prefent-

edito the univerfity ef Oxford. ot
‘lizabeth having come to an open breach with Spain,
Drake was fent, in r5S5, with a fleet of twenty fail, having
2 body of land forces on board, to attack the Spanith fettle-
ments in the Welt Indies. Several iflands yielded to his
prowefs. Two years after he was fent to Lifbon, ‘but re-
ceiving information that the Spaniards were affembling a
fleet at Cadiz, for the purpofe of invading England, he
failed into the enemy’s port, and burned ard deftroyed ten
thoufand tons of fhipping, exclufive of all their warlike flores.
After this he engaged with fome London merchants, and
gaining intelligence of a rich carrack from the Eaft Indies
expected at Tercera, he inftently failed thither, and cap-
tured it. By this prudent a¢t he gave as much fatisfaGuon
to his employers by the profits which accrued to them, as
he had done to the itate by his various fucceffes. In 1588,
he was advanced to be vice-admiral under lord Effingham
Howard, and diflisguifhed himlelf in the deitruGion of the
Spanifh armada. In the confli€ he captured a large galleon
commanded by Don Pedro de Valdez, who furrendered withe
cut the thew of refiftance to the terror of his name. dis
fquadron had the chief glory in this a€tion. In the next
year a fleet was fent under Drake, with a body of land forces,
commanded by fir John Norris, for the purpofe of reftoring
Don Antonio to the throne of Portugal. Herea difagree-
ment between the commanders of the different fervices prov-
ed fatal to the enterpzife. Drake juftified himfelf before the
council, and his plea was accepted, but he unqueftionably
loft fome credit in the affair. s\fter this, in conjunétion.
with Hawkins, he propofed another expedition againit the
Spaniards in the Weft Indies: the projet was refolved on,
and they embarked with twenty-feven veffels and nearly 3000
men. During the delay, occafioned by fome untoward cir-
cumftances, intelligence was received that the plate fleet had
arrived in Spain, except one galleon which had put into
Porto Rico, and this they fuffered to flip-out of their hands.
Vexation threw Hawkins into a fever which terminated his
life in November. On the day after his deceafe Drake
made a defperate attack upon the port and fhipping of Porto
Rico, which, though very deftruGive to the Spaniards, prove
ed ultimately unfuccefsful. From this period Drake met
with fcarccly any thing but difappointment, which preyed
fo much on his mind, as to render him incapabie of almoft
every exertion, and at length to put an end to his mortal
exiftence. He died near the town of Nombre de Dios,
January 1596, in the fifty-firt year of his age. According
to Fuller, “ He lived by the fea, died on it, and was bu-
ried in it.”?, And im reference to the misfortunes by which
the laft periods of his life were marked, he adds, ** We fee
how great fpirits have mounted to the highe# pitch of per-
formance, afterwards ftrain and break their credit in itriving
to go beyond it.” ‘* He was,” according to the eftimate
of a more modern biographer, “ a man upon the whole of
< eltimable

TOR A.

eftimable private character: though fomewhat rough and
boalftful, yet careful of thofe under his command, courteous
and humane towards thole whom the fortune of war threw
into his power, jult and generous in his dealings, fober and
religious. He poffefled a natural eloquence, and though
without the advantages of education, acquitted himfelf with
credit on public occafions. THe was eminently fkilled in all
the branches of his profeffion, and with fo much courage and
ability did he conduc his enterprizes, that fearcely any name
among naval adventurers ftood fo high, not only in his own
country but throughout Europe, as that of fir Francis
Drake.” Biog. Brit.

Drake, James, M.D. fellow of the College of Phyfi-
cians, and of the Royai Society, publihed, in 1707, what
he calls “ A New fyftem of Anatomy,”’ fn two volumes in
Svo. It is principally taken from Cowper, but as the plates,
which are neatly engraved, are on areduced plan, it was
more within the reach of ftudents,and would have been ufeful,
if the work had been lefs theoretical. He lived, however,
to fee it pafs through three editions, The laft, which was
publifhed in 1737, under the title of Authropologia nova,”
is in three volumés 8vo. Inimpofthumes in the maxillary
finus, he advifes to draw one of the dentes molares, to give
vent to the matter. The defcription of the internal noftrils,
andof the cavities entering them, are new, as are alfo the
plates of the vifceraofthe abdomen, Hialler Bib. Anat.

Drake, in Geography, abarbour in California, fo called
after fir Francis-Drake, who difcovered and took pofleffion
of California for queen Elizabeth, N. lat. 28° 15’. W.
long. 111° 39’. , ;

Draxe’s ifland, or 34. Nicholas, an ifland in Plymouth
found. ‘N. lat. 50° 21! 3c”. W. long. 4° 20/.

DRAKENA Rapix, in Botany, Cluf. Exot. 83, is the
root of Dorffenia Contrayerva, which fee.—Dorflenia Dra-
kena of Miiler, Wild. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 683, is however a dif-
ferent f{pecies, having oval receptacles, and entire-edged
leaves. Miller informs us that the roots of both thefe and
of D. Houfloni, are brought over and ufed indifferently in
medicine or dyeing.

DRAKENBORCH, Arnotp, in Biography, profeffor
of rhetoric and hiftory in the univerfity of Utrecht, was born
in that city onthe firltof January 1084. He ftudied under
Grevius and other celebrated critics, after which he went
to Leyden, andin 1706 took his degree of doGtor of laws
at Utrecht. In 1716, hefueceeded Burmann, one of his
own tutors, as profeffor in that univerfity, and in the difcharge
of the duties of his office he difplayed great learning, anda
profound knowledge of ancient literature. He publithed
many original works, and undertook.the duties of an editor
in others. Among thefe was an edition of ‘“ C. Silii Italici
Punicorum,” libri xvii. gto. which he laboured to render as
perfeé as poffible. Belides the notes which he added as
illuftrative ofthe text, he caufed engravings to be made of
various fubjeéts of antiquity, which cannot fail to chrow
light upon things that were regarded as obfcure. He alfo
gave an edition of Livy in7 vols. 4to. together witha life
of the hiitorian. In the biography, he takes occafion to
enumerate all the preceding editors and commentators of
this ancient claflic. This was a work of great labour, and
Drakenborch was enabled to enrich his edition by reference
to more than 30 MSS. which had never before been em-
ployed forthe purpofe. Every thing that couldferve, ina
critical, grammatical, or hiftorical point of view, for im-
proving and explaining his author, he colleéted with great
act Drakenborch died at Utrecht in 1748. Gen.

iog.

DRAKENDORF, in Geography, avillage of the duchy

-

DRA

of Saxe-Gotha in Germany, not far from Jena, remarkable
for having been the refidence of the celebrated German poet
baron Sonnenberg, who compofed here his epic poem, en-
titled “* Donatoa.”?

DRAKENSTEIN, a difri@ of fouthern Africa, near
the Cape of Good Hope, which forms with Stellenbofch
one diftié under the jurifdi@tion of one landroft, although
they have diftin& hemraaden or councils. After deduéting
the {mall difri& of the cape, Stellenbofch and Drakenftein
include the whole extent of country from cape L?Aguillas,
the fouthermoft point of Africa, to the river Kouflie, the
northern boundary of the colony; aline-of 380 miles in
length; and the mean breadth from eaft to weft is about 150
miles ; comprehending an area, after [ubtracting that of the
cape diftri&, equal to 55 thoufand fquare miles. Twelve
hundred families are in poff-ffion of this extenfive gifirit, fo
that each family, on an average, has 46 [quare miies of land.
Thegreater part, however, of this extenfive furface, is of
little value, as it confifts of naked mountains, fancy hills,
and Karroo plats. But a portion of the remainder compofes
the molt valuable poffeflions of the whole colony ; whether
they be confidered as to the fertility of the foil, or to the
temperature of the climate, or to their proximity to the
cape, which, at prefent, is the only market in the colony,
where the farmer has an opportunity for the difpofal of his
produce. Drakenftein and its environs confift of a fertile
tra& of country, fituated at the foot of the great chain of
mountains, at the diftance of between 30 and ao miles from
the cape. The whole extenfive valley is weli watered by
the Berg river and its numerous branches: the foil is richer
than in moft parts of the colony, and the fheltered and
warm fituation is particularly favourable to the growth of
the vine and different kinds of fruit. A fab-divifon, called
Little Drakentftein, occupies the middle of the valley, and
contains many fubftantial farms, molt of which are freehold
property ; fo that the two Drakenfkeins, and the next fub-
divifion, called Franfche’ Hoeck, or the French corner,
fupply two-thirds of the wine that is brought to the cape
market. ‘The fubdivifion laft mentioned is fituated in the
S. E. angle of the valley among the mountains, and tock
its name from the French refugees who fettled there when
they fled to the country after the revocation of the edi& of
Nantz. Tothem the colony has been indebted for the in-
troduction of the vine. The produce of the country con-
filts chiefly of wine and fruits. The village of Paarl is fitu-
ated at the foot of a hill that fhuts inthe valley of Dra-
kenftein on the welt fide. It. confilts of about 30 habita-
tions, with intermediate orchards, gardens, and vineyards,
forming a ftreet from halfa mile to a mile in length, About
the middle of the flreet is the church, a neat o&agonal
building, covered with thatch, and near it the parfonage-
houfe, with garden, vineyard, fruit-groves, and a larce tra&
of very fine land, Dell Jofephat and Wasgen-Maaker’s
valley are two {mall dales enclofed between the hilly projee-
tions that branch out towards the north or upper end of the
valley of Drakenttcin ; in thefedalesthe belt oranges, peaches,
and other fruits are produced; and the wine is of the
beft quality. Groeneberg, another fubdivifion, is the largeft
of the projeGting hills that run acrafs the northera extremity
of the valley, and the foil is productive in fruit, wine, and
corn. The whole valley, comprehending the above detailed
fubdivifions, is comparatively fo well inhabited, that few
animals, in a ftate of nature, are now to be found upon it. OF
hares, however, there is no {earcity; and two {pecies of
buftards, the red-winged and the common partridge, and
quails are in great plenty. The antelope and other animals
are found on the hills tewards the northern extremity nay he

valley.

DRA

valley, “Phe inhabitanta are annoyed with wolves, hyanas,
and jackals, which defcend in the night from the neighbour-
ing mountains. Barrow’s Travelsin Southern Africa, vol, ii,

DRAM. See Dracum.

Drams. See Corpiats.

Dream-road, in Inland Navigation, the fame with rail-

“way or/ram-road. Sce Cana.
DRAMA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
«in the province of Romania; 16 miles N. E. of Emboli.
Drama, in Poetry, a piccey or poem, compofed for the
+ flage.

The word is Greek, 3:2, which literally fignifies adion ;
becaufe in dramas, or dramatic poems, they att, or repre-
fent ations, as if they really paffed.

A drama, oras we popularly call it, a play, is a compo-
fition either in profe or verfe, confifting, not in the fimple

- recitation, but in the actual reprefentation of an a€tion.

Our dramas are, tragedies, comedies, opcras, and farces.

Some critics take the book of Canticles for a drama, or
dramatic poem; others maintain the fame of the book of
job. See each of thofe articles. Some fcrupulous authors
would reftrain drama to ferious pieces, as tragedies; but
with refpeét to the etymology, a comedy is as much a drama,
as a tragedy.

The primary parts of the drama, as divided by the an-
cients, are the protafis, epitafis, cataftafis, and cataftrophe.
The fecondary parts are, the ats and fcenes. The accef-
fary parts are, the argument, or fummary, the prologue,
chorus, mimus, fatura, and atellana. Lialftly the epilogue,
which pointed out the ufe of the piece, or conveyed fome
other notice to the audience in the poet’s name.

DRAMATIC, in Poetry, is an epithet given to pieces
written for the ftage.

This kind of poetry has, among all civilized nations;
been confidered as a rational and ufeful entertainment ; and
as itis employed upon the light and the gay, or upon the
grave and affecting incidents of human life, it divides itfelf

-inte the two forms‘of comedy or tragedy, which fee refpect-
ively. See alfo Poetry.

For the laws of dramatic poetry, fee Acrion, Cua-
RACTER, Discovery, Fasre, Unity, &c.

Dramatic Machinery. In the earlier ages, although
dramatic entertainments were very popular, efpecially among
the Grecians and Romans, more attention feems to have been
paid to the genius and labour of the poet, than to that of

-the mechanift or decorator. The names of Ai{chylus, Arif-
tophanes, Terence, Plautus, and many others, have reached
us, while thofe of the mechanics employed (if there were

-fuch) have-funk into oblivion. Whether the mechanical
and decorative tafte of the ancients was equal to the genius
of their poets, it is wholly foreign from the defign of this
article to inquire. In the prefent ftate of dramatic repre-
fentation we find, by experience, that Cinderella, and Mother
Goofe. generally fafcinate the fpeGators more than even the
moft eminent works of Shakfpeare. It this be a proof
dec~y or perverfion of literary tafte, it isalfo at leaft a very
ftrong one of the progrefsof the mechanical arts, and of the
effect which they produce upon the public mind even in
matters of amufement. Of all the branches of architeéture,
few (if any) have been efteemed more difficult or uncertain,
than the conftru€tion of the interior part of atheatre. - ‘The
architec, befides the general knowledge incidental to his
own immediate profeffion, would require at leaft a confider-
able acq»amntance with the princ'p!es of optics and acouttics
to eniure his fuccefs ; and unfortunately this taf has been
too frequently committed to perfons who, although perhaps
good architeéts and mechanics, were totally ignorant of both

DRA

thefe fciences, The latter {cierice is ftill fo imperfeétly
underitood, that great difficulty muft remain in this part of
the bufinefs; the optical part is not fo arduous, and a de-
gree of theoretical knowledge, combined with attention to ita
practical application, will enable the archite&t who conftruéts
the interior of a theatre to avoid defeéts, too common in
moft of thofe which have been hitherto executed.

The interior of a theatre is generally, and apparently with
jultice, divided into twodepartments. That which is before
the curtain, and which contains the audiénce or {pcétators,
and that which is behind, and which ought to be fo cons
ftructed as to place the whole performance in the moft fa-
vourable point of view, and to afford to the performers and
arifts employed the greatelt facilities of executing their
re{peétive profeffional duties with correéinels and effet. To
the latter of thefe departments this article is confined, 74

Before entering into any defcription of the mo vinig parts
of the machinery, it may be proper to notice thofe parts of
the archite€turai work, which mult be adapted to reccive and
{upport them. Of thefe the firft, and perhaps moft im.
portant, is the

Con/firuction of the Stage.

The flage of a theatre is of an oblong or re@angular
form, and is conftru@ted as an inclined plane, the back part
being more elevated than the front. It is ufual to allow one
inch of perpendicular afcent for every 36 inches of lengih
from the front to the back of the ftage. Thus the acute
angle formed between the flooring or inclined plane, and a
line drawn from the front tothe back part, and parallel to
the horizon, will be 1° 24! 29!. This inclination is confi-
dered to be of advantage to the vifion lines, fuppofed to come
from the cye of a fpectator in the front of the houfe, to any
given point in the ftage. It particularly places it in the
power of the architeét, to keep the back part of the pit
lower, than could be done without injuring the vifion, were
the flooring of the ftage horizontal. This muft be a confi-
derable obje&, efpecially in large theatres, where there are
many tiers or rows of boxes, and where the galleries muft of
neceflity be conftructed at a great altitude, above the level
of the front of the ftage. Asit is alfo found, that cloth
of every defcription (efpecially woollen) has a confiderable
effe& in diminifhing the tranfmiffion of found, it is confi-
dered proper to keep the whole audience in the pit as low
as poflible without impeding the vilion, that their cloaths
may produce les of this efleét upon the founds which iffue
from the ftape and the orcheftra. A greater declivity might
perhaps be of ufein this refpe€t, but here the archite& mutt
limit himielf to fo much as will not prove injurious to the
action of the performers upon the ftage, efpecially the
dancers,

The ftage of atheatre, like other wooden floors, confifs
of plank laid upon crofs joifts, and where the dimenfions of
the ftage are large, thefe joifts muft be fupported by crofs

- beams and upright poits to prevent the flooring from {pring-

ing or yiclding toe much, as in the common operations of
practical carpentry applied to flooring, and entirely depend-
ing on the fame geometrical laws. In conltructing the
joitts and framing, the architeé&t muit in the firft place cor-
fider the number of apertures which ought to be made for
the purpofe of conduéting the batinefs of the ftage with
propriety ; the dimenfions and difpofition of thefe aper-
tures ; and the eafieft and moft economical way of forming
others to {uit that fucceilion of novelty which feems to be
the prevalent tafteeof the prefent day. In adapting his
joikting and frame-work to anfwer thele purpofes; will con«
filt his chief difficulty. The conitant changes and improve-

6 ments

DRAMATIC,

ments which take place, render it impoffible to afcertain any
precife mode of doing this, but the general way wiil be
confidered under the feGtion of this article; dpertures of
the flage, comprifiing the foot-lights, traps, flaps, and fliders
—to thefe we now proceed.

Apertures of the Stage.

The firft aperture in the ftage immediately behind the or-
cheftra, and in front of the profcenium and curtain, is that
for raifing and lowering the foot lights, both for the pur-
pofes of trimming the lamps, and of darkening the ftage
when required. It is marked by the letters A, A, fg. 1,
Plate 1X. Mifcellany, which isa horizontal plan of a ftage 60
feet in length, and 25 feet in breadth at thecurtain line. In
this plan, the lines which reprefent the fide wails of the theatre
are too much contraéted, for it 13 neceffary to give at leaft
eight or ten feet of additional room for the performers and
fcene-fhifters, behind each wing. TheJetters B, B, denote
the line which forms the front of the ftage behind the or-
cheftra.

The next apertures are the fide traps, of which any con-
veni-nt number may be conftruéted. Four of thefe are ex-
hibited in the plan, and are diitinguifhed by the letters
E, E,.E, E. In the middle are two larger traps. The
firft, at F, is of an oblong form from fix to feven feet in
length, and from three to four feet in breadth. It is moft
frequently ufed for the grave fceme in Shak{peare’s tragedy
of Hamlet.

The trap marked by the letter G is generally fquare, and
is chiefly ufed for the finking of the cauldron in the tragedy
of Macbeth. Behind thefe, in large theatres, where many
changes of the fcenery are frequently required, there are a
number of longitudinal apertures acrofs the ftage, which
are covered by plarks moveable upon hinges, fo that by
throwing them ba’k, the ftage may be opened in a mom: nt.
The ufe of thefe is to allow the flat fcenes to fink through
the ftage, when required. ‘Three of thefe will be found in
the plas. at the letters H,H,H, and are known by the
name of flaps.

In the late Theatre Royal of Covent Garden, much of the
fcenery, not in immediate ule, was kept in the cellar under
the ftage. For the purpole of raifing ard lowering thefe
{cence wich facility, other apertures were made, and clofed
with {qaare or rectangular pieces of wood, which could be
placed or difplaced m a few minutes: thefe were called
ilidere, and a plan of one is given at the letter I.

Framing of the Traps.

It was ufual to produce the afcent and defcent of the foot
lights by the agency of a perfon placed in the cellar_u der
the ftage. This might have anfwered the pu-pofe of lower-
ing the lamps for trimming fufficiently well, but the partial
darkening of the ftage required a more mivute attention.
For this reafon, it was found proper to convey the me-
chanical power to the place where the prompter ftands, that
the lamps might be raifed or funk, either by himfeif, or
by a perfon immediately under his infpeétion. A framing
of this kind, confru€ted, wth a flight variation, from a plan
of Mr. George Sloper, of Covent Gorden, and fimilar to
what was ufed there, isrepr{cnted in fig. 2.

This figure is a tran{verfe elevated fection of the ftage, as
it would be viewed by a {peétator feated about the middle of
the pit. The two fide walls of the theatre, under the
flaze, are reprefented by the letters L,L; the aperture,
where the horizontal frame which fupports che lamps rites,
is marked A A, asin fig.1. Vhe honzontal frame M M
fides upon two upright pofts, under the fides of the aperture

AA, and from both ends cords, pafling over two pullies
O, O, are fixed toa Jarge wheel N, placed m a ftout
framing, which is omitted to prevent contufion in the figure,
The weight of the frame M M, and the lamps, is counters
poifed by a weight, fufpended by a cord pafling over the
pulley R. Upon the fame axis with the large wheel N, is a
{mall wheel, and what is called by mechanics an endlefs line,
pafling round this, is guided over the direGing pullies P, P, P,
to the {mall barrel or cylinder Q, which being turned by
the prompter, or an affiftant, the lights are elevated or de-
preffed at pleafure, without entering the cellar under the
lage, except when trimming the lamps may be neceffary.
The difference of the diameters of the wheel N, and the
{mall wheel on the fame axis, ferves merely to increafe the
power, and diminifh the velocity of the afcent and defcent
of the lights, upon the common mechanical principle of the
wheel and axle.

The traps are worked under the ftage, by an apparatus
attached to each, and fimilar in all, according to the dimen-
fions of the re{pective apertures. That correiponding to the
aperture F. in jig. 1, is reprefented by figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 3,
has a tran{verfe elevation, like fg. 2. At the ends o: the
aperture are two upright pofts V, V, upon which the trap
flides. The trap confifts of a horizontal board fitted to the
aperture above, and under this is another, with grooves to fit
the pofts V, V, fo that the horizontal pofition of the trap
may be preferved while rifing and finking. Thefe are re-
prefented at S. In front of the poits V,V, are two
others U, U, to carry a cylinder I’, turned by a winch to
raife or fink the trap, and fecured by a catch and ratchet
whee]. The trap, if neceffary, may alfo be counterpoifed,
but this is feldom, if ever, done.

Fig. 4, is a profile elevation of the fame machinery, which?
will further illuftrate the relative pofitions of the pofts V and
U, and the way in which the cords by which the motion is° ’
communicated, pafs from the trap to'the band. The refer-
ence letters are the fame in both figures. The cords are gen
nerally made fatt to the beams or joifts, at the roof of the
ftage cellar, and pafs cver a pulley at each end of the trap,
to double the power of the perfon who turns the winch.
Befides ‘the moving traps, each aperture is clofed by a board
fupported by an upright piece of wood, or fimilar contriv-
ance, when the traps are not at work.

No m-chinery whatever is permanently attached to the
flaps or fliders, for as thefe apertures ferve generally for the
paffage of the flat {cenes through the ftage, the machinery~
mutt depend upon the particular effe€& which it is neceilary
to produce. The flat {cenery is generaliy raifed by acrane,
uolefs a very rapid afcent cr defcent be required, when it
may be done by the application of a counterpoife.

Difpofition of the Stage Lights,

There is, perhaps; no department of a theatre where fa’
much pains onght to be taken, a3 in the difpofition of the
lights, for upon this, ina very great degree, depends the ef
fect of the fcemery, however nicely the perfpeétive may
have been executed by the painter, and every optical illufica’
calculated to alton:th-or ammufe the {peétator. It was fore
merly the cuftom to light the flage by a large chandelier, or
frame of lamps, fufpended in the middle of the profcenium,
and clevated or depreffed at pleafure. This ftili prevails in
many parts of tie continent, and even in Britain, is very
generally ufed to illuminate the ring, or area of thofe
theatres, where feats of horfymanhhip, and other athletic-
exercifes, are exhibited.

It feems obvious, that the fufpenfion of a chandelier di~
recily in the view of the {pe&tator, muit materially deteriorate

the

DRAMATIC.

the eff<& of an exhibition, which can only be confidered as
excellent in the degree in which it is.a faithful copy of nature.
When fufpended over the profcenium of a large theatre, it
muft alfo greatly impede the vifion of all fpe&tators feated
in the upper parts of the houfe. Thefe inconveniences in-
duced the late Mr. Garrick, when patentee of the old'Thea-
tre Royal of Drury-lane, to remove the chandelier and fub-
fiitute the frame of lamps now diftinguifhed by the appella-
tion of foot lights, and this improvement has been adopted
in all other regular theatres. in the Britifh iflands. ,

But altheugh the adoption of the foot lights removes the
objeGions to the chandelier, they. are {till very far from pro-
ducing that difpofitiom of light and fhade, which would be
very defireable to increafe the effeét both of the feenery and
of the countenances of the performers. The glare of light
ja the front, and parallel to the flage, befides the {moke which
the lamps, however clean and nicely trimmed, always pro-
duce, inverts every fhadow, and throws the fhade upwards
infead of downwards upon the performers’ face. The molt
experienced profeflional men affign this as the reafon, that
the face of a performer muft be fo highly coloured to pro-
duce an cffeét in the front of the houfe, as to appear abfo-
lutely ridiculous to a ftranger unconverfant with the bufinefs,
if admitted-inte the green-room, or behind'the fcenes. The
limits of this article will not admit of going farther into de-
tail upon this fubje€t, nor indeed have we any eftablifhed
fats to proceed upon. All mechanical experiments necef-
farily involve a certain expence, while their fuccefs is merely

{peculative, and it is much better, in every cafe, to afcertain!
p y ’

the extent of the improvement praGtically than theoretically.
The dipefition of the lights ofa theatre, however, ftill feems
to afford very ample feope for the exercife of the talents of
an expert and {li/ful optician.

To give a fufficient light to the ftage fide lights are ufed,
as well as foot lights: thefe are generally placed between the
wings, to turn upon a hinge, for the purpofe of,darkening
the ftage when neceflary. A plan of thefe, which is very
fimple, will be found in fg. 5. The apparatus confilts
merely of an upright poft, to which is attached a piece of
tinned iron, forming two fides of a {quare, and moveable
upon joints or hinges, aad furnifhed with fhelves to receive
the lamps or candles. That which gives light to the ftage
is reprefented by 1, and the pofition in which the fide lights
are placed, whemthe ftage is partially darkened, by 2. Side
lights are placed between every fet of wings, on both fides
of the flage. qos

Befides the foot and fide lights, which are permanent, a
number of occational lights are difpofed at times on different
parts of the ftage, to give eff-@ to tranfparencies, and for
other caufes, of which, as they mult be varied according to
circumftances, no particular account can be given. They
muft be left entirely to the genius and tafte of the perfons
who conduc the bulinefs of the ttage.

Difpofition of the Scenery.

The fcenery of a theatre confifts of the flat fcenes which
form the termination of the perfpeGtive acrofs the ftage, and
the fide {cenes; or wings, which are difpofed upon each
fide of the ttage fo as to besfhifted as often as may be ne-
ceflary, and to afford opportunities for the aétors to come
upon the ftage, or quit-it, at any of the intervals between
the refpeGtive fets. Befides thefe, there are fcenes which
may be oceafionally placed and difplaced, fuch as the fronts
of cottages, cafcades, rocks, bridges, and other appendages,
requifite in the reprefentation of particular dramas. Thefe
are generally called pieces.

The flat fcenes are of three kinds: the firkt of thefe are

drops, or curtains, where the canvas is furled or unfurled
upon a roller, placed either at the top or bottom of the
feene. A.difference of opinion exifts as to the placing of
the roller, which, as it is a mere matter of tafte, may proba-
bly never be determined—both ways are ufed in the London
theatres. The rollers, in either.cafe, are made to revolye by
means of cords tightened or f{lackened as may be neceflary ;
and when the: fcenes are large it is ufual to wind them up
by means of a cylinder and a winch, as in the trap machi-
Nerve

Although the drop fcenes are the moft fimple, it is necef-
fary fometimes to have recourfe to thofe fcenes which are
called flats. In thefe the canvas is ftretched upon wooden
frames, which are generally conftructed in two pieces, fo as
to meet in the middle of the ftage, the junétion being ina
perpendicular direGion. Vhe fide frames are moved in
grooves, compefed of parallel pieces of wood fixed upon the
ftage, and fo conflruGed that they may be removed with
facility from one place to another. The upper part of the
framing is alfo confined by a groove, to retain the perpendi-
cular pofition of the flat fcene. Thefe are fometimes con-
firu@ted, to fave room, upon joists, by which they may
either be lowered-to the horizontal pofition, or drawn up to
the fide walls. In this refpe@ their conftrudtion is pretty:
fimilat to that of a common draw-bridge. This plan was
ufed in the late Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, where'they
were called flys. The principal ufe of the flats is. where
apertures, fuch as doors, windows, chimney-pieces, &c. are
wanted in the feene, which may be opened and fhut as re-
quired; thefe are called, in the technology of a theatre,
pradicable doors, &c., becaufe, when not to be ufed, they
may be painted upon a drop fcene. A third kind of {cene
is the prouled or open fat. This is ufed for woods, gate-
ways of caftles, and fuch purpofes: it is framed exadtly like
the other, and the only difference confifts in parts of the
{cene being left open to thew another behind, which termi-
nates the view. .

A very important part of the feenery of a theatre is the
wings. Thefe alfo are ftretched upon wooden. frames, and
flide in grooves fixed to the ftage. In fome large theatres
they are moved by machisery, in others by manual labours
The difpofition of the grooves will be fcen at the letters
K, K, in fig. 1. In this figure are nine fets of wings, the
front only of which are marked by the reference letter. The
wings, like the flats, whether moved by the hand or by the
aid of machinery, ufually ftand upon the ftage, The plan
of moving the wings of the late theatre of Covent Garden,
and that of the Theatre Royal of Glafgow, invented by the
writer of this article, are reprefented in Plate X.

Fig, 1, is a tranfverfe elevated feCtion of the ftage cellar,
and ltage of a theatre, where the wings are moved by a
cylinder, or barrel under the ftage, ax was done at Covent
Garden, D, D, are the fide walls of the houfe; at Aisa
ftrong horizontal beam of wood, fuch as builders generally
call: /leepers, laid upon the floor of the cellar under the ftage.
Of thele there mutt be a fufficient number to ferve aa raila
ways for the frames of all the wings to run upon: four of
thefe frames are reprefented and diitinguifhed by the letters
BB, CC. Theframes B, B, are in front of thofe marked
C,C. Each frame runs upon two {mall wheels, to diminihh
the friGion, and all pafling through longitudinal apertures
in the flage, which ferve as guides, rife toa fufiicient height
above the ftage to fupport the wings which are attached to
them in front, fo as to be quickly removed, and others fub-
ftituted. The line of the ftage is reprefented at E. Two
frames at each fide of the tage only were uled for each fet of
wings. At F isa long cylinder, or barrel of wood, revolving

2 : upon

DRAMATIC.

“pon iron axles, and extending from the front to nearly the
back of the flage, fo as to move all the wings at once. It
will appear, by infpecting the plate, that the cords, or end-
lefs lines, pafling from each frame round the barrel F, and
over the directing pulley H back to the fame frame, are fo
difpofed that when the upper part of the barrel is moved
towards the right, the front frames B, B, will move forward
upon the ftage, and the back frames C, C, will be withdrawn.
In this ftate they are reprefented in the figure. When the
motion of the barrel is reverfed, that of the frames will alfo
be inverted; the back frames will advance, and the front
ones will recede. When a change of fcenery is requifite,
the wings are taken off the frames which are out of the view
of the fpe€tators, and thofe fixed on which are to be next
difpleyed. Upon the barrel F is a wheel, moved by a
pinion G, by means of the handle I, to give motion to the
barrel, and increafe the power. A horizontal fly wheel,
like that of a jack, was alfo added, but in fo fhort a motion
it is not probable that it could be of great advantage.

Fig. 2, is an elevation of the machinery by means of which
the wings of the new fubfcription Theatre Royal of Glafgow
are moved, and is the only plan of the kind hitherto attempt-
ed. It may be thought ftrange that any deviation fhould
have been made in this theatre, from the plans adopted in
the Theatres Royal in London: the reafons are the follow-
ing. Before plans for moving the machinery had been pro-
cured, the architeCtural part of the houfe was finifhed, and
three apartments upon each fide under the ftage having been
fitted up for dreffing-rooms, there did not remain fuilicient
room to conftruét the barrel and apparatus to advantage in the
ftage cellar, which was fufficiently occupied by the foot-
lights and trap framings already defcribed. It became ne-
ceffary, therefore, either to alter the houfe, or to abandon
the idea of working the wings by machinery, unlefs another
place could be found where the machinery might be placed
to advantage, without interfering with that {pace behind the
fcenes allotted to the performers and fervants of the theatre.
In every theatre it is neceflary to have platforms at each
fide above the ftage, and between thefe a temporary flooring,
for the purpofe of hanging up, taking down, or moving the
flat fcenery, Thefe fide platforms are diftinguifhed by the
letters K, K. and the intermediate moveable flooring by L
in fig. 2. This fuggefted the idea that the barrels might
be placed upon one of thefe platforms, and the wings moved
above inftead of below. But had the moving lines been at-
tached to the upper parts of wings refting on their bafes,
every motion of the barrel muit have overturned thofe wings,
or at leaft have made them totter, and impeded their motion.
To obviate this it was thought expedient that the wings, in-
ftead of retting upon the ftage, fhould be hung from above,
the bafis being fo near to the ftage as to appear to every
{peétator to reft upon it, although really fufpended over it.

Upon this general principle arifing, as mott inventions do,

from acafe of immediate neceflity, the machinery which fhall
now be defcribed was planned and executed.

Under the platform K were placed horizontal boards upon .

their edges, 3 of an inch in thicknefs and feven inches deep;
thefe correfponding to the number of the wings to be ufed,
were feparated at each end by {quare pieces of board, of the
fame thicknefs, to keep them afunder; at each end the
whole were bound together by a clafp of iron, O, which
pafling upwards through the platform, was fecured by wedges
pafling through the arms of the clafp; by means of thefe
wedges the clafp, and all the wings fufpended from it, could
be raifed, fhouid the platform yield in any part. The clafps,
horizontal boards, and intermediate pieces, were fecured by a
{crew-bolt pafling through the whole. The horizontal pieces
Vou.XIl. :

of board ferved as rail-ways for the fufpended wings to move
upon, and were feven feet in length withinthe clafps ; from
thefe the wings were fulpended by fheers of iron, in each of
which was placed a fmall friétion roiler refting upon the
board, andthe lower part of the fheers was fcrewed to the
wing, fo that its bafe might be nearly an inch clear of the
ftage. Between the pieces of wood which feparate the rail.
ways in front were pullies of about fix inches diameter, two
of which are reprefented at PP; a cord attached to a
ftaple in the top of the fheers of each wivg, and paffing over
each of thefe pullies, conneéted the wing with one of the
barrels above at F.. When the barrel was turned thefe cords
neceffarily pulled forward the wing to which each was at-
tached, and thus the wings were brought forward. To allow
the wings to recede, another cord, attached to the theers,
was conduéted over'the direéting pullies Ht, H; and from
the other énd a weight was fufpended fufficient to overcome
the friGtion and pull the wing back whenever the cords at-
tached to the barrel were flackened. The frame M, which
carried the barrels, confifted of upright poils of wood about
four inches fquare, and the horizontal rails for carrying the
barrels were of caft irom with brafs buthes for receiving the
axles or journals of the barrels. The barrels were folid
pieces of fir, tix inches diameter, and hooped with iron at
each end; the longeft, which moved fix wings on each fide
of the flage, was divided into three pieces, and the journals
conneéted by coupling boxes. Eight barrels were ufed,
four of which were’placed as reprefented in the figure, and
the other four above upon the rail at M; becaufe the bar-
rel, when pulling forward the wings, was obliged to raife all
the weights for making them recede; a counterpoife, equal
to the fam of all thefe weights, was placed upon the barrel
in an oppofite direétion. ‘To increafe the power each barrel
had a wheel and pinion onone end, exaétly fimilar to what is
reprefented at F and Gin fig 1 ; the pinion containing one-
third part of the teeth in the wheel of courfe trebled the
power, and thus one man was able to work 12 wings at the
fame time with fufficient velocity, for the wings always ad-
vanced or receded more quickly than the drop fcenes could
be raifed or funk. The direétion of the cords will be very
obvious by infpeGting the figure, two barrels with the coune
terpoifes being corded.

For raifing and lowering the drop-fcenes another framing
was conftructed carrying 12 fhort barrels, a profile fe@ion of
which, with one barrel, 1s reprefented at N. When the drop-
{cenes were pulled up the barrel was fecured by a ratchet«
wheel and catch.

Although this machinery was conftru€ted rather to corre&
an error in the general conitruétion of the theatre than for
any other reafon ; it appears, after four years trial, to pof
fefs fome important advantages over the plans of the London
theatres, whilft it is fair to {tate that it is equally liable to
fome objeGtions. Asit was conitructed ina hurried manner,
the practical part was not executed fo perfeétly as might
have been wifhed; ail the direCling pullies were made of
wood, and the grooves to receive the cords by no means
{ufliciently deep to prevent them from flipping occafionally,
which mutt have frequently interrupted the motion of the
wings. For this reafon the counterpoife weights were fub-
ftituted for the double or endlefs line ; and this was more
neceflary, becaufe the cordage being new, it was perfeGly
evident that the natural ftretch would in a few days render
it quite unferviceable in this refpeét, unlefs greater care had
been taken than is generally to be expected. This ma-~
chinery, with very little attention, has been found to anfwer
the purpofe remarkably well, Its advantages over that ufed
in Covent Garden feem to be the following :

The

DRAMATIC,

The frames which carry the {cenes by the plan fy. 1,

refting upon the floor of the flage cellar, require a ftrength
of framing to keep them fteady, which both renders them
heavy to move andrinvolves a very great expence for the tim-
ber and workmanfhip; befides this, many people mutt be
employed to change the wings upon the frames when drawn
back, and in this refpect no faving of labour can arife, and
the only advantage gained by the machinery is regularity of
motion. The hanging wings of the Glafzow theatre are
greatly lighter, and might be much more fo than they are,
for the whole frame-work was finifhed upon the prefumption
that they muft reft upon their bafes, as in the cafe of other
wings. But it will at once occur, that a much greater
ftrength of frame-work will be neceflary for a {cene upwards
of 20 feet high, and refting upon its bafe, than for one fuf-
pended from above, where the force of gravitation aéts in a
contrary way, and which requires no other power than what
is neceflary to diftend the canvas. Add to this, the weight
of a framing paffing through grooves in the ftage and running
upon a raileway nearly 20 feet below, and without exa&ly
meafuring the dimenfions of the wood, which muft always
depend upon thofe of the theatre, the difproportion of the
one plan to the other will appear enormous. Inthe working
of the wings according to either of thefe plans the fuperiority
alfo evidently refts with the latter. A perfon or perfons
under the ftage are fituated in a moft inconvenient place for
obferving the conduét of the drama, and regulating opera-
tions to forward its effe&. Ona platform above every thing
is eafily vifible, and common attention to what paffes below
is all that is neceflary. In the London theatres, as alfo in
mott re{pectable provincial ones, a whifpering tube is placed,
to convey founds from the prompter to thofe employed
above, for their occafional government; this tube is entirely
fimilar to a common {peaking trumpet.
_ The defe&ts of the hanging machinery, as conftru&ted at
Glafgow, ought alfo to be noticed. The ratl-ways, upon
which the wings move, were found fometimes apt to warp,
and had of courfe fome tendency to interrupt the motion
of the wing; this might be eafily remedied by making the
rail-ways of caft-iron, and if the upper edge fhould be well
polifhed the friftion would be very {mail indeed.

In a proyincial theatre, where a certain fet of wings are
almoft conftantly ufed, the plan of {crewing the fheers which
carry the pullies to the wings may anfwer very well; it is,
however, certainly more defirable that means fhould be de-
vifed for altering the wings with greater {peed than can be
done by the drawing of {crew-nails, Many plans may be
contrived to an{wer this purpofe ; one, which may do fuffi-
ciently well, is reprefented in figs. 1 and 2, Plate XI.

Fig. 1,13 a profite elevation of the fufpending apparatus
and upper part of the wings as in fig. 2, Plate X. Bis the
platform above; A,A, the hanging {npporters, with wedges
to raife or fink the whole as may be proper. C is the failway
which in this inftance is f{uppofed to be of caft iron. E isa
pair of fheers or clutch of malleable iron, through which is
an axle to carry a {mall frition wheel on each fide. F, F,
are fra€tions of the wings, folpended by fcrews or bolts and
cutters, fo as te be eafily changed. The cordage and bar-
rels. may be either as in the former plate, or the endlefs line
may be fubftituted, if precautions are taken to prevent the
cords from flipping off the direGing pullies.

Fig. 2, is a tranfverfe elevation of the fame apparatus,
taken dire€tly behind the wings as they advance or recede,
and the various parts are diftinguifhed by the fame letters of
reference as in fig. I.

The obje& of this apparatus is, in. the firfk place, to en-
{ure the regularity of the motion of the wings; and in the

fecond to effe& this motion by as few fervants as poflible:
The hanging part of all the divifions between the five wings
reprefented may be of caft iron, and the projecting parts
under the friction rollers may be either catt as feathers, or
in feparate pieces, and joined by counter-funk fcrews. The
intermediate pieces to preferve the diftances, where the bolt
D paffes through, may be of well-feafoned plank.

By thefe means, and the application of the double rollers,
an interval is left by which any wing may be fpeedily re»
moved, without unfixing a fingle fcrew or bolt; and the
moving cords, being merely hooked tothe wing, may be
inftantly unfixed and placed upon hooks in the fufpending
apparatus, as reprefented in fi. 1, until a new wing is placed
on the railway. At the fametime, by ufing caftiron, the
whole may be comprefled into fo fmall a {pace, as to have
all the wings, neceffary for an evening reprefentation, fitted
in their places before the exhibition commences, unlefs in
very extraordinary cafes. '

Befides the permanent machinery, which is always in vfe,
many occafional engines muft be ufed to fuit particular
pieces. The limits of this article will not admit of going:
much into detail refpeGting thefe; nor is it neceflary.

The mechanift, whofe chief aim is to produce continual
novelty, muft depend much more upon the fertility of his.
own genius, than upon antecedent plans. We fhall there-
fore clofe the article, with fhort defcriptions of afew mif-
cellaneous fpecimens, which will be found in the remaining:
figures of Plate XI.

Fig. 3, reprefents the common method of executing a fea:
fcene. A certain number of horizontal axes being placed’
acrofs the ftage, with crofs boards properly painted and cut
or profiled, when turned upon their refpective centres, pro=
duce the appearance of water, which may be reprefented:
either as tranquil or ftormy as the occafion requires.

To give the appearance of fhips or boats, a very fimple:
apparatus will fuffice. A plan of a fmall boat is given in

is
eee frame of wood, moving upon fri@tion wheels, is repre=
fented by the letters A, A, upon this the boat is placed
upon an axis at B. From theaftermoit part of the boat, a
cord, pafling over the pulley C, is conducted behind the
{fcenes. The bow or fore part of the boat being made-
heavier than the after-part or itern, the cord, by. being=
lightened and flackened alternately, will move the boat upon.
the axle B, and give it a motion very fimilar to that pro-
duced by the natural undulation of the waves. If the fric-
tion wheels are covered with cloth or lift, and the axles
fmoothly turned and well oiled, the noife from fri€tion will
be avoided, which often deftroys the illufion when boatds.
without wheels are pufhed acrofs the ftage. The frame A

is drawn acrofs between the axles in fg. 3, and all that is

under the furface of the water (reprefented at D,) is cone
cealed by a painted board. ‘Two ftops may be placed upon
the carriage to regulate the wbration of the boat, as repres
fented in the figure.

Fig. 5, is a plan of a machine to produce the oblique af-
cent or defcent of a car, horfe, or any other body, above
the ftage. Upon acrofs bar of wood A, A, pafling between
the platforms, and fufficiently high to be concealed from the
{petators, is a box or frame B moving upon rollers, A cord
F, attached to this frame, is wound upon a barrel upon the
platform. Another cord G, attached to any fixture upon
the oppofite fide, and pafling overa pulley in the box B,
fufpends the car C. When the cord F is wound upon the
barrel, the car will.afcend in the direction of the dotted line
D, and when unwound will defcend in the fame line by its
own gravity. The cord E will keep the car or other body

fleady.

DRAMATIC.

Yeady. This is merely another application of the principles,
inveftigated under the article DiaGonat motion,and were the
-defcent required toimitate the parabolic curve of a projec-
tile, it might be effeQed by conftruéting the barrel like the
{piral of a watch, the diameters for the convolutions of the
cord F being accurately calculated, and another barrel con-
ftructed to regulate the defcent of the fufpending cord G.
The cords are very flender and painted black, to elude the
eye of the f{pectator. The lights alfo are ftrong in front,
and dim behind, to aflit the optical deception. To give
the cords fufficient ftrength without increafing their diameter,
‘they are {pun ofthe beft hemp, mixed with hrafs wire well
annealed. hofe ufed at Covent Garden for the flying
horfes inthe Pantomimic Specacle of Valentine and Orfon,
whofe flight waseffected by an apparatus fimilar to that in
the figure, although lefs in diameter than a common quill,
were faid to poflefs {nflicient flrength to fufpend a ton
weight.

fig. 6, is an apparatus, rather optical than mechanical.
It is defigned to give the efleé of a full moon, and was ufed
with great fuccefsat Drury Lane. The front view is dif-
tinguifhed by the numeral 1; the profile by 2. It is a conical
‘eafe of tin, the lefler diameter of which is a concave reflec-
torat A, The greater diameter, at B, is covered with
taffeta, or any tranfparent coloured cloth, to give the fhade
required, and a lamp is fufpended within the cafe, which is
perforated in many places to admit the air. Simple as this
apparatus is, it gives a very ftriking refemblance of a full
moon when fufpended by three cords, and when the back
"part of the flageis darkened.

Fig. 7,18 a plan of one of thofe quick tranfitions of fcenery,
which are ufed in pantomimes or other pieces, where an af-
fimilation to the agency of magic is attempted. Any num-
ber of perpendicular cylinders being placed upon the ftage
to revolve eafily ; let thefe be covered with canvas of fuf-
ficient length toreach from each cylinder to that neareft to
it. When the canvas is rolled upon the cylinders and
painted, they will affume the appearance of pillars placed in
aroom or hall, and a fcene placed behind will be feen
through the intervals. By pulling the cords at A, the
‘canvas unwinding from each cylinder and reaching to the
next, will almoft initantaneoufly change the appearance of
the pillars into that of a flat fcene, and the former appear;
ance may be asmitantaneoufly reftored, either by the aétion
of weights, as in the figure, or by a power ating in a con-
trary direétion. Cords, fimilar to thofe at A, mutt be placed
atthe bottom in the direétion of the dotted line B, to unroll
the canvas equally, and the pivots at top and bottom muft
be concealed.

Fig. 8, isa fe&tion of thofe double flat {cenes, which are
alfo ufed to produce inftantaneous changes. ‘The whole
feene being covered with pieces of canvas, framed and
moving upon hinges, one fide is paigted to reprefent a certain
fcene, and the other to reprefnt one totally different. The
fection marked 1 fhews thefe pieces when elevated above
the joints; that marked 2 fhews them when fufpended
below. ‘The contrivances for moving them are very various.
In general, however, they are kept in the elevated fituation
by catches, which being fuddenly relieved, they fall by their
own weight.

Dramatic Mufic of the Greeks. Avriftotle tells us, in
his “* Poetics,’ that mufic, p:Aoroire, is an effential part of
tragedy ; but how it became effential, this philofopher does
not inform us. M. Dacier has endeavoured to fupply this
omiffion, by fuggefting, that cuftom anda natural paffion
implanted in the Greeks for mufic, had incorporated it into
their drama. . Indeed Ariftotle calls it, in the fame work,

“the createft embellifhment that tragedy can receive.”
And innumerable paflages might be quoted from other an-
cient writers, to prove, that all the dramas of the Greeks
and Romans were not only fung, but accompanied by mufical
inftruments.

However, many learned critics, not reflecting upon the
origin of tragedy, and infenfible, perhaps, to the charms of
melody, have wondered how fo intelligent a people as the
Greeks could bear to have their dramas fung. But as an-.
tiquity is unanimous in deriving the firft dramatic reprefent-
ations at Athens from the dithyrambics, or fongs, fung in
honour of Bacchus, which afterwards ferved as chorufles te
the firft tragedies, we need not wonder at the continuation
of mufic in thofe chorufles, which had been a/ways fung-
Nor will the cuftom of fetting the epifodes, as the a&ts of
a play were at firft called, appear ftrange to fuch as recol-
le&t that they were written in ver/e, and that al! verfe was
Jung, particularly fuch as was intended for the entertatnment
of the public, affembled in fpacious theatres, or in the open
air, where it could only be heard by means of a very flow,
fonorous, and articulate utterance.

It is true that tragedy is an imitation of nature; but it is
an exalted and embellifhed nature; take away mufic and
verlification, and it lofes its moft captivating ingredients.
Thofe who think it unnatural to fing during diltrefs, and the
agonies even of death, forget that mufic is a language that
can accommodate its accents and tones to every human fen-
fation and paffion; and that the colouring of thefe on the
ftage muft be higher than in common life, or elfe why is
blank verfe, or a lofty and figurative language, neceffary.

The ftage cannot {ubfift without exaggeration; as verfe
is the exaggeration of common fpeech, fo mufic is that of
verfe ; in like manner exaggerated gefture becomes dancing.
In the fame manner as it becomes neceffary on the ftage to
allow of {mall deviations from truth and nature in favour of
the poet and the aétor, whofe writings and f{peech are fome-
what more inflated when the bufkin is on, than at other
‘times. Marmontel, in the Encyclopedie, art. Declama-
tion, fays, ‘* For the fame reafon asa piéture, which is to be
feen at a diftance, requires bolder ftrokes and higher colour-
ing, the theatrical voice mutt be pitched higher, the language
be more lofty, and the pronunciation more accentuated, than
in fociety, where we communicate our ideas with more faci-
lity, but always in proportion to the perfpeCtive ; that is to
fay, in fuch a manner that the tone of voice fhould be foft.
ened and diminifhed to the degree of nature, before it ar-
rives at the ear of thofe to whom it is addreffed.”

The marks, echeia, or vafes, the accompaniments of the
cithara, ‘and flutes, equal and unequal ; all which, fingly and
colleétively, prove the declamation of the Greeks and Ro-
mans to have been mufical, and regulated like the recitative
of modern operas, by a notation.

Dramatic Mufic of the Romans. Livy, lib. vii. cap. 2.
gives a kind of hiftory of the Roman drama, which, as
well as the Grecian, was infeparable from mufic. The Ro-
mans, indeed, were later in cultivating arts and fciences
than any other great and powerful people ; and none of
them feem to have been the natural growth of the foil, ex-
cept the art of war; all the reft were brought in by con-
queft. Before their acquaintance with the Greeks, they
had all their refinements from the Etrufcans, a people very
early civilized and polifhed. ‘The dramas of Plautus, Te-
rence, and other early dramatic writers, invented nothings
their plays were all tranflations from the Greek, and proba-
bly fung or declaimed to Grecian moufic. Vitruvius {peaks
of no other than was ufed in the theatres. Cocero, in his
fecond book ef Laws, tells us, that before Greece and her

Ddz arta

a

DRAMATIC,

arts were well known to the Romans, it was a cuftom for
them to fend their fons for inftruction into Etruria, And
thence they had the firft ideas, not only of religion, but of
poetry, painting, fculpture, and mutic, according to the
confeffion of their own hiltorians.

Befides the obligations which the Romans had to the
Etrufcans and Greeks for their tafte and knowledge in the

_fine arts, the conqueit of Sicily, 200 years before the Chnil-
tian era, contributed greatly to their acquaintance with them.
Fabricius gives a lilt of feventy Sicilians who have been cele-
brated in antiquity for learning and genius; among whom
we find the well known names of As{chylus, Diodorus Si-
culus, Empedocles, Georgius, Euclid, Archimedes, Epi-
charmus, and Theocritus. Among thefe, the Romans
might have had tragedy from /E{chylus; comedy from
Epicharmus, and mufic from Empedocles.

Dramatic Mujfic, attempted in England, previous to
the Italian opera. All theatrical reprefentations and public
amufements having been fupprefled by the parliament, in
1647, no exhibition was attempted till 1656, when fir
William D’Avenant’s ‘* Entertainment of Declamation and
Mufic after the Manner of the Ancients,’’ feems to have
efcaped moleftation more by connivance than the protection
of government. For though Ant. Wood has afferted, that
fir William D’Avenant had obtained leave to opena theatre
for the performance of operas in the Italian language, dur-
ing the proteGtorfhip, when all other theatrical exhibitions
were fupprefled ; “ becaufe being in an unknown tongue
they could not corrupt the morals of the people ;”” yet on a
careful fcrutiny into the validity of the fac, it feems to be
wholly a miftake. Ant. Wood, at this time, had never
been in London, and feems but little acquainted with its
amufements at any time.

Being in poffeffion. of the firft edition of fir William
D’Avenant’s ‘* Entertainment’? performed at Rutland-houfe,
and printed in 1657, the year after, we fhall give an account
of the manner in which it was difpofed and arranged, from
the work itfelf ; which informsus, that ‘* after a flourith of
mufic, the curtains are drawn and the prologue enters,”
who {peaks in Enghfh verfe, and talks of the Entertain-
ment being an opera, the only word that is uttered in the
Italian language throughout the exhibition. He defires the
audience, indeed, to regard the {mall theatre as “ their paf-
fage, and the narrow way, to our Elyfian field, the opera.”
But not a line of this introduétion is fet to mufic, either in
recitative or air; though, afterit has been fpoken, and the
curtains are again clofed, “ a confort of inftrumental mufic,
adapted to the fullen difpofition of Diogenes, being heard
awhile, the curtains are fuddenly opened, and, in two gild-
ed roftras, appear Diogenes the cynic, and Ariftophanes the
paet—who declaim againft and for publique entertainments
by moral reprefentations.” Then in two profe orations
that were /poten, not fung, public exhibitions are cenfured
and defended in the ftyle of that celebrated philofopher and
comic writer,

Operas are, indeed, frequently mentioned and defcribed :
Diogenes, manifeftly alluding to the fplendid manner in which
they were then exhibited in Italy, when he fays, ‘* Poetry
is the fubtile engise by which the wonderful body of the
opera mult move. I wifh, Athenians! you were all poets,
for then if you fhould meet, and with the pleafant vapours
of Lefbian wine, fall into profound fleep, and concur ina
long dream, you would every morning enamel your houles,
tile them with gold, and pave them with aggots Ee

When the cynic has finifhed his declamation, “a confort
of mufic, befitting the pleafant difpofition of Ariftophanes,
being heard, he an{wers him,” and defends operas, their

poetry, mufic, and decoration, with confiderable wit and
argument, After which the * curtains are fuddenly clofed,

and the company entertained by inftrumental and vocal mus

fic, with a fong.””

“ The fong being ended, a confort of inftrumental mufic,
after the French ‘compofition, being heard awhile, the cure
tains are fuddenly opened, and in the roftras appear fitting a
Parifian and a Londoner, in the livery robes of both cities,
who declaim concerning the pre-eminence of Paris and
London.”

When the Frenchman has finifhed his Philippic againft our
capital; after ‘* a confort of mufic, imitating the waites of
London, he is anfwered by the Londoner.’’ In neither of
thefe harangues is the opera mentioned, which, as yet, had
not found its way into either capital. When the Englith-
man has terminated his defence, there is another fong; an
eptiogue ; and, laftly, a flourifa of mufic; after which the
curtain is clofed, and the entertainment finifhed.

At the end of the book we are told, that ‘ the vocal
and inftrumental mufic was compofed by Dr. Charles Col-
man, captain Henry Cook, Mr. Henry Lawes, and Mr.
George Hudfon.”

By this account it appears, that the performance was
neither an Italian, nor an Englifh, opera. That there was
No recitative, and but two fongs in it, the reft being all dé=
claimed or fpoken, without the leatt affiltance from mvfice
It feems, indeed, as if fir William D’Avenant, by this En-
tertainment, as it was called, had fome diftant defign of
introducing exhibitions fimilar to the Italian opera, on the
Englih tage, for which thefe declamations were to prepare
the way.

Pope tells us, that ** The Siege of Rhodes,” “ by fir
William D’Avenant,, was the firft opera fung in England,’

‘© On each enervate ftring they taught the note
To pant, or tremble, through an eunuch’s throat.’?

What foundation our great poet had for this opinion, we
know not, unlefs he truited to the loofe affertion of Lang»
baine, who, in ** An Account of the Engiifh dramatic
poets,’’ fays, that the Siege of Rhodes, and fome cther plays
of fir William D’Avenant, in the times of the civil wars,
were acted in ffilo recitativo.

The firft performance of the Siege of Rhodes was at
Rutland-honfe, in 1656. It was revived. in 1663, and a
fecond part added to it. Inthe prologue the author callsit
‘ our play,’ and the performers, players, not fingers. The
firft part 1s divided into five entries, not ats; each preceded:
by inftrumental mufic. But we can find no proof that it was.
{ung in recitative, either in the dedication to lord Claren-
don, in the folio edition of 1673, or the body of the-
drama.

It was, indeed, written in rhyme, which, after the Ree
ftoration, became a fafhion with theatrical writers, probably
to imitate the French, and gratify the partiality of Charles
TI. for Gallic amufements. Such dramas were called he-
roic plays, and the verfe dramatic poefy.

Upon the whole, it feems as if this drama was no more
like an Italian opera than the mafques, which long preceded
it; and in which were always introduced fongs, chorufes,
{plendid fcenes, machinery, and decorations. But if we
might believe Mr. Pope,.in the lines jutt cited, this operas
as he calls it, was not only fet to recitative and florid mufic,
but fung by eunuchs !

Downes, the prompter, tells us, that in 1658, fir Wil-
liam D’Avenant exhibited another entertainment, entitled
‘ The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru,” exprefled by vo-
cal and inflrumental mufic, and by art of perfpedtive in

{cenes.

DRA

feenes. Thefe fcenes and decorations, according to Downes,
were the firft that were introduced (ona public ftage) in
England. Rofcius Anglicanus. Mr. Malone (Sup. to
Shakfpeare) imagines that Cromwell, from his hatred to
the Spaniards, may the more readily have tolerated this
{peétacle. :

In another piece, however, of fir William D’Avenant’s,
6‘ The Playhoufe to be let,”’ a mufician who prefents himfelf
as atenant, being afked what ufe he intended to make ufe
of it? replies, ** I woold have introduced heroique ftory in
Jfiilo recitativo”? And upon being defired to explain him-
felf further, he fays, ‘* recitative mufic is not compofed of
matter fo familiar, as may ferve for every low occafion of
difcourfe. In tragedy, the language of the ftaye is raifed
above the common diale€t; our paflions rifing with the’
height of verfe; and vocal mufic adds new wings to all the
flights of poetry.”

In the third a& of this piece, which we are to'd was in
Sito recitativo, we have the hiftery of fir Francis Drake ex-
preffed by inftrumental and vocal mufic, and by art of per-
{pcAtive infcenes, &c.

Such were the firlt attempts at dramatic mufic to Englith
words in this country, long before the mufic, language, or
pérformers of Italy were employed on our flage.

The word opera fvems, however, to have been very fami-
liar to our poets and countrymen, during the chief part of
the laft ceatury ; filo recitativo was talked of by Ben Jon-
fon, fo early as the year 1617, when it was a recent inno-
vation even in Italy. Afterthis it was ufed in other mafques,
particularly fcenes of plays, and in cantatas, before a regu-
lar drama, wholly fet to mutic was attempted.
~ But the high favour to which operas had mounted in
France by the united abilities of Quinault and Luili, feems
to have given birth to feveral attempts at dramatic mofic in
England.

Sir William D*Avenant dying in 1668, while his new
theatre in Dorfet Gardens was building, the patent, and
Management, devolved on his widow, lady D”’Avenant, and
his fon Mr. Charles, afterwards Dr. D’Avenant, well known
as a political writer and civilian, who purfued fir William’s
plans. The new houfe was openedin 1671; but the public
itill more inclining to favour the king’s company at Drury-
Jane than this, oblized Mr. D’Avenant to have recourfe to a
new {pecies of entertainments, which were afterwards called
dramatic ‘operas, and of which kind were the Tempett,
Macbeth, Piyche, Circe, and fome others, all « fet off,”
fays Cibber, “* with the moft expenfive decorations of
fcenes and habits, and with the beft voices and dancers.”

» 6 This fenfual fupply of fight and found,’? continues he,
** coming in to the afliftance of the weaker party, it was
no wonder they fhould grow too hard for fenfe and fimple
nature, when it is confidered how many more people there
are, who can fee and hear, than can think and judge.”

* Thus men without talte or eafs for mufic ever comfort
themfelves with imagining that their contempt for what they
neither feel nor underftand is a mark of fuperior wifdom,
and that every lover of muficis a fool. This is the language
of almoft all writers on the fubje&t. The ingenious author
of the “ Biographica Dramatica” tells us, that ‘ the pre-
ference given to D’Avenant’s theatre, on account of its
fcenery and decorations, alarmed thofe belonging to the ri-
val houfe. ‘To ftop the progrefs of the public tafte, and
divert it towards themfelves, they endeavoured to ridicule
the performances which were fo much followed. The per-
fon employed ‘for this purpofe was Thomas Duffet, (a
Writer of miferable farces,) who parodied the Tempett,
Macbeth, and Pfyche; thefe efforts were, howevery, inef-

DRA

feQual,’? This is fair and hiftorical; but after faying that
*« the duke’s theatre continued to be frequented ;”? when he
adds, * the victory of found and fhew over /enfe and rea/on
was as complete in the theatre at this period, as it has often
been fince,’’ it feems as if fenfe and reafon had for a moe
ment quitted this agreeable, and, in general, accurate and
candid writer. Opera is an alien that is obliged filently to
bear the infults of the natives, or elfe fhe might courteoufly
retort, that nonfenfe qwéthout mufic is as frequently heard on
the Englifh ftage, as with it on the Italian; indeed, when
Metattafio is the poet, who will venture to fay that either
good fenfe or goed poetry is banifhed from the ftage?

But it does not clearly appear, becaufe mufic and decoras
tions were added to Shak{peare’s Tempeft and Macbeth,
that one theatre was in greater want of fenfe at this time
than another. We have feenthe dramasas they were altered
by Shadwell and fir William D’Avenant, and in the latter
find that little was curtatled from the original play, or fang,
but what is ftill fung, and tothe fame mutic fet by Matthew
Lock, of which the rude and wild excellence cannot be furs
paffed. In the operas, as they were calied, on account of
the mufic, dancing, and fplendid {cenes with which they
were decorated, none of the fine fpeeches were made into
fongs, nor was the dialogue carried on in recifative, which
was never attempted on our ftage during the 17th century
throughout a whole piece. Indeed, it never fuily fucceeded
in this, if we except the Artaxerxes of the late Dr. Arne;
whofe mufic, being of a fuperior kind to what our ftage
had been accuftomed, and better fung, found an Englifh
audience that could even tolerate vecifative. In the cenfure
of thefe mufical dramas, which has been retailed from one
writer to another, ever fince the middle of Charles the fe-
cond’s reign to the prefent time, the fubje& feems never to
have been candidly amd fairly examined ; and, indeed, it
appears as if there had been no great caufe of complaint
againft the public tafte for frequenting fuch reprefentations,
particularly thofe written by Shak{peare, in which the prin-
cipal charaGters were performed by Mr. and Mrs. Betterton,
as was the cafein Macbeth, though mufic, machinery, ands
dancing were profufely added to the treat.

DRAMATICO, Stryto, See Sryur.

DRAMATURGIA, Jal. the title given: to a book
compiled by Leo Allatius, or Allacci, in 4to. containing a
chronological lift of all the dramas, whether for declamation
or music, which had been publifhed in Ltaly from the inven=
tion of the prefs to 1667... A new edition of this ufeful
catalogue was publifhed at Venice, with a continuation, to
1755. ‘(he authors of words and mufic, the printers, dates
of the feveral editions, and places of publication, are all {pes
cificd. See Leo Antatrius

DRAMBURG, in Geography; anciently Draweburg and
Drageburg, a {mall town of Pruffta, in the new mark of
Brandenburg, chief place of the circle of the fame name,
fituated on the river Drage, from which it derives its name,
and which runs through both the new and the old town; it
is 6 miles fouth of Falkenburg.

DRAMME, a river of Denmark, which flows into the
welt fide of the bay of Chriitiania. See the next article.

DRAMMEN, a fmall town of Norway, in the diocefe
of Chriftiania, or Aggerhuus, on the river Eger, at the place
where it falls into the lake, or rather river Drammen, which
empties itfelf into the bay of Chriftiania. ‘That part of the
town which is on the Eger is alfo called Eger, and is remark
able for feveral iron-works.

DRAN, Henry Francrs, Le, in Biography; born at
Paris in 1685, received his education under his father, Henry

Le Dran, who had acquired confiderable reputation as ar
operators,

DRA

eperator, particularly in amputating, or taking out cancers

of the brealt. Under his aufpices our young furgeon {oon

came into repute, and turning his thoughts pritcipally to
the operation of lithotomy, which be performed in the late-
ral method, as praGtifed by Chefelden, he was enabled to
make fome valuable improvements in the art. Thefe he
communicated to the public in his “ Paralele des differentes
manieres de tirer la Pierre hors de la Veffie,” printed in 1730,
8vo., to which he added a fupplement in 1756, containing
the refult of his later praGtice. The work was well received,
has been frequently reprinted, and tranflated into moft of
the modern languages. It contains alfo a defcription of the
urinary paflages, of the urinary bladder in fitu, cum arteriz
pudendz trunco et ramis, accurately depifted. ‘* Obferva-
tions de Chirurgie auxquelles ou a joint plutieurs reflections
en faveur des Etudiens,” 1731, Paris, 2 vols. r2mo. Thefe
have alfo been frequently reprinted, and contain numerous
valuable practical obfervations. ‘ Trraité ou reflections
tirees de la pratique fur les playes d’Armes a feu,’’ Paris,
3737, 12mo. The refult of his practice as an army fur-
geon, commendable for the bold and decifive methods of
treatment made ufe of in the molt dangerous cafes, and for
the general fuccefs with which they were attended. « Traicé
des Operations de Chirurgie,” Paris, 1743. 12mo. To
the tranflation of this work into Englifh, by Gataker, Che-
felden made fome valuable additions. ‘* Confultations fur
la plupart des Maladies qui font du Report de la Chirurgie,”
176s, Svo. A work well calculated for the inflruction of
ftudents in furgery. The author alfo fent feveral obferva-
tions of confiderable merit to the academy of furgeons, which
are publifhed in theirmemoirs. He died, at avery advanced
age, in 1770. Haller. Bib. Chir. Gen. Biog.

Dean, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Dravé; 4 miles S. of Pettau, in the duchy of
Stiria.

DRANCE, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the
Rhéne, near Martigny, in the Valais.

DRANGA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
the Perfide, placed by Pliny towards the fource of the river
Indus.

DRANGIANA, a province of Afia, in the Perfide, be-

ing one of the provinces of Alexandcr the Great in Afia..

It was bounded on the weft by Carmanta, on the north by
Aria, on the eaft by Arachofia, and on the fouth by Ge-
drofia.

DRANGOWSKY, in Geography, a {mall town of Praf-
fia, in Samiand, not far from Tilét, the inhabitants of which
are almoft all of the Roman Catholic church.

DRANK, a name given by our farmers to the great wild
oats. Thefe are often very troublefome to the ploughed
lands, efpecially after wet feafons and much froft. Many,
to deftroy this weed, fow the land with black oats, which
being ripe much fooner than the feeds of this plant, are cut
down before it can fow itfeli for another year; efpecially if
they are cut a little the earlier, which will do them no harm,
if they be fuffered to lic a while upon the ground afterwards,
for the grain to {well before they are carried in. But, in
general, when ploughed lands begin to run to thefe weeds
and thiltles, it is a token tothe farmer that it is time to fal-
low them, or elfe to fow them with hay feed, and make paf-
tures of them. The fowing beans upon a land fubject to
thefe weeds 1s alfo a good method, becaufe the farmer may
fend in his fheep when they are about three inches high,
whjch will eat up the drank, and all the other weeds, and
wil! not nurt the bcans. The general method ts to put twenty
fheep to an acre; but they mutt be put in only in dry wea-
ther, and not leit too long.

DRA

DRANSES, called Traujzs by Hero:otus, in Ancient
Geography, a people of ‘Liusace, who are iaid to have wept
at the birth of their children.

DRANSFELD, in Geography, a fmall town of Germany,
in the duchy of Calenberg, which formerly conftituted a
part of the electorate of Hanover, but at prefent is a pro-
vince of the new kingdom of Weftphalia, It is fituated be-
tween Minden and Gottingen.

DRAPERY, in Painting. The word drapery denotes
all kinds of ftuffs, or cloths, difpofed in folds. When applied
to the clothing of figures, it is fometimes made to include
all the various materials, of whatever fubftance, with which’
men are accuftomed, either from neceflity or decency, te
cover or enfold their bodies, and alfo all the ornaments which
talte and luxury have adopted to enrich the drefs, according
to the ideas of different nations, and the fafhions of different
ages. In this extenfive fenfe Reynolds {peaks of it, when
he fays, that “* we make no difficulty ef drefling fatues of
modern heroes, or fenators, in the fafhion of the Roman ar-
mour, or peaceful robe ; and we go fo far as hardly to bear
a ftatue in any other drapery.” It alfo comprehends all
hangings, curtains, Sc. and other adjuftments, made by
means of ftuffs or clgths of any kind, in the fcenery of a
picture, whether apartments or other; but, in this laft point
of view, it muft be recollected, that it is not the name nor
fubftance, but the di/pofition of thofe materials, that brings
them under the denomination of drapery. Cloths of any
kind may be made to fill whatever portion of his compofition
the painter may find fuitable to his purpofe, but unlefs they
be difpofed in folds, they are ftill cloths only, and not dra-

ery.
: Drapery then, ftritly regarded, confifts in the difpofition
of folds; and the fkilful difpofition of folds, whether for
clothing or other ufe, conftitutes the art of drapery.

The art is to be confidered, as it regards form, character,
coftume, and expreflion. In the general compofition of a
piGure, drapery is connected with coflume and charafer : 2s
an object of ftudy in a fingle figure, the beauty of drapery
ftands defervedly next in rank to deauty of form, as it not
only powerfully co-operates with the latter, but is even found
to be at times capable of enhancing its value, by artful ma-
nagement and partial concealment ; and it is alfo capable of
aflilting exprefion, as far as it is difplayed by the a€tion of
the figure. “In the naked form, and in the difpofition of
the drapery, Reynolds obferves, the difference between one
artift and another principally confifts. -

As the art of drapery has never yet been theoretically
treated in our language, the following principles and rules,
extraCted from the writings of Leonardo da Vinci, Lomezzo,
Mengs, Reynolds, Watelet, and Dupiles, will offer intruc-
tion from the beft fource that can be found, viz. from pro-
feffional obfervations. It would be eafy, by combining thele
obfervations, to produce the difplay of a general fyftem 5
buta far greater adyantage,it is conceived, will be afforded to
the reader, by giving the particular authorities, whenever
any paflage is fufficiently clofe to the original fources, to
admit of {uch confirmation.

The fkill of drapery is chiefly comprifed in three things,
viz. I. The order of the folds. 2. The diveriity of ftuils.
3. The variety of colours in the ftuffs.

Of the Order of the Folds.

© Tn clothed figures, the principal effeét of draperies fhould
be to make us underitand what they cover; in fuch a man-
ner, that the outward charaéter of the form, and the accu-
racy of proportions, may generally appear through them,
as tar at leaft as probabiity will allow. For this Se si
‘ the

DRAPERY.

the greateft mafters of the art hatt fet the example of firft
drawing their figures naked, and afterwards difpofing the
drapery on them, in order that the eye may ftill imagine it
fees, or can trace, what is concealed by the caft of the dra-
peries.’ Dupiles.

¢ The draperies with which the painter clothes his figures
ought to have their folds adjufted to furround the hmbs
they are intended to cover in fuch a manner, that in the en-
lightened parts there may not be any folds with dark fhadows,
nor in the mafles of fhade any, receiving too great a light;
they fhould go gently over, de/cribing the parts, but not cut-
ting the limba with hard lines acrofs, nor with fhadows that
fink in deeper than the part itfelf can be fuppofed to admit.
In fa&, the drapery fhould be fo fuited to the body, that it
fhould no where appear uninhabited, or like an empty bundle
of cloth that has loft the man from within ; a fault into which
many painters have fallen, who, enamoured of a profufion of
folds, have fo enveloped and encumbered their figures, that
they feem to have forgotten the real defign of clothes, which
is to drefs and furround the parts of the body gracefully
wherever they touch, and not to blow them out like blad-
ders at every projetion of the limbs or which the light falls.
1 do not deny the propriety of introducing fome fuli and
handfome folds, but let them be placed on thofe parts of the
figure where the aétion of the limbs, and the pofition of the
body under them, naturally gather the drapery together.’

¢ Above all, he careful to vary the quality and quantity
of folds in compofitions of many figures, fo that if fome
have large and broken folds produced by thick woollen cloth,

-others, being dreffed in thinner ftuff, may have them nar-

rower and {fmoother; fome fharp and ftraight, others foft
and undulating.’ Leonardo da Vinci on Compofition.

* Folds, well imagined, give much fpirit to any kind of
ation, becaufe their motion implies motion in the acting
limb, which feems to draw them forcibly, and moves them
more or lefs as the a€tion is more or lefs violent.’

* Folds fhould be great or large according to the quality
and quantity of the drapery ; and when, from the flightnefs
of the ftuffs, it becomes requifite to ufe much folding, it muft
be fo grouped that the chiaro-{curo may not fuffer by it.’

‘ Folds defigned from mere praGtice, without applying to
nature, are proper only for a fketch or firft defign. _In per-
feGting his work, the painter fhould always confult the ftuffs
themfelves, becaufe in them the folds are true, and the lights
agreeable to the nature of the ftuffs.’

© To give a complete air of truth, draperies ought to be
fet either on a /ayman as large as life, or on the life itfelf;
but care muft be taken that they difcover nothing of the
immoveablenefs of the layman. Some painters make ufe of
Jfmall laymen, which they drefs either with thio ftuffs or wet
paper; but this method cannot be ufeful for fini/bing, becaufe
the ftuffs, on account of their fize, not having the fame
weight as on the larger /aymen or the /ife, cannot fhew the
folds in their true fhapes.’ ‘

« Light, flying draperies become none but figures in great
motion, or in the wind,’ ;

* Rich ornaments form a part of the beauty of draperies
when ufed with difcretion.? Dupiles.

* Many. pajnters preter making the folds of their draperies
with acute angles, deep and precife; others with angles
fcarcely perceptible ; and fome with no angles at all, but
inftead of them certain curved lines.”

* That part of the drapery, which is fartheft from the
place where it is gathered, will moft approach its natural
ftate. Every thing naturally inclines to preferve its primitive
form, and for this reafon: whena tuff or cloth, of equal
thickaefe, is conftrained by fome fold to relinquifh its flat fi.

tuation, it obferves the Jaws of force at the point of its
greateft'conftraint, and as it is continually making efforts to
return to its natural fhape, the parts, molt diflant from that
point, reaflume moft of their primitive fhape by ample and
diftended folds. For example, let A BC be the drapery
juft mentioned; A B the place where it 13 folded or re-
ftrained. It was faid that the part fartheft from its point of
reftraint would return moft to its primitive fhape ; therefore,
C being the fartheft, will be broader and more extended than
any other part.? See fig. 1, Plate X11. Mi/cellany.

© Draperies ought aot to be rendered confuled by numerous
folds ; on the contrary, there ought to be folds only where
the drapery is held up by the hands or arms, and the reft
fhould be left to fall without conftraint. The foids fhould,
moreover, be ftudied from nature, and varied in conformity
with the materials of which the drapery is compofed; they
fhould never be copied from models drcfled in paper or thia
leather, as is the devtfive cuftom of many painters.’

‘In thofe parts where the figure is fore-fhortened, there’
ought to be introduced a greater number of folds than in
any others, and they fhould all furround the fore-fhortened
parts in a circular form. Lxample.—Let the eye be at
E; LM will have the middle of the circular folds re-
moved farther from the eye than at the extremities. In
NO, on the other figure, the outlines of the circular folds -
will appear ftraight, becaufe they are dire€tly oppofite to the
eye, but in PQ quite the contrary, asin LM.’ See fig.
2, Plate X\1.

* The folds of draperies, whatever be the motion of the
figure, ought always to fhew, by the flow of their lines, the
action and attitude of the figure fo clearly, as to leave no
doubt in the mind of the beholder, in regard to the true po-
fition of the body. Let there be no fold which breaks the
form by appearing to cut into the furface of what it covers;
and if the figure be reprefented as covered with feveral gar-
ments one above the other, let not the upper one appear as if
it covered the fleleton only, but let it exprefs a thicknefs of
folds confiftent with the number of the garments beneath.”

* Folds, furrounding the limbs, ought to diminith in thick-
nefs near the extremities of the parts which they furround.’
L, da Vinci.

Befides thefe rules of method in the difpofal of folds, the
painter fhould be watchful to avail himfelf of thofe beauties,
which accident frequently lays before him, in the cafting of
his draperies. There may be a happinefs, an air of nature
in the firft throw of a piece of drapery, which art can more
eafily interrupt than improve. In this cafe, ‘there is a dan-
ger,”’ fays Reynolds, ‘in touching or altering a fold of the
ftuff, which ferves as a model, for fear of giving it, inadver-
tently, a forced form; and it is perhaps better to take the
chance of another throw than to alter the pofition in which
it was at firt accidentally caft.’

But there are, moreover, in nature, many fituations of gar-
ments, or other cloths, into which it is not in the power of
the artift to caft any throw of drapery in fuch a manner as to
allow him opportunities of accurate ftudy: fuch, for initance,
are the light-waving, or agitated folds, occafioned by rapid’
Motion, wind, &c. In all fuch inftances, as he cannot reach
what is abfolutely true, he muft take care that he adopt the
probable, and avoid every fold that is evidently contradiftory
to the ation, and,-of courfe, impofflible in nature ; in doing
which he muft rely on his own knowledge, previoufly ob-
tained by a diligent attention to nature in all her various
appearances. See Nature.

It has been the invariable practice of the painters of the
Italian fchools, from the time of Raffaele to the prefent day,
at the beginning 3 apy great work, after firit fettling

the

DRAPERY,

che diftribution and attitudes of the figures, to fet the dra-
peries on the life, or on fmall models, and to make finifhed,
or, at leaft, highly ftudied, drawings from them, and after-
wards, from thofe drawings, to paint the draperies of their
pictures. Numerous preparatory ftudies of drapery, executed
io this manner for well known works of the moft celebrated
matters, are found in almoft every colicGtion of Italian draw-
ings. Felibien relates, that Annibale Caracci ufed to make
his {cholars caft drapery for his works on living models, and
make correét drawings from them, by which means he ob-
tained the firft defign of his drapery from nature; and that
he then, from thofe drawings, {et his draperies on the lay-
man, in order to paint them at leifure.

Of Diverfity of Stuffs.

Among the many things that are capable of affording
pleafure in a picture, varicty of ftuffs is certainly entitled to
confideration ; but it is a point which has been eftimated
very differently by different {chools. The Venetian and
Flemith {choo!s have appeared to maintain, by their praétice,
that it isnot enough that draperies fhould be varioufly cait,
but that the fluffs themfelves fhould be of various forts, to
the full extent of which the fubje& would admit. ‘ Wool,
linen, cotton, filk, as they are manufaGtured a thoufand ways,
afford the artilt a wide field for choice; by which means he
may introduce a great variety into his works, the more ne-
ceflary, as it avoids a tirefome repetition of folds of the fame
kind, efpecially when many figures are introduced into one
fubje&. Some ftuffs naturally make broken folds, others
more foft and round; fome ftutts are rough-wrought, others
fmooth and glofly; fome are thin and tranfparest, others
more folid and fub{tantial; and this variety, whether dif-
perfed among feveral figures, or colleéted in one, agreeably
to the fubjet, never fails to produce delight to the eye.’

The Roman, Florentine, and Bolognefe {chools, on the
eontrary, have made a general ufe of the fame kind of ftuff
(particularly in hiftorical painting) for the drapery of every
figure in the pi@ture. They conceived this fyitem of drefs-
ing their figures to be confiltent with the dignity of hiftory
and poetry, which are always degraded by individual repre-
fentatyons. ;

Tn thefe opinions fir Jofhua Reynolds feems entirely to
coincide, and every where confiders variety of ftuffs as inimi-
cal to the true ftyle of hiftory. In his ‘* Journey to Hol-
land and Flanders,’? that great painter bas remarked, on a
picture of the * Death of Cleopatra,” painted by Laireffe,
that the ttyle of the work (otherwife good) was degraded by
tke naturalnefs of the white fattin, which is thrown over her.

~The picture, fays fir J., “is as highly finifhed asa Van-

derwerf, but in much better ftyle, excepting the drapery,
which is not equal to Vanderwerf. Vanderwerf painted
what may be truly called drapery; this of Laireffe is not
drapery, itis white fattin.”?

The ancient fculptors have been believed to have made
ufe of wetied linen for the drapery of their fatucs, (although
the great {ubtilencfs of modern drefles might well put this
belief in doubt) and their drapery is moftly uniform in dind.
Modern {culptors, and, particularly of the Flemifh fchcol,
have introduced a greater varicty of {ubttances in drapery ;
but the art of a painter is, for the mott part, mifapplied,
when he imitates the drapery of feulpture.

Of Fariety of Colours in the Stuffs.

‘ Nothing contributes more to the harmony of the whole

together, in moft pictures, than the different colours of dra-

pery,; which ate within the range of the painter’s choice.
With this view, he ftydies the value of each colour when en-

tire, their effet when placed by one ancther, and their dif.
ferent degrees of accord when broken.’ Dupiles,

Drapery, confidered under this head, is capable of affect-
ing the general tone of the impreffion made on the {pe€tator
by any picture. It may contribute to infpire a folemn and
mournful, or a gay and cheerful fentiment. But as under
this head drapery is merely an organ of colour, and partakes,
iv common with every other part of compofition, of the
power of aiding and enriching the general effe@, by the co-
louring of the picture, this divifion of the ftudy of drapery
mutt be referred to the art of colouring.

General Ujes of Drapery.

* Few perfons, at leaf among thofe who are uninitiated
in the myfteries of the painter’s art, can imagine of what
importance drapery 1s in the compofition of a picture. The
art with which the drapery is caft frequently forms the
ground-work of the harmony of the whole work, both as it
relates to colour and chiaro-fcuro, and to the general ar-
rangement of the compofition. In regard to colour and
chiare-fcuro, in order to comply with every thing which the
laws of harmony require, the painter finds an ample refource_
in the liberty he poff-ffes, of giving to his different draperies
fuch colours as conneé and harmonize with the other objets
reprefented in his work, and thus preventing any difcord be-
tween-the parts (fee Harmony): in addition to which, hav-
ing it in his power to dupofe of his folds in fuch a manner
that as they fhall either receive a full light, or light dimi-.
nifhed, more or Je{s, or be entirely in fhadow, he can, by the
turn of a fold, recal the light to any of thofe parts where it
is neceflary, or take it away by the interpolition of more
projecting folds.’ Watelet in the French Encyclopedie.

‘ The painter has the fame power, by means of drapery,
ever the harmony of compofition, or general arrangement _
of his fubje@, as he has over the colouring and chiaro-fcuro,
If he has feveral groups to manage, he ¢ies them, as it were,
together by drapery, employing it to fill the void {paces,
which would otherwife cut them off from each other, and
thus fultaining the attention of the {pectator on the princi-
pal object, by giving it greater confittence and extent, ferving
for its bafe and fupport.’

¢ The fame art contributes to the expreffion of the charac=
ters and the paflions of the perfons reprefented; a truth
which no one will doubt, who reflects how, greatly the idea
we form of ary one, who prefents himfelf before us, is en-
hanced or diminifhed by the garb in which he appears. In
every imitation, therefore, of human appearances, the mode
in which.each figure is clothed, will concur with the paffion
exprefled in that individual, in itrengthening the idea we
conceive of his general character.’ Watelet in the French
Encyclopedie.

This will prefently be fhewn more fully under a fubf{e-
quent head.

Relation of Drapery to Coflume.

Amidit the comprehenfive range of objets which the
ftudies of a painter embrace under the article of Cofume,
or the ufages of different nations, drefs conftitutes a feature
fo readily and familiarly palpable, that it has fometimes, in
vulgar ufe, obtained the appellation of the whole; anda
picture faid to be én the cofume of a country, has beenthought
to mean little elfe than’ that the figures are drefled in the
fafhion of that country. Were this really the fa, the im-
portance of drapery, relatively to coftume, would be of the
highett degree ; but the cafe is far otherwife, Coftume, as
it regards painting, includes every external circumftance by
which the efpecial and charaGeriftic habits of any peoples

7 the

DRAPERY.

the Mores Gentium, can be expreffed to the eye. Every
object of nature and art is preffed into the fervice under this
defcription, and whatever incidental appearances denote the
period, the genius, the manners, the laws, the tafte, the
charaGter, the climate, or the cultivation of a country, all
forms animate or inanimate, the Palms of Syria andthe Py-
ramids of Egypt, the £01 and the Sphinx, are confidered,
in the works of painters, as parts of the coftume of nations,
in the different regions of the earth. The * Battles of Alex-
ande-,”’? by Le Brun, are celebrated in the French fchool
for the great diftin@tions of coftume, which the painter had
the ability to introduce in the combatants of different na-
tions ; diftin@tions, which are afferted to have been, in great
meafure, afcertained by the hues and phyfiognomy of the
refpeCtive warriors, and by the characters of the horfes;
for the fake of accuracy, in which latter point, in reyard to
the Perfians, he had procured drawings of horfes by an ex-
prefs commiffion from Aleppo. Nicolo Pouflis, elfo, has
been admired for his nice attention to coilume in all the fub-
ordinate arrangements of his pictures, by the introdu@ion
of appropriate trees, animals, and buildings; an excellence
which contributed to obtain for him the appellation of
6 Peintredes Gens d’efprit.” -

It is evident, therefore, that in this extenfive fcale of al-
lufion, drefs, the tranfiznt ico’ and victim of fathion, affumes
a very inferior fhare of confequence; and for this reafon, a
rigorous adherence to its minuuiz can feldom be required in
painting.

At the fame time, common fenfe dires one diftinGion to
be carefully preferved, viz. that in drapery, a3 in every
other object of imitation, whatever denotes a general and ef-
fential principle, conformable to the di¢tates of nature, is
by no means to be difpenfed with. In the reprcfentation of
a fultry climate, for inftance, it would be a contradictory
abfurdity to cloath the figures with thick cumberous gar-
ments 3 and, ina cold climate, with thin airy ones. Equaily
abfurd would be the introdu€tion of two dreffes, known
politively to belong to different ages and nations, among a
fet of figures, who, being of the fame {pot and time, ought
all to wear cloathing of the fame kind. But beyond this
general deference to eflential points, every thing feems to be
under the abfolute controul of the painter. The repre-
fentation of events, which have aétually happened in our own
time, can alone have any pretenfion to conkine his choice.

A jult knowledge, therefore, and attention to coftume,
forms a neceflary part of the ftudy of drapery. In portraiture,
the obfervance of coftume may be confidered fo important,
that, unlefs when it obftrudts the general defign of the work,
none but the molt indifpenfable preventions fhould ever be
fuffered to interfere with it. This is particularly the cafe
in the portraits of eminent men, in which every form of
drapery, once worn by the hero of the time, nay, even the
minuteft ornament, becomes valuable to future ages. But,
in the compofition of hiftorical drapery, it is evident that
accuracy of coftume ought by no means to be carried to the
fame degree of ftrictnefs. ‘* To fteera proper courfe in this
refpect,” fays Watelet, “the painter fhould equally avoid
a blind obedience to the judgment of the mere antiquarian,
and of the devotee of modern fafhions. If he confults the
Jatter, he will, for inflance, drefs Cyrus either in Greck or
Roman garments, or partly in both, as chance fhall dire&,
and Caro, revolving in his mind the immortality of the foul,
aod raifing his dagger that he may not furvive the freedom
of the republic—in a night-gown and flippers. On the other
hand, the former, who pafles life in fathoming the depths of
ebicure erudition, and in whom the tatte for the arts and the
pleafurable fenfations they are capable of producing, are

Vou. XII.

ftifled in their birth, will exprefs a difguft, at finding a brafs
nob wanting in the armour of the Horatii, far furpafiing the
feelings excited in his breaft by the moft lively repre(enta-
tion of the aétion. The middle courfe which the painter
ought to keep, is to give to every nation, to the Romans
for example, the drefs worn in the moft renowned period of -
the ftate; he cannot be required to employ the long and
painful refearches, neceflary to acquaint him with every
fhade ef fafhion, which luxury may have introduced among
that celebrated people. He will be ftill more at liberty.
when the fubjeét of his work is taken from remote times end
nations, whote cultoms are lefs known to other countries and
other ages. I will add, that a painter is more excufable
when, without confuiting the coffume, he gives his figures
ideal draperies, than when he clothes them in the drefs of
any other nation than theirown.”? Encyclopedie,

Various charaGers of drapery, adopted by the Ltaltan maflerse

‘In the compofition of draperies, three things are to be
confidered, in order to make them excellent and juftly pro-
portioned, according to the figure on which they are cat.
Firft, they muft be, in regard to their folds, of fuch a qua-
lity, as to fuit exa@ly the perfons who wear them; fecondly,
they mult every where follow the parts of the nude, which
is under them ; and thirdly, they muft be governed by their
fituation, complying with, or following, the xudo, but ot
beyond proper bounds.’

‘In regard tothe firft point; the painter fhould ftudi-
oufly vary the drapery, and the airs of his foldsin ail his
figures, adapting his ftuffs to the nature and charaéter of
the perfons reprefented. If the drefsis that of a philofopher,
or a prophet, he will learn to make it full and Jarge; and
the fewer folds he introduces the better. This has been
feen in the practice of Michael Angelo, inthe « Prophets’’
and ‘ Sybils” painted in the cicling of the chapel which
contains his work of «The Latt Jadgment,” as wellas of
Raffaelle, in many inftances, and of Polydore, when-
ever he had occafion to reprefent figures of that kind;
becaufe, if the folds had been made {mall, they would not
have correfponded with the gravity of demeanour and ma-
jeftic lature of fuch fizures. On the other nand, the perfor
of a Nymph, or other young female, neceffarily requires
light drapery, capable of being moved with every breez-,
and forming {mall folds, fuch as denote a texture of drapery,
{uited to her nature and quality. Drapery, of the fame
kind, has been judzed moft appropriate to angels alfo, as
we fee in the works of Gaudentio, Leonardo, Boceacini,
and Mazzuolino, fuch drapery being bett adapted to the
nature and quality of thofe beings. And, for this reafon,
they have clothed them with thin tranfparent veils, and
light garments wrapped round them, with {mall and minute
folds, but fpreading wider from time to time, according ta
the turn of the figure.’

‘Drapery, with folds neither fo Sew and weighty as the
former, ner fo crowded and narrow as the latter, is fuited to
men of elevated character and matrons of a fuperior clafs ;
fuch, for inftance, as the Virgin Mary, the difciples, and
others of that kind, The painters molt eminent for dra-
peries of this fort were Leonardo, Raffael'e, and Gaudentio :
the 1. of whom added to the excellence of his draperies an
exadt reprefentation of their various fubftances. After thefe,
the moft excellent in this kiud of drapery was Andrea del
Sarto ; and in the German fchool, Ajbert Durer and Ber-
nardo of Bruflels.’

“ Regard mutt alfo be paid to the rank and cendition of
the charaéters reprefented, to which the garments and re-
{pective ornaments fhould be sls Jewels, embroidery,

e filk

DRAPERY,

filk robes, and rich brocades, are well fuited to princes,
queens, and others of the fame rank, but not at all to thefe
whofe beft ornament is modefty of demeanour; fuch as
faints, the Virgie, &c.; whom many painters, and Mazzuc-
ling, for infance, have dreffed with pearls and jewels in their
heads; and it was even at one time the ceftom to reprefent
them with embroidered garments and borders inwoven with
‘gold; a cultom which, or all accounts, cannot be too much
cenfured.’

‘The fecond point regards the folds following the nuda,
and every where correfponding with the ‘figure under them.
This fort of drapery is more artificial than natural, and was
adopted by Michael Angelo co difplay his knowledge;
whence, availing himfelf of the great power he pofleffed in
the difplay of the form and the conneGtion of all the limbs,
he has given an inftance, in-the Pauline chapel in the Vati-
can, of a perfe@ reprefentation of the audo in a clothed
figure. This divine painter was defirdus alfo to demonttrate
by fuch an exemple the d:fficulty of attaining this manner,
as well as his own unweezried indultry in attempting every
method of clothing his figures.’

© Raffaelle, and the others wnom I have mentioned, have
fet better and fafer examples of the moderation which was pro-
pofed as the thi:d point of confideratién; wiz. that the dra-
pery should follow the zudo. but not to-excefs.’

‘ Many other forts of drapery have been adopted by Bra-
mante, Andrea Mantegna, and others who have copied them,
from models clothed with paper and linen glued on.’

‘ Belides thefe, there have been introduced feveral intricate
fyftems of drepery, which ought all to te carefully avoided ;
and, in particular, a certain confufed mode of folds, (as dif-
ferent as any can be from the drapery of Raffaelle,) difco-
vering néither order, beginning, nor end in the various parts,
but the whole garment a chaos of white taffetas, velvets, and
brocades, drawn up into numberlefs minute folds. I do not
fay that this fault 1s found in an extreme degree in the drape-
ries of Titian, Gtorgione, and Giovanni Bellino; but itis ea-
fly to be feen that they have not expreffed the ation of the
figure with the precifion introduced by the manner of cloth-
ing of Raffzelle, Gaudentio, and others above-mentioned.’
Lomazzo dell’Arte della Pittura.

The drapery of Albert Durer was, in Sandrart’s judg-
ment, f{uperior to that of any other painter, both on account
cf its breadth and of the total abfence of all but the moft
neceflary and natural folds; and he aflerts ‘ that it: became
a ftandard for imitation, not only to the Germans, but even
to fome of the moft celebrated cotemporary mafters of the
Italian {chool.’ ‘Thofe beauties for which he praifes it need
not be queftioned: it carefully difplays the figure, and ap-
pears to flow, by a fort of happinefs, with the direGtion of
the limbs ; but the {harp angular contraétion of the folds,
which gives Albert Durer’s drapery an appearance of being
fuddenly pinched in; inttead of folded, is a fault which can, at
prefent, hardly be overlooked, as being neither natural nor
happily artificial.

In a latter period of the Italian fchool two great mafters
of the art of drapery, Guido and Carlo Maratti, have arifen
to eclipfe the fame of all preceding painters, except Raffaelle.
Guido, in his picture of the Dodtors of the Church revolv-
ing the Queftion of the immaculate Conception,”? and in his
itil more celebrated ‘* Aurora,” has left examples of the
moit perfe&t beauty, propriety, and character of drapery.
Jn the former work, the light folds of unfullied whitenefs of
the drapery of the Virgin, mildly and generally illuminated
by 2érial fplendours, and the larger foldings and graver hues
of the garments of the doétors, are equally deferving our ad-
suiration. In the latter, he has exemplified all that is light,

airy, elegant, and graceful in female drapery, caft or falling
into folds by the force of motion or air.

In the pi€ture of the * Doors of the Church” it is to be
remarked, that Guido has entirely laid afide all reference to
coftume, although he did not want precedents for the dreffes
of the principal perfons reprefented ; and that the draperies
are.as purely ideal in that pi€ture as in his other work of po-
etical imagination, the ‘¢ Aurora.”

It is remarkabie, in the progvefs of the Italian {chool,
that, in proportion as the ftyle of art deteriorated, attention
to drapery continued to gain an afcendancy.

In Guido, from the varied beauties which he gaye to his
drapery, from the union of lightuefs, foftnefs, and: breadth
in his folds, drapery firft hecame a predominant feature of hif-
torical defign. Pietro da Cortona, who corrupted art, clothed
his female figures in the moft feduGtive variety of attire.
Andrea Sacchi’s great work, in the church of St. Romu-
aldo, the fourth wonder of Roman painting, derived the
greater portion of its praife from the powerful management
of the drapery in the dreffes of the religious chara@ters in=
troduced in it; and in the time of his {cholar, Carlo Maratti,
the whole ftudy of painting confilted fcarcely in any thing
befides drapery. ;

Of the draperies of Raffaelle, Correggio, and Titian.

€In {peaking of drapery, it is impoffible to withhold
the higheit eulogium from Raffrelle, In his firflt works he
followed the manner of his mafter, Pietro Perugino, in the
difpofition of his folds, as in all other points. He fomewhae
improved his ftyle from the works of Maffaccio, and much
more from thofe of Fra Bartolomeo di San Marco. After-
wards, on feeing the works of the ancients, he abandoned
altogether the {chools of thofe matters, and adopting fuch
rules as he formed from the ftudy of the antique for the na-~

.tural difpofition of his draperies, he acquired that admirable

tafte by which his folds are diftinguifhed.’ A

“He obferved, that the ancients confidered drapery not as
a principal part of their work, but as an acceffory merely;
that their atm was to clothe, but not to conceal the nudo ;
that they did not cover their figures with {craps of cloth, but
with good ufeful drapery, neither prepofteroufly fcanty nor
redundant, but proportioned to the chara&ter, fize, and acs
tion of each figure. He faw that they made large folds to
correfpond with the large parts of the human body, and that
they did not break thofe parts with fmaller accidents, or when
compelled to do fo by the nature of the drapery, that they
introduced {mail folds of little elevation, to prevent them
from appearing principal. Guided by their example, Raf-
taelle alfo gave grandeur to his draperies, by avoiding all fu-
perfluous folds, and placing the pleatings at the joints and
bendings of the limbs, without, in any degree, thereby fhert-
ening the appearance of the figure.”

‘ The fhape of Raffaelle’s folds was regulated bya pro-
portionate adjuftment to the part of the body over which
they were cait; if that was large, he placed a large mals of
folds on it, and where the part was forefhortened, he made
the fame number of folds, but all forefhortened. In his
early works he ufed to mark the limbs, under loofe and
hanging draperies, on one fide only, but he afterwards cor-
re€ted this method and marked them onboth. When the
drapery was detached from the body, he made the folds wide
and open, that they might have no appearance of any limb
under them.’ ,

¢ He did not examine his folds with a view to choofe ont
the moft beautiful, but to adopt fuch as would moft clearly
mark the parts of the body which they covered. He gave
his folds as many various fhapes, as there are mufcles one

urlace «

DRAPERY.

furface of the human body; never however making them
entirely rounc, nor fquare, becaufe the folding of drapery
does nox, i tts nature, admit of {quare forms, unlefs when
they are divide. into two triangies. Over the hollows he
ealt large folds aad pleatings, but never put two of the
fame fize clofe together, nor of equal ftrength and breadth,’

‘ His flying draperies are admirable, becaufe they are all
pleinly moved by one common caufe, the wind. ‘They ap-
pear neither drawn out, nor hung up; and one fold contralts
another agrecably to the natural quality of the drapery.’

© In fome places he brings in fight the hem or border of
the garment, to denote its being really adapted to the body.
He makes no folds, that cannot be accounted for, either
as refulting from their own weight, or from the action of the
limb, to which they correfpond. Sometimes, it is even
difcernible in what form they muf have been previous to
that which they feem to have firft taken, andit appears,
from this ciicumftance, that, even in his draperies, the great

- object of his purfuit was Expression. It is eafy to dif-
tinguifh, inmany of his folds, whether the armor leg on
which they are formed, ftood forward or behind, previous
to the fituation in which he fhews it, and whether the limb
has been altered by contraéting or extending it.’

« In the principal movement of the figure, he obferved,
that when the drapery covers the half of a limb, it marks
the other haif by croffing it obliquely in a triangular form,
and that folds take this form more generally than any cther,
ecaufe whatever draperys is carried acrofs to one fide or
the other mutt neceffarily bend and grow narrow in one part,
and {pread in another ; and this gives it a triangular fhape.’

¢ [have already remarked that Reffaclie, after the ex-

~ ample of the ancients, confidered drapery as an accidental
circumftance, and that great painter, I now add, confidered
the human figure, and the motions of the limbs, as the only
juft caufes of the different direétions of his garments, and
of the variety of the folds in them; deeming it, moreover,
expedient to conceal the ftudy and choice, employed on the
occafion,’

«In the fame manner that Raffaelle direGted every cir-
cumttance to expreffion, Correggio kept always in view the
agreeable, or what was pleafing. He very early quitted the
manner of his predeceflors in art, and as,in general, he
painted his figures from {mail models, which he clothed
with pieces of cloth or paper, he fought every where for
maffes, and, i thofe mafles, for what was pleafing, in pre-
ference to the truth of individual folds; and by thefe means
his draperies are at once large and light, but with very in-
different folds. When he painted from the life, he fome-
times chole his folds very ill, and often concealed or broke
the form of the bodyunderthem. As tothe reit, he made
his draperies of molt beautiful and juicy hues, often intro-

mee dark colours, to give a greater brightnefs to his

ef.”

‘ Titian painted his draperies, as he did moft other
objecis, from imitation merely ; he made them fufficiently
beautiful, ftrongly refembling nature, and with great bright-
nefg and reliefot colour. His linen, in particular, is moft
eminently clear and. {parkling, entirely, however, without
choice in the folds, and exaétly as he found it in the object
before him; on which account he ought not to be imitated
in this point.” Mengs, fobre la belleza y guito enla
pintura.

Drapery of the Ancients. '

As far as any authority can be found, which we may
venture to repeat, the invention of the art of drapery was
of a later date among the Greeks than that of form, We

read that light and fhade, and colour, had been fucceffively
added to the at firft fimple outline, before we meet with the
name of the painter, who difcovered the method of imitating
the folds of drapery. ‘That the ftudy of this fubjedt was
afterwards cucried toan equal degree of excellence with the
other parts of th< art of painting, is moft probable; the
proofrefts on the faith of hiftory.

Of the drapery of the Greek painters, fo extolled by
writers and critics, we hace few examples, beyond the
pictures difcovered at Herculaneum, all of which were pro-
bably executed by inferior artitts, and appear to be but flight
hints of thofe fuperior fources of excellence from which
they muft have defcended. The greateft number of thefe
pictures reprefent female figures, whofe drapery is light, airy,
eafy, exquilitely tafteful, and adapted to the entire difplay
of the figure beneath it. Several inftlances alfo occur, in
the outer garments both of male and female fizures, in which
the drapery is of a larger and heavier caft, with broad folcs,
but equally well adjufted with the former, for fhewing with
precifion the intent of the a&tion, or the quiefcent pofture
of the limbs.

If we may truf% to the reports of Pliny, refpecting the
excellencies of the Greek painters, the curtain painted by
Parrhafius, in his conteft for pre-eminence with Zeuxis,
however confined an idea it may give us of the {cope of
graphic excellence at that period, at leat demontftrates, that
the painter was fkilled in the imitation of the natural appear-
ances of drapery. But no examples of this kind are come
downtous. Fromthofe paintings, which we fee, of the
Greck f{chool, we can only afcertain, that the fame prin-
ciple of order in the folds, which prevails in the difpofition
of drapery in their ftatues, appears to pervade alfo the pro«
duGtions of their pencil; the fame beauty of method every
where predominates ; while the juft diftin@ions, which fe-
parate the reprefentationsof painting fromthofe of fculpture,
are at the fame time to no inconfiderable extent, forcibly,
judicioufly, and fyftematically preferved. The flow of the
foids is fuller, more free, and, in proper places, detached
from the obje& that fupports them. Although they every
where convey thediftinG idea of the form, they no where cling
to the body ; and they furnifh a fufficient, though unre=
garded leffon to thofe painters, who, in fome of the modern
{chools, and particularly in the French fckoo!, have abfurdly
imagined that they were imitating the beauty of antique
draperies, when they made their pi€tures refemble antique
ftatues. ‘The difpofing cf the drapery,’ fays Reynolds, ‘fo as
to appear to cling clofe round the limbs, is akind of pedan-
try which young painters are very apt to fell into, as it
carries with it a relifh of the learning acquired from the
ancient ftatues, but they fhould recolle€& there 13 not the
fame neceflity for this praétice in paiating as in {culpture.’

In the flying draperies of nymphs and other dancing
figures, the piétures of Herculaneum exhibit the moft ac-
knowledged f{pecimens of excellence, in the artful difpofition
of folds of that defcription, never afterwards approached by
any painter, unlefs by Raffaelleand Guido.

Other modes of Drapery.

Befides the fuperior ftyle of drapery adopted by the ane -
cients, by Raffaelle (fo welldeferibed by Menges.) by thofe
mentioned in the precepts of Lomazzo, and by their fuc-
ceeding difciples, another diftinét clafs of drapery remains
tobe noticed, confiftiag in ap union of the pi@arefyue with
coftume, by a bold difpofition of rea) dreff@s of a particular
time, without regard to their formal adjultment; and by
treating them in every refpe&, with the fame freedom that
would attend the difpofal of draperies merely ideal. [n

ez this

DR A

this mode of reprefenting hiftorical draperies, Paul Veronefe,
and, next to him, Rubens, have fet the moft confpicuous
examples. They have, witha ftrict local adherence to the
coftume of drefs, generalized particular forms into ample
mafles, rendered minutiz fubfervient to the increafe of the
whole effe&t, and, withal, made them the inftruments of
fo impofing and delightful {plendour, as precludes all feverity
of reflection on the incongruities arifing from their practice,

The fource of this example, in the Venetian fchool, is to
be traced to the celebrated piflure by Titian, reprefent-
ing the murder of St. Pietro Martyre. The bold poetic
ule, there made of the formal religious drefs, particu-
jarly in the figure running away, freed the art at once
from its fuppofed inability of uniting force and grandeur of

_imagination with attention to coftume in drefs, and led his
followers to attempts of the fame nature, which, under the
guidance of lefs powerful judgment, often rendered their
works a kind of carricature in hiltory, or little better than
an hiftorical mafquerade.

Raffaelle is welt faid, by a French writer, to haye been the
belt painter of drapery, and Paul Veronefe the beit painter
of flufs.

There can be no drapery more faulty in painting or {culp-
ture, than that which, in either art, affe€ts to refemble the
produGtions of the other. Ii is not to be denied, that in
the higheft of all examples of fculpture, the works of
Phidias, fuch drapery is to be found, as from its foftnefs and
breadth (founded on a knowledge of principles poffcfled
only by himfelf), may fafely be transferred to painting,
Such, for initance, is the drepery of the two females fitting
together, in the colleG&ion brought from Athens by the earl
of Elgin, in which every quality of beauty ef form and cha-
raGer is combined. But without this confummate knows
ledge, the experiment, whenever it has been made, has been
generally unfuccefsful, Painting, imitating the drapery of
foulpture, has produced garments of ropes; and {culpture,
imitating that of painting, has left it doubtful if it defigned
to reprelent clothes or rocks. ;

The requilite diftmGion between the proper management
of drapery in painting and in fculpture, is moft inftructively
exemplified in the practice of that great matter of both arts,
M. Angelo Buonaroti. Du Frefnoy has jultiy pointed out
this diflrnGion ; the large folds, he remarks, and mafly gar-
ments, with which the prophets, in the Siftine chapel, are
invelted, are confeffedly fuck as correfpond with the powers of
painting, and peculiarly adapted to the awful charaéter of
the perfons who wear them: but, in the monument of
Julins TL., in the church of San Pietro in Vincolt, the ftatue
of Mofes, although by the charaéter of the perfon repre-
ented, it evidently takes the fame clafs as the figures of the
prephets, has nothing of the fame kind of drapery. The
dre{s is caft clofer round the limbs, the folds are thinner,
narrower, and, in every refpeG, fuch as the properties of
{culpture render neceflary, for the jult expreffion of the forms
of the figure.

Detached Drapertes.

The ufes of drapery, in balancing the parts of a compo-
fition, or in uniting and tying the whole together, have al-
ready been noticed; and examples are to be feen in nume-
rous works of almoft every painter. In the conduét of this
part of the art, the fame rules which have been applied to
the foldings of drapery connected with the human figure,
will hold good, though in a fubordinate degree, when ap-
plied to all draperies detached from the figure, and in fome
meafure iodependent of it. Drapery, on whatever obje& it
falls, itill bears an effential relation to that object, and will,

DRA

by the nature of its folds, more or lefs exprefs the nature of
its {eEpare and it mult, in painting, be adjufted accord-
ingly.

But, large maffes of drapery, almoft wholly detached
and independent, have fometimes been fo powerfully em-
ployed by the painter, as to con{titutea predominant feature
of his compofition. ‘Two meit eminent 1 {tances of this ufe
of drapery are, the famous ‘ Defcent from the Crofs” by
Rubens, and the no Jefs famous * Table Cloth” by Titian.
In both of thefe- pictures, the principal effe& of light is
formed by the difplay of an extended piece of linen, which,
in the former, involves the greater portion of the compofition,
and, in the latter, forms the foremoft and molt attra¢tive ob-
je&. With thefe inttances, however, of drapery, (if it may
properly be fo cailed) the ftudy of the art is little conneGted,
in any other point than in its power of aifilling colour, and
eff-& of chiaro-feuro in general. The diftinétion of the
parts of the drapery feems here to have had very little fhare
in the painter’s thoughts ; their object being effeét, and not
folds; and all draperies of fuch a nature muft, therefore,
Rridtly {peaking, be referred to the articles Colour and
Effet, as fubordinate branches of thofe heads.

This article cannot be better clofed than by the brief,
comprehenfive remarks of our inimitable Reynolds. They
are, as follows, in his fourth difcourfe delivered at the Royal
Academy:

* In the fame manner as the hiftorical painter never enters
into the detail of colours, fo neither does he debafe his con-
ceptions with minute attention tothe difcriminations of dra-
pery. lt :s the inferior ftyle that marks the variety of ftuffs.
With him, the clothing 1s neither woollen, nor linen, nor
filk, fattin, or velvet ; it is drapery ; it is nothing more.”

©The art of difpofing of the folds of drapery makes a
very confiderable part of the paiater’s ftudy. To make it
merely natural is a mechanical operation, to which neither
genius or talte is required; whereas, it requires the niceft
judgment to difpofe the drapery, fo that the folds have an
eafy communication, and gracefuliy follow each other, with
fuch natural negligence as to look like the effe& of chance,
and at the fame time, fhew the figure under it to the utmoft
advantage.’

Carlo Maratti was of opinion, that the diffofition of
drapery was a more difficult art than even that of drawing the
human figure; that a ftudent might be more eafily taught
the latter than the former; as the rules of drapery, he faid
could not be fo well afcertained as thofe for delineating a
corre&t form.’

¢ This, perhaps, is a proof how willingly we favour our
own peculiar excellence, Carlo Maratti is faid to have va-
lued himfeif particularly upon his {kill in this part of his arts
yet, in him, the difpofition appears fo artificial, that he is in
ferior to Raffaelle, even in that which gave him his beft claim
to reputation.’

Drapery, in Sculpture. See Scurpture.

DRAPETES, in Botany, fo named by fir Jofeph Banks
and Dr. Solander. Apax¢inc, a runaway fervant, may allude
to the fugacious nature of the flowers, concerning whichy
however, we have no information, or to the ftation of the
plant in a remote country, far away from its more gorgeous
or elegant fuperiors, Daphne, Gnidia, &c. of the fame natural
order. Lamarck, who firlt publifhed this genus, leaves the
name unaccounted for. Lamarck in Journ. d’Hift. Nat.
v. 1.186. Clafsand order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord
Thymelee, Juff. :

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth coloured, funnel-fhaped, regular
four-cleft; its fegments upright, lanceolate, bearded, nearly
equal. Cor. none, except the calyx be taken for fuch.

2 Stans

DRA

Siam. Filaments four, thread-fhaped, equal, longer than the
calyx, inferted into its tube ; anthers ovate, of two ceils,
Pift. Germen fuperior; ftyle very fhort; {tigma not obferved.
Peric. a dry drupa, invefted with the permanent bafe of the
calyx. Sced folitary, ovate, pointed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx funnel-fhaped, coloured, four-cleft. Co-
rolla none. Stamens projeting. Drupa dry, fuperior,
rwith one feed.

D. mufeofus, Lamarck in Journ. d?Hift. Nat. v. 1. 189.
t. 10. f. 1, the only known f{pecies, grows among rocks by
the fea-fide at Staten Land, flowering in December or Janu-
‘ary, where it was gathered by the eminent botanifts above-
mentioned, as well as by Commerfon and Mr. A. Menzies.
The flems are perennial and fomewhat fhrubby, though not
above three inches high, very flender, and thread-fhaped.
‘They are branched, forming tufts, leafy in their upper part,
‘befet with-fears in the lower, where former leaves have been.
Leaves imbricated, oppofite, crofling each other in pairs,
{mall, feflile, obovate, obtufe, concave, entire, veiny, exter-
nally briltly, deciduous, without ftipulas. /owers very
{mall, in ftalked, terminal, folitary little heads, each ftalk
hairy, invelted with a fheathing deciduous leaf, and at length
becoming near an inch long. The head confifts of four or
five flowers, each on a very fhort partial ftalk, which is
crowned with numerous white frigid brifties, encompaffing
the bafe of the flower, hke an involucrum, or additional calyx,
‘but they are exa@lly like the general pubefcence of the plant,
and do not, in our opinion, make a part of the fructification,
though Lamarck reckons them “ hairs of the receptacle,”
according to the analogy of Dais. Calyx white, externally
hairy, very flender at the bafe. Stamens about twice as long
as the fegments of its border, capillary, fpreading. The
flowers and fruit pafs away, leaving the flalks crowned with
the filvery permanent tufts of the hairs above defcribed.

DRAPSACA, in Ancient Geography, a town in or near
Battriana, according to Arrian, and {uppofed by Ortelius to
be the fame with Drep/z, which Ptolemy makes the metro-

polis of Sogdiana.

DRASON, a town of Afia, in Phrygia.

DRASTIC, from dea», J ad, a ftrong and powerful
medicine; more particularly, a purgative that works with
fpeed and vigour ; as jalap, {cammony, and the other ftronger
cathartics.

DRASTOGA, or Drasroca, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, towards the fources of the river Dargomanes,
in the country of Paropanifus. It was bounded on the north
and weft by a mountain of this name.—Alfo, a town of
A\fia, in India, on this fide of the Ganges ; placed by Pto-
lemy in the country called Goricea.

DRATIGENA, a country of Afia, fo called by Poly-
bius, who fays, that Antiochus took pofleflion of it, and
made it his winter-quarters, Some have thought that it is
miftaken for Drangiana. 7

DRAUCA, atown of the ifland of Crete.

DRAUDIUS, Georce, a German, aut! 0: of a work en-
titled ** Bibliotheca Claffica,” ia two huge volumes 4to.

Frankfort, 1625; m which are inferted the titles of all kinds
of books, It is merely a crowded catalogue of all the works
which had appeared at the Frankfort fairs; but they are not
well arranged, or very eafily found, and the errors are innu-
merable. However, many have been corrected in later edi-
tions, and though {ftill incorreét, it is-a very ufeful cata~
logue, particularly for German books, and mufical publica-
tions.

DRAVE, in Latin Dravus, in Geography, a con-
fiderable river of Hungary, which, iffuing out of the pro-
vince of Stiria in Aultria, divides Hungary from Sclavonia,

DRA

and at laft empties itfelf into the Danube near Darda, be-
low Effeek in Hungary.

DRAUGHY, in Architedure, is the reprefentation of a
building delineated on paper, explaining the various parts
of the exterior and interior by means of plans, elevations,
and feétions drawn to a f{eale, by which all the parts are re-
prefented on a plane in the fame proportions of the different
fides of the intended edifice, or, at lealt, the proportions
may be afcertained from thefe drawings. ‘The extent of
the tuilding, with regard to its horizontal dimenfions, is
afcertained by means ot plans. The dimentfions of the verti-
cal faces are generally obtained by the elevations and fec-
tions, and always when the plane of delineation is parailel to
thefe faces. ‘Che vertical dimenfions of buildings, upon cir-
cular and polygonal plans, muft be found partly from the
plans, and partly from the elevations or fections. Over and
above general plans, elevations, and feCtions in complex build-
ings, a fet of drawings, fhewing the detail of the fma'ler parts,
will be neceflary.

Belides thefe drawings, which are ufed in the condudting
of the work, perfpective reprefentations for the ufe of the
proprietor will alfo be neceflary, in order that he may form
a juft idea of the edifice which he intends to rear in one or
more points of view. ;

When the feveral ftorics of a building differ in their con-
ftruction, each ftory requires a feparate plan. ‘The fection
is generally taken, parallel to one of the fides of the edifice,
through the moft complex part of it. In this the ftair-cafe
is commonly fhewn. Mott buildings require, at leaft, two
feGtions; fome many more. When the fides of a building
are diffimilar, as many elevations will be required as there
are fides.

The number, the form, and the difpofitions of rooms, are
fhewn by the plans.

He who gives the feveral defigns of a building ought to
be well acquainted with the nature of its fabrication, or of
con{truétion in general, before he commits his ideas to paper,
and to the examination of the public, or otherwife he will be
liable to cenfure.

Dravcurt-Horfe. See Horse.

Dravent, in Mechanics, the force or power neceflary to
move any machine, as a horfe-mill, waggon, cart, plough,
&c. For accurately and conveniently afcertaining the draught
of (or power exerted by) horfes, oxen, men, &c. in draw-
ing, as alfo for determining the direct pull or ftrain on any
rope, chain, &c., various machines have been invented,
fome of which we propofe to defcribe under the article Dy-
NAMOMETER, which fee.

Dravucurt, in Medicine. See Potion.

Dravent, in Painting, &e. See Desicn.

DrauGut, in Jrade, is anallowance made in the weight
of commodities ; the fame as clough.

Draveut, isalfo ufed fometimes for a bill of exchange,
and commonly for an order for the payment of any fum of
money, due, &c. henthe perfon who gives the order is
faid to draw upon the other.

Dravent, redudion of a.
TAGRAPH.

Draucur-Compafes, thole provided with feveral move-
able points, to draw fine draughts in architeCture, &c. See
Compass.

Dravent and Cording of Looms, fignifies,among Weavers,
the art of adapting thofe parts of a loom which move the warp,
to the formation of various kinds of ornamental figures upon
cloth. In every fpecies of weaving, whether direct or
crofs, the whole difference of pattern or effect is produced,

either by the fucceflion in which the threads of warp are in-
troduced

See Repucrion, and Prn-

DRAUGHT.

troduced into the heddles, or by the fucceffion in which
thofe heddles zre moved in the working. "The -heddles be-
ing ttretched between two fhafts of wood, all the heddles
connected by the fame fhafts are called a leaf, and as the
operation of introducing the warp into any number of leaves
is celled drawing a warp, the plan of fucceffion ts called
the draught. When this operation has been perfarmed cor-
_ yeétly, the next part of the weaver’s bufinefs 1s to conneét
the different leaves with the levers or treddtes by which they
are to be moved, fo that one or more may be raifed or funk
by every treddle fucceffively, as may be required to effe&t the
pattern required. ‘Thefe conneétions being made by coup-
ling the diflerent parts of the apparatus by cords, this opera-
tion is called.the cording In order to dire& the operator in
th's part of his bufinefs, efpecially if previoufly unacquainted
with the particular pattern upon which he is employed, plans
are drawn upon paper, {pecimens of which will be found
in Plate X11. Mifcellany. 'Thefe plans are horizontal fec-
tions of a loom, the heddles being reprefented acrefs the pa-
per.at A, and the treddles under them, and croffing them
at right angles at B. In figs. 1-and 2, they are reprefented
as difting& pieces of wood, thofe acrofs being the under fhaft
of each leaf of heddles, and thofe at the left hand the tred-
dies. In adtual weaving, the treddles are placed at right-
angles to the heddles, the finking cords defcending perpen-
.diculatly, as nearly as poffible, to the centre of the Jatter.
Piacing them at the left hand therefore, is only for ready in-
fpeétion, and-for practic2l convenience. AtC, a few threads
of warp are fhewn as they pafs through the heddles, and the
marks denote the leaf with which each thread is connected.
Thus in fig. 1, the right-hand thread, next to A, paffes
through the eye of a heddle upon the back leaf, and is dif-
connected with all the other leaves; the next thread pales
through a heddle on the fecond leaf; the third through the
third leaf; the fourth through the fourth leaf, and the fifth
through the fifth or front leaf. One fet of the draught be-
ing now compleated, the weaver again begins with the back
leaf, and proceeds in the fame fucceflion again to the front.
Two fets of the draught are reprefented in this figure, and
the fame fucceffion, it is underftood by weavers, (who fel-
dom draw more than one fet,) muft be repeated-until ali the
warp is included. When they proceed to apply the cords,
the left-hand part of the plan at B ferves as a guide. In
all the plans upon this plate, excepting one which fhall be
noticed, a connection muft be formed by cording between
every leaf of heddles and every treddle; for all the leaves
muft either rife or fink. The raiding motion is cffeGted by
coupling the leaf to one end of its correfpondent top lever;
the other end of this lever is tied to the long march below,
and this to the treddle. The finking connection is carried
dire&tly from under the leaf to the treddle. To dire&ta
weaver which of thefe connections is to be formed with each
treddle, a -black {pot is placed when a leaf is to be raifed,
where the leaf and treddle interfe€t each other upon the
plan, and the finking conneétions are left blank. For ex-
ample, to cord the treddle 1. To the back leaf put a raif-
ing cord, and to each of the other four finking cords. For
the treddle 2, raife the fecond leaf, and fink the remaining
four, and fo of the reft ; the {pot always denoting the leaf
or leaves to be railed. The figs, t and 2 are drawn for the
purpofe of rendering the general principle of this kind of
plans familiar to thofe who have not been previoufly ac-
quainted with them; but thefe, who have been accuftomed
to manufaéture and weave ornamented cloths, never contume
time by reprefenting either heddles or treddles as folid or
ditting&t bodies. They content themfelyes with ruling a
number of lines acrofs a piece of paper, fufficient to make
i

the intervals between thefe lines reprefent the number of
leaves required. Wpon thefe intervals, they merely mark
the fucceffion of the draught, without producing every line
to refemble a thread of warp. At the left-hand they draw
as many lines acrofs the former as will afford an interval for .
each treddle, and in the fquares, produced by the interes
feGtions of thefe lines, they place the dors, fpots, or cy-
phers, which denote the raifing cords. It is alfo common
to continue the crofs lines, which denote the treddles a con-
fiderable length beyond the interfeGtions, and to mark, by
dots, placed diagonally in the intervals, the order or fuccei-
fion in which the treddles are to be prefled down jn weaving.
The former of thefe modes has been adopted in the remain-
ing ptin, upon the plate, but to fave room the latter has
been avoided, and the fucceflion marked by the order of the
fizures under the intervals which denote the treddles,

Some explanation of the various kinds of fanciful cloths,
reprefented by thefe plans, may ferve further to illuftrate
this fubjeét, which is, perhaps, the moft important
of any conneGted with the manufacture of cloth, and will
alfo enable a perfon, who thorexghly fludies them,
readily to acquire a competent knowledge of the other vari-
eties in weaving, which are boundlefs. igs. 1 and 2 re-
prefent the draught and cording of the two varieties of
tweeled cloth wrought with five leaves of heddies. The firit
is the regular or rua tweel, which, as every leaf rifes in re-
gular fucceffion, while the reft are funk, interweaves the warp
and woof only at every fifth interval, and as the fucceflion
is uniform, the cloth, when woven, prefents the appearance of
parallel diagonal lines, at an angle of about 45° over the
whole furface. When there is no other figure upon the
cloth, and the fabric is fine, this produces a very pleafing
effe&t, aud is much ufed, efpecially in the manufaGiure of
filks of various defcriptious. Tweeling is alfo much em-
ployed in the coarfer deferiptions of cloths made from every
kind of material employed in the manufacture. In the h-
nen, it is ufed for fheeting and many other kinds of houfe-
hold cloths which require durability: Many of the ftronger
kinds of woollen cloths are alfotweeled. Goods are manu-
factured in very great variety in Lancafhire from cotton, and
many kinds of fanciful tweeling introduced. A tweel may
have the regularity of its diagonal lines broken, by applying
the cording as in fig. 2. It will be obferved, that in both
figures the draught of the warp is precifely the fame, and
that the whole aetnes of the two plans confilts in the order
of placing the fpots denoting the raifing cords, the firft
being regular aud fucceffive, the fecond*alternate.

Figs. 3 and 4 are the regular and broken tweels which
may be produced with eight leaves. ‘This properly is the
tweel denominated fattin in the filk manufacture, although
many webs of filk, wrought with only five leaves, receive
that appellation. Some of the fineft Florentine filke are
tweeled with fixteen leaves. When the broken tweel of
eight leaves is ufed, the effeét is much fuperior to what could
be produced by afmaller number, for in this two leaves are
pafled in every interval, which gives a much nearer refem-
blance to plain cloth than the others. For this reafon it is
preferred in weaving the fineft damafks. ‘The draught of the
eight leaf tweei differs in nothing from the others, except-
ing in the number of leaves. The difference of the cording
in the broken tweel will appear by infpecting the cyphers
which mark the raifing cords, and comparing them with thofe
of the broken tweel of five leaves. Jig. 5. reprefents the
draught and cording of ftriped dimity of a tweel of five leaves.
This is the moft fimple {pecies of fanciful tweeling, It
confifts of ten leaves, or double the number of the common
tweel. Thefe ten leaves are moved by only five treddles in

the

DRAUGHT.

the fame manner as acommon twee). The ftripe is formed
by one fet of the leaves flufhing the warp, and the other fet

the woof. The fig. inthe Plate reprefents a ftripe formed’

by ten threads, alternately drawn through each of the two fets
of leaves. In this cafe, the ftripe andthe intervals will be
equally broad, and what is the ftripe upon one fide of the
cloth, will be the interval upon the other, and vice ver/a.
But great variety of patterns may be introduced by drawing
the warp in greater or {maller portions through either fet.
The tweel is of the regular kind, but may be broken, by
placing the cording as in fig.2. It will be obferved that:
the cording marks of the lower or front leaves, are exactly
the converfe of the other fet ; for where a raifing mark is
placed upon one, it is marked for finking in the other; that
is to fay, the mark is omitted; and all leaves which fink in
the one, are marked for raifing in the other: thus one thread
rifes in fucceflion in the back fet and four fink, but in the
front fet four rife and only one finks, The woof, of courfe,
pafling over the four funk threads, and under the raifed one,
m the firft inftance, {s flufhed above; but where the reverfe
takes place, as in the fecond, it is fltifhed below, and thus
the appearance of a ftripe is formed. The analogy fubfilt-
ing between ftriped dimity and dornock is fo great, that
before noticing the plan for fancy dimity, it may be proper
to allude to the dornock, the plan of which is reprefented by

ig. 6.

The draught of dornock is precifely the fame, in every
refpect, with that of ftriped dimity. It alfo confilts of two
fets of tweeling heddles, whether three, four, or five leaves,
are ufcd for each fet. The left hand fet of treddles is alfo
eorded exaétly in the fame way, as will appear by compar-
ing them. Bur, as the dimity is 2 continued {tripe from the
beginning to the end of the web, only five treddles are re-
quired to move ten leaves: The dornock, being checker-
work, the weaver mutt poffeis the power of reverfing this at
pleafure. He therefore adds five more treddles, the cording
of which is exaGly the reverfe of the former; that is to fay;
the back leaves in the former cafe having one leaf raifed and
four funk, have, by working with thefe additional treddles,
ene leaf funk and four leaves raifed. The front leaves are
in the fame manner reverfed, and the mounting is compleat.
So long as the weaver continues to work with either {ct, a
ftripe will be formed as in the dimity, but when he changes
his feet from one fet to the other, the whole effe& is reverfed,
and the checkers formed. The dornock pattern upon the
defign paper, Plate A, may be thus explained: let every
fquare of the defign reprefent five threads upon either fet of
heddles, which are faid by weavers to be once over the
draught, fuppofing the tweel to be one of five leaves: draw
three parallel lines, as under, to form two-intervals, each
reprefenting one of the fets: the draught will then be as
follows :— :

len AS IEE dene eee US

The above is exaétly fo much of the pattern as is there laid
down, to fhew its appearance, but one whole range of the
pattern is compleated by the figure 1 neareft to the right
hand upon the lower interval between the lines, and the re-
maining figures nearer to the right form the beginning of a
fecond range or fet. Thefe are to be repeated in the fame
way acrofs the whole warp. The lower interval reprefents
the five front leaves; the upper interval the five back ones.
The firft figure 4 denotes that five threads are to be fuccef-
fively drawn upon the back leaves, and this operation repeat-
ed four times. The firlt figure 4 in the lower interval ex-

preffes that the fame is to Le done upon the front leaves, and
each figure, by its diagonal pofition, fhews how often, and
in what fucceffion five threads are to be drawn upon the
leaves, which the interval in which it is placed reprefents.

Dornocks of more extenfive patterns are fometimes woven
with 3, 4, 5, and even 6 fets of leaves ; but after the leaves
exceed 15 in number, they beth occupy an inconvenient
fpace; and are very unwieldy to work. For thefe reafons
the diaper harnefs is in almoft every inftance preferred.

Fig. 7, reprefents the draught and cording of a fanciful
{fpecies of dimity, which has been manufactured to great
extent, although the prevalent tafte for fimplicity of pattern
of the prefent day has rendered it lefs an obje¢t of demand
than formerly. In this plan it will be obferved, that the
warp is not drawn direétly from the back to the front leaf
as in the former examples; but when it has arrived at either
external leaf, the draught is reverfed, and returns gradually
to the other. The fame draught is frequently ufed in
tweelin., when it is wifhed that the- diagonal lines fhoul
appear upon the cloth ina zig-zag dire€tion. This plan ex-
hibits the draught and cording, which will produce the pat~
tern upon the defign paper in Plate A. Were all the {quares-
produced by the interfeCtion of the lines denoting the leaves
and treddles, where the raifed dots are placed, filled the fame
as on the defign, they would produce the effet of exattly -
one-fourth of that pattern. . This is cavfed by the reverfing
of the draught, which gives the other fide reverfed as on the
defign, and when all the treddles, from 1 to 16, have becn
fucceflively ufed in the working, one-half of the pattern
will be complete. The weaver then goes again over his
treddles in the reverfed order of the numbers, from 17 to 30,
when the other half of the pattermwill be completed. From
this fimilarity ofithe cording to the defign, it 13 eafy, when
a defign is given, to make out the draught and cording pro-
per to work it, and when the cording is piven to-fee its
effe&t upon the defign. ;

Fig. 8, reprefents the draught of ‘the diaper mounting,
and the cording of the front leaves, which are moved by =
treddlee.. The. mounting, which raifes the leaves of the har-
nefs, muft be taken from the defign paper, ina way fimilar
to that ufed for the draw loom, and as defcribed in that ar-
ticle. From the plan it will appear, that five threads are
included in every mail of the harnefs, and that thefe are
drawn in fingle threads through the front leaves, as defcribed
in the article Diarer. ‘The cording forms an exception to -
the general rule, that when one or more leaves are raifed,
ail the reft mutt be funk, for in this inflance one leaf rifes,
one finks, and three remain ftationary. An additional
mark, therefore, isufedin this plan. The dots, as formerly,
denote raifing cords, the blanks finking cords, and where -
the cord is to be totally omitted the crofs marks. x are
placed.

Fig. 9, is the draught and cording of a {pot whofe two
fides are fimilar, but reverfed. That upon the plan forms 4
diamond, fimilar to the one drawn upon ghe deliga paper,
Plate A, but {mallerin fize. The draught here is reverfed,
aa in the dimity plan, and the treading is alfo to be reverfed
after arriving at 6, to complete the diamond, Like-it too,
the raifing marks form one-fourth of the pattern. In weave
ing fpots, they are commonly placed at intervals, with a
portion of plain cloth between them, and are generally placed
in alternate rows, the {pots of one row being between thofe
of the other. But as intervals of plain cloth mutt take
place, both by the warp and woof, two leaves are added for
that purpofe. The front, or ground leaf, includes every
fecond thread of the whole warp. The fecond, or plain
leaf, that part which forms the intervals by the warp. The

remaining

DRA

remaining leaves form the fpots; the firft fix being allotted
to one row of fpots, and the fecond fix to the next row,
where each fpot is in the centre between the former. ‘The
rever(ed draught of the firft is fhewn entire, and is fucceeded
by twelve threads of plain. One-half of the draught of the
next row is then given, which is to be completed exadtly
like the firit, and fucceeded by twelve threads more of plain,
when one fet of the pattern being finifhed, the fame fuccef-
fion is to be repeated over the whole warp. As fpote are
formed by inferting woof of coarfer dimenfions than that
which forms the fabric, every fecond thread only is allotted
for the fpotting. Thofe included in the front, or ground
leaf, are therefore reprefented by lines, and the fpot threads
between them by marks in the intervals, as in the other
lans.

The treddles neceflary to work this {pot are in number
fourteen. Of thefe, the two in the centre, A, B, when
prefled alternately, will produce plain cloth, for B raifes
the front leaf, which includes half of the warp, and finks all
the relt, while A exactly reverfes the operation. The fpot-
treddles, on the left-hand, work the row contained in the
fir(t fix {pot-leaves, and thofe upon the right-hand the row
contained in the fecond fix. In working {pots, one thread,
or thot of {potting-woof, and two of plain, are fucceflively
inferted by means of two feparate fhuttles.

Diffimilar fpots are thofe whofe fides are quite different
from each other. The draught only of thefe is reprefented
by fig. 10. The cording depends entirely upon the figure,
and may be fupplied by the following fimple rule: Having
ruled the lines which reprefent the heddles, and crofled
them by thofe reprefenting the treddles, tquares will be
formed fimilar to thofe upon defign-paper. The pattern
being drawn upon defign-paper, let the lines denoting the
heddles reprefent the lines of the defign, from top to
bottom of the paper, and the treddle-lines the crofs-lines.
Place a raifing-dot for every {quare which is coloured on the
defign, and the plan of cording will be corre&t. It is necef-
fary, however, to remark, that when more than one fquare
is included between the fame parallel-lines, from top to
bottom of the defign, it is needlefs to transfer it more than
once to the cording plan, for the treddle, being once marked,
will repeat the operation as often as it is prefled, and, there-
fore, more than one treddle, for the fame operation,
would only load the loom with ufelefs and cumbrous
machinery. ‘The plain leaves and additional leaves, for
placing one row in the bofom of another, are quite the fame
in {pots, whether fimilar or diffimilar. There As, indeed, a
{pot called a papet-{pot, where all the warp is upon {pot-
leaves, except the intervals, and every fecond thread of woof
is then coarfe. It is undoubtedly fuperior in effe& to the
common {pot; but, as it requires nearly twice the mount-
ing, it is very expentive, and, therefore, little ufed. Some
very beautiful {pecimens of it are occafionally imported from
India.

DaaucutT-hooks, are large hooks of iron fixed on the
cheeks of a cannon-carriage, two on each fide, one near the
trunnion hole, and the other at the train, and are called the
fore and hind draught-hooks. Large guns have draught-
hooks near the middle tranfom, to which are fixed the
chains, which ferve to eafe the fhafts of the limbers on a
march. The fore and hind-hooks are ufed for drawing a
gun backwards or forwards, by men with ftrong ropes,
ealled draught, or drag-ropes, fixed to thefe hooks.

DRAUNSEN-SEE, in Geography, a lake of Proffia, in
the province of Ermeland, a little to the fouth of Elbing.

DRAVUS, in Ancient Geography, the name of a con-
fiderable river in Germany, which difcharges itfelf into the

DR A

“Danube. It is alfo called Draus and Dravis. Ptolemy
fays, that in his time the Barbarians called it Daris. It
commenced to the north of the Carnic Alps, ran to the
eaft, watered the towns of Virunum, Peetovio, Jovia, and
Murfa, and joined the Danube, to the eaft of Cornacum.
It is now called the Drave, which fee. 1

DRAW. A thip is faid to draw fo much water, accord-
ing to the number of feet fhe finks into it.

Thus, if fifteen feet from the bottom of her be under
water, or if fhe fink into the water Gftcen feet perpendi-
cularly, fhe is faid to draw fifteen feet water ; and according
as fhe draws more, or lefs, fhe is faid to be ef more, or Icfs
draught; and that this may ke more readily known, the
feet are marked on the ftern and ftern-poft regularly from
the keel upwards. Drawing denotes alfo the tate of the
fail, when it is inflated with the wind, fo as to advance the
veffel in her courfe: and fo keep all drawing is to inflate ali
the fails.

Draw, in Agriculture, is fometimes ufed for a {pit, or
fpade’s-graft, or the depth to which a fpade, or tool, wiil.
cut at once.

Draw, in the Fore? Law. See Doc-draw.

Draw, in Geography, a town of Pertia, in the province
of Segettan ; 70 miles N.W. of Zareng.

Draw-dack, in Commerce, a rebate, or difcourt, upon the
price of commodities, purchafed on certain conditions. See
Rebate and Discount.

Draw-back is more particularly ufed to denote certain
duties, either of the cuitoms, or of excife, that are allowed
upon the exportation of {ome of our own manufactures, or
upon certain foreign commodities that have paid a duty at
importation. =

The oaths of the merchants importing, or exporting, are
required, to obtain the draw-back of foreign goods, affirm. -
ing the truth of the officer’s certificate of the entry, and the
due payment of the duties; and thefe may be made by the
agent, or hufband of any corporation, or company, or by
the known fervant of any merchant, ufnally employed in
making his entries, and paying his cuftoms. (2 and 3 Ann.
cap.g.) With refpeét to foreign goods entered outwards,
if lefs in quantity, or valne, be fraudulently fhipped out
than is expreffed in the exporter’s certificate, the goods
therein mentioned, or their value, are forfeited, and no
draw-back is to be allowed for the fame. Forcign goods,
exported by certificate, in order to obtain the draw-back,
not {hipped or exported, or re-landed in Great Britain, unleis
in cafe of diltrefs, to fave them from perifhing, which muft
be immediately fignified to the officers of the cultoms, are to
lofe the benefit of the draw-back, and are forfeited, or their
value, with the veffels, horfes, carriages, &c. employed in
the re-landing of them; and the perfons concerned in
re-landing them, or by whofe privity they are re-landed,
or into whofe hands they fhould know'ngly come, are to
forfeit double the amount of the draw-back. (13 and 14
Car. II. cap. rr. 8 Ann. cap. 13.) This is to_be paid
for within five years after the offence. And the feizure of
the hories, &c. may be adjufted by two or more juitices
of the peace. (6 Geo. I. cap. 21. S Geo. I. cap. 18.
and 11 Geo. I. cap. 29.) Officers of the cuftoms conniy-
ing at, or affiting mn any fraud relative to certificate goods,
belides other penalties, are to forfeit their office, and to
fuffer fix months imprifonment, without bail, or mainprize 5
as are alfo maiters, or perfons belonging to the fhips em-
ployed in this bufinefs. (8 Ann. cap. 13.) Bonds given
for the exportation of certificate goods to lreland muft not
be delivered up, nor draw-back allowed for any goods, till
a certificate under the hands and ieals of the comptroller, or

colle&ors

DRA

golleétor, &e. of the euftoms of fome port in Ireland be pro.
duced, teitifying the lahding, which certificate mult be
produced in fix months from the date of the bond. (8 Ann.
cap. 13. Geo. Iveap, treo Gro. I cap." 8.
2 Geo. II. c. 28.) See Customs, Drspenrures, Du-
Tits, Xe.

Draw-bridge. Thiscenfilts, in general, of feveral boards
failed firmly to a frame, which, being fattened at one end,
by means of {trong hinges, toa beam laid horizontally, and
parallel to the frame, and being a€ted upon at its other extre-
mity by means of levers, or by chains worked either by
wheels, or by hand ; the flat form thus conftruéted, may be
raifed to a perpendicular direction. Draw-bridges are ufually
placed over narrow ditches in fortreffes, or at the ends of
great bridges, and efpecially over the excavations clofe to
the gates; fo that they may be raifed, or let down, at the
plealure of thofe within the works. Being, for the moft
part, from eight to twelve feet over, they make, when
raifed, a very lofty mantlet, or blind, completely fhutting
up the paflage; while their abfence from the horizontal
pofition in which they formed a part of the bridge, or
road-way, caufes a great pap; ferving to arre‘t the pro-
grels of parties proceeding to attack the interior.

When draw-bridges are made clofe on the outfide of

ates, the mafonry ought ‘to be funk, fo as to admit the
whole depth of the frame to lie within it ; elfe the oblique
fire from the ‘befiegers’ batteries would a& on the edge
of the frame, and foon render it unferviceable. Some
draw-bridges have fixed iron pofts with chains, ferving to
fecure paflengers from accident ; thefe are raifed with the
frames; but the generality have only a chain made fatt
from the laft poft of the bridge, to the poft on which the
lever is balanced : this chain hooks off and on, according as
the draw-bridge is raifed, or lowered. It is alfo ufed on
one or both fides of a canal, dock, &c. See Bripce.

Draw-gear, in Huj/bandry, any kind of harnefs for draw-
ing a waggon, or other carriage.

Draw-latches, in Englifh Antiquity,.were thieves and rob-
bers, mentioned in flats. 5 Edw. IIL. c. 14, and 7 Ric. II.
S..5.

ie is the moft complicated and extenfive machine,
in its operation, ufed in the weaving of ornamented cloth,
There is no diverlity of pattern, or figure, however exten-
five, which can be brought within the whole range of cloth
of the largeft dimentions; but may be produced by this
ufeful, although expenfive, machine. Draw-looms, in Bri-
tain, are ufed for three purpofes, viz. for weaving damafk,
carpets, and the moft extenfive patterns of {potted muflins.
‘The general principle of all thefe machines is pretty fimilar,
but modifications in their conttru€tion také place, according
to the particular purpofes for which they are intended.
When patterns become fo extenfive, that the number of hed-
dles neceflary for moving the warp in its numerous combina-
tions, could neither be included within any moderate bounds,
nor worked by any moderate power, it becomes neceflary
to have recourfe to the draw-loom. Of all the draw-
looms, that for weaving fine damafk is the moft ex-
tesfive ; fome of thofe in common ufe containing upwards
of 120 defigns, of 10 fpaces each, which renders them
equal to 1200 leaves of the diaper haraefg, or 6000 of
the leaves ufed for dornock, dimity, or common tweeling.
‘The general principle of the draw-loom harnefs, and the mode
by which the fluthing is reverfed, is in every refpe& the
fame with that of the diaper, the difference conlitting folely
im the faperior extent of the former, and the method of
mounting and working it. Fig. 3. Plate XIV. Mifcellany,
is a perfpective view of the harnefs part of a draw-loom, and

Vou, XII.

DRA

the apparatus for working it. The number of harnefs-
cords of a draw-loom is fo great, and they are of neceffity
fo clofely crowded together, that any reprefentation of the
whole, even if drawn upon a very large fcale, muf convey a
very inadequate idea of their conftruction and operations A
few, therefore, only are reprefented at intervals to illuftrate

. the way of conftruéting them, and this being once wel! un-

derftood, may be extended to any length that conveniency
will admit. The harnefs of the draw-loom is not confined
by leaves, but every cord carrying a mail for the warp is
kept ftretched by a weight. The mails are the fame as
thofe of the diaper, fig. 2. Plate XIV. The weights attached
to the harnefs are reprefented at L. A horizontal board,
or frame C, is fixed acrofs the loom, and is either perforated
with a number of fmall holes, or divided by wires, or pins,
to ferve as guides to the cords of the harnefs pafling through
them. When the range, or extent of the defign, has been
afcertained, by counting on the paper the greateft number
of {quares contained in it from right to left, the harnefs
muft be made to correfpond with this range. Let the
range be fuppofed to extend to 500 fquares, and the whole
breadth of the warp to contain 10,000 threads, If five
threads are to be drawn through each mail, the number of
mails compofing the harnefs wiil be 2000, and four ranges
of the pattern will include the whole breadth. ‘The divifions
in the board C, and the number of pullies in the box, or
cafe H, being adapted to this, the operator may proceed to
put up his harnef:, whichis done as follows: the 1, sort,
1oor{t, and rsoitt harnefs twines, after being paffed
through their refpective intervals in the board, or frame C,
are to be knotted together at M. A cord being « .iched
to thefe is carried over the firft pulley in the cafe H, and is
made faft to the piece of wood G, which is generally called
the fable. The 2d, 502d, roo2d, and 1502d, are con-
ne€ted in the fame way, and the cord attached to them,
pafling over the fecond pulley, is faftened to the table
as before. The fame operation is fucceflively repeated,
untilthe whole 500 conne¢tions are compleated. ‘The cords
at B, pafling over the pullies and faflened to the table, are
called the /ail of the harnefs. From each cord in the tail
a vertical cord defcends, and is made faft to a piece of
wood K, which is lafhed to a fixture in the floor. Thefe
cords, reprefented at D, are called fimples. The draught of
the warp through the mails, of the harnefs is regularly pro-
greflive from right to \eft, as in common tweeling, and the
draught,cording, and mounting of the front leaves are exactly
the fame as in diaper. A {tout perpendicular cord is now
ftretched from the roof to the floor, and made faft at both
ends, This cord is reprefented at I, and the loom is then
ready to be adapted to work any pattern, of the ‘range of
500 {quares, or mails.

The next operation, therefore, is to apply a certain num-
ber of fmall cords, called /a/bes, and reprefented at BE, fo us
to form the particular pattern required. This is called reads
ing on the defign, and from the complexity of the operation,
and the neceflity of its being accurately done, is performed
by two perfors. The firlt of thefe perfons fele@s from the
defign paper the fimples, to which lafhes are to be fuccef-
fively applied; and it is the bnfinefs of the fecond to apply
thofe lafhes according to the inftruGiors which he receives
from the firft. ‘To read or felect the lafhes in their proper
rotation, it is proper to obferve, that the ‘whole range of
fquares, from right to left, between the extreme points of
the pattern, is equal to the whole number of fimples, and
the whole range trom top to bottom, to the number of ope-
rations which thofe fimples are to undergo. ‘The perfon
who is to felect, therefore, taking the defign paper, begins

Ft at

DRAW-

at the loweft {quare, and counting from the right hand, in-
ftruGs the other to pafs as many fimples as there are blank
{quares-upon the paper, to put lafhes to as many as are co-
loured, again to pafs the blanks, take the coloured {quares,
and fo on until he has reached the left fide of the pattern.
When thefe lathes have been applied, which is done by
pafling each loofely round the fimples which it is to work,
they are knotted together, and attached to the cord Ibya
loop, fo that they may flide up and down freely, both upon
the cord and the fimples. Proceeding to the fecond {quare
from the bottom, the feleGion is made in the fame way, and
thus they continue uatil they have reached the top. The
lahhes being now in clufters upon the cord 1, thefe clufters
are connefted at convenient diltances from each other, by
fmall cords reprefented at F, the firftapplied clulter being
loweft upon the cord I.

The draw-loom being ready for work, the operators may
begin to weave. Two perfons are required to work the
loom. One of thefe pulls down the firft fet of lathes, the
whole being placed high upon the cord I, and by pulling them
tight, draws the fimples with which they are conneéted
clear of all the reft, ‘Then by grafping thefe fimples firmly
in his hand, and pulling them down, be tightens the tail cords
at B, by making them diverge more froma ftraight line, and
of courfe raifes the mails which are attached to them by the
harnefs twines at M. The weaver then works over his front,
mounting, as in common tweeling, once, or oftener, if more
{quares than one, upon the defign, are included between the
fame parallel ftraight lines from top to bottom. When a
change of the harnefs becomes neceflary, the conne&ting cord
F pulls down the fecond clufter of lafhes, upon which the
fame operation is performed as before. By thefe means, the
fimples, however numerous, (and in the cafe we have fuppoled
they would amount to 500,) are felected from each other with
the utmoft accuracy and facility. The fucceffive repetition
of the fame operation compleats the pattern, and then it is
only neceffary to pufh the lafhes up again, and begin a new
one.

When the mounting of the draw-loom is very extenfive,
it would be inconvenient to ufe only one cafe of pullies ;
for the tail-cords and the frame of this cafe muft be ex-
tended to very inconvenient dimenfions. Belides this,
when fo many pullice are employed, the tail-cords mult de-
viate fo much from the perpendicular line, that there
would be much danger of throwing the cords off the pul-
lies, and fetting the machine faft until each cord was
replaced. Indeed, to prevent the danger of this, which ma-
terially impedes the operation, it is cuftomary to place guides
of wire under the pullies, to confine the cords. : But when
the mounting is very extenfive, two, and fometimes three,
cafes of pullies are very generally ufed. Thefe are placed
parallel to each other, that reprefented-at H being the mid-
dle one, and an equal number of tail cords are conducted over
each. It is alfo ufual to conftru& more than one fet of fimples,
that which is to be ufed being lafhed to the floor, while the
others are loofe and hung near the roof, until it becomes ne-
ceflary to ufe them in their turns. This, indeed, is very
ufeful in working bordered table-cloths, where the whole is
frequently the continuation of one defign, extending fome-
times three yards, or more, in breadth, and five or fix yards
in length. easy

In an age like the prefent, when fimplification of procefs
and faving of labour have become objeéts of fuch general
attention, it is not wonderful that plans, which have thefe
for their obje@, fhould have been adapted to the draw-loom
as well as to other machinery. One of thefe, lately intro-

duced at Dunfermline, has been pretty generally adopted,

LOOM.

and appears, upon the whole, to have given very confidere
able fatisfation. Whether properly or not, itis there known
by the name of the patent draw-loom.

The obje& of the patent draw-loom is, to enable the
weaver to change his harnefs, as well as to perform the other
neceflary operations of weaving, and confequently to fuper-
fede the neceffity of employing a fecond perfon at the
loom. In this loom the tail of the harnefs, inftead of have
ing its direGtion changed, by paffing over pullies, and being
carried to one fide. rifes perpendicularly, and is made faft to
the roof. The fimples are brought in a horizontal diree-
tion to the front of the loom, over the weaver’s head. The
direGtion of the fimples is very fimilar to that of the taik
cords of the diaper-loom, fg. 1. The lathes hang down
perpendicularly, fo that the weaver may puli them with his
hand. Upon thetail are knots, placed at equal heights from
the floor, and in front of thefe knots is an inftrument very
much refembling a coarfe comb, or the teeth of a garden
rake. This inftrument moves upon a fulcrum, from which
a lever extends over the weaver’s head, by deprefling the
end of which he can raife the teeth at pleature. The fim-
ples being pulled, the tail is drawn forward, and the knots
engaged between the teeth of the comb. The lever being
then pulled down, and fecured by a cord and handle, as in
the diaper-loom ; the teeth rife, and carrying the knots along
with them, raife the harnefs. Whena change is required,
the teeth are let down, the knots relieved, a fecond fet
pulled in, and the operation proceeds as before.

This plan has come into very general ufe, and feems to
meet with much approbation, for thofe kinds of damafk
where the pattern isnot very extenfive. In the others, there
is ftilla diverlity of opinion refpefting the comparative merits
of the old and new plans, which, as the invention is recent,
will probably be only decided by experience.

The draw-loom is alfo applied, in moft inftances, to the
manufacture of carpets. Carpets are not tweeled like diaper
or dama{k, but confift of plain or alternate weaving. A cars
pet confilts of two webs of cloth, woven feparately and ine
dependently of each other, but being woven at the fame
time, particular parts of them are taken through each others
fo that any part of each web is fometimes above, and. fome-
times below the other. From this it arifes that when a
carpet is turned upfide down, the pattern remains the fame,
but the colours are reverfed, that which formed the ground
being now the pattern, and vice veri.

The front mounting of a carpet draw-loom confifts of
four leaves, two of which raife the web which forms the
ground, and the other two that which forms the figure.
One fhot of the woof is inferted into each web alternately.
The eyes of the front mounting are long, like thofe of the
diaper and damaik, to allow the harnefs to rife freely. As
carpets are woven generally of coarfe dyed woollen yarn, and
do not contain much warp, it is unneceflary, except in very
complicated patterns, to ule fimples. The lathes, therefore,
hang perpendicularly from the tail, and at the end of each
fet there is a fmall handle, or as it is called, a fob. Thefe
pafs through a long horizontal board, perforated with holes
to preferve their regularity, and are arranged in pairs, ane
bob raifing the harnefs of the pattern-web, and the other
that of the ground-web. ‘To adapt the figure upon the de-
fign to the application of the lathes, the inftru€tions for the
pattern-web are the fame as in the damafk; thofe for the
ground-web the fame exa@ily reverfed. In the latter, there-
fore, the blanks upon the defign are to be taken, and the
coloured fquares pafled. In this confilts the whole dif-
ference. :

The harnefs of the {pot draw-loom is exactly the fame be

the

DRA

the damafk, excepting that the yarn of the warp being much
finer, the mails are not ufed, but fhort eyes of twine fubfti-
tuted in their places. In the front mounting, alfo, the end
is attained by means which, although in effect the fame, are
better adapted to the particular nature of the work, Four
leaves of heddles are ufed; but they are mounted, fo that
two leaves will either go together up or down, or in oppo-
fite direétions. The heddles are conftru€ted like thofe for
weaving plain cloth, and every thread is drawn through two
heddles, being taken through the upper cleft or link of the
one, and through the under link of the other. When the
two leaves move in the fame direétion, the threads of warp
are confined as in the clafp of a common heddle; but when
they move in a contrary dire€tion, they prefent all the fa-
cility of the long eye in allowing the harnefs to rife without
interruption.

As the time, labour, and materials, neceflary to mount a
draw-loom involve a very confiderable expence, before any
produétive return can be attained, it is of the utmof im-
portance that the quality of the materials fhould be good,
and that every part fhould be fquare, level, and equally
ftretched. Draw-looms will only gradually remunerate
thofe who expend money or labour in fitting them up; and
the better they are executed, the quicker and more certain
will be the return. A trifling additional trouble or expence
to attain thofe ends will therefore always be found confiftent
with the foundeft judgment, and truett economy.

Draw-Wet, a kind of net for taking the larger fort of
wild fowl, which ought to be made of the beft packthread,
with wide mefhes: they fhould be about two fathoms deep,
and fix long, verged on each fide with a very {trong cord,
and ftretched at each end on long poles.

It fhould be fpread {mooth and flat upon the ground, and
ftrewed over with fedge, grafs, or the like, to hide it from
the fowl; and the fportfman is to place himfelf in fome thel-
ter of grafs, fern, or fome fuch thing.

DRAWER of a Bill of Exchange, &c. the perfon who
draws the bill upon his correfpondent. See Birx, and Ex-
CHANGE. —

DRAWING a Caf, among Bowlers.

Drawine Medicines, or Drawers.
and Ripeners.

Drawine, Tocth. See Tootu-drawing.

Drawine of Gold, or Silver, is the pafling of it through
anumber of holes in an iron, each lefs than another, to
bring it into a wire, Sce Wire-drawing, and Ducti-
LITY.

Drawinc of a Bill of Exchange, is the writing, figning,
and giving it to the perfon, who has already paid the value
or content thereof, to receive it in another place.

A. perfon fhould never draw a bill of exchange, unlefs he
be well affured it will be accepted, and paid. See Bix of

See Bowrinc.
See Epispastic,

Exchange.
Drawine, in Painting, &c. See Desicninc, and
CounTER-DRAWING.

Drawine, the art of reprefenting the appearances of
objeéts by means of appropriate lines or marks formed on
fome convenient furface.

Drawing is the bafis of painting and engraving, and an
important auxiliary in all the arts of defign. Stri@ly it is a
modification of painting, from which it differs only ia degree,
or in the materials employed: in its more finifhed and per-
fe& examples, it embraces the whole theory of that art, in-

vention, compofition, chiaro-fcuro, and even colouring,”

though the latter feems lefs within its proper {phere, and
perhaps conititutes their chief or oply difference. Yet the
‘triezes of Polidoro in the Vatican, and others painted in oil,

DRA

are in chiaro-fcuro, ¢.¢. not coloured; neither can the ma.
terials be faid to afford any very certain technical diftin@tion,
for we have drawings fo called in oil, as the fketches or de-
figns of Rubens, Vandyke, and Welt; and paintings in
water, in frefco, and in crayons. It is fcarcely poffible,
therefore, to fix any precife line of difcrimination between
thefe two arts: wherever they approximate, the terms have
been ufed indifferently. It may be obferved, however, that
painting, as the higher term, is generaliy applied to thofe
defigns which are coloured, and have a greater degree of
completion, in whatever vehicle they may be executed.

We fhall here confider drawing chiefly in a practical view,
as it is ufed by painters, feulptors, engravers, &c. in mak-
ing their preparatory ftudies; confilting in various modes of
delineating forms, by means of light and dark, without no-
ticing colour, or thofe more intelleétual qualities, which
place painting in the fame rank with poetry. This art holds
a fort of middle Ration between painting and writing, pol-
feffing fome of the advantages of both; and from the extent
and variety of its range and application, is perhaps one of
the moft pleafing and moft ufeful of human inventions.

Drawing may be divided into outline and fhading. The
outline, or contour, reprefents the boundaries of an objec,
as'they appear to terminate againft the back-ground, and is
a feGtion of the whole mafs: outlines are alfo ufed for the
circumfcription of all the parts, interior as well as exterior.
The fhading expreffes the projeCtions, cavitics, or flatnefs,
which form its anterior boundaries.

A corre& outline is of the higheft importance, and the
teft of an intelligent draught{man, not only as implying that
accuracy of eye on which the art is founded, but, in moft
cafes, as conveying the general character of an object at
once, without the aid of fhading, and is therefore itfelf a
drawing complete, as far as it goes; for drawing admits of
all degrees of abftraGtion. The aim of the fludent, therefore,
fhould be to acquire the power of copying it faithfully from
whatever may be put before him. ‘The materials principally
in ufe we fhall enumerate hereafter. For the firlt effays, no-
thing is better than a piece of black or red chalk placed in
a portcrayon: this is to be held fomewhat like a pen, but
fo as to allow a greater extent of motion both in the fingers
and in the wrift. G, Lairefle, Mengs, and others, recom-
mend him to begin with making parallel lines, flraight and
curved, in ail direétions; to exercife himfelf in drawing,
without ruler or compaffes, geometrical figures, into fome
of which ail forms may be refolved; and in copying from
good fpecimens the feparate features of the human face,
Thefe are well adapted to give firmnefs and flexibility to the
hand ; to increafe which the learner fhould accuftom himfelf
to practife upon as large a fcale as convenient. The diffi-
culty of imitating folid bodies would at this time embarrafs
rather than improve him, he fhould therefore endeavour to
procure the belt drawings or prints for his early ftudy: the
latter are ufually lefs eligible than drawings, from having a
mode wf execution peculiar to engravings, unlefs, as in the
illuftration of this article, they are exprefsly calculated for
the purpofe of examples.

Whatever the objet to be drawn, its general form fhould
firfl be fketched out lightly, that what is found to be amifs
may be the more eafily removed. Ejtimate as nearly as you
can the diltances of particular points in the original; fix
dots at fimilar diftances on your paper, which muft be kept
quite ftraight before you; and then draw your lines carefully
to them, beginning at the upper part, and working either
from right to left, or in the contrary diretion, according to
their tendency downwards. Put in the principal divifions
firft; when thefe are nearly right, mark in the {maller parts;

£2 avd

DRAWING.

and having got it all together, examine it fcrupuloufly,
pafliog over it with a piece of bread to render the lines more
faint, revifing and retouching them where neceflary, again
aud again, till the whole be correét. Compare ali the parts
of the copy with the original, perpendicularly and_hori-
zontally, taking care that they have the fame inclination,
range, and diftances. A pair of compafies may be ufed oc-
cafionally, when the ftudent is at a lofs, but {paringly, and
by way of proof, after he has done his utmoft without:
habitually ‘the compaffes fhould bein the eye.’ Beginaers
fhould make their drawings of the fame fize asthe originals,
to exercife the eye in meafuring with exe@inefs ; but after
fome practice, it will be better to vary from thofe dimen-
fions, that they may acquire the power of preferving fimilar
proportions on a different fcale, which forms fo effential a
part of the draughtfman’s flall, and in imitating natural ob-
jets is fo often indifpenfable. It is not neceffary that the
lines fhould’be of one uniform thicknefs; on the contrary, a
delicate variety in this refpe€t adds much to the agrecablenefs
of the effet: they may alfo be continued a little within the
contour, in the hollows, as if purfuing the inflection of the
part, which, when done with intelhgence, makes a mere
outline very charaéteriftic. See Plate I.

The outlines being completed, the learner may proceed
to the fhadows. In the firft Icflons thefe fhould not be too
complicated, but indicate only the principal projections.
The fimplcft method of forming thefe is by repeated lines
nearly parallel to the outline: as he advances, and more
fhade is required, thefe lines fhould be crofled by other
parallels, conftituting a particular mode of execution called
hatching, which is very ufeful, and, with a little praétice,
expeditious: it is efpecially neceflary for engravers in the
line manner, but is well calculated to give freedom of hand
in any ftyle of drawing. ‘he chief things to be attended to
in this are, that the lines conform as much as poflible to the
fhape of the parts, fo as to exprefs their various inflcCtions,
flatnefs, or roundnefs; that the interfeGtions are not too
violent, nor the lines fo hard as to convey an idea of net-
work ; and that they have an harmonious flow and agree-
ment. It has been obje€ted to this kind of handling, that
yothing like it is to be feen in natural fhadows: but this is
equally true of any other lines or marks that may be adopted
for the fame purpofe. Hatching was praGtifed by ali the
old mafters, and is a fort of rythm, which, when well ma-
naged, adds a beauty to that of characteriftic imitation.
To this, of courfe, it fhould always be fubordinate; if
made the end inftead of the means, itis abufed. In this part
ot his progrefs, the fludent wiil itand in need of good ex-
amples, to form his hand, that he may be at no lofs to make
out fhadows and middle tints of all degrees, in a proper
ftyle, when he begins to draw from folid bodies. Some
fcecimens of hatching may be feen in Plofes 11. and III.
We fhall hereafter defcribe fome other approved methods of
fhading.

The learner may proceed gradually from the feparate
features, to profiles, faces, heads, hands, feet, and limbs of
the humap figure.

The human figure offering, at once, the mott interefting
and moft difficult obje&t of imitation throughout nature or
art, we thall bettow our chief attention upon this branch of
drawing ; affuring the ftudent that whatever labour he may
devote to it, will turn to his account in any kind of deline-
ation: aneye and hand that can follow with precifion the
variety contained in the human form, will find but little
difficulty in copying any thing elfe.

We fhall begin withthehead. Its general proportions may
be feen Plate II. figs, 1. and 2. which we fhall here explain,

5

In front, the head is of an oval form; the face occupies
about three-fourths of its length, and’ is divided into three
equal parts; the fore-head, from the roots of the hair to the
cye-brows, is one ; thence to the bottom of the nofe, another,
and from thence to the bottom of the chin, the third, The
ear is as long as the nofe,and ranges within the fame hori-
zontal lines. ‘The eyes are nearly clofe under the eye-brows,
having the length of one eye between them, and about the
fame diitance between them and the ears, fo that the whole
of this diameter may be divided into five equal parts: from
the corner of the eye to the top of the noitril, is alfo the
length of an eye; the nofe at bottom is rather narrower, and
the mouth rather wider than the fame length. The opening
of the mouth is placed at about one-third of the lower divi+
fion, leaving two-thirds for the under lip and chin. In
profile the face is conflruéted on an equilateral triangle.

Mach of the beauty of a face depends on the regularity
with which the features are arranged on thefe perpendicular
and horizonta! lines, under whatever afpe&t it may be viewed,
(fee figs. 4 and 5.) and this can hardly be effeCted without
fome knowedge of perfpeétive. PerfpeGtive is, indeed, of
{ach effential importance in expreffing the appearances of all
objects, with regard to the fore-fhortenings of their lines
and mafles, and the fhadows they project, that it fhould
form a very early part of the artilt’s ttudy. After drawing
the different geometrical figures, he fhould learn how to put
them in perfpedtive.

When the learner has pra&tifed long enough from good
examples of heads, &c. to have acquired fome facility in
getting in an outline, and a method of making out fhadows,
we fhould recommend him to begin his ftudies from the buft:
the fooner he is able to undertake this, the better, as he will
Gerive much greater benefit from the imitation of one round
objet, than of many drawings. ‘The placing a model in
fuch a way as to receive the lights and fhadows favourably
being of great importance to the good effect of the copy,
he muft firtt attend to this circumitance.

If the model be too dire&tly oppofed to the light, there
will be a want of fhade to give relief to the: projections, and
to fhew thofe varieties which contribute fo much to the
beauty of forms; if too obliquely, there will be a redun-
dancy of fhadow, and many of the parts will be loft in ob-
fcurity. In general, the light is belt which comes froma
fingle window rather onhigh and on onefide. The fhades
fhould lie in maffes foftening ito cach other, fo as to difplay
the parts to advantage, and at the dame time produce an
agreeable whole. ‘The bult fhould be raifed to about the
level of the eye, and at fuch a diftance as to be comprehended
by it at one glance. The ftudent muft contrive to place
himielf fo, that the light fall on his paper from the left,
otherwife his own hand will overfhade it, and muft be very
careful, every time he looks at his model, to view it under
precifely the fame afpec&.

Having fecured a good outline, he may proceed to mark
in the darkeft fhadows, then the next in ftrength, and laltly
the more delicate halt tiuts.

As he advances, he muft examine well the dire&tion of
all the lines, and the relative proportions of all the divi-
fions, taking care when he enlarges one part not to en-
croach upon otbers, and continue to add or diminifh where
neceflary, till he have attained the poco piu, poco meno, the
little more or lefs that conftitutes corre€tnefs. In finifhing,
the fame attention muft be paid to the fhapes, quantitics,
and combinations of light, middle tint, fhadow, and re-
flexion, as to the diverfities of the outline. ‘The learner
will find fome difficulty in diftinguifhing this delicate modu-
lation of light and fhade, and eftimating the degree of tone

belonging

DRAWING.

belonging to each part, and praétice alone can teach him,
It may be ufeful however to remark, that he muft referve
his greateft flrength of light and dark for the parts meft
prominent ; every light mutt be accompanied and fupported
by its fhade; the middle tint becomes deeper intone, as it
recedes from thelight, till it is loft in the fhadow, and the
outline is foftened into the back ground by reflexions from
furroundiug bodies; the contour therefore mult not be too
ftrongly marked, otherwife the extreme parts, which fhould
retire, will come forward. A Jreadth, or extenfion of middle
tint, isalways defirable, as it gives repofe tothe eye, and
value both to the lights and darks; this, however, belongs
to chiarofcuro, (fee the article Cu1aroscuro,) one of the
great principles of the art of painting, (literally, che fyftem
of light and dark ina pi€ture or drawing,) fomething like a
gradation, or balance of which, is neceffary even in the
flighteft fetch, to make it agreeable, infomuch, that, if
it confift of two lines only, they fhould not be equally
ftrong.

With refpe& to the various modes of execution ufed in
finifhing drawings, each, perhaps, has advantages when
fkilfully managed,

For heads, red or black chalk is generally adopted, and
the fhadows are made out by hatching, or worked clofely
with the point, fo as to tofe all \appearance of lines, in the
manner called by the French égréné.

Black lead is fometimes employéd in both thefe ways, but
leaves 4 difagreeable gloffinels. Sometimes the fhadows are
laid in with a ftump (a piece of foft leather rolled up tight
and cut to a point) rubbed in powdered chalk, and afterwards
hatched upon. The paper 1s frequently coloured of fome
neutral tint, which affords an opportunity of ufing white
chalk for the lights,*and black, or black and red, for the
fhadows, leaviog the paper for the middle tints; in which
cafe, care mult be taken to keep as much of the ground
untouched as poffible, and never to fuffer the black and
white to mix; thelights may be worked jut in the fame
way as the fhades. This is an approach to the fyitem of
painting in crayons. t

The fhadows are fometimes made out by walhing, or
tinting the paper with Indian ink, fepia, or biltre, laid on
with a camel’s hair pencil, but we recommend it only to
thofe who have made fome proficiency in drawing.

This may be done in two different ways; the one that of
laying down the fhadesas_ nearly in their places as pollible,
with a tint fufficiently dark and foftening off the edges with
a clean pencil and water; when dry, repeating the procels,
if neceflary : the other is by working with tiate rather lighter
than enough, at fir&, in blotches placed near each other;
thefe are blended by a faint wath over the whole, and when
nearly dry, {trengthened by other blotches in the interitices,
and fo on, gradually giving the thades their due force, and
fhape, leaving the paper for the lights. This mode is called
Aippling, and in the hand of an artiit is, perhaps, the beft,
atleait for finithed drawings: the other produces a very
{mooth appearance, and may be preferable for the amateur;
in both cafes it is advifeable to work with as large a pencil
as convenient, and tohave plenty of the fame tint mixed up
for ufe. But which-ever of thefe methods. of fhading, or
whatever mixture of them may be adopted, is of little im-
porcance compared with the fidelity of the imitation. The
term highly finifhed drawing is frequently given to one that
is merely elaborate in execution, however deficient in {cience,
but is ftrily applicable to thefe drawings only, in which
all the parts of the fubje& are given with their true relative
force and fubordination, foftnefs and decifion, and are fo

_ exatily copied in their various effects of relief, that a fculptor

might model from them; in which,.a¢ in nature, you have
all the detai!, without lofing the predominazce of the
whole,

In fhort, the aim of the fludent fhould be to deceive the
eye; this, though not the true end of painting, isthe end
of drawing, a3 a practical art.

To delienate the human figure, or its members, with any
intelligence, an acquaintance with the bones, and external
mufcles and their offices, is effential, (fee Anaromy,) for
though praétice may enable him todraw with tolerableaccuracy
any object that is fet before him, yet the degree of know-
ledge he poffeffes will inevitably appear to the real connoiffeur.
A confiderable portion of his labours fhould, therefore, be
devoted to this objei. When he is thoroughly exercifed in
copying heads, legs, arms, hands, feet, bodies, and entire
figures from the belt drawings he can procure, anatomical
and others, and has had a little experience in imitating ca/le:
of the parts, he may venture on a figure from the round.
That he may acquire, along with correétnels of eye and
obedience of hand, fome improvement in talte alfo, and an
idea of what is grand or beautiful in the human form, it is
highly advifeable to begin with the ftudy of the antique: the
ancients have carried fymmetry toa perfection which cannot
be furpaffled ; and as cafts or copies of fome of their finelt
remains are eafily obtained, they fhould, by all means, be the
firft models adopted. It will be previoufly neceffary too,
that the ftudent make himfelf acquainted with the general
proportions of the fizure. (See Proporticns.) Accord-
ing to Vitruvius, from the crown of the head to the fole of
the foot, fhould meafure ten faces; thisis abort equivalent
to feven heads anda half in height, which is a goo.! general
ftature, but varies confiderably according to the age, fex, or
chara¢ter of the fubje&t: The Caftor by Phidias on Monte
Cavallo exceeds eight heads anda half. Some examples
of antique ftatues will be foundamong the plates belonging
to the article ScuLPruReE.

The precepts we have given in refpe& to the head are
equally applicable to the figure,. requiring only to be exe
tended: care muft be taken to place the model in a light fas
vourable to a diliinét and harmonious difplay of the parts,
and, to fee it properly, the ttudent fhould be removed from
it et leaft three times its beight. Whe whole mult be firlt
ketched in a flight and general way, beginning with the
head; then drawing in the neck, fhoulders, breafts, and
trunk, as far as the hips; then the upper part of the arms;
then the thighs, and fo on, downwards, connecting every
portion with the preceding, and not purfuing any line too
far, but returning to the oppolite lide, and carrying on the
work as much together as-poffible. When it is all pot iny
furvey it colleGtively, and make alterations in thofe parts
which are moft defective, till you-have caught the character
of the figure; then begin again at the head and proceed in
the fame order to correct your firlt lines, ferupnloufly
comparing every divifion wiih the reft as to fhape, quantity,
and pofition, both homzontaily and perpendicularly; and as
this 1s of the utmoit importance in getting the true {way or
balance of the figure, it will be expediene for the learner to
fufpend a plumb-line before him when he is in doubt, and io
ufe a ruler, or fome fuch thing, for the horizontal examina-
tion; attending particularly to the inclination of the head,
and the range of the fhouiders, haunches, knees, and feet,
and, laftly, to the graee or expreflion of thefubjet, Having
made your outline as accurate as poffible, proceed to finilh
your head in the manner already fhewn, and fo on with the
refty taking care to make the parts duly {ubordinate to the
whole, that the objeét may be one, according to the laws of
chiarofeuro.. A. bunch of grapes has been given a3 an apt

iiluraiioge

DRAWING.

iliuflration of this, in which each individual grape, being dif-
ferently fituated in the mafs, has its particular light, middle
tint, fhadow and refle&ion, without difturbing the unity of
the group. It may here be oblerved, that, when drawing
on a {maller feale than your original, there is a necefflity for
marking the fubdivifions more delicately, in proportion to
the diminution; (the charatter of forms, as well as of chia-
rofcuro, is better conveyed, even by leaving thefe out, than
marking them go itrougly,) this fubordination eminently
contributes to the unity above-mentioned, and to produce
what in painting ts termed breadth.
When the ftudent is fo far advanced as to be able to draw
with accuracy and facility from cafts, he is qualified to
make his firit effays from nature, and it will be advifeable to
take this ftep as early as convenient, leit he fhould fall into
a dry and frigid manner, by copying too long from inani-
mate objects. It is unneceflary, for this purpofe, to add to
the practical inflruétions we have already laid down ; he may
proceed exaétly in the fame way as with calts, but as he
cannot expe, in living models, to find the ftillnefs to which
he has hitherto been accultomed, a knowledge of the bones,
and outer mu(cles and their funétions, of the proportions,
and of perfpedtive, will now become ftill more indifpenfable ;
without thefe guides he will be continually failing into dif-
ficulty anderror. We recommend him, however, to return
frequently to the antique, co form his tafte in fymmetry,
-the principles of which he can acquire from no other fource,
but will afterwards be able to recognize in nature. He
mutt refer always to his anatomical ftudies, to explain thofe
-appearances in the human figure which he may not have
obferved in his former models, and comparing them with na-
ture, and with the antique, he may learn from the lattcr what
to modify and what to reject, for deception mutt be no longer
his aim, but a felc€ted imitation. The antique will lead him
-to diftinguifh what is general from what is merely individual,
{the bafis of true talle,) and will initiate him alfo in the
harmony and contralt of lines and quantitics, and furnifh him
with a clue for difcovering the grand, the beautiful, or the
cchara@eriltic in forms. But this belongs to the theory of
painting, to which we muft now refer the ftudent for further
inftrudtion.
The next important divifion of our fubject is Landfcape.
In land{cape drawing, the reduét‘on of the natural objc@s
“being fo great, as to preclude the feme exadtnefs of repre-
{entation that we have inculcated in refpeét to the human
figure, it is obvious that thofe who wifh to acquire that great
_effential of the art, accuracy of eye, will do well to make
this branch follow the other, in their order of fludy: a com-
plete change of fyftem, indeed, is neceflary : ag it is impolf-
fible to trace precifely all the parts of a tree, a certain mode
of imitation muft be adopted, expr: flive of its general appear-
ance; that is to fay, ite mafles of light and fhade, and its
principal forms, muit be carefully attended to, and details in-
troduced here and there to charaéterize the minutiz of leaves,
branches, &c., and give it an air of truth. After copying
fome good examples of fketches and finifhed drawings, to
gain a ftyle of execution, and learning, at leaft the fueda-
mental rules of per{peéiive, we fhould recommend the ftudent
to proceed as quickly as poffible to nature. Tt will here be
expedient to begin with fimple fubjects, as feparate ftudies
of different {pecies of trees, plants, rocks, flones, buildings,
with cattle and figures to introduce into your compofitions,
it being very feldom that any one f{cene will furnith all the
parts of a good land{cape. In taking a view, the portion
of country inclzded fhould not be more than can be conve-
niently comprehended by the eye without turning the head,
nor exceeding perhaps an angle of Go deg. By extending

your paper before you, till it jult tekes in the fpace you wifh,
you will be able to note upon it the fituation and proportions
of the principal objets ; fix the extremes firft, and the heighr
of the horizon, (which expreffes the level of the eye,) and
then fketch, wery faintly, the general form of the larger di-
vifions; after this draw in the outlines carefully and deci-
dedly at once, the minutenefs of the parts requiring that
they fhould be marked with as few lines as poffible, and with.
out alteration ; exatnefs being unattzinable, the draught.
man mutt aim at conveying the charatter of every thing with
as much truth and fpirit as poflible, obferving to give more
detail and more ftrength of touch as he advances to the
foreground. As the fineft fcenes are apt to-be infipid
without fome decided chiarofcuro, while the commoneft de-
rive picturefque intereft from the fame principle, he fhould
habituate himfelf to fketch all the flriking effects he may
fee in nature. Sunfhine is almoft effential to the animation
of landf{eape; the morning and evening are to be preferred,
in general, from affording more light and fhade; where this
is wanting, a fubititute muft be found in obje&s, dark or
bright in themfelves, to create an agreeable balance. The
choice and application of thefe circumftances is to be learned
from painting. ‘The outlines are fometimes put in witha
pen, but this fhould be done on the {pot ; it is advifeable
never to alter the lines put in from nature, as it is fcarcely
poffible to go over them again, from recollection, without
injuring their fpirit. The fhadows may afterwards be made
cut by hatching, or wafhed in with biftre, fepia, or Indian ink,
A greyifh paper is fometimes ufed, the lights being made
out with white chalk, the fhadows with black ; this is a very
good and expeditious method. Yo qwa/bed drawingsa flight
tinge of colour is fometimes given, in which cafe they are
called tinted drawings ; this is the firft Rep towards painting,
but we fhould not advife the ufe of colours till the ftudent
has fome proficiency of execution in chiarofcuro. See Plates
VIII. IX. X.

Having faid fo much on the two principal branches of
drawing, the human figure and landfcape, it will be unne-
ceflary to enter into the particular confideration of any other,
the rules laid down for thefe being applicable to all. The
ftudy of animals may be purfued like that of the human
figure; their anatomy muit be acquired, and their characters
fludied from nature. Drapery, {till life, flowers, &c., need
no further precepts than thofe aiready given. Architefu-
ral drawing and machinery proceed entirely by the mecha-
nical aid of rule and compafs.

We fhail conclude this article with obferving, that the
great defideratum in every kind and ftyle of drawing, is a
charaéteriftic reprefentation of its fubje&, however flightly
indicated, for the want of which no beauty of workmanship,
no high finifhing, as it is falfely called, can ever atone; this
muft depend on correétnefs of eye, facility of hand, and a
competent knowledge of the fubje&: if to thefe we add jutt
feeling and good tatte, we fhall comprehend all the requifites
of a complete draught{man,

Drawine, or Defign, is alfo technically ufed for that
part of painting which is employed in expreffing the forms
of objeéts, and, in its perfection, implies fymmetry, congru-
ity ot charaGter, anatomical correétnefs, and truth of pro-
portion, equilibrium and perfpective, in the figures of a pic-
ture.

The revivers of painting in the 13th century followed the
meagre ta{te in drawing of the Greck artifts, their immediate
predeceffors, and appear to have fele€ted for their models
the mott emaciated objets in nature. Donatello and Luca
Signorelli broke through this in a great degree; and its
overthrow was completed by Michael Angelo. It required,

however,

DRA

however, two centuries to get entirely the better of this
ftrange poverty of ftyle. Michael Angelo himfelf, when he
defigned his célebrated Cartoon of Pifa, if we may judge
from the Holkham copy, (which has every appearance of
being an accurate tranfeript,) had not then adopted that
fulnefs of form which chara¢terizes his: fubfequent works,
and which he probably derived from fome fine fragments of
antiquity difcovered in his time, particularly the for/o. The
fizht of the Siftine chapel produced in Raffaelle an imme-
diate change from the Gothic tafte of his matter Pietro Peru-
giao, in which he commenced, and he feenis to have been
fo pleafed with this new ftyle, as fometimes to carry it to
excefs; he ufually furpaffed his rival in grace, though he
never equalled him in energy or grandeur. Drawing dege-
nerated rapidly with the fucceffors of thefe two great men.
After Guilio and Polidoro, the Roman {chool feli into infi-
pidity, and the Florentine endeavouring to imitate Michael
Angelo, became tumid and extravagant. Corregzio and
Parmeggiano, feduced by beauty of line, too often facrificed
eorrecinels to elegance. The Carraci at Bologna compofed
a fort of middle ftyle, in which they attempted to obviate
all thefe defe&ts ; but it was heavy, and pofleffed little fen-
timent or character, though ic has become the common-piace
hiftorical manner of almolt all their fucceffors, and we may
add, of moft academies in other parts of Europe. Lodovico
Carraci, and Domenichino, are the beft of this fchool, in
regard to purity of tafte. Pouflin adopied another ftyle,
founded on a clofe imitation of the antique ftatues, but ac-
gaired too much of the hardneis of the material in which
they are wrought, without attaining, in general, their grace or
fymmetry. The prefent French fchoo! have pufhed this ftill
further, and fili their pictures with frigid copies of all the
ideal forms of the ancients. The antique, however, mutt
always be confidered the great fource of true tafte in draw-
ing. It is here-the artift may learn to feparate the effential
and generic from the accidental and individual, the great
principle of the fuperiority of the ancients over the moderns,
how much of this which is properly called /y/e, may be
adopted in painting, is a queltion of fome nicety: Rubens
has expreffed his admiration of the ancient ftatues, and given
his opinion how far they may be ftudied with advantage by.a
painter, in a treatife quoted by Dn Piles, but feems to have
wholly negleéted them in his praGtice. In this country, as
it was formerly in the Venetian fchool, drawing is confidered
as the leaft important part of painting; fine tones and im-
pofing effeéts compenfate for all omiffiuns of this kind. The
pre-eminent talents of the late fir J. Reynolds have probably
not a little contributed to give this direGion to the tafte of
the Englifh fchool; his fuccefsful example, though utterly
at variance with his precepts, added to the. natural fafcina-
tion of colour and chiarofcuro, has made the fenfual tri-
umph over the intelle€tual part of the art, and it is the more
to be regretted, as he has merely left his followers to labour
in a mine which he himfelf had almoft exhaufted. But in
fpite of fafhion or indolence, it may be fafely affirmed, that
drawing is the foul of beauty, charaéter, and expreflion, and
that its negle& will inevitably be followed by the extinétion
of all the higher ftyles of painting.

Drawinc, among Funters, is, when they beat the bufhes
after a fox. The term is alfo applied to hounds who fearch
for hares or deer in covers and furze, buthes, &c,

Drawinc ami/s is, when the hounds, or beagles, hit the
{cent of their chace the contrary way, fo as to purfue it up
the wind, when they fhould have done it down the wind.
The huntfman, on firlt finding a fox, fhould draw quietly,
and up the wind ; this is {aid to be material. The fox, by
drawing up the wind, does not hear the approach of the

DRA

hounds, who by this means are alfo within hearing: befides,
if the fox fhould turn down the wind, as moft probably he
will, it lets the hounds allin. See Scent. See alfo Fox-
HUNTING.

Drawine on the flot is, when the hounds touch the fcent,
and draw on, till they roufe, or put up the chace.

Drawine, fine, See Fine Drawing.

Daawine out Ships Bolts. See Bouts.

Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, of Plate XXIII. Mechanics, reprefent a
machine for this purpofe, invented by Mr. W. Hill, who was
rewarded with 40 guineas by the Society of Arts, London.

The power to draw out the bolt is obtained by two ftrong
male fcrews, A, A, figs. 1 and 2, working in femaie ferews
near the extremities of the cheeks B, B, againft plates of
iron, ¢,

C, the bolt to be drawn, which, being held between the
chaps D, D, of the machine, ( fig.1.)is, by turning the ferews
A, A, by a lever, forced upwards out of the wood, or plank
cf the fhip. F,F, fig. 2, are two iron dogs, with hooks at
their lower extremitics, which being driven into the plank,
ferves to fupport the machine till the chaps have got fait
hold of the bolt. At the upper parts of thefe dogs are
rings, pafling through holes in a collar, moveable near the
heads of the ferews.

Fig. 4, is a plan of the upper fide of the cheeks, when
joined together ; @, a, the holes in which the fcrews A, A,
work; B, B, the cheeks by which the bolts are drawn.

Fig. 3, the under fide of the cheeks; a, a, the holes in
which the {crews work; D, D, the chaps by which the bolts
are drawn.

Under the article Bours we have given an account of Mr.
Bolton’s machine for drawing out and drawing in bolis,
which was rewarded by the Society of Arts with their gold
medal.

DRAXHOLM, in Geography, a {mall town of Den-
mark, in Zealand, which gives its name to the circle of
Draxholm, and hasan ancient caftle, remarkable for having
ferved as a prifon to feveral fiate prifoners, and, among
others, to the wicked John Hepborne, earl of Bothwell,
hufband of Mary queen of Scotland, who was confined here
in the year 1576.

DRAY, a name given by fport{fmen to fquirrel nefts,
built on the tops of trees. Sce SquirRev.

Dray is alfo a cart ufed by brewers to carry beer on5
likewife a fledge without wheels.

Dray-Plough. See Proucu.

DRAYTON, Micuaez, in Biography, an Englifh poet,
was born at Harthill, a village in Warwickhhire, in 1563.
He ftudied at Oxford, but with what particular view is not
known. During the reign of queen Elizabeth he became
known by various poetical publications, which obtained for
him patrons, to whofe liberality he acknowledged himfelf
much indebted. Qn the acccflion of James I. he attempted
an ode in honour of the occafion ; but he {ucceeded fo ill as
to cut off all the hopes of preferment which he had indulged.
He died in 1631, and was honoured with a tomb among
the poets in Weftminfter Abbey. In one of his own title-
pages he is ftyled poet laureat ; but his name is not in the lift
of thofe who have poffeffed the court office to which the
title of laureat has in modern times been appropriated.
From his various dedications, it fhould feem that he enjoyed
the favour of feveral noble families, particularly of that friend
to literature, Sackville earl of Dorfet, who was at that
period lord chamberlain. ‘* Drayton,’? fays his biographer,
* is one of the moft fertile Englifh poets, and the molt ori-
ginal and truly national in his {ubjects.”” Mot of his pieces
are derived from Englifh — ; but his principal perform-

ance

DRE

ance isentitled “ Polyolbion,’ which isa kind of fyftem of
the - ography and antiquities of England and W ales. To
the modern reader this would appear tedious, but the learned
Selden thought it worthy of annotations. His works were
publifhed twice durin g the laft century, once in folto in
1748, and aicratants in four volumes, Svo. The defign of
his poetry is evidertiy better than its execution. The va-
ery is, however, coufiderable, the fubjecs often animating,

the lang rnage ond veriification are not fo antiquated as might
be ex pe€ €&ed; but the marks of true genius are rarely aie

play a With pecehonal inftances of elevation and sens
the general run of his verfe is profaic and infipid. Biog.
De AYTON, in Geography, a town of England, in the

county of Salop, with a are market on Wednefday ;
18 miles N.W. of Stefford, and 1593 N.W. of Londor.
DREAMS. According to Writes every dream takes
its rife from fome fenfation, and is continued by the fuccef-
fion of phantaf{ms in the mind. His reafons are, that when
we dream we imegire fomething, or the mind produces phan-
tafms; but no phantafm can arife in the mind without a
previous fenfation: hence neither can a dream arife without
jome previous fenfation. He obferves farther, that though
it be certain @ priori, from the nature of the imagination,
that dreams mult begin by fome fenfation, yet that it 1s not
ealy to confirm this by experieuce ; it being often difficult to
diftinguifh. thofe flight fenfations, which give rife to dreams,
from phantafms, or objects of imagination. Yet this is not
impoltible in fome cafes, as when ‘the weak fenfation fuffi-
cient to give rife to a dream gradually becomes ftronger, fo
as to put an end to it, as it otten happens in ane and
painful fenfations. Wolf. Pfychol. Empire § 12

The feries of phantafms, or aaee 3 of imaginat'< on, which
conftitute a dream, feem to be fuificientl y accounted for from
the law of imagination, or of aflociation ; thoughit may be
extremely difficult-to effign the caufe of every minute dif-
ference, not.only in different fubjedts, but in the fame, at
different times, andin different circumttances. We have an
effay on this fubject by M. Formey, in the Mem. del’Acad.
de Berlin. tom. ii. p-316. He exprefsly adopts Wolfius’s

pygpernes above mentioned, that every dream begins with
a fenfation, and is continued by a feries of acts of imagina-
tron, or phantafms; and that the caule of this feries is to be
found in the law of the imagination, ** Si naturale {empium
eft, inittum ‘capere debet per lezem fenfationis, & continueri
sper legem imaginationis,”? Hence he memancka thofe dreams
to be fupernatural, which either do not begin by fenfaton,
‘er are not continued by the law of the imagination,

This opinion is as ancient as Ariftotle, who exprefsly af-
{erted, that a dream is only the Pavrasjse, or appearance of
things, arifing from the previous motions excited in the
‘brain, and remaining after the obj-éts are removed. Hobbes
has adopted this hypothefis: he afcribes different dreams to
different dift-empers of the body, and whimfically enough ob-
ferves, that Wine cold breedeth dreams of fear, and raifeth

the thought and image of fome fearful obje&. Thus he
accounts for that which was in reality the waking vifion of
Brutus, which addrefled him the night before the battle of
Philippi. “1am, Brutus, thine SHE BETES 3 but thou fhase
fee me again near Philippi.” And Mr. Locke, thouzh ie
does not exprefsly declare how dreams ure excited during
flecp, feems to afcribe the perfection of rational thinking to
the body; and traces their origin to previous fenfations,
when fe fays, ** The dreams of fleeping men are all made up
of the waking man’s ideas, though for the mott part oddly
put together.” He urges the incoherence, frivoloufnels,
and abfurdity, of many “of our dreams, as we'l as the fup-

DR

pofed fa& that fome fleep without dreaming, as objections
to the notion that men think always: to puhich it Yas been
teplied, that dreams may be entirely, imperfeGily, or not at
all remembered, according to the various degrees in which the
nerves are imprefled by the motion given to the animal fpirits
in fleep. Arif. de Infomn. cap. 3. Hobb. Lev. cap: 2. &
cap.45. Locke, Eff. took il. ch.1. § 10, &c.- Watt’s Eff,
§ 2. p. 120, &c. Dr, Hartley explains all the phenomena
of the imagination by his theory of vibrations and aflocia-
tions. Dreams, be jays, are gee but the imaginations
or reveries of fleeping men, and they are deducible from thyee
caufes, viz. the impredions and ideas lately received, and
particularly thofe of the preceding day, the ftate of the
body, and particularly of the fiomach and brain, and affos
ciation.

That dreams are, in part, deducible from the firft of thefe
caules, appears, he fays, from the frequent recurrenve of
thefe in greater or le ffer clufters, ane eipecially of the vifible
ones, in our dreams 3 more efpecially when they are recent :
whereas, in gencral, ideas that have not affe&ted the mind
for fome days recur, in dreams, only from the fecond or
third cenfe above afligned. That the ftete of the body at-
feéts our dreams is evident from the dreams of Sick perfons;
and of thofe who labour under indigeftions, fpafms, and fla
tulenci-s. We may alfo perceive ourfelves to be carried on
from one thing to another in our dreams partly by affocia-
tion. For the purpofe of folving the moft ufual phesomena
of dreams upon thefe principles, this incenious author ob-
ferves, thar the {cenes which prefent themfelves are taken to
be real :-—that in our dreams there is a great degree of wild-
nefs and inconliltency.:—that we do not take notice of, or
are aficcted at, thefe inconfiftencics, but pafs on, without
heeding them, from one to another :—that in dreams it is
common for perfons to appear to themfeives to be transferred
from one place to another, by a kind of failing or flying
mation, which arifes from the change in the apparent mag-
nitude and pofition of the images excited in the brain, the
change being fuch as a change of diflance and pofition in
ourfelves would have peeunned :—that dreams confift chiefly
of vifible imagery, which agrees remarkably with the per-
petual imprcflions made upon the optic nerves and core
refponding parts of the brain during vigilance, and with the
diftin€inefs and vividnefs of the images impreffed ; and this
vilible imagery in dreams 1s compofed, in a confiderable de-
gree, of fragments of vilible appearances lately imprefied :—
that many of the thinzs which are prefented in dreams ap-
pear to be remembered by us, cr, at leaft, as familiar to us;
and that this may be folved by the readinels with which they
{lart up, and fucceed one ancther, in the fancy :—that
dreams ought to be foon forgotten, as they are m fact, be-
caufe the ftate of the brain foffers great cnanges in pafling
from ficep to vigilance :—end that the creams which are pre-
fented in the fir part of the night are, for the mott part,
much more confuied, irregular, and difficult to be remem-
bered, than thofe which occur towards the morning ; and
thefe latt are often rational to a contiderable degree, and re-
gulated according to the ufual courfe of our aflociations: for
the brain then begins to approach: to the ftate of vigilance,
or that in which the ufual affociatioas were formed and ce-
mented. For the illuftration and proof of thefe obfervations
we molt refer to the author himiclf Obf on Man, § 5.
p-.226; &c. gto. ed. 1791.

Democritus and cruenaine account for dreame, by fup-
poling that fpectres and fimulacra of corporeal things, con-
ftantly emitted from them, and foauny up and down in the
air, come and affault the foul ia fleep. Luorct. De Rer.
Nat.. lib. iv.

Thofe

DREAMS.

‘Thofe who have maintained the effential difference be-
tween fou! and body have folved the common phenomena of
dreams by the union of thefe two fubftances, and the necef-
fary conneétion arifing thence between ideas in the mind,
and certain motions in the body, or in thofe parts more im-
mediately united to the fou! ; whilft others, who have denied
the exiftence of matter, account for them in the fame manner
as for our other ideas, which may not be improperly called
waking dreams.

A learned’ author has afferted, that our dreams are
prompted by feparate immaterial beings; an opinion which
was advanced long ago by the heathens, and maintained very
generally, and applied to a fpecies of divination. He con-
tends, that the phanta{m, or what is properly cailed the vi-
fion, is not the work of the foul itfelf, and that it cannot be
the effect of mechanical caufes; and therefore afcribes it to
feparate {pirits, having accefs to our minds, and furnifhing
us with ideas while we fleep. Sce Mr. Baxter’s Effay on
the Phen. of Dreaming, in his Inquiry into the Nature of
the human Soul, vol. ii. 3d edit. 1745.

Bifhop Newton, * On Dreams,” (Works, vol. iti. p. 180,
-&c.-Syo. ed.) adopts the hypothefis of Mr. Baxter; alleg-
ing that the irregularity of our dreams may proceed from the
indi{pofition of the organ rather than from the imperfection
of the agent, from fome obitruGtion in the brain or fenfory,
than from any incapacity in the ipirit at that time ating up-
-on the fenfory ; and endeavouring to obviate that tendency
to encourag- fuperftition, with which it has-been, not un-
jullly, charged. Speaking of dreams, that have been of a

rognolticating kind, he fays, ** Have not fuch dreams con-
feffedly fomething of divine in them, and do they not plainly
declare a {piritual original? and fhall we afcribe fome to
Apiritual and fome to material caufes? or fhall we not rather
Je more confiitent with ourfelves, and fuppofe that good
{pirits may infpire fome, as evi) {pirits may excite others?”
He adds, * It is a fentiment as old as Homer (Il. i. 63.),
that dreams are from Jupiter; and the beft and wifeft authors
of antiquity {peak the fame language. Nay, what is more,
the Scriptures themfelves, the oracles of truth, {peak al-
ways of dreams and vifions as proceeding from God immedi-
ately or mediately, by his infpiration, or by the agency of
angels and fpirits through his permiilion; and the worfe fort
of dreams is exprefsly attributed to the fame caufe, as well as
the better. Job, vii. 13, 14.”

Profeffor Dugald Stewart has, with his ufual acutenefs
and perfpicuity, difcuffed the fubje& of dreaming in his
s¢ Eiements of the Puilofophy of the Human Mind,”’ (ch. y.
p- 1.§5.) He begins with tating thrze different quettions
that may be propofed with refpeé&t to the nhenomena of
dreaming; they are as follow: What is the ftate of the
mind in fleep, or, what faculties then continue to operate,
and what faculties are then fufpended? How far do our
dreams appear to be influenced by our bodily fenfations; and
in what relpects do they vary, according to the different con-
ditions of the body in health, and in ficknefs; and what
is the change which fleep produces on thofe parts of the
ody, with which our mental operations are more immediately
connected, and how does this change operate in diverfifying,
fo remarkably, the phenomena which our minds then ex-
hibit, from thofe of which we are confcious in our waking
hours? he fecond of thefe queftions, which belongs to the
medical inquirer, will be difcuffed in a feparate article; and
the third relates to a fubje&, which feems to be placed be-
yond the reach of the human facultics, With regard to the

_ firft inquiry, which alone belongs to the philofophy of the
human mind, or the ftate of the mind in fleep, it feems rea-
fonable to expect, fays the ingenious profeflor, that fome

» Vor. XID,

light may be obtained from an examination of the circum-
ftances which. accelerate or retard its approach; for when
we are difpofed to reft, it is natural to imagine, that the flate
of the mind approaches to its ftate in fleep, more nearly than
when we feel ourfelves alive and aGtive, avd capable of ap-
plying all our various faculties to their proper purpofes.

he approach of fleep is accelerated by every circumitance
which diminifhes or fufpends the exercife of the mental
powers, and is retarded by every thing which has a contrary
tendency. When we with for fleep, we difengage our at-
tention, as much as poffible, from every interefling fubje&
of thought. Moreover, if we examine the particular clafs of

founds, which compofeius to fleep, {uch as the hum of bees,

the murmur of a foyntain, and the reading of an unintereft-
ing difcourfe, we fhall find that it confifts of thofe that are
adapted to withdraw the attention of the mind from its own
thoughts. It has been alfo obferved, that children and per
fous of little reflsGion, who are occupied about fenfible ob-
jets, and whofe mental aGtivity is, in a great meafure, fuf-
pended, as foon as their perceptive powers are unemployed,
find it difficult to continue awake, when they are deprived
of their ufual engagements. ‘This has been remarked to be
the cafe with regard to favages, whofe time, like that of
inferior animals, is almeft wholly divided between fleep and
their bodily exertions. From thefe faés our author con-
cludes, that in fleep thofe operations of the mind are fuf-
perded, which depend on our volition. _ Accordingly, the
difference between the ftate of the mind, when we are in-
viting fleep, and when we are adiually afleep, is this; that,
in the former cafe, although its aétive exertions be fufpend-
ed, we can renew them, if we pleafe: and in the other cafe,
the will lofes its influence over all our powers both of mind
and body, in confequence of fome phyfical alteration in the
fyftem, which we fhall never, probebly, be able to explain.
Admitting the fufpexfion of our voluntary operations in
fleep as a fact, its caufe.may be either the fufpenfion of the
power of volition, or the will’s fofs of influence over thofe
faculties of the mind and thofe members of the body, which,
during our waking hours, are fubje&ted to its authority.
The firft of thefe caufes not being agreeable to fa&, the lat.
ter muft be admitted, as a neceflary confequence. That the
power of volition is not fufpended during fleep appears from
the efforts which we are confcious of making while we are
io that fituation. Many inftancgs*might be adduced to this
purpofe. The fame conclufion may be otherwife confirmed.
When we are anxious to precure fleep, the means to which
nature direéts us on fuch occafions are not to fufpend the
power of volition, but to fufpend the exertion of thofe
powers, whofe exercife depends on volition. Befides, the
effeét which is produced on our mental operations is analo~
gous to that which takes place with regard to our bodily
powers. In fleep the body appears to be, in a very in-
confiderable degree, if at all, fubje& to our command. How-
ever, the vital andinvoluntary motions fuffer no mterruption.
In like manner, the operations of the mind, depending on
our volition, feem to be fufpended, whilft fome other opera-
tions are, at leaft occafionally, carried on. This analogy
naturally fuggeits the idea, that a// our menta! operations,
which are independent of our wil, may continue during
fleep; and that the phenomena of dreaming may, perhaps,
be produced by thefe, diverfitied in their apparent effects,
in confequence of the tufpenfion of our voluntary powers.
Moreover, the train of thought in the mind does not depend
immediately on our wil, but is regulated by certain jeneral
laws of affociation. Neverthelefs, the indire@ wHuence,
which the mind poffeifes over its train of thoughts, is fo
great, that during the whole time of our being awake, xe

; 3 cepting

DREAMS.

eepting in thofe éafes in which we fall into what is called
a reverie, and fuffer our thoughts to follow their natural
courfe, the order of their fucceffion is regulated more or lefs
by the will. In fleep, fays- our author, the fucceffion of our
thoughts. fo far as it depends on the laws of aflociation,
may be carried on by the operation of the fame unknown
caufes by which it is produced while we are awake; but the
order of our thoughts, in thefe two ftates of the mind, mutt
be very different ; inafmuch, as in the one, it depends folely on
the laws of affociation, and in the other, on thofe laws com-
bined with our voluntary exertion.
fhew, that the fucceflion of our thoughts in fleep is regulated
by the fame generai laws of affociation, which influence the
mind while we are aweke; and that the circumftances
which diferiminate dreaming from our waking thoughts, are
fuch as muft neceflarily arife from the fufpenfion of the in-
finence of the will. In proof of the firft propofition it is
alleged, that our dreams are frequently fuggefted to us by
bodily fenfations, and with thele, particular ideas are fre-
quently very firongly aflociated. Our dreams are alfo in-
fluenced by the peculiar temper of the mind, and generally
vary, in their complexion, according as our habitual difpo-
fition, at the time, inclines us to cheerfulnefs or melancholy:
and our dreams are influenced by our prevailing habits of
affociation, whileawake. . In proof of the fecond propofition
our author obferves, that if the influence of the will be fuf-
pended during fleep, all our voluntary operations, fuch as
recollection, reafoning, &c. mutt alfo be fufpended, which
appears to be the cafe from the extravagance and inconfiit-
ency of our dreams: the mind will alfo remain as paflive,
while its thoughts change from one fubje@ to another, as
it does during our waking hours, while different perceptible
objects are prefented to our fenfes: and, in the cafe here
fuppofed, of the fufpenfion of the influence of the will during
fleep, the conceptions which we then form of fenfible objects
wii be attended with a belief of their real exiftence, as much
as the perception of the fame objets is while we are awake.
‘To this purpofe it is obferved, that as the fubjects, which we
then think upon, occupy the mind exclufively, and as the
attention is not diverted by the objeéts of our external fenfes,
our conceptions matt be proportionably lively and fteady.
As there isno ftate of the body in which our perceptive
powers are fo totally unemployed as in fleep, it is natural to
think, that the objects which we conceive and imagine, mult
then make an impreffion on the mind, beyond comparifon
greater than any thing of which we can have experience
while awake. Our author’s principles afford a fatisfactory
explanation of what fome writers have reprefented as the
moft-mytterious of all circumftances connected with dream-
ing, viz. the inaccurate eltimate of time which, whilft we
are thus employed, we are apt to form; fo that fometimes a
fingle inftant has the appearance of hours, or perhaps, of
days. A fudden noife, for inftance, fuggefts a dream con-
nected with that perception; and the moment afterwards
this noife has the effect of awaking us; and yet, during that
momentary interval, a iong feries of circumttances has paficd
before the imagination. In accounting for thefe facts, fome
have fuppofed, that, in our dreams, the rapidity of thought
is greater than while we are awake; but this fuppofition our
author thinks to be needlefs. In fleep, he fays, the concep-
tions of the mind are miftaken for realities; and, therefore,
our eftimates of time will be formed, not according to our
experience of the rapidity of thought, but according to our
experience of the time requifite for realizing what we con-
ceive.

In cafes where our fleep feems to be complete, the mind
lofes its influence over all thofepowers, the exercife of which

He then proceeds to-

‘of Nicur-mar£e, SoMNAMEULISM, &c.

depends upon its will; but there are many cafes, in which
fleep feems to be partial, or where the mind lofes its inflae
ence over fome powers, and retains it over others. In the
eafe of the /omnambuli it retains its power over the limbs,
but poffeffes no influence over its own thoughts, and fcarcely
any over the body, except thofe particular members of it
which are employed in walking. In madnefs, the power of
the will over the body remains undiminifhed, while its influ-
ence in reguiating the train of thought Is in a great meafure
fufpended, either in confequence of a particular idea, which

engroffes the attention to the exclufion of every thing elfe, ~

and which we find it impeffible to banifh by our efforts; or
in confequence of our thoughts fucceeding each other with
fuch rapidity, chat we are unable to ftop the train. In both
thefe kinds of madnefs, the conceptions or imaginations of
the mind become independent of our wiil, and therefore
they are apt to be miftaken for a€tual perceptions, and to
affe& us in the fame manner.

Profeflor Stewart has fubjoined, in his notes and illuftrae
tions (Ed. 2. p. 570, &c.) fome additional remarks on the
phenomena of dreaming, which feem to obviate the difficule.
ties attending his hypothefis. In cafes, he fays, where our
dreams are occafioned by bodily fenfations, cr by bodily in-
difpofition, it may be expected that the dilturbed ftate of
our reft will prevent that total ceflation of the power of
attention, which takes place when fleep is profound and
complete ; and, in fuch inftances, the attention which is.
given to our paffing thoughts, may enable us afterwards to
retrace them by an aét of recolleGtion. On the other hand,
the more general faé&t unqueftionably is, that at the mo-
ment of our awaking, the interval {pent in fleep prefents a
total biank to the memory; and yet it happens, not unfres
quently, that, at the diftance of hours, {ome accidental cirs
cumftance occurring to our thoughts, or fuggefted to us
from without, revives along train of particulars affociated
in the mind with each other; to which train (not being
able otherwife to account for the concatenation of its parts):
we give the name of a dream.

Among the atftonifhing appearances exhibited by the
mind in fleep, a very large proportion is precifely analogous
to thofe of which we are every moment confcious while we
are awake. If the exciting caufes, for example, of our
dreams feems myfterious and infcrutable, is not the fa& the
fame with the origin of every idea or thought which fpons
taneoufly folicits our notice? The only difference is, that
in the latter inftance, in confequence of long and conftant
familiarity, they are furveyed by us with little wonder, and
by moft with hardly any attention. In the former inftance,
they roufe the curiofity of the moft illiterate, from their
comparative infrequency, and from the contrait which, in
fome refpe&ts, they prefent to the refults of our habitual:
experience.

Dreams, in Pathology. Dreaming is much influenced
by the phyfical condition of the body 3: and therefore dreams
of various charaéter, and of different degrees of intenfity,.
are among the effects ard figns of various difeafes. They
may be traced by the medical obierver in all the gradations,
from acommon dream, produced by any caufe of imperfe&
fleep, up to a€tual Dexirium, as well as under the varieties.
See thofe arti-
cles refpectively.

Some writers, as Wolfus, (Pfycholog. Empir. § 123.)
and after him Formey, (in the Hilt. de lAcademie de
Berlin, tom. ii.) have confidered all dreams as originating
in fome corporeal fenfation, and continued by the imagina-
tion, by fucceflive phantafms, which arife according to the
law of this faculty. Hartley not only more fully developed

the

a
"

DREAMS.

the nature of this law of afociation, by which our dreams
are carried on, but he admitted the recurrence of recent
ideas, efpecially of thofe of the preceding day, as frequently
giving origin to dreams, as well as various corporeal fenfa-
tions, particularly in the head and ftomach. We have
fhewn, under the word Dexrirarum, how much our dreams
are modified or produced by external impreflions, as well as
by internal fenfations, and haye quoted fome cafes in illuf-
tration, from Mr. Smellie’s (then erroneoufly called
Stewarts) Philofophy of Natural Hiftory. It remains for
us here to point out the more obvious phyfical conditions,
under variotis {tates of difeafe, in which dreams are parti-
cularly increafed both in frequency. and force.

Difeafes give occafion to unufual dreaming in two ways:
firfl, by inducing varions internal fenfations, connected efpe-
cially with morbid conditions of the circulation and of the
nervous fyftem; and, fecondly, by rendering the fleep im-
perfe&t, and, therefore, leaving the mind in that ftate of
activity, in which not only the internal feelings, but a'fo the
external impreffions on the fenfes, become the origin of
trains of aflociated ideas, which conftitute our dreams, and
likewife admitting the recurrence of thofe thoughts, which
had particularly occupied the mind before the commencement
of fleep.

1. All febrile difeafes, and efpecially idiopathic fevers,
in which both the nervous fyftem and the circulation are
greatly deranged, and the general feclings are always un-
comfortable, often extremely diftrefling, are accompanied
from the beginning with frequent and difagreeable dreams.
It is chiefly under the various forms of fever that the dreams
extend to that degree which conftitutes delirium, when the
internal feelings become highly irritated, and efpecially when
the circulation through the brain, in its then morbid con-
dition, is particularly excited. Any derangement of the
circulation in the head, indeed, occafions much Sreaming.
The approaches of fymptomatic fever, however flight; even
the temporary acceleration of the blood from #n evening of
exercife in the ball-room, or from excefs in drinking, fhort
of intoxication, or from any other caufe of ¢xcitement,
will produce a fucceffion of dreams through the night ; moft
commonly of an unpleafant nature, but fometimes agreeable,
according to the general ftate of the fenfations: the febrile
dreams are, from this caufe, almoft invariably unplealant.

- Dreams are alfo generally among the fymptoms of thofe
difeafes, which derange the circulation through the brain in
a manner, different from that of unufuai excitement; and
efpecially where there is fome diftrefling corporeal fenfation.
Thus in peripneumony, aflema. hydrothorax, &c. in which the
pulmonary circulation 1s obitruéted, the blood is prevented
from undergoing its proper changes, and the circulation in
the head is alfo neceffarily impeded, the veffels of the brain
being diftended with blood imperfe&tly altered by refpiration,
dreams of a painful and alarming nature, from which the
patient awakes in fear and by ftarting, are con{tart occur-
rences. ‘Lhe horrors with which thefe dreams are accom-
panied, and the fudden interruption of repofe in which they
terminate, are doubtlefs to be attributed to the dvirefefal
fenfations in the chett, which arife from imperfect breathing,
and from the obftruétion to the free motion of the heft.
The feelings of impending fuffocation, the fenfations of
conftri€tion, of weight, and of ftufling in the lungs, the
laborious and palpitating aétion of the heart, and the anxiety
about the precordia, which render the waking hours of the
patient painful to himfelf, and his fituation diftrefling to
{petators, continue during his fhort and imperfect intervals
of repofe, and excite thofe perpetual images of terror, which
centtitute his dreams : and when the corporeal feelings and

the phantafms of the imagination become at once too paia-
ful to be confiftent with fleep, the fleep is fuddenly inter-
rupted, and the patient feeks, by change of pofition, to
relieve for a while the fenfations, in which his dreams ori-
ginated.

Again, the ftomach is acommon, perhaps the moft com-
mon feat of thofe corporeal fenfations, which give origin to
our dreams, as Hartley has intimated. In thofe perfons,
whofe powers of digeftion are weak, a feries of dreams, ge-
nerally of an unpleafant nature, ufually occur during the
night, if they have taken a heavy fupper immediately pre-
ceding fleep. The ftomach being loaded and opprefled, is
the feat of uneafy feelings, and its diltenfion fomewhat im-
pedes the motions of the heart and lungs, by which thofe
feelings are much augmented. It is chiefly under fuch cir-
cumftances, that the dreams amount to that diftreffing de-
gree, which is denominated incubus, or NIGHT-MARE. Dr.
Darwin obferves, that great fatigue, with a full {upper and
much wine, always produced the night-mare in one of his
patiests. The ftomach, in fuch a cafe, partakes of the
fatigue of the body at large, and therefore is the lefs able to
digeft, and rid itfelf of the mafs of focd which oppreffes it.
The ftate of the ftomach from drunkennefs, the pofition of
the body in bed, and other kinds of uneafinefs during fleep,
give rife to night-mare, and to the lefler degrees of unplea-
fant dreaming.

2. It can {carcely be doubted, that all thofe morbid, or
accidental conditions of the body, which, by the painful
fenfations which they induce, occafion much dreaming,
contribute to that effect, likewife, in no {mall degree, by
rendering the fleep imperfe&t. It mult be within the com-
pafs of every perfon’s experience, that his dreams-principally
occur at the commencement, or towards the termination of
fleep, efpecially during the dozing of the morning hours,
and when his fleep is any how difturbed. Prof. Stewart
has obferved, that many people ‘ never recolle& to have
dreamed, excepting when the foundnefs of their fleep was
difturbed by fome derangement in their general health, or
by fome accident which excited a bodily fenfation.”” (Elem.
of the Philofophy of the Human Mind, p. 570, 3d edit.)
Whether dreams: do not occur in found flzep; or whether
they occur, but are not recollected, except when the fleep
is imperfeét, is a queltion which does not affect our reafon-
ing here.

All the diforders, then, above alluded to, may be con-
fidered as exciting dreams in a twofold manner: firft, they
render fleep unfound, and, therefore, favour the occurrence
of dreams; and, fecondly, by the difagreeable fenfations
conneéted with them, they contribute to excite particular
trains of affociated ideas, and, therefore, to modify the
character of the dreams, .

Belides, in imperfect fleep, the attention is, in a certain
degree, alive to external impreffions on the fenfes, which
become an additional fource of excitement of our dreams.
Under fuch a ftate of unfound fleep, our dreams are often
fuggelted to us by external bodily fenfations, with which,
3s we know from what we expertence while awake, parti-
cular ideas are frequently very ftrongly affociated. « Ihave
been told by a friend,”’ fays profeffor Stewart, ‘ that having
occafion, in confequence of an indifpofition, to apply a
bottle of hot water to his feet when he went to bed, he
dreamed that he was making a journey to the top of mount
/®tna, and that he found the heat of the ground almoft in-
fupportable. Another perfon, having a bliller applied to
his head, dreamed that he was fcalped by a party of lo-
dians.’* Loc. cit. chap. v..§ 5. Inthe fame way various
dreams are conitantly excited during imperfect fleep, by

Gg2 external

DRE

external fenfations. See fome fimilar examples under the
article Dexirium.

This imperfe fleep, likewife, admits of thofe dreams
which originate from the recurrence of the accuftomed
trains of thought, efpeciaily ‘thofe of the preceding day, as
obferved by Hartley ; the faculties of the mind, in fucha
ftate of fleep, being partially active, particularly the faculty
of attention. Stewart, loc. cit.

Hence, it is obvious, that almoft every flate of difeafe,
which is attended with painful and uneafy fenfations, swill
give rife to much dreaming, which will be varioufly influenced
and modified, according to the nature of thofe fenfations,
and of the accidental external impreflions, and of the indi-
vidual habits of affociation.

The older medical writers attempted to deduce inform-
ation, relative to the nature of difeafes, and the indications
of cure, from the dreams of their patients. They fuppofed
that all dreams, which were different from the thoughts of
the preceding day, or the prevalent ideas arifing from the
bufinefs of life, were neccffarily the refult and the figns of
a more or lefs ditempered ftate of the body ; and, there-
fore, that the true nature of that {late might be often better
Jearned from thofe dreams, than from any other fource.
But fuch a notion could only arife from an ignorance of
the nature of the faculty of afociation by which our creams
are carried on, and of the flight and various relations
by which ideas are affociated with bodily fenfations,
during fleep. This flight and varying conneCtion between
the corporeal origin and the fubfequent conceptions of our
dreams, renders it impoflible to deduce any general conclu-
Sons from them, or to trace back, from the phenomena
which they exhibit, the corporeal condition by which they
were fuggetted.

Tt will be fufficient to enumerate fome of the fanciful
and gratuitous opinions which have been delivered, both
in regard to diagnofis and pregnofis, in order to fhew their
futility. Lommius has colle€&ted from the writings of
Hippocrates the following obfervations on the fubjeét. To
dream of fire indicates a redundance of yellow bile: to
dream of fogs, or {moke, indicates a predominancy of black
bile: to dream of feeing a fall of rain, or {now, or a great
quantity of ice, fhews that there is a redundancy of phlegm
in the body: he who fancies himfelf among ftinks may be
aflured that he harbours fome putrid matter in his body :
to have red things prefented before you in fleep, denotes a
redundance of bicod: if the patient dreams of feeing the
fun, moon, and flars hurry on with prodigious {wiftnels. it
indicates an approaching delirium: to dream of a turbid
fea indicates diforders of the belly: the appearance’ of
monfters and frightful enemies, indicates delirium in difeafes :
and to dream of being thrown down from fome very high
place, threatens an approaching vertigo, or fome other
diforder of the head, as an epilepfy, apoplexy, or the like.
Lommii, Obfervat. Medicin.

Thefe obfervations are altogether erroneous, and are ob-
yioufly the fuggeftions of the imagination, and not the in-
ferences of experience. :

DREBBER- Facobs, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Weftphalia, and county of Diepholz.

Dresper-Méarien, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weltphalia, and county of Diepholz; 5 miles N. of Diep-
holz.

DREBKAU, or Dresxoy, a {mall town of the king-
dom of Saxony, in Lower Lufatia, one of the fix towns
of Lower Lufatia, in which the defcendants of the Vandals
have preferved fome traces of their language. It has 148

i

DeRE

hoafes, and about 1000 inhabitants, fupported chiefly by
agriculture, and the manvfaéture of linen cloth.

DRECANUM, in Ancient Geography, a place fituated
on the weftern part of the ifleof Cos. Strabo.

DREDGE, or Drze, a term ufed by the farmers for
oats and barley mingled together.

DREDGERS, a term ufed in the admiralty courts for
the fifhers for oyfters. See Rat. 2 Geo. II. cap. 19.

DREDGING-Macuine, in Mechanics, an engine ufed
to take up mud, or gravel, from the bottom of rivers, canals,
docks, harbours, &c. while they remain full of water.

The common method of dredging 1s performed by men
ina barge: the gravel, or ballaft, is taken up ina leather’
bag, the mouth of which is extended by an iron hoop, at-
tached to a light pole, of a fufficient length to reach the
bottom: in the fmall way, two men are employed to
work each pole The barge being moored, one of the
men takes his itation at the ftern, with the pole and
bag in his hand, the other ftands in the head, having
ho.d of a rope, tied faft to the hoop of the leather
bag. The man at the flern now puts the pole and bag
down; over the barge’s fide, to the bottom, in an inclined
pofition. The hoop being fartheft from the man in the
head of the barge, and having a rope, one end of which ts.
faft to the gunwale of the barge, he pafles it twice, or
thrice, round the pole, and then holds it tight: the man in
the head now pulis the rope, faftened to the hoop, and
draws the hoop and bag along the ground, the other allow-
ing the pole to flip through the rope as it approaches the
vertical pofition, at the fame time caufing fuch a friction,
that the hoop digs into the ground, the leather bag receiv=
ing whatever pafles through the hoop: both men now affit
in getting a bag into the barge, and delivering its contents.

When the bag is large, feveral men are employed; and,
to increafe the effect, a windlafs, with wheel-work, is ufed
to draw the hoop along the greund. It is in this manner
the conviis at Woolwich upon the Thames perform the bal-
laft heaving, or dredging, which they are condemned to
labour at as a punifhment.

In large rivers, which require much dredging to keep the
channel at the proper depth, the above method of manual
labour becomes fo expentive, that a large machine, worked
by horfes or a fteam engine, is ufually employed ; two fuch:
machines worked by a iteam engine have been fome time in ufe
in the river Thames, one. of them is reprefented in Plate IIL.
Hydraulics, which contains an elevation and plan of the engine..

It is erected inthe hulk ofa difmalted fhip. A A, fig. I5
is a frame of timber bolted to the ftarboard gunwale, to fup-
port a large horizontal beam, B B, jig. 2; another fimilar
frame is fixed up in the middle of the thip at D, fg. 2, and
the end of the beam is fuftained by an upright poit bolted
totheoppofite gunwale; the ftarboard end of the beam
projects over the veffel’s fide, and hasan iron bracket'S
faftened to it, to fupport one of the bearings for the long
frame E E, compofed of four timbers bolted together : the
other end of the frame is fufpended by pulleys a, a; from a
beam F fixed acrofs the ftern, the upper ends of the outfide
beams of the frame E E have each a ftout iron bolted to
them, whichare perforated with two large holes to receive
two fhort caft iron tubes, one faftened to the iron bracket S
at the end of the beam B, and the othertoacrofs beam of the
frame A; thefe tubes aé as the pivots of the frame E, upon
which it can be raifed or lowered by the pulieys a,a: they alfo
contain bearings foraniron axis, on which a wheel or trundleO
is fixed, containing four rounds. Another fimilar trundle P
is placed at the bottom of the frame E KE, and two endlefs
chains 4, £, pafs round both, asis {een inthe plan, Between

every

DR E

every other link of the two chains, a bucket of plate iron 546
is faftened, and as the chainruns round, the buckets bring up
the foil; a number of caft iron rollers d, d, are placed between
the beams of the frame to fupport the chain and buckets as
they rollup. Four rollers ¢,e, are alfo placed on each of the
outfide beams, to keep the chains in their places on the
frame, that they may not get off to one fide. The motion
is conveyed to the chains by means of acalt iron wheel at G
in the plan, wedged on the end of the axis of the upper
trundle O. The wheel is caft hollow, like a very fhort cy-
linder, and has feveral {crews tapped through its rim, pointing
to the centre, and preffing upon the circumference of another
wheel inclofed within the hollow of the firft, that it may
flip round in the other where any power greater than
the friGtion of the fcrew is applied; the internal wheel is
wedged on the fame fhaft with a large cog-wheel f turned
by the {mall cog-wheel g on the axis of the fteam-engine.
The fteam-engine is one of that kind called high preflure,
working by the expanfive force of the fteam only, without
condenfation; 4is the boiler containing the fire place and
cylinder within it; zis one of the conneéting rods, and /the
fly wheel on the other end of the fame fhaft as the wheel g.
For a more particular defcription of the engine, fee Srzam
ENGINE.

The pulleys a, which fufpend the chain frame, are reeved
with an iron chain, the tackle fall of which paffes down
through the fhip’s deck, and is coiled on a roller m in the
pian, and reprefented by a circle in the elevation: on the end
of the roller is a cog-wheel p, turned by the engine wheel g:
the bearing of this wheel is fixed upon a lever, one end of
which comes near that part of the fteam-engine, where
the cock which regulates the velocity of the engine, is placed;
fo that one man can command both lever and cock, and by
depreffing that end of the lever, caufe the wheel p to geer
with g, and confequently be turned thereby, and wind up
the chain of the pulleys; g is a {trong curved iron bar bolted
to the veffel’s fide and gunwale, pafling through an eye
bolted to the frame E, to keep the frame to the veffel’s fide,
that the tide or other accident may not carry it away.

A large hopper or trough is fufpended beneath the wheel
oe, by ropes from the beam B, into which the buckets 4, 4, d,
empty the ballaft they bring from the bottom; the hopper
conveys it into a barge brought beneath it: this hopper is
not fhewn in the plate, as it would tend to confufe parts
already not very diftin@. The motion of the whole machine
is regulated by one man. The veffel being moored faft, the
engine is ftarted, and turns the chain of buckets, the engine
tendernow puts his foot upon a lever, difengages the wheel p
from g, and by another takes off a gripe which embraced the
rollerm. This allows the end E of the frame to defcend,
until the buckets on the lower half of the chain drag on the
ground, as fhewn in fig. 1, when he ftops the further defcent
by the gripe, the buckets are filled in fucceffion at the lower
end of the frame, and brought up to the top, where they
deliver their contents into the hopper before-mentioned: as
they take away the ballaft from the bottom, the engine
tender lets the frame E. down lower by means of the gripe
lever, and keeps it at fucha height that the buckets come up
nearly full; if atany time the buckets get fuch deep hold
asto endanger the breaking of the chain or ftopping the
engine, the coupling-box at G before-defcribed, fuffers the
fleam-engine to turn without moving the chain of buckets,
and the engine tender prefling his foot upon the lever which
brings the wheel p to geer with y, cautes the roller to be
turned by the engine, and raife up the frame I, until the
buckets take intothe ground the proper depth, that the fric-

DRE

tion of thecoupling-box at G will turn the chain without
flipping in any confiderable degree.

The fteam engine is of fix horfes power, andis fo expedi-+
tious, that it loads a {mall barge with ballatt in an hour and
a half.

DREGAL, in Geography, a town and caftle of Hun-
gary 12 miles N. E. of Gran.

DREGS of Oi/, a name given by the people who trade
in oil, to that coarfe and thick part of it, which fubfides to
the bottom of the veffels in which great quantities of it
are kept. This is not fit for the common ufes of the clear
oil at the top, but there are feveral purpofes to which it
ferves very well. Great quantities of thele lees or dregs of
common oil are ufed by the foap-boilers, principally in
making the common foft foap. The leather dreflers alfo ufe
itin confiderable quantities to foften the hides they are em-
ployed to prepare for the feveral artificers who ufe them.
Some of thefe dregs are alfo ufed in the making of flambeaux,
which, inftead of being made of yellow wax, as pretended,
are ufually compofed of pitch, rofin, and this oil, mixed in
fuch a proportion 2s to make a mafs of a proper hardnefs and
eonfiftence. People who ufe preffes, and other works in
which there are many {crews, fometimes buy this to greafe
their fcrews, inftead of foap or fuet. Thefe are the ufes
mentioned by Savary; but befides thefe we have in England
another manufacture which confumes a greater quantity
than allthefe put together. This is the making of {perma-
ceti; fome perfons among us have found the art of making
this cut of the feces of oil, and will give an oilman at any
time as much clear oi] in exchange of thefe dregs, as they
areinquantity. All the other ufes of thefe dregs leave the
trader at a great lofs; and as Savary obferves, the more
freces the oil contains, the greater is the lofs to the buyer;
but with us, this is rendered equal, and there is no lofs
in it. 5

All forts of oil produce more or lefs feces and dregs, but
of all others, the whale-oil is obferved to produce the largeft
quantity, and the nut oil the leaft.

DREHBACH, in Geography, a {mall town of the king-
dom of Saxony, in the circle of the Erzgebirge, four miles from
Ehrenfriederf{dorf. It is divided into Upper and Lower
Drehbach, and has feveral bleaching grounds where molt of
the thread is bleached, which is ufed inthe manufacture of
the common and middling iort of Saxon thread lace.

DREHEMI, a town of Arabia, in the country of
Yemen; 20miles S. E. of Hodeida.

DREHHALS, in Ornithology, the name given by Frifch
to the Yunx forquilla, which fee.

DREIT-DREIT, or Droir-Dror7, in our Old Writers,
fignifies a double right, that is, jus po/e/fionis &F jus deminii.
Braéton, lib. iv. cap. 27. and hb. iv. tra&t. 4. cap. 4. and
lib. v. tral. 3. cap. 5. Coke on Litt. fol. 266.

DREITSCH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and circle of Neuftadt ; two miles: s
N. E. of Neuftadt. :

DRELINCOURT, Cuarves, in Biography, an emi-
nent proteftant divine, was born, and received the elemen-
tary parts of his education at Sedan, whence he was fent to
ftudy philofophy, at Saumur, under the-celebrated profef-
for Duncan. He was admitted to the minttry in the year
1618, being then twenty-three -years of age, but mectirg
with fome dilappointments at Langres, the piace in which
he firft fettled, he removed to Paris, and, in 1620, became
pattor of the church at Charenton. In 1625, he married
the daughter of a rich merchant at Paris, by whom he had
fixteen children, Hie greatly excelled as a preacher and

was
,

DRI

was regarded by the people among whom he miniftered, in
the relation of a kind and benevolent friend and affeCtionate
parent. The interefts of religion were not only ferved by
his difcourfes as a preacher, and by the advice and confola-
tion which he afforded as a paftor, but his various writings
fhew how diftinguifhed he was as a pious author, and zeal-
ous advocate of the proteftant faith. By his contemporaries
the controverfial pieces of Drelincourt were regarded as of
the utmoit importance in fortifying the young and unwary
againft the arts and delufions of Romifh prieits and em’fla-
ries: his moderation and prudence were as confpicuous as
his zeal was aGtive and energetic. He never provoked the
refentment of bis adverfaries by injurious afperfione, unfair
arguments, or illiberal language. He died in the year 1669,
highly beloved by thofe who enjoyed his friendfhip, end re-
{pected even by thofe who differed from him moft widely in
religious opinions. Bayle.

Dretincourt, CHarzes, fon of a minifer of that
name, of Charenton, acquired great fame for his learning,
and for his fcill in every branch of medical feience. He was
born at Paris ia the year 1632. and after ftudying fome
years at Saumur, he went to Montpellier, where he com-
pleted his medical courfe, by being honoured with the de-
gree of doétor in that faculty. We find him foon after at-
tending the marfhal Turenne, in his campaigrs, and by him
appointed phyfician to the army. The fkill and ability he
had fhewn in this fituation, occafioned his being nominated
to fucceed Wander Linden as profeffor of medicine at
Leyden, whither he obtained permiffion to go, though he
had been made, feveral years before, one of the phyficians
to Lewis the X[Vth. This was in 1688. Two years after
he was advanced to the chair of anatomy in the fame univer-
fity. He wasalfo made phyfician toWilliam, prince of Orange,
and to his princefs Mary. As re€tor of the univerfity of
Leyden, he fpoke the congratulatory oration to the prince
and princefs, on their acceffion to the throne of England.
He continued to hold his profefforfhips, the offices of which
he filled fo as to give univerfal fatisfaction, to the time of
his death, which happened on the laft day of May 1697.
He was a voluminous and learned writer, but there is little
original in his works, which were neverthelefs much read
in his time, and paffed through feveral editions. They were
colle&ed, and publifhed together in 1671, and again in
1680, in four vols. 12mo. But the mott complete edition
of them is that publithed at the Hague, in 1727, in 4to.
In one of his orations, he has been careful to exculpate pro-
feffors of medicine from the charge of impiety, fo frequently
thrown upon them, ‘ Oratio Doétoralis Monfpeffula,
qua Mediccs Dei operum confideratione atque contem-
platione permotos, ceteris hominibus Religions aftrictiores
eff: demonftratur: atque adeo impietatis crimen in ipfos
jactatum dijuitur.”? He alfo, in his ‘¢ Apologia, Medica,”
refutes the idea of phyficians having been banifhed from,
and not allowed to fettle in, Rome for the {pace of fix hun-
dred years. He was a lover of Greek literature, and like
his countrymar, Guy Patin, an enemy to the introdution
of chemical preparations into medicine, which were much
ufed in his time. He was alfo a ftrong opponent to his col-
league Sylvius. His fon Charles fucceeded him in his prace
tice, but has left no publication, except his inaugural difler-
tation, “ De Lienolis.” Haller Bib. Med. et Ch. Gen.
Bios.

DRENA, in Geography. a.town of Germany, in the
gounty of Tyrol; 7 miles N. E. of Riva. ”

DRENCH, among Farriers, a phyfical draught, or
potion, given to a horle, by way of purge,

DRE
DRENCHES, or Drences, Drengi, or Threngi, in

our Old Cufloms, aterm, about which the lawyers and anti-
quaries are a little divided. See THrencus.

Drenges, fays an ancient manufcript, were ‘* tenentes in
capite :””? according to Spelman, they were ‘“ € genere va~
fallorum non ignobilium, cum finguli qui in domes-day no-
minantur fingula pofliderent maneria :” fuch as, at the com-
ing in of the conqueror, being put out of their eftates, were
afterward upon complaint, reftored thereto; becaufe, they
being before owners thereof, were neither in auxilio, nor
confilio, againft him.

DRENGAGE, Drencacium, vel fervitium drengagii,
in our O/d Writers, the tenure by which the drenches held -
their lands; concerning which, fee Term Trin. 21 Ed. III.
Ebor. and Northum. Rot. 191. ** Notandum eft, eos om-
nes eorumve anteceflores, quie drengorum claffe erant, vel per
drengagium tenuere, fua incoluiffe patrimenia ante adventum
Normanorum.”? Spelm. Gloff. Du-Cange, Glofl, Lat.
in voc. Drenches.

DRENGFURT, in Geography, a {mall town of Proffia,
in that pert of Eattern Praffia which is called Samland
It was built inthe year 1403.

DRENTE., a quarter or diftriét of Overyffel.

DRENTELBURG, or TrenreLtsurGc, a town of
Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and principality
of Heffe; 18 miles N. N.W. of Caffel, and 32 E.S. E. of
Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 23’ E. long. 8° 59!.

DREPANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Lycta—Alfo, a town mn Sicily —Alfo, a town
of Africa, in Libya —Alfo, two iflands in the /Zgean fea,
placed by Steph. Byz. in the vicinity of the ifland of Le-
binthus, "The Drepana of the Pheacians, fo called by this
geographer, is Corcyra or Corfu.—Alfo, a mountain of
Ethiopia. Steph. Byz.

DREPANIA, in Botany, from Agro, a fickle, Jull.
Gen. 169, is a genus made by Juffieu of the Crepis bartata
of Linneus, Tolpis of Gaertner, t. 160, who adopts the
name from Adanfon, and who is followed by Willdenow,
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1608. See Tourts.

DREPANON, Aenrexv, among the Greeks, an engine
of iron crooked like a fickle, and fixed to the top of a lon
pole. It was ufed in cutting afunder the cords of the fail-
yards, in order to difable the fhip by letting fall the fails, and
was otherwife called dorydrepranon. Potter’s Archwol.
tom. ll. I41.

DREPANIS, in Ornithology, the fand-martin or fhore-
bird, the Hirunpo Rivaria, which fee.

DREPANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Bithynia ; fituated on the gulf of Nicomedia, and
called by Conftantine the Great Hellenopolis.—Alfo, a pro» °
montory of the Peloponnefus, in Achsia Propria; placed by
Paufanias inthe gulf of Corinth. It was alfo called RAium,
according to Ptolemy.—Alfo, « promontory of Cyrenaica, a
country of Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy.—Alfo, a pro-
montory of Egypt inthe Arabic gulf, diftinguifhed by
Ptolemy fror. Lepte, though Pliny fays, that they were the
fame.—Alfo, a promontory in the fouth eaft part of the ifle
of Cyprus, to the fouth of the ancient town of Paphos. M,
a’Anville places it N.W. of Paphos.—Alfo, a town of
Sicily (Trapant) towards the weft, Here, Aineas, accord.
ing to Virgil, loft his father Anchyfes ; and near it was the
temple of Venus on mount Mryx. The Carthaginians had
poflefion or Dreparum, and made many vigorous efforts to

referve it. ‘This place. was famous for a naval battle, in

which Adherbal defeated Claudius, the ecnful, A. U. C.,
7 505,

DRE

#05. B. C. 249,—Alfo, a promontory of the ifle of Crete,
now La Punta di Drapono in the ifle of Candia.—Alfo, a
promontory of the ifle of Icaria, fo called by Strabo.—Alfo,
a promontory in the weitern part of Sicily oppofite to the
JEgades, under mount Eryx, of which it formed a part,
according to Ptolemy; now called Zrapani.—Alfo, an-
other promontory of Sicily, on the eaftern fide of the ifland,
and almoft oppofite to the town of Rhegium, according to
Pliny. Ptolemy calls it Argennon, andit is now Capo di
S. Aleffio.—Allo, a {mail branch of Achaia, fituated I. of
Panormus, which, according to Strabo, had a temple of
Neptune.

DRESBACH, in Geography. See Drenpacn.

DRESDEN, Dresen, Drefdin, Drefnem, Drazdzu,
Drazdonech, in Latin Drefilena and Drefday in Vrench
Drefde, one of the handtomett towns of Europe, is the ca-
pital of the kingdom of Saxony in Germany. It is fituated
on the Elbe, where the Weifleritz falls into that river, which
divides it into the old and new town, 18 miles S. E. of
Meiffen, and 58 miles S. E. of Leipzick.

Drefden confifts of three parts, wiz. Drefden, or Old
Drelden, with its three {uburbs ; the new town (Neuttadt )
which is, properly fpeaking, the old town, fioce it obtained
its town privileges in 1216, two hundred years fooner than
Old Drefden, but which was called the new town by order
of Augultus IT., king of Poland, and elector of Saxony ;
and the Frederickftadt or Oltra, which communicates with
the fuburbs of Old Drefden by means of a ttone bridge over
the Weifleritz. )

_ In 1429, 1491, and 1614, Drefden fuffered greatly by
fire; it alfo endured many hardfhips in the thirty years’ war.
From 1631 to 1635, the plague raged with the greatett fury
at Drefden, deftroying 14 out otf 15 perfons, and caufing,
in the year 1632, the death of 6892 mdividuals. In 1697,
Drefden had 1916 inhabited, and 21g uninhabited houfes,
with 40,000 inhabjtants. In 1755, one year before the fe-
ven years’ war, during which Drefden fuffered feverely ; its
population amounted to 63,209 individuals. In 1760,
Drefden was bombarded by the Pruffians, when the old town
had 226 houfes deftroyed, and 37 damaged, the new town
25 damaged, and the fuburbs 1g0 deftroyed. The Auf-
trians, who were fhut up in the town, which was but badly
fortified, had added fome intrenchments before the fuburb of
the Frederickftadt from the river Weifferitz to the Elbe.
Tn the year 1788, Drefden counted 2450 dwelling houfer,
and 53,000 inhabitants, without the garnfon. There were
349 couple married, 1516 born, of whom 240 were illegi-
timate children, and 2009 dead. The number of the poor
relieved by public charities in hofpitals, orphan-houfes, in-
firmaries, poor-houfes, &c. exceeded 3000, There were
5000 Roman catholics, and about goo Jews.

The ftreets of Drefden, which are 6 in number, are
fpacious, ftraight, well paved, and well lighted. There
are feveral handfome fquares and fome beautiful walks.
Drefden has 40 public fchools and 18 churches, the mott.
remarkable of which ave the church of St. Sophia, in which
the firft Lutheran fermon was preached at Drefden, on the
23d of April, 15393 the church of St. Ann; that of St.
Mary’s, os our Lady (Fratienkirche) built in 1734, by.
Augufus IL. upon the plan of St. Peter’s at Rome: and
the new Catholie church, built by Auguitus IIT., from the
year 1737 to 1756.

The royal palace at Drefden is a very fine building, which
owes mott of its grandeur to Auguftus II. The green vault,
(das griine GewOlbe) which contains eight rooms, is parti-
cularly fplendid. ‘The floors are mottly of exquifite marble,

DIRE

and the walls covered with large mirrors.
is one of the richeft cabinets of curiofities.

In the fecond floor of the Drefden palace, is the cele-
brated pi@ure gallery, which has feven pictures of Correggio,
among others his ‘ Rieht” and his “ Magdalen ;”? feveral
of Vanderveid and Mengs; many paftels, chiefly of the ce-
lebrated Rofa Alba; and, in 1806, it was enriched by 2
large hiftorical painting of Tr. Mathai, with 12 figures,
reprefenting /Zgifthus punifhed by Oreftes and Pilades in
the palace of Agamemnon. The royal armoury occu-
pics 36 rooms. The gardens, called der Zwinger, contain a
magnificent building, in which there is a cabinet of natural
curtofities ; a gallery of prints, which fhews the progrefs
of engraving from the infancy of the art; a colle€tion of
anatomical preparations, anl a fhow room of mathematical
inftruments,

Of the public buildings, the moft remarkable are the
large and the fmall opera-honfe, the aflembly rooms; the ar-
fenal; the military academy; the barracks; the mint;
the ftate-houfe (landhats); the royal china warchoufe 5
the beautiful ftone bridge over the Elbe, with fixteen
arches; the Dutch palace, which contains a mufeum of cu-
rious articles made of china of different manufaétures, a cae
binet of medals, and the royal library. The latter has above:
150,000 volumes and 2000 manufcripts.

The principal manufactures of Drefden are thofe of wool.
len cloth, faddles, faddle-clothes, filks, fill -ftockings, gauze,
ribbands, lace, leather gloves, play-cards, mufical initru-
ments, and large mirrors, which are polifhed at Drefden, but
caft at Frederickithal near Senftenberg. Z

The diftri&t of Drefden contains three towns and 167
villages ; 31 of which belong to the town of Drefden, the
whole population of which amounts to about 90,000 indiyi-
duals.

The belt account of Drefden is to<be found in the hif-
tories of Anthony Week, Dafdorf, and Hafche. The de-
{cription (umitendliche Befchreibiing von Drefden) of
Drefden by the latter has had a new improved edition
fince the year 1738. (Guibert’s Journal d’un voyage
en Allemagne. F, G.-Leonhardi’s Erdbefchreibiing der
Sechfifchen Lande 1790.)

Drespen, a poft town of America, in the ftate of Maine,
and county of Lincoln, feated on the eaft bank ot Kennebeck
river, nine miles from Wifcaffet point, 12 S. by E. of Hallo»
well, and 180 N. by E. of Bofton. Swan ifland lies ia
this townfhip.

DRESIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia; in
Phrygia. Steph. Byz.

DRESNICK, in Geography, a town of Croatia; 18
miles N. W. of Bihacs.

DRESS, as it relates to military affairs, means a word
of command given when the foldiers are not exaétly in line,
to bring them into their proper places, fo that the whole
front may appear exaétly even. Perfons habituated to
‘ drefling in line,”” however irregularly they may * fall :n,??
or move to a new polition, will, onthe word * drefs’? bes
ing given, inftantly conform to its intention, and aflume the
molt regular front.. ‘This, however, can only relate to {malt
bodies, fuch as a.company, drawn up in two or three ranks 5. °
all perfe@tly even, and parallel, When large bodies are to
affume a new front, it is ufual to fend from each company
a foldier, who, from his. being polted on the flank, is called
a pivot-man.” ‘Thefe, being acquainted with the number
of paces their refpective companies meafure in. front, habi~
tually place themfelves at the proper diltances from each
other along the new front, and taking care to “ cover,” that
is, to drefs, exactly in a correct line, remain motioniefs until

their

In thefe rooms

DRE

their refpective companies arrive at their new ftations; and
thus, not only determine the precife localities of the flanks,
or pivots, of the feveral companies, but make certain, that,
when the whole wheel up into Ime, there fhall be no irregu-
larity, break, or undulation in its fro. When the feveral
companies have wheeled up, their commanders being guided
by the point, either on the right or on the left, flank, which
gave the direction to the new front, order their feveral divi-
fions to drefs by the right, or by the left accordingly. In
order to “drefs” correéily either the chin, or the breaft-plate,
of the fecond man, on the right, or left, as. may be ordered,
is to be feer ; and no more: when a foldier cannot fee either
of thefe objeéts, he is not up to the line ; and when he can
{ee more, he is beyond the line.
_ Drefs alfo appertains to the regimental of a corps ; and,
in many inftances, is clafled, as “ full drefs,”? “* half drefs,??
and “ undrefs.”? The former relates to the complete uni-
form, fuch as is worn at reviews; the fecond to that which
1s in ordinary ufe for common duties; and the laft to that
which is appropriated to labour; fuch as working parties.
watering hories, cleaning out ftables, and for wear on board
fhip. ‘The three claffes ave molt in ule among the cavalry
and artillery corps; battalicns of the line rarely have more
than an crdinary and a full drefs; fome, indeed, have little
or no diftinétion, beyond trowfers, feather-cafes, and belt, or
old, cloathing.
Pe VWic are free to confefs, that the great increafe of articles
an requilition, merely to ornament the foldier’s perfon, by
no means appears judicious. We have heard it faid, that
foldiers cannot be kept too poor ; but, we believe, that when
all fair expences are difcharged, there will be found a very
{mall balance for the foldier’s comfort : much lefs to enable
his following corporal ‘Trim’s inimitable interpretation of
the fifth commandment; or towards the fupport of his wife
and family. ‘The opinions of many veteran officers, high in
rank and repute, warrant us in the expreffion of our wih,
that every foldicr in the Britifh fervice were provided by
government with all neceflary articles of the frft quality ;
but, that no trappings, or gew-gaws, fhould be exaGed from
his purfe. He fiiould have no petty accounts to fettle with
his fuperiors: they loofen the ties of refpect, and of fubore
Cination ; and give birth to much difcontent. It would,
perhaps, not be unreafonable, that fuch commanders as may
wifh to fee their regiments highly dreffed, fhould defray all
the extra expences. :
DRESSERUS, Matruew, in Biography, was born at
Erfurt, the capital of Thuringia, in Auguft 1536, and ob-
tained a confiderable reputation among the learned. He
fludied for a fhort time under Iuther and Melan@thon, at
Wittemberg, but the air of that city not being congenial to
his health, he returned to Erfurt, where he completed his
fludies. In 1559. he took his degree of mafter of arts,
and immediately affumed the office of leurer in belles let-
tres and rhetoric at his own houle, after this he was chofen
profeflor in the college of Erfurt, and befides philofophy, he
undertook to inflruét the young men in claffical literature.
In the duties of this office he continued to labour fixteen
years, during which he obtaineda high reputation. In 1574,
he removed to Jena, as the fucceffor of Lipfius, who had
been the profeflor of hiftory and eloquence in that univerfity,
Here Drefferns remained but a fhort time, when he became
head of the college of Meiffen, and afterwards, viz. in 158:,
he was appointed to the profeflorfhip of polite learning in the
univerfity of Leipfick, and a particular penfion was allowed
him to continue the hiftory of Saxony. Here he fpent the
remainder of his life, a ufeful member of the body to which
he belonged : he dicd in the year 1607. He was a man of

DRE

deep learning and great induftry, and contributed to the ex.
tenfion of learning in Germazy, not only by his own exertions
as a teacher of the Greek language, but by obtaining the
confent of his colleagues, while he was one of the profeffors
at Erfurt, that the Hebrew language fhould be taught in
that univerfity, He was author of various works in polite
literature, moral philofophy, &c. Bayle. Moreri.
DRESSING of hemp and flax. See Hemp and Frax.
Dressine of hops. See Hops.

DressinG of meats, the preparing of them for food by
means of culinary fire. é

The defian of drefling is to loofen the texture of the
flefh, and difpofe it for diffolution and digeftion in the fto-
mach. Fiefh not being a proper food without dreffing, is
alleged as an argument, that man was not intended by na-
ture for a carnivorous or ficth eating animal.

The ufual operations are, roafting, boiling, and ftewing.
In roafting, it is obierved, meat will bear a much greater
and longer heat than either in boiling or ftewing, and in boil«
ing greater and longer than in ftewing. The reafon is, that
roa{ting being performed in the open air, as the parts begin
externally to warm, they extend and dilate, and fo gradually
Jet out part of the rarefied included air, by which means the
internal fuccuffions, on which the diflolution depends, are
much weakened and abated ; boiling being performed in wa-
ter, the preffure is greater, and, confequently, the fuccuf-
fions to lift up the weight are proportionably ftrong; by
which means the coétion is haftened, and even in this way
there are great differences ; for the greater the weight of
water, the fooner is the bufinefs done.

In ftewing, though the heat be muck: lefs than what is
employed in the other ways, the operation is much more
quick, becaufe performed in a clofe veflel, and full; by which
means the fuccuflions are more often repeated, and, more
{trongly reverberated. Hence the force of Papin’s digeftors
and hence an illuftration of the operation of digeltion.

Boilicg, Dr. Cheyne obferves, draws more of the rank,
{trong juices from meat, and leaves it lefs nutritive, more
diluted, lighter, and eafier of digeftion: roafting, on the
other hand, leaves it fuller of the ftrong, nutritive juices,
hard to digeft, and needing more dilution. Strong, grown,
and adult animal food, therefore, fhould be bailed, and the
younger and tenderer roafted. See the feveral articles.

Drrssine of Ore. The methods of preparing each {pe-
cies of metallic ore for fufion may be found under the heads
of the various metals; and for the general principles of this
important manipulation, fee OrEs, drajing of.

DressinG, in Surgery, is aterm which includes every f{pe-
cies of application employed for the cure of external dif-
eafes. A furgeon, therefore, is faid to ¢dre/s a wound, &c.
when he applies remedies to it; fuch as fomentations, oint-
ments, lint, bandages, or any other kind of curative means.
Dreflings muft vary according to the nature of the cafe;
and the fame cafe may require difierent dreflings in its fuc-
ceffive ftages. The {kill of a furgeon will be eafily diftin-
gu'fhed from the routine of an ignorant prete-der by the
judicious feleGtion he makes of pecwiar dreflings in various
circumitances of difeafe, climate, or confiitt..:oa. The mo-
dern practice of furgeons has greatly fimplied the art of
drefling, fince it has been found that nature docs much more
towards a cure than our anceftors imagined. Very little is
requifite by way of dreffing to frefh incifed wounds ia muf-
cular parts, except bringing the lips of the wovnd into con-
ta, and preferving them in that fituation by ligature or ad-
hefive platters, aided occafionally with a bandage. Complis»
cated wounds mult, however, be fuppofed to require ut

tiona

.

DRI

tional means. See Wounns, Fracrures, Luxarions,
Asscessrs, Cicatrix, Contusions, Uccers, &c.

lt is a very geaeral error among unprofeffional perfons to
pour balfems, oils, or fpirits into a frefh wound, and then to
fil it up with lint or fome other extraneous fubftance. This
efficioufnefs is commonly hurtful, aed caufes the patient to
be three or four times as long in recovering 28 he would if
left entirely to nature. Thofe irritating applications to re-
produce more or lefs pain and inflamma.
tion, with fubfequent inconveniences, if not long continued
fuppuration and {welling of the part, &c. &c. AA little
blood flowing from a wound will be ufeful in preventing the
pain, inflammation, and tumefaétion which might otherwife
have enfued ; and therefore none of the above artificial means
of arrefting the hemorrhage (if it be but flight) fhouid be had
recourfe to in trivial accidents of this kind. See Lint,
Banvaces, Puasters, Licarurgs, and the other articles
connected with this fubjeét. ‘ Sake.

Dressine a /hip, is the a& of ornamenting a fhip with a
variety of coloure, as enfigns, flags, pendants, &c. difplayed
from different parts of her malts and rigging on a day of
feftivity.

Drusstnc-Machine. See Flour-Mitv.

DRESVIANTIA, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Si-
beria, in the government of Tobo!fk, on the Vagai; 60 miles
S. of Tobolik.

DREVET, Pizere, ia Biography, a French engraver,
died at Paris in 1739, aged 42. b

DREUX, in Latin Durocaffes, or Durcaffes, in Geos
graphy, a {mal] but ancient town of France, chief place
of a-diftrict of the fame name, in the department of Eure
and Loire, fituated at the foot of a mountain on the river
Blaife, 18 miles N. W. of Chartres, 51 miles W. of Paris,
and 66 S.E. of Rouen. It was in the neighbourhood of
Dreux that was fought, in 1562, under Charles 1X., the
memorable battle, in which the Proteftants were defeated
and the prince of Condé taken prifoner.

Drevz has 5437 inbabitantsc. Its canton contains 23
communes and a population of 14,802 individuals, upon a
territorial extent of 330 kiliometres. It bas a confiderable
manoufa€ture of cloth for the clothing of the troops. ss chief
place of a diftri&t, Dreux has a fub-prefe&t, a ranger, a court
of juflice, and a regifter office.

The diftri& comprizes an extent of 15722 kiliometres, 138
communes, and 68,824 inhabitants. It abounds in corn and
cattle, makes fome bad wine and cyder, and has a few tanner-
ics and manufa@tures of linen and woollen cloth.

DREYE, or Dretue, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Weitphalia, and county of Hoya; five miles S.S.E. of
Bremen.

DREYEN, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the Little
Beit ; three miles S.W. of Middlefahrt.

DREYGELHAUSEN, a town of Germany, ia the
circle of-Lower Rhine, and eleGtorate of Mentz; five miles
N.W. of Bingen.

DREYS, or Dreysz, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Weliphalia; four miles W.S. W. of Willich.

DREYSALLIGKEIT, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Stiria; five miles N. of Pettav. -

DREYSSIGACKER, a {mall town of Germany, in the
duchy of Saxe Cobourg, fituated on a hil! two miles off
Meinungen. It hae a fummer-palace and a park. One-third
of its inhabitants are Jews. The whole population is not
much above 3a0,

DRIBENTZ, a river of Pruffia, which runs into the
Viltula; fix miles S.E. of Thorn.

DRIESEN, anciently Dausw and Dre/no, a fmall town

Vou, XII.

cent wounds alway

DRI
of Pruffia, in the New Mark of Brandenburg, pleafantly fi.

tuated on the river Netze, which at this place divides icfelf
into two branches, ong called the Leffler, or Old Netze, the
other the Larger Netze, 36 miles E. of Landiberg.
{eid to have been built in 1270, by Boleflaus, king of Poland.
In 1317, margrave Woldemar, of Brandeaburg, conferred
it as a fief on Henry. and Burchard-von-der-Ollen. In
1603 a ftrong fort was ereGted againft the incurfione ef the
Poles. It is furrounded by a moat an branch of the
river. In 1636, the Swedes made ar

upon it, but took it in 1639 and
1650. In 1662 the town of Driefen was cx
by fire; it has fince beén rebuilt. The Rufiians occupied the
fort in 1758, and improved its fortifications,

The diftriét of Driefen comprizes 14 fmall towns. The
principal induftry of the inhabitants is tillage and grazing;
they alfo fhare in the woollen cloth manufaciure, which flou-
rifhes in the New Mark.

DRIFFBOR, a town of Norway; 46 miles E. of
Romfdal.

DRIFFIELD, Great, a market town and parifh, in
the divifion of Beacon-Bainton, and wapentake of Harthill, in
the aft Riding of the county of York, England, contains
329 houfes and 1411 inhabitants. Several weollen and cot-
ton manufatories have recently been eftablifhed here ; and a
confiderable trade is carried on incorn. Driffield has a mar-
ket on Thurfdays, and four anaual fairs. The parifh is con-
folidated with Little Driffield, which is about one mile and
a half diftant.

Darrrietp Canal, is the parliamentary name of a naviga-
ble canal. of about 11 miles in length, in the Eait Riding of
Yorkfhire ; it commences in the river Hull, at Aikbeck
Mouth, and extends to the town of Driffield. See Canat.

DRIFT, in Mining. See Minine.

Darr of the Fore/, an exaGt view or examination of what
cattle are in the foreit ; that it may be known whether it be
farcharged or not, and whofe the beafts are; and whether
they are commonable beafts or not. Thefe drifts are made at
certain times in the year by the officers of the fore; when
all the cattle of the foreft are driven into fome inclofed place,
for the purpofes above-mentioned. Sce Forsst, and Com-
MON.

Drirr, in Moft-making, denotes the difference between
the fize of a bolt and the hole into which it is to be driven;
and the fame term is applied to a hoop, which is to be
driven on a maft.

Daist, in Navigation, denotes the angle which the line
of a fhip’s motion makes with the oeareft meridian, when fhe
drives with her fide to the wind and waves, and is not go-
verned by the power of the helm; end alfo the diftance
which the fhips drive on that line, fo called only in a form.

Drirt-/ail, in a Ship, @ {ail ufed under water; veered out
right a-head, by theets, as other fails are: its ufe being to
keep the fhip’s head right upon the fea in a itorm, and to
hinder a fhip’s driving too faft in a current; with which
ver it 1s generally ufed by fifhermen, efpecially in the North
ea. ,

DRILL, or Dritx-dox, a name given to an initrument
ufed in the new method of horfe-hoeing hufbandry for fow-
ing the land. See Broap-casr and Hussanpry,

The drill is the engine that plants the corn and other
feeds in rows; it makes the channels, and fows the feeds
in them, and covers them with earth when fown, and all
this at the fame time, and with great expedition. The prin-
cipal parts of the drill are the feed-box, the hopper, the
plough, and its harrow. The feed-box is the chief of thefe;
it meafures, or rather numbers out, the feeds which it re-

h ccives

Teer.
2013

{3 ae }
mopletely deitroyed

DR TLL -

ceives from the hopper, and is for this purpofe as an artif-
cial hand, but it delivers out the feed much more equally
than can be done by a natural hand. The plough and
hopper are drawn by a horfe, and by thefe the ground is
opened, and the feed is depofited in it ; the harrow follows,
and lightly rakes in the earth over them. When the ground
is fine, and the feeds fmall, a hurdle, with fome prickly
- bufhes faftened to its under part, will ferve better than the
harrow. The whole apparatus for this method of fowing
js defcribed, ard illuftrated with figures, by Tull, in his
Horft-hocing Hufbandry. See Drill-Proucu.

Drie rake, in Hufbandry. See Drill-Rake.

Daitt, in Mechanics, a tool made of hardened fteel, ufed
to bore holes in metal; they are of various forms, the moft
ufeful of which are fhewn in Plate XXIV. Mechanics.

Fig, 1. is the common lathe or crank-drill, having an an-
gular point, and two cutting edges, aa, which are only
adapted to be turned one way ; It 18 therefore adapted for
drilling any work in the lathe, or by the crank, which is
formed of iron, having a‘focket at the lower end to receive
the drill the upper end 1s pointed, and is prefled upon by
a lever loaded with aweight. The workman turns the drill
round by means of the elbow of the crank, and the weight
and lever keep it to its work. ; ;

Fic. 2. is the ordinary drill, having the cutting edge, as
shew in the fide view B, made fo as to cut either way; itis
ufed with the crank, but chiefly with the bow.

Fig. 3. is like the former, except,that it has a round edge;
it is ufed for drilling fteel.and hardened iron, where, from the
hardnefs of the work, a point might fail. :

Fig. 4. isa drill, where the cutting edge (adin fg. D.)
crofies the point. The cutting fide of the edge at a is to-
ward fig. A; and at the other fide of the centre; viz. at J,
it is toward D; the edge is therefore fomewhat like a {crew,
and leads itfelf into the work ; for which reafon it is good

for drilling lead, copper, and other metals, which are tough’

ithout being very hard.
it paats ied a pin drill, and is ufed for Grilling very
large holes. A {mall drill, like figs. 1 or 2,15 firft ufed, and
the hole, thus made, juit fits the pin aa, and keeps the drill
fteady while it 1s turned round. It has two cutting edges,
band d; ind the face is towards the eye of the {peator,
and d reprefents the back of the edge; the edge is a ttle
hollowed out above at J in the edge view, to make a thinner

nd fharper edge.
. Fa 6. is 2 counterfunk drill, which is ufed to make holes
to receive the heads of {crews}; a hole is Arft drilled by the
common drill, which is the fize of the body of the {crew,
and the pin a a juft fits it, the cutting part db is the lize of
the head of the fcrew, ee isa fhoulder, which prevents the
drill cutting any further than intended.

Drills for fmall work are turned by means of a {mall
pulley fitted on them ; the ftring of an claitic bow is pafled
round it. ‘The piece of metal to be drilled, is fixed in a
vice, and the point of the drill applied to it; the other end
is placed in a hole in a piece of metal held again the
breaft of the operator; by drawing the bow backwards
and forwards, a rapid motion is given to the drill, though it
is not always in the fame dire¢tion; therefore, the drill should

e fhaped hike fig. 1.
ised pie of making a great number of pulleys,
workmen frequently ufe drill ttocks, which will ft any fize

ii] with the fame puiley.
uae 7. is one of thefe where the drill A is formed of a
round piece of fteel wire, and pufhed into a round hole, a
little taper in the end of the ftock B; a,a, are notchesto pufh
out the end of the drillin cafe it breaks inthe Rock, Some-

3

times the hole in the Rock is {quare, for unlefs the work is
very light, the round ones are apt to flip.

Fig, 8.i9 a neat contrivance to obviate this difficulty, com-
municated to us by Mr. T. Gill. The hole in the end of
the ftock is cylindrical, and the wire of the drill has one fide
filed flat, afmall pin is put through one fide of, the hole, as
fhewn by the {mall round circle, and the flat fide of the wire
applies itfelf to it; by this means, the drill cannot turn round,
and always fits tight in its focket.

Fig. 9. isa ftecl bow for giving motion toa drill as before
explained. Ais the fteel part formed into a hook at the end,
to hold the catgut B. At the otherend, the fteel is en-
larged to receive athumb-nut D, on which the catgut is
wound, d isa {mall ratchet wheel faftened to the nut D, and
fitted with aclick to prevent its turning back. The ufe of the
ratchet is to draw up the catgut, fo that it may fit any fize
pulley on the drill.

In large manufaGtories where much large drilling is to be
performed, it is done by machinery ufually turned by a iteam
engine.

Figs. 10. and 11, are elevations, at right angles to each
other, of a machine of this kind. A, jig. ic, is a fhaft,
bringing the powerto the machine, Ba bevelled wheel fixed
thereon, giving a rotative motion to another, D, on a verti-
cal axis, .E, curning in bearings ¢, d; this axis is perforated
with a fquare hole throughout to receivea {quare iron bar e,
at the lower end whereof the drill f is fixed. The work to
be drilled is placed on a {tool F upon the floor, that it may
be readily moved about ; in the drawing it is fuppofed to be
a cylinder lid; the drill is preffed down upon the work bya
lever G, the fulcrum of whichis g, at the other end of the
lever is jointed an iron rod 4, having a rack £ cut inthe
lower end; this rack is moved by a pinion on the axis of @
toothed wheel / turned by another pinion, on whofe {pindle
is the winch m; the upper end of the iron bar e is pointed,
and works in a hole in the lever; a collar nm is put over the
lever and keyed uponthe bar e, fo that the lever will lift up
the drill as well as force it down upon the work.

The operation of the machine is very fimple; the drill
being,conftantly in motion, the workman turns the winch m,
and raifes the drill above the work, he then adjufts the work
by moving the ftool F and laying the piece upon wedges to
the proper place, and by turning the winch m back, he brings
the drill down upon the work with any degree of force he
pleafes. The drill mutt be fapplied with cold water, other-
wife the friGion wou!d heat and foftenit. The drillis titted
into its focket by a {quare, the focket is open above the dnill,
as fhewn in fig. 11, that it may be driven ont to change it
for another.

Drills are hardened by heating them in the fire to ared
heat, and plunging them in cold water. They are then
rubbed brightin feme part by a ftone, file, &c. and again

heated in the fire, till the bright part effumes a light ftraw -

colour, when they are cooled in water.- Small drills are
heated in the candle by a blow pipe, and cooled in the
tallow.

It is a very well known fa&, that a drill made of iron has
frequently not only a polarity, but fo ftrong an attra@tive
virtue of the magnetic kind, that it will fufpend a common
needle from its point. It isufually f{uppoled that a drill
acquires this polarity by boring iron. But itis not only by
boring of iron that this power is obtained, but in the very
makieg. As foon as one of them is finifhed and hardened,
its poiut becomes a north pole before it hasever been worked
either in ivon or any other materials, fo that of the great
numbers of thefe inttrements found ia a fhop, endowed with
‘this power, itis to be fuppofed that more of them owe it to

their

-

DRI

their original make than to any after-ufe, All pieces of
wrought iron, which in fhape refemble driils, that is, which
are of a longand flender form, will not only have this po-
larity, but they will change it on being placed for fome time
in an inyerted pofture, and that which was the oppofite to
the north pole, by ftanding downwards will bethe north pole.
This has been an old obfervation, but on a fair experiment
it does not prove to be truein all things without exception,
though it be fo in moft particulars. The larger pieces of
iron feemto be moft eafily influenced in their polarity, by
changing their pofition; but the fmall ones will fometimes
be found to have fixed poles, which no change of poiture
will alter. Phil. Tranf. N° 246. See Macnet.

Dritt, faid to be derived from Fr. drille, which fignifies
araw foldier, ina Adilitary Senfe, applies to the tuition of re-
eruits, under the aulpices of proper commiffioned officers,
aided by ferjeants, and others, properly qualified to inftru&
in all the minutie of whatever appertains to the management
of the firelock; and to the various evolutions performed by
the company and by the regiment at large. Some regiments
have an extra company, for the purpofe of raifing, and of
inttruéting new levies ; in them that branch of the fervice is
generally much accelerated, on account of their being duly
provided with preceptors efpecially fuited to this highly im-
portant duty: from thefe extra companies the recruits are
forwarded, in due time, to theirregiments. In other corps,
the drill isexclufively attended to by the adjutant, and the
drill ferjeants, and corporals exprefsly appointed for the
purpofe: in a fewregiments there is no regular drill: the
new men being trained by the officers of the companies to
which they are, from the firft, attacked.

From all we have been able to colle&t on the fubje& of
drills, it appears, that the Britifh ferviceis entitled to greater
encomium than any other, for this branch of incipient dif-
cipline ; though weregret, that it fhould be held expedient
toadmit the ufe of the rattan in any {lage of the recruit’s
progrefs. We have the authority of many highly refpeéted
military charaéters for our affertion, that it is invariably
better to act on the pride, than on the back of any candi-
date for an honourable profeflion. Indeed, it feems rather
inconfi'tent, that a man fhould be taught to carry himfelf
with dignity, grace, and firmnefs, by placing'a watch over his
action, fo as to inflict a difgraceful punifhment for the moft
trivial error; or, perhaps, for an accidental deviation from
the marked path.

On the other hand, we have heard it urged, that the
armies of the great Frederick of Pruffia, which, in his days,
were confidered truly formidable from the great perfection
of their difcipline, owed their fuperiority entirely to the
Severity with which every part of the drill fyftem was con-
duéted. ‘T’o this we may be allowed to anfwer, that among
a people habituated, and in fa& born, to degradation and
vaffalage, fuch a method of inftruétion might be tolerated :
the boor might be warmed into ardour by the force of {tripes;
but we cannot conceive that mode to be any wife applicable
to the tuition of free men, poffcffed of fome education, or
at leaft to a certain degree enlightened, and ina flate of
civilization. We mutt confefs it has often occurred to us,
when witneffing the rude application of the ferjeant’s cane,
that the object in view was rather retarded, than accelerated :
we have feen the types of honeft indignation mount upon the
juvenile cheek, and gliften in the eye: we have feen offended
pride combating with fubordination, and oppreflinga {pirit
which, with proper encouragement, and under due guidance,
might lead to the moft heroic aGtions.

Further, we have heard it fated, that, in fome regimente,

DRI

where the rattan is exploded; or, at leaf, its ufe profcribed,
the recruits are more cheerful, more aétive, more affiduous,
and direét their whole attention to an emulous conteft for
{peedy perfection. And this affuredly is natural; the lurk-
ing dread of caftigation for involuntary lapfes, or for venial
miltakes, being banifhed, their minds can freely receive in-
ftruGion, and there will prevail a certain willingnefs to pleafe
theinftruGtor ; which caxnot be expected under the fyftem
of terror, We fincerely hope, the day is not remote, when
kindnefs, and conciliation, will be made to fuperfede harfh-
nefs and feverity.

DRILLA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
Cappadocia, who inhabited the coaft of the Euxine fea,
bet ween the territories of Trebifond and Coichis.

DRILLENBURG, Witiiam Van, in Biography, a
painter of landf{capes, born at Utrecht in 1626. He was
a difciple of Abraham Bloemart, an imitator of John Both,
and the mafter of Houbraken. Hig pictures refemble thofe
of Both in the choice of fubjefts and fituations ; in the
trees, fies, and diftances ; but they have neither the beauty
of colouring, the’look of nature, nor the freedom, lightnefs,
and delicacy of touch, of that excellent malter. He de-
lighted in h's art, and was fo intent on the praétice of it,
that he fometimes confined himfelf to his houfe for a whole
year together, without once going out of doors. Pil-
kington.

DRILLING and Horse-notixe, in Agriculture.
Drilling is an operation that requires but very little
attention. On this fubje&, we fhall only ftate the depth
at which the feed fhould be fown; the quantity fer acre,
and the width of the intervals, Many crops of wheat
have been greatly injured by depofiting the feed too
deep, efpecially in wet foils: a little attention to the prin=
ciples of vegetation will demonftrate this. Nature is uni-
form in her operations ; and whether the fecd be put in
the earth at four, three, two, or one inch below the furface,
the roots which are to carry the corn to perfection will be
formed at one precife depth; and, very near the furface,
wheat has two fets of roots, which may be termed the
feminal and coronal; the firlt come from the grain,~and the
others are formed in the {pring from the crown of the plant :
they are united by a tube of communication, by which the
plant is fupported, until the coronal roots are formed.
By depofiting the feeds too deep, it frequently perifhes by a
fuperabundance of moilture; and, certainly, from its in-
creafed length, this thread-like tube is more liable to be
cut afunder by the red, or wire-worm. ‘This theory is
confirmed by practical obfervation ; for, in the {pring ot the
year, we have frequently taken up plants of broad-cait wheat,
and always found thofe which appeared molt luxuriant had
been covered by not more than an inch of mould, and thofe
which had fallen into the furrows, and were three or four
inches below the furface, had a very fickly appearance, with
a fmall blade, of a bad colour, and making no efforts for
tillering. From this obfervation, we may conclude, that an
inch is the belt depth for depofiting the feed of wheat,
The remark will apply to barley and rye, and all plants which
form their coronal roots near the furface. We fhould recom.
mend wheat, barley, oats, vetches, and rye, on foils not
very wet, to be drilled on five, or ten feet ridges, in equal
diftant rows of one foot: beans, peafe, and turnips, on
three feet ridges, two rows on a ridge, nine inches from row
to row, with intervals of 27 inches ; lands in high tilth, and
on five feet ridges, will require only three pecks of feed.
Wheat and rye, five pecks of oats, barley, or vetches, and
one bufhel of beans and peafe per acre, according to the
goodnefs of the feed, and the richnefs of the foil. For

Hiha (carifying

DR

fearifying and horfe-hoeing, fome attention and judgment
will be requifite. No corn fhould be fcarified until the
fpring; and pulverize the furface, by pafling the fixed
harrows acrofs the wheat, previous to {carifying, to break
the incruftations on the furface, left the fearifiers fhould
throw large flakes of earth over the rows of corn. After
this operation, pafs the {carifiers through, about an inch
below the furface, returning in the fame track, as deep
as the land was ploughed; then roll with a heavy roller,
which will give the whole land a concuffion, and pul-
verize it fix inches below the furface, allowing the tender
roots room to expand, in a fine bed of vegetable food. In
fhort, care muft be taken not to throw any earth up to the
plants in this early flage; for, as nature always forms the
coronal root at the moft advantageous depth below the
furface of the foil, by throwing earth to the plants you
impede her operations, and the will, by a fort of vegetable
inftin@, be obliged to form frefh coronal roots, and the
progrefs of vegetation will be much retarded, for want of this
precaution ; and nature has laboured fo fteadily to rectify the
errors of man, that fometimes three fets of coronal roots
have been found, thofe beneath dying away, as the joint at
the proper diltance below the furface fends out new ones.
When thefe feparations are performed with judgment, the
advantages ate beyond calculation. The fcarifiers and
rollers moving ali the foil without earthing up, give the
roots room to expand, and aflift the cperations of nature :
the tillering will be greatly increafed by it, and all the
offsets ripen at the fame time; and by earthing up the
plants, when the ears are rifen fix or fevers inches above the
furface, a plump and fine fample wiil be fecured, and no off-
fets can be formed. Rolling will be injurious when the ears
are rifen abovel the furface. Thefe precautions are only
neceflary with wheat, and the white corn crops; with coro-
nal root, peafe, beans, vetches, and all tap-rooted plants, no
injury can be fuftained for want of {uch attention. Two gene-
ral obfervations are applicable to all grains and foils. Never
attempt to perform any of théfe operations until the land is
dry ; and be fure to keep a fine tilth on the furface of the
ground, four or five inches deep in the fpring, whilft the
plants are in a young and growing flate. Were this new
mode univerfally adopted, the faving of feed-corn would be
of the utmoft national confequence: certainly not lefs
than eight million bufhels of wheat, three million bufhels of
barley, one of rye, four of oats, and one million of peafe and
beans. This ftatement does not amount to the full quantity
which might be faved. This autumn more than a fixth part
of the fcanty crop of wheat was ufed for feed. Such
would be the advantage of this improved method, that the
farmer might pay his advance rent, and obtain a competency
for his labour, without increafing the neceflary of life.

DRILLO, in Geography, a river of Sicily, in the valley
of Noto, which runs into the Mediterranean ; 6 miles S.E.
from Terra Nuova.

DRILO, in Ancient Geography, a river of Illyria, called
alfo Drinus, which firft ran from the fouth-eaft towards the
north-welt of Epicaria, and then turned its courfe towards
the fouth, and difcharged itfelf into the fea, near Liftus.
It united with the Mathis.

DRILOPHYLITA, a people of India, on this fide of
the Ganges. Ptolemy.

DRIMILLUS, a mountain of Afia, fituated in the
vicinity of the Euphrates.

DRIMISSA, or Daymusa, an ifland of Afia Minor,
near the town of Clazomene, according to Thucydides,
Livy and Pliny.

DRIMYS, in Botany. See WINTERA.

DRI

DRIN, in Geograpay, a river which rifes in the S.W.
part of Servia, and runs into the Save; 32 miles W. of
Sabatz.

DRINGENBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Weftphalia, and bifhopric of Paderborn ; 6 mi'es E.S.E.
of Paderborn,

DRINK, a part of our ordinary nourifhment, in a liquid
form, ferving to dilute and moiften the dry meat. See Dier
and DrunkENNESS.

DRINKING-Guasses. See Grasses.

DRINKLEAN, in our Old Writers, a {cot-ale, or cons
tribution of the tenants towards a potation, i.e. ale pro=
vided to entertain the lord, or his fteward. In fome records
it is written potura drinklean.

DRINO Branca, or White Drino, in Geography, a
river of European Turkey, which rifes near Rechia, on the
borders of Dalmatia, and joins the Drino Nero; 15 miles
N.W. of bali, forming with it one ftream, called Drino.

Darino Nero, or Black Drino, a river of Euscpean Tur-
key, which, fpringing from a lake near Akrida, and joining
the Drino Bianca, takes the name Drino only, and runs into
the Adriatic, about 8 miles S.W. of Aleflio; forming a
bay at its mouth, called the Gulf of Drino.

DRINOPOLEOS, in Ancient Geography, an epilcopal
town of Meetia.

DRINOVATZ, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, in Bulgaria; 28 miles S. of St. Viddim.

DRINUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Europe,
which marked the boundarics of Mcefia to the ealt, and
Illyria to the weft. It fprung in mount Scardus, took a
bent courfe towards the weft, as far as Sirmium, and then
ran towards the eaft, to difcharge itfelf in the Danube.

DRIOS, a mountain of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,

DRIP, in Architefure. See Larmier,

Drips are ufed alfo in building, for a kind of fteps, on
flat roofs, to walk upon.

This way of building is much ufed in Italy ; where the
roof is not made quite flat, but a little raifed in the middle ;
with drips, or fteps, lying a little inclining to the horizon,
See Roos. :

DRIPPA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Thrace, to
the ealt of the Hebrus, and of Cypfela, and N.E. of Aénos.

DRIPPING-Sprina, in Geography, a place in which is
a polt-office, in the itate of Kentucky, America, and the
county of Warren; 855 miles W. by S. from Wahh-
ington.

DRIS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiflan;
70 miles W.S.W. of Schiras.

DRISON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in
Epirus.—Alfo, a town of Thrace. Suidas.

DRISSA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and one of the
eleven diitri€ts of the government of Polotik, feated on the
river Driffa, near its junction with the Duna; 20 miles
W.N.W. of Polotfk, and 272 S. of Peterfburg.

DRISTRA, or Sizristria, a town of European Ture
key, in Bulgaria, near the Danube; 216 miles N. of Con-
ftantinople, and 160 N. of Adrianople. N. lat. 44° 17’,
E. long. 27° 9’.

DRITTEY, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Car-
niola; 10 miles E.S.E. of Stein.

DRIVASTO, a-town of European Turkey, in Al-
bania; 20 miles N.E. of Dulcigno.

DRIVE, in the Sea Language. A fhip is faid to drive
when fhe is carried at random, being impelled by a ftorm, or
current; or, when an anchor, being let fall, will not hold
her fait, but fhe fails away with the tide and wind.

The beft way to prevent this, is to veer out more cable ;

4 ‘for

DR

for the more cable fhe has, the furer and fafer fhe rides :
or elfe to let fall more anchors.

Alfo, when a fhip is a-hull, or a-try, they fay, the drives
to leeward, or in with the fhore, according to the way fhe
makes,

Draive-bay, in Geography, abay of the river St. Lawrence,
on the fouth-coaft of Canada. N. lat. 48° 52’. W. long.
68° 20'.

Daive-dolts, in Ship Building, See Bouts.

DRIVER, the name given by our fportimen to an inftru-
ment ufed in taking pheafant-powts, in the method called
driving. T'nis inftrument confilts only of a parcel of ozier-
wands, fuch as are ufed by the bafk-t-makers, which are
made up into a bundle, or fort of great whifk, and faftened
in a handle; and, to prevent their {preading tco much at the
points, are tied round in one or two places in the length;
with this inftrument the fpo-t{man, having fixed his nets,
drives the young birds intothem. See Drivine.

Daiver, ina Ship, is an oblong fail, occafionally hoifted
to the mizen-peak, when the wind is very fair. The lower
corners of it are extended by a boom, or pole, thruft out
acrofs the fhip, and projecting over the lee-quarter. —

Driver-boom. Sce Boom.

Driver-yard. See Yaro.

Drivers, Wool. See Woot.

DRIVING, amongit Sport/men, a term applied to the
taking of young pheafants, and fome other birds, in nets of
an open ftrn@iure. The method of doing this is, when-an
eye of pheafants is found, the ground all about is to be
fearched, for finding their principal haunts. The induf-
trious fearcher will foon be able to make out fome one of
their paths, which are beaten in the manner of fheep-tracks,
only more flightiy. When one of thefe is found, the place
is to be marked, by fetting up a ftick with another tied
to its top, like the hand of a road-poft, marking out
the place where the path feems to run to. On examin-
ing the reft of the ground thereabouts, having regard
to the fame diretion, it is highly probable that feveral
more of the fame fort of tracks will be found ail run-
ning the fame way. By one or other of thefe, probably,
the fportfman will be led to their haunt, which he
will not mils knowing, by the nakednefs and barrennefs of
the ground, and its being covered with the dung and
feathers of the young birds. When this is found, the nets
are to be placed near this {pot, loofe and circularly, in fuch
a manner, that the under part being faftened down to the
ground, the upper part may be a hollow, and give a paflage
to the young birds in, and entangle them when there.
When the nets are fixed, the perfon muft go to the haunts,
and call them together by the artificial noife of the pheafant-
call, which is fo like the real note of the pheafant, that the
powts, or young ones, will feldom fail being deceived by it.
When they hear this, and begin to anfwer it with their
chucking and piping, the call is to be {topped, and a perfon
is toget behind them, taking the wind with himfelf, as they
always run with the wind. He is to have in his hand the
inftrument called by the {portfman a driver.

When the perfon who carrics this inftrument perceives
that he is come pretty near fome of the powts, he mutt
foftly beat the bufhes with the driver, or only lightly draw
it over them; the little noife this makes will terrify thefe
timorous creatures, and they will gather together in the track,
and run a little way forward, and then all {top and turn
about; on this the perfon is to make the fame noife again,
upon which they will run farther; and when they ftop
again, the fame noife will again fend them forward. What-
ever other powts are in the way will join the main body in

DRO

the fright, and the whole will be driven in this manner,
like a flock of fheep, and by a little addrefs of the {portiman
be fent into the nets; fo that out of a whole eye, it often
happens that not one is miffed. If in the fright the birds
happen to run out of their track, and take a wrong way,
then the driver is to makea raking noife with his inftrument
dragged along the ground, on that fide on which they are
running ; this will amaze and terrify them fo, that they will
immediately ftart back, and come into the beaten track that
leads direGly to the haunt. There are but two cautions ne-
ceflary to the fucceeding perfectly in this method of taking
them: thefe are fecrecy and patience. Whatever ftops they
make, or however tedioufly they move, the fportfman who
would make fure of them, muft bear with it; for over-rafh-
nefs and hurrying will fpoil all, and he muft content himfelf
with terrifying them by the noife alone, keeping himfelf
carefully out of their fight ; for if they efpy him, all the plan
is difconcerted, and they will no more move forwards, but
will every one run a different way, and hide under the roots
of trees, and thick buthee, and all the art in the world will
never bring them out again till night, when it will be too
dark to watch them,

Daivine of wild Fowl, is only praéticable in the moult-
ing time, which is in July and Augult; and it is to be done
by means of a {panicl, well trained to the purpofeX The nets
are to be fet in creeks and narrow places, or at their ufual
night retreats, and the dag is to put them up, and driving
them forward, they will be fent immediately into the nets,
not being able to fly away from the dog, from the want of
their wing-feathers. The people who live in the fens find
great account in this praétice, taking very great numbers of
wid-ducks by it. They are ufually indeed poor and out of
flefh at this time, but as they are always taken alive, and
without any hurt, the people find it eafy to fatten them with
beatts’ livers, barley, pafte, fealded bran, and the like; and
they will on this become, in a very little time, fat and well
talted, excelling in flavour both the tame ducks commonly
kept in the yards, and che wild ducks in their natural ftate.
When the fportfman takes the dog into places where they
are not fo frequest, he may hunt them fingly, and the dog
alone will take them,

Drivina, in Metallurgy, is ufed by the retiners of filver to
exprefs the rifing up of copper from its furface in red fiery
bubbles. When the lead that was added for refining the
filver is burnt away before the copper is gone from it, thefe
bubbles appear very fiercely on the furface. They fay, on
this occafion, that the metal drives, and then add more lead
till the remainder of the copper is confumed. Phil. Tranf.
No. 142.

Drivine, among the workmen in canals, &c. denotes
the fame with digging, or conitruéting a heading or tunnel
under ground.

Drivine-Notes, in Mufic. See Binpinc- Notes and Syx-
COPATION.

In driving-notes the firft part of the found begins gene-
rally on the unaccented parts of a bar, and ends on the ae-
cented parts. See Licature.

DRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a temple fituated in
Apulia, at the foot of mount Garganus,

DROCI, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and province of Calabria Ultra; nine miles S.S.E.
of Nicotera.

DROCK, in Hufbandry, a name given by our farmers to
a part of the common plough. It is an upright piece of
timber, running nearly parallel with the hinder part of the
plough, but belonging to the right fide of the tail, as that
doesto the left. The ground-wrift of the plough is faftened

to

BR. k's

to this, as alfo is the earth-board.
Boarp, and PLovcu.

DROFFAND, or Deyrranp, in our O/d Writers, was
a quit-rent, or yeariy payment made by fome tenants to the
‘king or their landlords, for driving their cattle through the
menor to fairs or markets. | y

The word comes from the Saxon dryfene, driven.

DROGHEDA, in Geography, atown in Ireland, fituated
becween the counties of Louth and Meath, wh'ch has the
privilege of a dikinét county and its own affizes, Itisa
large well built town on both fides of the river Boyne, about
five miles from the Irifh fea. The ground rifts from the
river on both fides, and the houfes, overtopping one another
on the afcent, fhew the town to great advantage. The
Boyne is navigable for fhips of 150 tons burden to the town,
where there is a handfome convenient quay for their recep-
tion, and the difcharge of their cargoes. It has an excellent
market, moft plentifvlly fupp!ied with provifions of all kinds,
the country around being one of the richeft and belt culti-
vated in Ireland. ‘The great flour-mills of Slane are only
feven miles diftant, and they have the advantage of water-
‘carriage by accanal. A great deal of coarfe linen and linen
yarn find a ready market here, and there is a great export
trade in provifions and grain. ‘This port alfo fupplies the
neighbouring country for many miles ronnd, with Engiith
coals, and other heavy goods, and mutt of courfe derive con-
fiderable advantage from the meafures taken of late years to
improve the navigation of the river Boyne. Drogheda, or
as it was formerly called, Tredzgh, is often mentioned in
hiftory. It was fortified, ard was one of the ftrongeit pofts
belonging tothe Englifh. Parliaments were repeatedly held
there, and amongft others, that which enacted the memo-
rable Poynings’ law, inr494. In the infurreGtion of 1641,
the Infh erdeavonred to get poffeflion of this town, but it
was defended with great vigour by fir Henry Tichbourne,
uotil the arrival of a force which enabled him to raife the
fiege. It was afterwards held by the royalifs, and taken
by ftorm by Oliver Cromwell, who put all the garrifon to
the {word. About two miles from it up the river Boyne,
king William IST. defeated James and his French auxiliaries,
in 1699, in commemoration of which, an obelifl has been
ereéted on the fpot. The walls of Drogheda are in great
part {till tanding, but the town fs fo entirely commanded by
the rifing ground on both fides, as to be incapable of defence,
according to the prefent fytem. The population of Drog-
heda is at prefent about fifteen thouiand. Itis governed by
a mayor, fheriffs, and common council; is reprefented in
parliament, and aéts of parliament have been paffed for va-
rious meafures of police and local improvement. ‘There is
2 good {chool at Drogheda, with a very large endowment.
3t is nearly 24 Irifh miles north from Dublin, in N, lat.

3°49". W. long. 6° 21’. Beaufort, Dodd, &c.

DROGMAN. See Dracoman.

DROGONE, in Geography, a river of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, which runs into the bay of Squillace.

DROIEZYN, one of the four diftriéts of the new Ruffian
government of Bialyflock, which was ceded to Ruffia by the
king of Pruffia, at the peace of Tilfit in July 1307. Tt
had been only tweive years under the dominion of Pruffia,
and was a part of that divifion of Poland which was occupied
by Pruffia in 1795. In the Polifh language the uame of
thistown was Drogiczyn.

DROIT, Jus, in our Law-Books, fignifies right, or law ;
avhereof fome diftinguifh fix kinds, viz. 1. Fus recuperandi,
right of recovering. 2. “Fus intrandi, right of entering.
3. ‘Fus habendi, right of having. 4. Fus retinend:, right of
yetaining, 5. Sus percipiendi, right of receiving. 6. Fus

See Waist, EAatue

DRO

pofidendi, right of poffeffing. See Law, and Ricut; as
allio Rectum, Entry, Posssssion, &c.

Droit, right, gives name to the highett writ of all real
writs, becauie the greateit regard is paid to it, and it has
the mott affured and ,final judgment, and therefore, it is
called, the writ of right; and in the old books droit. Co.
Litt.158. Of this kind are the droit de advow/on, &c.

Droit of Admiraliy, a valuable prerogative of the crown
of Great Britain, contifting in a clam to property captured
from an enemy on the feas or in harbour, under particular
circumftances, Such veff<ls and property as are feized be-
fore any declaration cf war, or before the iffuing of letters
of marque and reprifals, are faid to belong to the king
jure corone, but the captures made afterward belong to
him as lord bigh admiral, the rights of which effice ac.
crued to the crown when the office itfelf was put into com=
miffion: it has, however, of late years, been the uniform
cultom, to give up the proportion of prizes which belongs
to the king in this capacity, to the captors. Another
{pecies of this property is that which is captured in port, er
by fuch as are not licenfed captors: this was properly the
groits of admiralty, and lkewife came to the king in
virtue of the office of lord high admiral.

Before it became the pradtice to give up the king’s fhare
of prizes to the captors, it was in feveral inftances applied to
the public fervice. Thus queen Anne, in a fpeech to parlia-
ment, in 1702, tells them, ** Ihave given dire@tions that my
part of all the prizes which have been taken, or fhali te
taken during this war, be applied entirely to the public fer~
vice.’ The proportion of the produce of prizes thus ap=
plied, was, however, but inconfiderable: in 1702, it amount»
ed to 73.412/. 185. rodd.3 in 1703, to 65,7671, 163. 100.5
and in the whole to only 161.591/. os. 84d. At fubfequent
periods more confiderable {ums have been received from this
fource:-thus in 1764, 659.500/. was applicd to the public
fervice from the fale of prizes.

OF late years formal notices of war have been much dif-
ufed, and governments have thought it juftifiable to do an
intended enemy as muck mifchief as poffible before any pub=
lic notice of attack ; this has greatly increafed the number
of captures previous to a declaration of war, which being
confidered as the property of the crown, has very much aug-
mented the ultimate fum which thefe condemnations place
at its difpofal. Thus, the Spanith property feized before
the iffuing of letters of marque and reprifals in 1796, and
which was of very confiderabie value, was condemned as the
droits of admiralty; and on the breaking out of the war,
in May 1803, though holtiiities were not commenced again{t
Holland till 16th June following, Dutch property was in
the mean time detained, and afterwards condemned as
prize to the crown. Spanifh, Pruffian, and Danifh pro-
perty was afterwards condemned under fimilar circum-
itances, the captors thereof being confidered as having’
no claim to any fhare in it. But though the captors have
no legal claim, it has been ufual in the diflribution of
the produce of this property to grant a moiety, and in
fome inftances two-thirds, a3 a reward to the captors; out
of the remainder grants are made to perfons who have beea
fuflerers by the war, and to fuch other perfons as his majetty
thinks proper to dire. Tse great amount of the property
thus condemned has enabled his majeity to dire& two mi!-
lions to be applied to the public fervice.

Dror clofe. See-Recro. :

Droit de advow/fon. Sec Recro de Advocatione Leckie.

Drait Droit, Fus Duplicetum, or double right, is the
right of poffeffion, joined with that of property ; aud when

{ actual

DRO

‘afiual poffeffion is joined to this double right, then a title is
completely legal.

Dror de dower. See Recro De dote.

Droit patent. See Recro.

Daoir de rationabili parte. See Rarionasirt, &c.

Droit fur difclaimer. See Recto fur Difclaimer.

Droit, monflrans de. See Monstrans.

DROITWICH, in Geography, a market and borough
town in the hundred of Halfshire, county of Worcefter, is
feated on the navigable river Salwarp, and has been noted
ftom time immemorial for its fine falt-fprings, or brine-pits.
It is f{uppofed to have been well known to the Romans, and
was certainly occupied by the Saxons. At the time of com-
piling the Domefday book, the falt-works here were very
confiderable; as it appears from that record, that every week
during the feafon of ‘ Wealing,’’ the manufaCurers paid a
tax of fixteen bullions. tn

At an early period the town was populous, and divided
into different parifhes. In 1290, St. Andrew’s church, with
many houfes, were burnt. King John granted feveral pri-
vileges to the town: thefe were confirmed and augmented
by Henry I1I., and by different fubfcquent monarchs. As
a borough it {ent members to all the parliaments of king
Edward I.; and again in the 2d and 4th of Edward TT.
This privilege, however, then ceafed till 1554, when it was
reftored by Philip and Mary. The right of eleétion is now
vefted in a recorder, two bailiffs, and eleven burgeffes, who
are denominated the ‘ Corporation of the Salt-fprings of
Droitwich.’ The bailiffs are the returning officers, and
~ juftices of the quorum, and the recorder is a juftice of the

eace.

" Here are feveral public buildings. The exchequer-houfe,
built in 1580, has fome windows of fine painted glafs. In
1763 a chapel was built here, in the room of one pulled down
onthe bridge. In that part of the town called Dodderhill,
was formerly an hofpital for a mafter and poor brethren,
under the priory at Worcelter. Here was alfo a monaftery
of Augultine friars, The town comprifes three parifhes,
befides one in the fuburb called Dodderall, which is a vicar-
age. That of St. Nicholas is a reGtory; that of St. Peter
is a vicarage; Sr. Andrew’s, united to that of St. Mary
Witton, ts a retory.

A canal, about fix miles in length, communicates be-
tween this town and the Severn, by which the falt is convey-
ed to various parts of the kingdom. Here are a market on
Friday ; and four annual fairs.

The Droitwich falt is noted for its purity and whitenefs ;
and the fprings for their abundant fupply. The water is
eltimated to contain about one-fourth of falt, while thofe of
Nantwich, in Ci.chhire, contain only one fixth. As we hall
have occafion, under the term SaxT, to enter pretty fully into
the chemical propertics, natural hittory, proceffes of making,
&c. we mult refer our readers to that bead. Droitwich
contains 419 houfes, and 1845 inhabitants. It is 52 miles
from Worecfter, and 118 weft of London.

Daoirwicn Canal, 1s the parliamentary name of a navi-
gable canal of near fix miles in length, in Worcefterthire,
commencing in the Severn river at Hawford, and extending
to the town of Droitwich, whofe copious falt-{prings occa-
fion the water in this canal (like that in the Wirral branch
of the Ellefmere canal) to be fo falt as to deftroy all the
{pecies of frefh-water fifh, (Sce Canav.) About the year
1793 a branch of the Worcefter and Birmingham canal was

ropoled to join this canal at Droitwich.~

DROLSHAGEN, a {mall town of Germany, in Wett-

alia, remarkable for an ancient abbey of Bernardine nuns.

DROMAHAIRE, a pott town, or rather village, in the

.

DRO

Sant of Leitrim, Ireland; 98 Irifh miles N. W. from
ublio.

DROME, a town of Africa, on the Grain coat, famous
on account of its market for pepper.

Droéme_, the Department of the, is the third department of
the fifth, or fouth-eaft region of France. Its capital is Va-
lence. It confifts of the provisces formerly called the Va-
lentinois and the Diois, which were parts of Dauphiné, and
owes its names to the river Dréme, which traverfes it from
ealt to weft. .

To the north and north-weft the department of the Dréme
is bounded by that of the Ifere ; to the fouth-ealt by that
of the Upper Alps; to the fouth by that of Vauclufe; and
to the weft by the river Rhone, which feparates it from the
department of the Ardeéche. Its priucipal rivers are the
Rhone, the Ifere, the Dréme, Galaure, Herbafle, Roubion,
Aigues, Ouvéze. All thefe rivers abound in excellent fish,
particularly trouts, There are alfo feveral {mall lakes well
ftocked with fifth; the principal of thefe lakes is called le
Lae de. Luc.

The department of the Drdme had anciently a canal from
the Rhéne, near-the rocks of Robinet, in the parifh of
Douzere, to the limits of the commune called la Palud. It
has been neglected for the laft 30 years, but it would be
eafy to reftore it, and to render it navigable at a {mall ex-
pence. By its means the dangerous parts of the Rhéne near
Bourg St. Andéol, Blanc Rouge, and Pont St. Efprit, would
be avoided.

The foil of the department of the Dréme, being almoft
every where mountainous, is aot very favourable to agricul.
ture. [tis rather dry, and this drynefs proceeds partly from
the ground being fandy, and not retaining any moifture,
and partly from the injudicious cultivation of the declivity
of the mountains, which nature deflines to be covered with
woods, and the foil of which is rapidly wafhed away. The
mountains, befides, are no longer able to keep any moifture,
having been {tripped of their trees. The fummits of the
mountains afford fome pafture. The beft paitures are at
Grefle, Valdréme, and Vercors.’ There are alfo medicinal
plants in the mountains,

In general the department of the Dréme does not grow
corn enough for its confumption, The banks of the Rhéne,
and the hills in the diftris of Die and Nyons, yield more
wine than the department confumes. It has alfo plenty of
nut oil, and fome olive oil. The mulberry tree fucceeds
uncommonly well. Vaft numbers of filk-worms are reared ;
the annual amount of their produce is upwards of three mil-
lions of French livres. ;

The forelts of oak and pine are occupied by bears, chiefly
at Orbon and Valanrié. The mountains abound with goats,
of the kind called Chamois. There is plenty of game, white
hares, white partridges, pheafants, and alfo fome eagles and
vultures.

On a mountain named Orel, near Die, is a {pring of mine-
ral water, which is reported to be an excellent {pecific again{t
intermittent fevers,

The principal trade of the department of the Drdme is
with the pro iu€tions of its foil, cattle, butter, and cheefe,
and the produce of feveral manufa@ures, chiefly of woollen
and linen cloth, hofiery, hats, {tuffs, thread, paper, and
gloves.

Befides Valence, the capital, the principal towns are Ro-
mans, Chabeuil, Die, Creft, Nyons, and Montélimart. The
territorial extent of the department of the Didme is 6927
kiliometres anda half, or 1,324,227 arpens, 147,381 of which
are forefte, It contains four diftri&e, viz. Valence, Die,
Nyons, and Montélimart; 28 cantons, 360 communes, and

: 231,188

DRO

251,188 inhabitants, or 757 individuals per {quare league.
The average contribution of each individual annually, is
about 6s. Sd. fkerling. (Herbin. Statiltique de la France.)

Droéme, La, a river of France, which gives its name to
one of the twelve fouth-eaft departments of France. It has
its fource in the valley of the Drome, near Serres, in the
department of the Upper Alps, from whence it enters the
department to which ie cives Its name, pafles by Die, Sail-
Jans, Creft, between Livrun and Lauriol, and not far from
thence falls into the Rhéne, 15 kilometres, or about g miles
below Valence. Its ftream is fupplied by the Mayroce,
Sure, Rhoane, Gervane, Véoure, and Befe. Irs total courfe
is about go miles, the laft 30 of which only are navigable.
The embankment of the Dréme, which at prefent does conr-
fiderable mifchief by its overflowings, would confer effential
benefits on the fertile vallies through which it runs. (Her-
bin. Statiftique de la France.)

DROMEDARY, in Zoeology, the Cametus dromeda-
rius. See CamMELus.

Dromevary, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coat
of New Holland. N. lat. 36° 50’. W. long. 210°. On this
coaft there is alfo a high mountain, lying near the fhore,
which, on account of its figure, Cock called AZount Drome-
dary: under this mountain the fhore forms a point, to which
he gave the name of Point Dromedary, and over it there is a
peaked hillock. At this time, viz. April 21, 1770, being
in S. lat. 36° 15’, and W. long. 209° 55’, the variation was
found to be 10° 42’ E.

DROMESNIL, a {mall town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Somme, with a handfome caftle; 12 miles W.
of Amiens.

DROMEUS, from desu%, J run, in Natural Hifory, a
word ufed by the ancients, as the name of two very different
animals, the ftag and the dromedary. The meaning of the
word is /wift in running ; and the {tag had this name as be-
ing {witter than any other animal, and the dromedary as
being fwifter than any of the camel kind befide.

DROMISCOS, or Dromiscus, in Ancient Geography,
a place of Afia Minor, in the neighbourhood of the town
of Miletus. liny {peaks of it as an iflard, which had been
jeined to the continent.

DROMO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago. N. lat. 39° 28’. E. long. 24°

DROMONARIL, in Antiquity, rowers belonging to the
fhips called dromones.

DROMONES, a kind of yachts or expeditious fhips
ufed in carrying provifions, or other neceffaries. Pitifc. Lex.
Ant. in voc.

Dromones, Dromos, or Dromunda, in Middle Age Writers,
fignified any large fhips; but afterwards it was ufed chiefly
for men of war; and in this fenfe it is ufed in Walfingham,
anno 1292, and in Knighton, lib. ili. cap. 14, Sc.

DROMORE, or Drumore, in Geography, a townfhip
of America, in the ftate of Pennfylvania, and county of
Lancafter; containing 1077 inhabitants.

Dromore, a market and poft town in the county of
Down, Ireland. It ftands upon the river Lagan, and has
a fhare of the linen manufa€iure which enriches the county.
It is a bifhop’s fee, anda place of great antiquity, but in no
other refpe& remarkable. The refidence of the bifhopis at
a refpeGable country-houfe near the town, furrounded by a
handfome demefne. The bifhopric is very compaét, and the
f{malleft in extent of any in Ireland, which is not annexed
to another fee. It contains 26 parifhes. Dromore is on
the great north road leading to Belfaft, and is 66 Irifh miles
north from Dublin.

DROMOS Acuitits. See Acuittis Dromes.

'

DRO

DROMWA Perri, in Geography, a town of Africa,
on the Ivory coaft.

DRONE-Base, in Mufic, a continuation of the feand
of the kcy-note, az on the bag-pipe. Sometimes t! 1
of this inftrument is doubled by the sth of the key-note
See Bac-pree. The fame drone-bafe, or bafes, bei ag to
the Piva, and Como mufa, Italian bag-pipes.

Deone, in Natural Hifory, a fort of bee of a lareerfize
than the common working bee, which being unprovided with
the neceflary apparatus, never goes out te work, in colle&-
ing either wax or honey, but lives on the honey colle&ted by
the reft. Thefe are the males of the fwarm; the common
working bees are of no fex at all, or rather females in dif-
guife, and the female is ufuaily only one in a hive, fer there
is reafon to conclude, from numerous late experiments, that
the queen-bee lays only two kinds of eggs, thefe that are to
produce drones, and thofe from which the working bees are
to proceed. The proportion of drones to other bees in
{warms is various; fome having more than ethers. See
Queen Bee.

This larger fpecies of drones may be eafily diftingnifhed
from the working bees, by being nearly double their fize.
Their head is round, their eyes fuil, their tongue fhort, and
belly broader and more obtufe than that of the other claffes 5
they -are likewife of a darker colour, and more thickly
clothed ; and they make a much greater noife in flight, fo
that they may be eafily known though unfeen. They have
alfo no fling, as the other bees have. ;

The diffetion of the drone-bee gives 2s great a proof of
its being the male, as that of the queen does of her being
female. In this creature there is no appearance of ovaries
or eggs, norany thing of the ftruGture of the common work-
ing bees, but the whole abdomen is filled with tranfparent
veffels, winding about in various finuofities, and containing
a white or milky fluid. This is plainly analogous to that
fluid in the males of other animals, which is deftined to ren-
der the eggs of the female prolific ; and this whole apparatus
of veffels, which much refembles the turnings and windings
of the feminal-veffels in other animals, is plainly intended only
for the preparation and retention of this matter, till the def-
tined time of its being emitted on the eggs. At the ex-
tremity of the laft ring of the body is placed the aperture of
the anus in the female, and in the working-bees ; and it is
at this aperture, that the fting is alfo thruft forth ; but the
cafe is quite otherwife in the drone or male bee; for the ex-
tremity of that ring isnot opea, but abfolutely clofed; and
the aperture of the anus is in the under part of that ring
about its middle. On preffing the body of this bee, there
is alfo forced out at this part the penis; this is a fmall and
flender flefhy body, contained between two horns of a fome-
what harder fubftance, which join at their bafe, but gradu-
ally part afunder as they are continued inlength, Whenthe
preflure is continued, there are finally thruit out at the fame
aperture a part of the internal apparatus of the feminal vef-
fels, and, in fine, there is ufually fome of the milky liquor
extravafated:: but this feems rather to be !et out by the burit-
ing of a veffel, than by any natural paflage. Thele parts
found in all the drones, and none of them in any other bees,
except thefe, feem to prove very evidently the difference of
fex; but there is cne thing extremely remarkable in regard
to them, which is,-that though they appear fo evidently
on being forced out of the body by preffure, yet it is
very difficult to find them in it on diffection. The caufe
feems to be their fweiling when expofed to the air;
and Swammerdam fuppofes, that to this purpofe they:
are furnifhed with a great number of trachee, which
readily admit the air as foon as ever they are expofed to it.

Maraldi,

DRO

Maraldi, as well as Swammerdam, difcovered in the Rruc-
ture of the drones fome refemblance to the male organs of
generation, and from thence concluded that they were the
males; but neither of thefe aceurate and indultrious obferv-
ers could dete&t them in the at of copulation. Swammer-
dam, therefore, entertained a notion, that the female or
queen-bee was fecundated without copulation; that it was
{ufficient for her to be near the males, and that her eggs
were impregnated by a kind of vivifying aura, exhaled from
the body of the males, and abforbed by the female. Maraldi
adopted a fimilar opinion. Hilt. Acad. Sci. 1712, p. 332.
‘This opinion has been at a later period ftrenuoufly main-
tained by Mr. Debraw of Cambridge. Phil. T'ranf. vol.
Iviii, p. 1. art. 3. However, M. Reaumur thought that
he had difcovered the a€tual copulation of the drones with
the female bee, and he has very minutely defcribed the pro-
‘eefs of it. Hilt. Infeét. tom. x. p. 128. 149.157. The
faét has been fince demonitrated by Huber. See Generation
of Bees.

Maraldi and Reaumur had long ago difcovered, that there
were drones of the fame fize’ with the common bees; but
the curious experiments of D<braw, befides afcertaining the
fe&, throw a new light on their importance and ufe, and
remove confiderable difficulties, which embarrafled the pro-
cefs of generation among thefe ufcful infefis. It is well
known that the large drones never appear in the hive before
the middle of April, aad that they are all dead before the
end of Auguft, when the principal breeding feafon termi-
nates; and they are deftroyed, together with all their worms
er nymphs, by the working bees; probably by order of the
-gueen to fave honey ; and yet it is equally certain that the
bees begin to breed early in the fpring, fometimes in Febru-
ary, ifthe weather is mild; and that many broods are com-
pleted before the drones appear. But if drones of a {maller
fize .arefuffered to remain, which ina time of fearcity con-
fume’ lefs heney than«the others, thefe will anfwer the pur-
pote of fupplying the early broods, and the larger drones are
produced againft a time cf greater plenty.

An ingenious friend of the editor, who amufed himfelf
with obferving the economy of bees, and who long ago dif-
covered the {mall drones, affured hisy, that thefe {maller
drones are all dead before the end of May, when the larger
{pecies appear, and fuperfede their ufe.

It was not without reafon that a modern anthor fuggefted,
that a {mall number of drones are referved to fupply the ne-
-etfiities of the enfuing year; and that thefe drones are very
little, if at ali larger, than the common bees. Nat. Difp.

1 90-

DRONERO, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Sture, which formerly was a part of
Piedmont in Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, on
‘the river Macra, over which there is avery high bridge.

Dronero is the chief place of a canton in the diltri& of
Cani, andhas a population of 6342 individuals. Its canton
contains four communes and x0, 136 inhabitants.

DRONFIELD, a town and paifh in the hundred of
Scarfdale, inthe county of Derby, England, is pleafantly
feated in a valley, which abounds with {prings. ‘The town
confilts of 231 houfes, and contains 1182 inhabitants. Here
is a well endowed free {chool, which was founded by Henry
Fanfhawe, efq. in the reign of queen Elizabeth. The
church is a laree handfome building ; and near it was for-
merly a chantry, now converted into a public houfe. The
market is difcontinued. Abundance of coal is obtained in
the vicinity of the town, which is fix miles from Chefterfield,
and 157. N. W. from London. About two miles from
Sabet are the remains of Deauchicf Abbey. This was

OL. 2 °

DRO

feated in a pleafant, fertile valley, and was appropriated by
Robert Fitz-Ranulph, lord of Alfreton, circa 1172, for
regular canons of the Premonftratenfian order. See Pegge’s
Hiftory, &c. of Beauchief Abbey, and Pilkington’s Hif-
tory of Derbyhhire, 2 vols. 8vo. 1789.

DRONGO, in Ornithology, the name given by Buffon
to the Lanius forficatus, which fee.

DRONNE, in Geography, a river of France, which rifes
about fix miles from Thiviers, in the department of the
Dordogne, and joins the Ille, near Coutras, in the depart-
ment of the Gironde.

DRONNINGBORG, a fmall town of Denmark, in the
peninfula of Jutland, in the diocefe or general government
of Aarhuus. Its diftri@ contains the herred of Rougfad,
with five parifhes ; that of Stoffring with eight parifhes, and
Stoffringgaard a convent for ladies of noble birth; the
herred of Galthen with eight parifhes; that of Gierlev with
ten, and that of North Hald with twelve parifhes.

DRONONCA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gallia
Acquitanica, now Dordogne, which !-e.

DRONTE, in Ornithology. See Dinus Neptus.

DRONTHEIM, in Latin Nidrofia, in Geography, a
confiderable town of Norway in Drontheimhus, or general
government of Drontheim, of which it is the capital, is
fituated at the mouth of the river Nid, 285 miles N. E. of
Bergen, 408 miles N. by W. of Copenhagen, and 324 N.W.
of Stockholm. It was anciently called Nideroos, or the
outlet of the river Nid, from which it till derives its Latin
name. Its prefent name arofe from that of the province of
Trondheim, of which it is the principal town, and the inha-
bitants of which are called Tronder.

Drontheim is faid to have been built by king Oluf Tryg-
gefon ; it was originally the refidence of the Norwegian
kings, and afterwards of the archbifhops, but the archic-
pifcopal fee was fuppreffed at the Reformation. At prefent
it has only a bifhcp. The cathedral, which was a fuperb
edifice built with marble, was burnt down in 1530, except-
ing the choir which ttill forms a part of the prefent cathedral,
for which it is however toolarge. ‘There are two churches,
a public fchool, a feminary for miffionaries, an orphan-houfe,
a poor-houfe, an infirmary, and a houfe of correCtion. The
town is governed by a ftadtvogt and other magiltrates, I£
has two fuburbs, Bakkelandet and Ladegaard, which have
each their feparate church. The number of inhabitants
amounts to gooo.

The general governor of the province refides at Dron-
theim. The town is defended by the fort of Chriftianttein,
ere&ted in 1680, and by the caftle of Munkholmen, which
ftands ona rock in the harbour, and proteéts both the city
and the harbour towards the fea. Inthe month of July,
1685, the king of Denmark, Chriflian V., pafied a few
days at Drontheim, and fupped at midnight without candle-
lights, the twilights being fufficiently luminous.

In the mufeum at Copenhagen there are feveral medals
and coins found in the neighbourhood of Drontheim ; among
others, a medal {truck by order of king Sverre. In 1786,
48 filver pieces of a large fize, fome round, fome {quare, and
fome triangular, with very ancient infcriptions, were dug
out of a field. In 1789, a fort of a copper trunk was found,
containing feveral coins of the reign of Frederick III. ; and
in 1805, 32 filver coins were difcovered at a very inconlider-
able depch, of the reign of king Eric of Pomerania. Later
ftill, fome inhabitants of the parifh of Maldalen, near Dron-
theim, difcovered in a fand-bank 70 or So ancient filver
coins, and four or five urns of a rare metal, containing no-
thing but blue afhes. Some af the coins are of the reign of
king Ethelred of England. One of them has a crucifix and

li a temple :

DRO

atemple: it appears to have been coined towards the eleventh
century.

The principal trade of Drontheim is with all forts of falt
fith, herrings, timber, tallow, copper of the celebrated cop-
per-works at Rovraas, and fome other lefs important articles.
Its exports and imports occupy from 409 to 500 fhips an-
nually. The number of veffels which arrived at Drontheim
i 1785 was 250.

The prefecture of Drontheim comprizes the diftritts of
Romfdal, Nordmor, Fofen, Oeckedalen and Guldalen,

Strinden, Stordalen and Verdalen and Inderoen. The
town of Drontheimn itfelf is in the diftri@ of Strinden. In
1760, a literary fociety was eftablifhed at Drontheim. Its

tranfactions, which are regularly publifhed fince 1784, are
lefs known abroad than they deferve to be from thcir merit.

DRONTHEIMHUS, Drontutimavus, in Danith
Trondheimhuus, is the mott extenfive province of Norway,
being above 150 Norway miles in length. It ftretches
along the coatt, and is bounded on the weft by the North
fea, on the north by the gulf of Wardhus, on the eaft by
Sweden, and on the fouth by the gulf of Bergen. A long
chain of high mountains, called Kolen, feparates it from
Sweden. It formsa diocefe, with one bifhop and 13 arch-
deacons. Its population is fo very thin, that it reckons
only nine or ten individuals on the Englifh fquare mile.

The province of Drontheim is under a general governor,
who refides at Drontheim. It is divided into three pre-
fe&turee, viz. Drontheim, Nordland, and Finmark, which
are fubdivided into diftris.

DROOGSLOOT,N., in Biography, painter of land-
{cape and fairs; born in 1650. He prattifed chiefly at
Dort, in Flanders, where he was greatly encouraged and
much employed. He drew his {cenery always from nature,
and painted towne, cities, and villages, with great truth and
accuracy of refemblance. His colouring is pleafing. He
took his fubjeéts from the loweft life, from fairs and mar-
kets; with a multitude of figures and military groups. The
attitudes and ations of his figures are very natural; but
they are without elegance, and generally of difagreeable
forms. Defcamps and Pilkington.

DROP, in Sea-Language, is a name fometimes given to
the depth of the principal fails: thus, a main-top-fail drops
feventeen yards. ‘To drop anchor is ufed fynonymoufly with
to anchor ; and dropping a-ftern denotes the retrograde mo-
tion of a fhip. ;

Drop-Siile, a kind of moveable fence, at the partings of
the fields, on the towing path of a canal.

Dsop-Planks are planks let down into a groove prepared
under a bridge, or other walled place, for {topping the water
ef a canal.

DROPALACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Carinthia; 12 miles S. of Saxenburg.

DROPAX, Agaaxt, in Pharmacy, an external medicine
in form of a plafter, ufed to take off the hairs from any part.
Sce Hater, and Depivarory.

The dropax is of two kinds, fimple and compound. The
fimple is made of an ounce of dry pitch, and two drachms
of oil.

The compound is made with pitch, wax, colophony,
common falt, bitumen, fulphur vivum, pepper, euphorbium,
eantharides, and caftor. ‘There are aifo other ways of mak-
ing it, to be found in the difpenfatories.

It was anciently much in ufe alfo to warm the parts, to
draw the blood and fpirits to them, and to cure atrophies.
To this purpofe it was applied hot on the part affected,
after firft fhaving it; and was pulled off again before it
became quite cold; then heated afrcfh, and applied again;

DRO

and the operation thus repeated, till the part was rendered
very red.

DROPPER. See Fisuine.

DROPPING, or Drippine, a term ufed among Fal-
coners, when a hawk mutes dire&tly downwards, in feverat
drops, not throwing out her dung ftraight forwards.

DROPS, in Archite&ure, are {mall bodies of a circular
horizontal fe€tion, either of a cyiindric, conic, or of a
form {preading towards, and concave at, the bottom. They
are placed in the mutules of the Doric order, where they
are always fix in number, upon the fronts of the mutulesy
in three rows. In the Roman Doric, the furface of the
metops is the fame with that of the architrave; and the vere
tical furface of the triglyph proje¢is equally with the drops,
which are hung to the tenea. In the Grecian Doric, the
faces of the triglyphs are generally difpofed in the fame ver=
tical furface with the face of the epiftylium, and confe-
quently the regula and the drops pending therefrom proje€te-
In the Choragic manument of Thrafyllus, the tenea of the
epiltylium has a continued row of drops. This 1s not a re=
gular Doric. The temple of Apollo at Cora in Italy has a
row of drops pending from the foffet of the corona, con-
tinued from end to end without interruption, which are, as
well as thofe of the preceding example, of a cylindric form,
though thofe under the triglyphs are conical, with inclined
foffets. The drops pendiog from the foffets of the mutules
under the corona have their foffets in a plane, parallel to the
foffets of the mutules, and confequently inclining ; while
thofe of the epiitylium have their foffets in a horizontal
plane. Drops vary much in their proportion. The height.
of thofe in the cornice of the Doric portico at Athens is little
more than a quarter of their diameter; while thofe of the
epiftylium have their heights more than half their diameters.
In the theatre of Marcellus at Rome, and in the peripteral
temple at Paeftum, the cornice is without either mutules or
drops. In the eneaftyle, or nine-columned temple at Paef=-.
tum, the cornice is deftroyed, and the architrave feems to
have been originally without either mutules or drops.

Drops, in Medicine, a liquid remedy, whofe dofe is eftie
mated by a certain number of drops.

Drops, in Meteorology. See Rain.

The {pherical figure, into which the drops of fluids con=
form themfelves, isa phenomenon that has. little perplexed
the philofophers. The folution commonly given was, that:
the equable, uciform preffure of the ambient, or incumbent.
atmofphere, clofed them into this form. But this account.
will no Jonger pafs; now that we find that the phenomenos
holds in vacuo as well as in air.

The Newtonian philofophers, therefore, afcribe it to
their attraction, which being greater between-the feveral
particles of the fluids, than between them and thofe of the
medium, they are, as it were, concentrated, and brought
as-near each other, and into as little compafs, as may be 5-
which cannot be, without their being {pherical.

Thus, fir Ifaac Newton: ‘ Gutte entm corporis cujufque
fluidi, ut figuram globofam inducere conentur, facit mutua’
partium fuarum attractio ; eodem modo quo terra mariaque
In rotunditatem undique conglobantur, partium fuarum at-
tractione mutua, que eft gravitas.’ Opt. p. 338.

Drors, Englifh, or volatile Englifh drops, Gutte Anglicanes
See Gutrz Anglicare.

DROPSY, in Medicine, a preternatural colle&tion of
ferous or watery fluids in fome of the cavities of the body.

The word is a corruption of the Greck tdjwh, hydrops,
derived from-idup, qwater.

From ancient times dropfy has been. divided by medical
writers into differept gencra, according to the part rr: He

ody

DROPSY.

body in which it is feated; and the different denominations,
which were given by the Greeks to the different varieties of
the difeafe, are ftill retained in medical language. ‘They are
compounded of the word tdpa) with the name of the part
affe@ted. Thus, hydrocephalus fignifies dropfy of the head ;
hydrothorax, droply of the chefs hydrocardia, dropfy of the
heart ox pericardium ; hydrophthalmia, droply of the eye 3 hy-
darthrus, droply of a joint, &c. The fubcutaneous droply,
in the interftices of the cellular membrane, was called hydrops
anafarca, wxcupxe, or dropfly between the flefb ; and the
dropfy of the belly, hydrops afcites, aoxtins, from acxocy a
bottle: the belly, when dittended with water, being thought
to refemble a full bottle. The dropfical accumulations,
however, under all thefe forms, partake of one common na-
ture, and depend very much upon fome general caufes, which
it may be expedient to endeavour to explain, before we con-
fider the feveral varieties aliuded to.

It has been afcertained by phy fiologifts that, in the healthy
condition, a ferous or watery fluid is conftantly poured out,
or exhaled, from what are termed the exhalent extremities of
the arteries, into every cavity and interitice in the body, by
which the parts are conftantly moiftened, and their adhefion,
or painful attrition, is prevented. But upon the furfaces of
the fame cavities and inter{tices the mouths of another fet of
vefiis, the abforbents or lymphatics, open, and take up or
abforb this effufed fluid, before it has remained long, or been
accumulated in thofe fpaces, and carry it back into the cir-
culating blood, through the thoracic du&. or general trunk
‘of the abforbents. See Ansorsents. From this view of
the animal economy it will be obvious, that a perfeét balance
between thefe oppofite funGtions of exhalation and abforption
muft exift, in order to maintain the health of the fyttem;
and that a dropfical accumulation muft be the confequence
of the lofs of {uch balance, and muft be occafioned in one or
other of the two following ways: 1. If the quantity of fluid
‘poured out into any fpace be greater than the abforbent vef-
fels can at the fame time take up, it mutt neceflarily accu-
mulate in fuch parts; or, 2. Although the quantity poured
out be not greater than ufual, yet if the abforption be any
how interrupted or diminifhed, an unufual accumulation will
from this caufe alfo enfue. Dropfy may, in general, there-
fore, be imputed to an increafed exhalation or a diminifhed
abforption, in the cavities in which it occurs. . [t will be
found, however, upon an inveltigation of the various caufes
which are capable of producing thefe morbid conditions,
that the exhalent veffels are moft commonly in fault, and that
preternaturally increafed effufion is moft frequently the chief
fource of dropfy.

Caufes of Drop/y.—The ordinary exhalation may be in-
ereafed in various ways: but one of the moit direét caufes
of fuch an increafe is an interruption or ob{trution to the
free return of the venous blood from the extreme veflels of
the body to the right ventricle of the heart. Such an ob-
firuGion, by impeding the free paflage of the blood from
the arteries into the veins, while the ation of the heart con-
tinues to propel it, neceflarily occafions the blood to pafs
more forcibly into thofe avenues, where lefs-refiftance to its
progreis exifts, viz. into the exhalent branches of the ar-
teries, and thence into the cavities into which they open,
This is not a mere hypothefis: for Lower proved and illuf-
trated the fat by molt fatisfa¢tory experiments, which leave
no room to doubt, that fimple obitruction to the free paflage
of the blood through the veins is adequate to produce dropfy,
He made a ligature on the afcending vena cava of a dog,
which oceafioned its death ina few hours ; and upon diffeét-
ing the animal, a great colleétion of water was found in the
abdomen, as if it had long laboured under an a/cites. In

other experiments, in which the jugular veins of a dog were
tied, a confiderable gencral {welling of the parts above the
ligature were obferved by the fame phyfiologilt, who ex-
pected to find a great extravafation of blood in thofe parts,
after the death of the animal; but, on diffe€tion, he found
all the interfticial cavities of the mufcles and integuments dif-
tended with a colourlefs and tranfoarent water, or in a true
dropfical ftate. Traétatus de Corde, cap. ii.

This origin of dropfy is farther illuftrated by the numerous
internal caufes of obftruétion, with which both partial and
general dropfy are obferved to be connefted. One of the
moft frequent and remarkable inftances of the occurrence of
dropfy from obftruétion to the circulation through a parti-
cular vein, is found in the cafe of a/cites, originating from
difeafed liver. The blood, which circulates to the inteflines,
is collefted, in its return to the heart, into one great vein,
(the vena porte,) which conveys it through the liver by nu-
merous branches, before it reaches the organ of its motion:
when the liver, therefore, is greatly difeafed, the paflage of
the blood through it is impeded or prevented, as much as by
the ligature of Lower; and the exhalent arteries of the in-
teftines and peritoneum pour out water into the cavity of the
belly.

Hence dropfy, efpecially in: the form of a/cites, is fre-
quently the confequence of intemperance in the ule of {pi-
rituous and fermented liquors, which commonly excites
{chirrous tumours, tubercles, and other obftruétions in the
liver. Froma fimilar circumftance, dropfy is fometimes one
of the /equele of fevers, efpecially of intermittent fevers,
which, when they continue long, occafion obftru€tions in
the liver, or enlargement and obftruction of the fpleen and
other vifcerae. Thefe, when they prefs upon any confider-
able vein, bring on dropfy, and particularly by comprefling
the wena cava give rife to ana/arca of the lower extremities.
Dropfy is a common coufequence or concomitant of difeafes
of the lungs, in which the circulation of the blood through
thofe organs is confiderably impeded, as happens in perip-
neumony, in althma, in the catarrh of old people, &c.
Not only Aydrothorax, or dropfy of the chett itfelf, but ana-
farca generally, and fometimes univerfal dropfy, are thus
occafioned. For if the great mafs of blood is prevented
from pafling freely through the lungs from the heart, the re-
turn of blood from the extremities of the arterial fyltem to
the heart is likewife impeded; anda greater tide, therefore,
is turned upon the exhalents in general. Impofthumes in
the lungs, and pulmonary cenfumption, produce droplical
effufions in a fimilar manner. And ftill {mailer obftruétions
to the circulation produce the fame effects ; fuch as offlifica-
tion of the valves of the heart. (See Monro on the Dropfy,
p. 1.) It may ferve asa farther illuftration of the operation
of thefe general caufes to remark, that where the force of
the circulation is weak, if the pofture of the body is fuch as
gives occafion to the gravity of the blood to eppofe in fome
meafure the motion of it in the veins, the return of the
venous blood being thus refifted, a fufficient preffure on the
exhalents is produced to give rife to eflufion, Whence it
partly arifes, that an upright polture, efpecially if long con-
tinued, produces or increafes ferous {wellings in the lower
extremities ; and fuch {wellings are always great in the even~
ing, and {maller in the morning. Even in the fmaller por-
tions of the venous fyflem, the interruption of the motion of
the blood in particular veins has had the fame efle&t, ‘Thus
a polypus formed in the cavity of a vein, or tumours in its
coats, or compreffing it externally, and preventing the free
paflage of the blood through it, have had the effect of pro~
ducing dropfy in parts towards the extremity of fuch veins,
A {fchirrous tumour in the arm-pit often caufes the arm to

Ti 2 become

DROPSY.

become extreme'y anafarcous; and anetrifms in the arteries,
abfectles, and fteatomatous or other tumours in the adjoining
parts, are the moit common caufes of drop{fy from venous
compreffion. To this head may be referred the compreflion
of the defcending cava by the bulk of the uterus in pregnant
women, as well as by the bulk of water in a/cites ; both of
which froquently produce ferous {wellings in the lower ex-
tremities.

The fuppreffion of natural or cuftomary evacuations, as
of urine, perfpiration, piles, menfes, &c. has been often
deemed the caufe of dropfy ; and it has been fuppofed to
have the effe& of increafing the exhalation, by producing-a
preternatural plethora in the venous fyftem, and therefore
obftrudting the freedom of the arterial circulation. This
hypothefis, however, appears to be fanciful, and altogether
gratuitous; and a drepfy from fuch a caufe has been at leaft
arare occurrence. Dr. Cullen juftly obferves, that when
fuch a dropfy feems to have originated in this way, it was
more probably owing to the fame caufes as the fuppreffion
itfelf, rather than to the plethora produced by it. (Firft
Lines, § 1655.) In the cafes in which a fpontaneous fup-
preflion of fuch evacuations occurs, there is generally more
or lefs of a morbid condition of the habit, conncéted witha
debility of the folids, and indicated by languor, palenefs, and
paltinefs of the countenance, (termed by the ancients /eu-
cophlegmatia, from a {uppofed prevalence of ehite phlegm in
the humours,) lofs of appetite and ftrength, and other
failures of the fun@ions. To this ftate of difeafe, whether
belonging to chlorofiss confumption, &c. or whether the re-
fult of cold, intemperance, or other morbid caufe, both the
fupprcffi in of the difcharges alluded to, and the appearance
of the dropfical effufions, are to be attributed: for, as we
fhall attempt to fhew, debility of the folids, both in the ex-
halent arteries in particular, and in the fyftem at large, is a
frequent caufe of dropfy.

That a debility and laxity of the exhalent veffels is occa-
fionally the caufe of increafcd exhalation, by permitting the
thinner parts of the blood to pafs too readily through them,
appears to be proved from the circumftance, that palfied
limbs, in which fuch a laxity is to be prefumed, are fre-
quently affected with droptical, or, as they are called, @de-
matous {wellings. Buta great general debility is full more
remarkably and frequently attended with dropfy ; and dropfy
is a molt common con{- quence of the operation of all power-
fully debilitating caufes. Hence fevers, whether of the in-
termittent or Continued fort, which have lafted long; long
continued and fomewhat exceflive evacuations of any kind ;
ard, in fhort, almoft all difeafes, which have been of long
duration, and have at the fame time induced the other fymp-
coms of debility, are followed by dropfy. Intemperance in
the ufe of intoxicating liquors, befides exciting difeafe in
the liver, is a frequent caufe of general debility of the fyf-
tem: whence it partly happens, that drunkards of all kinds,
and efpecially dram-drinkers, are fo often affected with
dropfy.

The fa&t, that ferous effufions are obferved to take place
in every cavity and interftice of the body, at the fame time,
—into the cavity of the cranium, ofthe thorax,and of the ab-
domen, and likewife ito the cellular tiflue throughout,—1s
adduced by Dr. Cullen in proof of the operation of a ge-
nera: caufe ; which is rendered {till more evident by the cir-
cumftance, that thefe teveral dropfics have increafed in one
part as they dimin:fhed in another, and this alternately in the
different parts. In moft inftances, he adds, hardly any
fuch caale can be thought of, except a general laxity of the
exhalents. his Aydropic diathefis, he obferves, irequently
eperates by itlelf ; and sie) 0 eh by concurring with the

other caufes, contributes to give them their full effe&. Loc.
cit. § 1657.

There isa third caufe by which an increafed exhalation may
be brought on, and dropfy be produced. This is a preterna+
tural abundance or proportion of ferous or watery fluids in the
blood veffels, and more elpecially when fuch a condition con
curs with the caufes above-mentioned. The experiments of
Dr. Hales eftablifh the truth of this fa&, as fully as thofe
of Lower evince the effi of venous obftruction. Dr.
Hales fuppofed that water, being thinner than the red bloody
would pafs move readily from the extremicies of the arteries
into the veins ; and he injected warm water into the arte-
ries of dogs: the event did nct anfwer his expeQation; for
the water did not return by the veins, but efcaped through
the exhalent arteries, through which the red blood cou'd
not pafs into the interflices of the cellular membrane, occa=
fioning a droplical fwelling. (Hales Hamattat. Exp. xxi):
When he perfifted to inje€& water through a tube fixed
to the carotid artery, alt) ough the jugular veins were cut
longitudinally, the water did not iffue freely by thefe aper-
tures; but all the parts of the body began to fwell, and an
univerfal dropfy took place; the lungs were diftended, all
the mufcles grew turgid, the interftices between the fibres
being filled with water: yet the water was not propelled
through ‘the arteries with a greater force than the power of
the heart in its natural fate. (Ibid. Exper. xiv.) It ape
pears evident, therefore, that a mere increafe of the watery
portion of the blood difpofes the body to dropfy.

This over-proportion of watery fluids may be occafioned by
various circumitances. Excefs in the ufe of thin and watery
liquids is one of the moft obvious of thefe ; and it is certain
that dropfy has been induced by drinking an unufual quan=
tity of water, tea, &c. Large quantities of water, it is true, are
on many occafions taken in; and being as readily thrown out
again by ftool, urine, or perfpiration, have not produced any
difeafe. Butit is alfo certain, that, upon fome occafions, they
have run off by the intercal exhalents,and produced a dropfy.
This feems to have happened either from the excretorics ‘
not being fitted to throw out the fluid fo faft as it had been
taken in, or from their having been obftructed by accidentally
concurring caufes. Accordingly, the fudden drinking of a
large quantity of very cold water has produced the dropfy,
probably from the cold producing a conttriction of the exe
cretories. An interruption of the ordinary watery fecre=
tions is apparently alone the caufe of dropfy, by occafioning
a preternatural proportion of the watery fluids in the blood=
veffels; accordingly, itis alleged, that perfons much expofed
to a cold and moift air are liable to the difeafe; to the pro»
duGtion of which the general debility, thus occafioned, may
alfo contribute. An interruption, or confiderable diminu«
tion of the urinary fecretion, is alfo faid to have produced
the difeafe; and it is certain, Dr. Cullen affirms, that in the
cafe of an i/churia renalis, or ttoppage of the fecretion, the
ferofity retained in the blood veilels has been poured out
into fome interna! cavities, and has occafioned dropfy.

Dropfy, again, is a common confequence of very large
evacuations of blood, whether fpontaneous or art*ficial, aa
well as of profufe difcharges of other kinds; as of bile, im
cholera; of pus, from extenfive ulcerations or abfcefles, &c: 5
which laft, being fecretions from the blood, contribute to
impoverifh the blood; or to increafe the proportion of its
watery part. But from the effet of great general debility
in producing dropfy, as we have already ftatcd, and from the
confideration that exceffive debility refults from all fuch
evacuations, efpecially of the blood itfeif, the debility wilk
perhaps afford a larger fhare of the explanation, than the
meré tenuity of the remaining blood, thus occahoned., =

e

DROPSY.

The fame remark alfo applies to the drapfy, which enfues
after long fubfifting upon feanty, poor, or indigeltibie dict.
Dr. Cullen is difpofed to explain the dropfical appearances,
occurring from fuch a caufe, to the want of a due proportion
of the gluten andred globules of the blood, while the watery
parts are continually jupplied ; and thus, being in an over-
proportion, are ready to run off in too great a quantity by the
exhalents. Hence the dropfy, fo often attending chlorofs,
appears at firft by a pale colour of the whole body, fhewing
a manifeft deficiency of the red blood; which in that difeafe
can oaly be attributed to an imperfe& digeftion and aflimi-
lation of the food. (Firft Lincs, 1660.) It cannot, indeed,
be doubted that both the caufes operate together.

The fluids exhaled into the cavities and interftices of the
body, although not in a preternatural quantity, may never-
thelefs be accumulated, and° occafion droply, as already
obferved, if any interruption or diminution of the aftion of
the abforbents fhould take place. The occurrence of fuch
an interruption of abforption is, however, not very frequent,
and the caufes of it are not eafily afcertained. It is not im-
probable that a lofs of tone in the abforbent extremities of the
lymphatics may occafion a diminution, or even a ceffation of
the aGion of abforption. For it cannot be doubted, that a
certain degree of tone or active power is neceflary in thefe

. abforbent extremities; and it is probable that the fame
general debility, which produces laxity of the exhalent veflels
(in whieh the Aydropic diathefis appears to confit) will at the
fame time occaiion a lofs of tone in the abforbents; and
therefore that a laxity of the former will generally be ac-
companied with fome lofs of tone in the latter, both of which
will contribute to the produ@ticn of dropfy. It may be
obferyed too, that medicines which feem to act by exciting
the ation of the abforbents, have often cured dropfical dil-
eafe.

It has been fuppofed that abforption may be interrupted
by an obftru&tion of the lymphatic veffels, or at leat of the
conglobate glands through which they pafs. But this is very
doubtful ; fince the lymphatics have branches frequently com-
municating with one another, which renders it improbable (.at
the obftruction of any one, or even feveral of thefe, can have
any confiderable effet in interrupting the abforption of their
extremities. The fame reafoning will apply to the inter-
ruption in confequence of obftruétion in the conglobate
glands; at leaft it is only an obftruétion of the glands of the
mefentery, through which fo confiderable a portion of the
lymph paffes, that can poilibly have the effet of interrupts
ing abforption. And even thefe glands are often confiderably
tumefied, without either interrupting the tranfmiffion of
flnids to the blood-veflels, or occafioning any droply.

A rupture of the lymphatic veffels may occafion an effu-
fion of watery fluids, and thus produce a dropfical {welling.
In this way a rupture of the thoracic duét has given oc-
eafion to an effufion of chyle and lymph into the cavity
of the thorax ; and a rupture of the laGteals has occafioned
alike effufion into the cavity of the abdomen ; and in either
cafe a dropfy has been produced. It is fufficiently probable
that a rupture of lymphatics. in confequence of ftrains,
bruifes, or the violent compreffion of. neighbouring mufcles,
haa occafioned an effufion, which, being diffufed in the
cellular texture, has produced a confiderable anafarca.

V aricties of Drop/y.— As the {ymptoms attending dropfical
effufions vary materially, according to the part of the body
in which the fluid is depofited, it will be neceffary, before we
proceed to detail the methods of cure. to notice thofe {pecies
of the difeafe which moft frequently occur, and are the moft
common objects of practice.

Dropfy of the Integuments—Anafarca, or droply of the

cellular membrane, has been already deferibed at length?
See ANASARCA.

Dropsy of the chef, Hydrops pectoris, or Hydrothoraxs
in which the water is effufed into the cavity of the breatt,
between the membrane lining the ribs, and the external
covering of the lungs, is a common form of dropfy. The
fymptoms, by which the exiftence of water in the chcftisto
be afcertained, are various in degree and in combination, fo
as to render it very difficult, in many cafes, to find any
better guide than probable conje€ture, in determining the
prefence of the difeafe. The following are the leading
fymptoms, which charaterize this affeCtion, when it is fully
formed: fhortnefs of breath, which is much increafed by
lying ina recumbent or horizontal pofture, and is ufually
attended with a frequent cough, at firft dry, but afterwards
accompanied with an expetoration of thin mucus; — palenefs
or purple hue of the face, particularly of the lips ;—frequent,
fudden, and fpontancous ftarting from fleep, accompanied
with a fenfe of fuffocation, anxiety, and palpitation of the
heart, which immediately require an erect pofture ;—a paucity
of the fecretion of urine, which is always of a high colour,
and, when cooling, depofits a copious reddifh fediment ;—and
laftly, an edematous {welling of the feet and legs, and a
puffinefs about the lower eye-lids. When all thefe fymp-
toms are prefent, they will leave no doubt as to the exiftence
of hydrothorax. The great difficulty of breathing arifes
from the compreffion of the lungs by the furrounding water,
and the confequent inability to admita {ufliciency of air into
the cells, ora free tran{miffion of the blood through them.
This difficulty is increafed by the horizontal and diminifheé
by the ere& pofture; becaufe, while the body is erc&t, the
preffure of the abdominal vifcera upon the diaphragm is re=
moved by their own gravity, and the gravity of the inclofed
water prefling Ccown the upper furface of the diaphragm,
tends alfo to enlarge the {pace in which the lungs move ;
but the contrary occurs in the horizontal pofition. The
ftarting from fleep does not always accompany hydrothorax,
but it does generally, and is not found in empyema, or other
difeafes of the thorax.

The moft decifive fymptom of hydrothorax is a flucs
tuation of water in the chelt, perceived by the patient
himfelf, or by the phyfician, upon certain motions of the
body, according to Dr. Cullen. He does not, however;
feem to have made much ufe of this teft. Profeflor Gregory,
bis fucceffor, flates, that he has never been able to difcover
flu&uation in the cheftin hydrothorax, although in empyé
ema he has eafily perceived it. He properly fuggelts that
great caution fhould be ufed in making the experiment 5
inafmuch as patients under hydrothorax occafionally die fud+
denly from flight agitation or exertion, and/at all events it
greatly alarms the patient, when he thus afcertains the
a€tual exiftence of water in the cheft. Befides thefe’ objec-
tions, 1t may be added, that when the ftomach is moderately
diftended with liquid nutriment, the fluétuation from that
caufe, which is readily perceived, may be eafily miftaken
for a flu€tuation in the cheft: The teft propofed by Auen-
brugger of a percuffion of thethorax; and an obfervation
of the fort of found thus occafioned, appears: to be altoge-
ther futile. (See Invent. nov, ex percufl. thorac. ut figno,
&c. 1763. Vindob: )

When the difeafe inadvanced, a numbnela or palfy in one
or both arms has been frequently obferved to come on, and
the pulfe commonly becomes irregular and often intermitting ;
but this laft fymptom occurs in fo many other difeafes of the
cheft, that its importance can only be eftimated in conjunce
tion with the other appearances.

The hydrothorax fometimes appears alone without any other

ipecias

DROPSY.

Species of dropfy being prefent at the fame time and in this
eafe the difeafe is for the moft part a partial affeGion, fome-
times of one fide of the thorax only, fometimes confifting of a
collection of hydatidsin one part of the cheft. Occafionally
an univerfal droply has begun by effufion into thechetft: it
more frequently, however, comes on from an anafarca gra-
dually increafing; andthe general dropfical diathefis feems
often to affe& the thorax fooner than cither the head orthe
abdomen.

The prognofis in hydrothorax is generally unfavourable,
as it originates moft frequently from local organic difeafe in
the vifcera of the thorax. By fome writers it has been
deemed the moft dangerous form of dropfy; but from a
judicious comparifon ot faéts by Dr. Ferriar of Manchetter,
it appeared to be at leaft as often removed, as the other
forms of droplical effufion, We have occafionally feen ex-
amples of recovery from hydrothorax under very unpro-
mifing circumftances: fo that the event of the difeafe cannot
be predicted with too much caution.

Dropsy of the lungs, hydrops pulmonum, or anafarca pul-
monum, in which the watery effulion is made into the cellular
membrane, in the fubftance, or rather between the cells, of
the lungs themfelves, and not intothe cavity of the thorax,
is attended with nedrly the fame fymptoms as the hydro-
thorax ; and it is often difficult, if not impoffible, to diftin-
guifh them. But the edema, or dropfy of the cellular mem-
brane of the lungs, when its attack is fudden, Dr. Percival
obferves, may often be diftinguifhed by the following figns,
although it mutt be acknowledged that they often prove
equivocal. ‘ The difficulty of refpiration is conftant, and
increafed by the leat motion, though not much varied by
different attitudes cf the body; the patient complains of
great anxicty about ‘the precordia, and when he attempts to
take a deep inipiration, he finds it impoflible to dilate his
cheit, and his breath feems to be fuddenly ftopped, &c.”’
¢Effays Med. and Experimental, vol. i§-p. 177.) The prin-
cipal diagnoitic fymptom, it will be abferved, is the circum-
ftance, that the dy{pnza isnot increafed by change of pofture;
the water, not being in the cavity of the thorax, but
confined in the body of the lungs, cannot change its place
by change of attitude, but mutt equally comprefs the cells
in all pofftiions of the body. ‘This diftinGion, however, of
the two forms of dropfy, is of little practical utility, unlefs
with a view to the operation of tapping.

Dropsy of the pericardium, or of the invefting membrane
of the heart, Aydrocardia, hydrops pericardii. It will per-
haps be fufficient to {tate here, inthe words of Dr. Donald
Monro, that ‘ the dropfy of the pericardium can fearce be
certainly kaown tiil after death, by diffeGtion; for all the
fymptoms of this difeafe, that have been {pecified by the
mott accurate phyficians, are ambiguous; for inftance, an
unequal pulfe, an uneafinefs in lying, a frequent neceffity of
fitting down, an oppreffion within the fernum after motion,
difficulty of breathing, attended with a fenfe of pain and
reftlinefs, either no cough at all, ora very moderate aod
dry one, all which fymptoms become milder or go off
altogether when the patient is at reft. And could the
droply of the pericardium,’? headds, “ be difcovered, it
{carce ever yiclds to internal remedies; and it would bea bold,
not to fay a rafh attempt, to make an aperture into the pericar-
dium.”’ (Effay onthe Dropfy, p. 166.) Sanvages men-
tions the occurrence of frequent faintings, or /pncope, and
an obvious tremulous or undulatory motion between the
third and fifth ribs, correfponding with the pulfations of the
heart, a6 conttituting. inaddition to the fymptoms of hy-
drothorax, the figns of dropfy in the pericardium. (Nofolog.

Methed. Clafs v. Genus xiii. fp. 8.) But fimilar fymp-

toms are attributed to other difeafes of the heart, as to
inflammation and dilatation of that organ. See Carpitis;
and Carpiocmus.

Dropsy of the belly, Afcites, is the name given’to every
colle&tion of waters that caufes a general diftenfion and
{welling of the abdomen, or lower belly. Such colle@ions
are more frequent than thofe which occur within the thorax,
and, like them, are found in different fituations. The moft
common form of abdominal dropfy is that which takes place
in the general cavity of the belly, or, as it is more ftri@ly
expreffed, in the fac of the peritoneum. Occatfionally, how-
ever, the water is contained in a preternatural fac, formed
upon and conneéted with one or other of the vifcera; the
moft frequent inftances of which occur in the ovaria of
females. Sometimes the colleCtion confilts of {pherical mem-
branous bags of fluid, generally enclofing other fimilar bags,
which appear to be of an animalcular nature, and are termed
hydatids. Very rarely the fac of the omentum has been the
feat of a dropfical colle€tion ; and in other rare inftances water
is found entirely without the peritoneum, or lining membrane
of the abdomen, and betweenthis and the abdominal mufcles.
The colleGtions of fluid conneéted with the vifcera, in pre-
ternatural facs or cyfts, have been denominated excy/fed drop/y,
or hydrops faccatus. The fameterm has been applied by
fome authors both to the colleCtions of hydatids, and to the
dropfy external to the peritoneum. See H¥parips.

The diftinguifhing charateriftic of the ordinary form of
afcites, in the cavity of the belly, is an uniform, tenfe, and
nearly inelaftic {welling of the belly, in which the fuGuation
of the water within may be perceived by the praétitioner’s
feeling, and fometimes by his hearing. The {welling is
accompanied with a fenfe of weight and diftenfion, which
vary a little according asthe pofture of the body is changed,
being felt the mofton the fide on which the patient lies.
When the collection of water becomes confiderable,- it is
always attended with a difficulty of breathing, even though
there be no water in the thorax; becaufe, as the abdomen
is diftended in all direGtions, the diaphragm is neceflarily
prefled upwards, and the cavity of the thorax ftraightened.
The flutuation may be readily felt, by applying one hand
open to one fide of the abdomen of the patient, and gently
ftriking the other fide. Where this is diftin@ly perceived,
it affords a fatisfaGtory diagnofis, by whichthe difeafe may
be pronounced to be neither tympanites, or windy dropfy,
nor phy/conia, or folid tumour, nor pregnancy, when the
patient isa female. It may be remarked, however, that
when the diltenfion of the belly is extremely great, it ac-
quires a confiderable degree of elafticity, by which an in-
cautious examiner might be led to fufpect tympanites. In
afcites, as in the otber forms of dropfy, the urineis fcanty,
high-coloured, and generally thick after ftanding. Theres
fometimes a flight degree of fever prefent. Afcites fre-
quently occurs, when there is no other droplical appearance;
but it is often only a part of univerfal droply, and comes on
from a gradually mcreafing anafarca. Sooner or later, how-
ever, it for the moft part occafions anafarcous fwellings of
the lower extremities, although there is no general hydropic
diathefis prefent.

Excyfled Drorsy, or hydrops faccatus, is often extremely
difficult to afcertain from its fymptoms, efpecially when the
progrefs of the difeafe has not been accurately noticed ; for
where the fac has already attained a large fize, the {welling
aod flu@tuation are fimilar to thofe of afcires. In the en-
cyfed dropfy, the {welling is at firft confined to one part of
tie abdomen, and is often attended with an obtufe pain ; the
fluGtuation is for fome time obfcure, or altogether imper=
ceptible; anc there is often a fenfe of dragging and unea-

1 finess

DROPSY.

finefs on turning in bed. If thefe fymptoms have not been
preceded, or for fome time accompanied by any remarkable
derangement of the general health: if the {trength be little
impaired, the appetite continue pretty good; and the natu-
ral fleep be little interrupted ; if the menfes in the female
continue to flow, and there be no Jeucophleg matic palenefs
or fallownefs of the complexion, and lefs thirft or fcantinefs
of urine, than occur in dropfy in general ;—according as
more of thefe circumltances take place, there will be
ae ground for fuppofing the a/cites to be of the ency/led
ind.

Encyfted dropfy occurs in conneétion with mot of the
vifcera of the abdomen, but the form moft frequently feen,
is the Hyprops ovarii, or ency{ted dropfy attached to the
evarium inthe female. In this cafe, the difeafe commences
in one or other fide of the hypogattric region, or lower part
of the body, to which part the tumour is for fome time
circum{cribed, and is often moveable under the hand. There
is fometimes an uneafinefs in the part, amounting rather toa
fenfe of weight, than of fevere pain; and the health fuffers
little. By degrees the tumour becomes more fixed, more
extended both forwards and upwards in the belly, and more
painful and oppreflive to the patient. When the cytt is fin-
gle, and at length extended over the whole abdomen, it
cannot be diftinguifhed by the feel from a common alcites :
till which period, however, it can hardly be faid to refemble
it. ‘I have had occalion to fee a great number of en-
cyfted dropfies,”’ Dr. Hunter obferves, “ many of them
treated by phyficians of the firft rank, and yet have never
feen one cured; nor have I ever known one cafe of that
kind where the cyft has been fenfibly diminifhed in bulk, by
any other means than by the ¢rocar. If I may form a judg.
ment from what I have feen, both in the living and in the
dead body, I fhould believe that the dropfy of the ovarium
is an incurable difeafe ; and that a patient will have the beft
chance of living longeft under it, who do¢s the leaft to get
rid of it. The ¢rocar is almoft the only palliative.’’ (See
Med. Obf, and Inquiries, vol. ii. p. 41,) This opinion is
but too well founded. Neverthelefs patients have in fome
inftances lived to old age under the mfluence of this difeafe.
The cafe of an unmarried woman is related in the Mem. de
PAcad. de Chirurg. tom. ii. who was attacked with this
diforder at the age of thirty, and lived to be eighty years
old, when the {welling filled the abdomen. Mr. Martineau

_ of Norwich communicated to the Royal Society, a cafe of
ovarial dropfy, which began after a mifcarriage in the 27th
year of the patient’s age. She was firft tapped in 1757, and
afterwards had recourfe to the trocar three, four, or five
times a year, till her death in 1783. She was tapped So
times, and loft 6631 pints of fluid, (See Lond. Med. Jour-
nal, vol. v. for 1784, p. 315.) Profeffor Morand afferts,
that he feveral times performed this operation upon a lady
of quality, who {uffered fo little from it, that the frequently
went into the country the day after the operation, although
generally eighteen pints of water were drawn out: nor did
fhe die at laft of the dropfy, but of fome other difeafe.
(Van Swieten Com. ad Aph. 1223.)

Sometimes the cyft in ovarial, or other encyfted dropfy,
has burft, and produced an afcites of the abdomen, by
pouring out the fluid into that cavity.

There is occafionally a matter of great delicacy and diffi-
oulty of decifion, which the phyfician is called upon to de-
termine, namely, whether-an abdominal enlargement be the
confequence of this difeafe, or of pregnancy. So much of
character and feeling is concerned in {uch a quettion, that
the utmoft caution is neceflarily requifite, and the moft
eomprehenfive inquiry into the circumitances and fymptoms

fhould be inftituted, before any decifion can be made, ‘The
fymptoms of pregnancy in the early months are various and
ambiguous, and thofe of ency/led dropfy are perhaps ftill
more uncertain. A careful comparifon of both, and of the
general circumftances of the health, can alone enable us to
form a corre& judgment. Sce PREGNANCY.

The Dropsy of the Peritoneum, as it has been termed by
fome writers, (See Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. i. p. 7.) or
dropfy between the peritoneum and abdominal mufcles, has
been included under the term of encyited dropfy by Dr.
Cullen and others. (Monro loc, cit. p. 118.) It is the As-
CITES internus of Sauvages, Spec. 14, who quotes La Mothe
Obf. 100. Van Swieten has entered into a long difcuffion
of a queition, refpecting the feat of this cffufion, viz. whe-
ther the fluid is colleted between the duplicature of the
peritoneum, as the ancients fuppofed, or between the perito-
neum and mufcles. It is probable the older phy ficians were
mifled, in believing the peritoneum to be double, by the
thickening of the cellular membrane, external to the pert-
toneum. (See Mead, Monit. et Precep. p. 128.) Liftre
has deferibed the diagnoftic fymptoms of this form of dropfy.
It agrees with the encyfted droply, he obferves, in the lo-
cality and flow progrefs of its fymptoms, fora confiderable
period after the commencement ; the {welling does not alter
much in form by change of pofition, as in afcites ; it does
not begin in the lower part of the body, nor is accompanied
with obtufe pain, as in ovarial dropfy ; the flu&tuation is
confined within the limits of the {welling ; the lower extre-
mities do not {well, or very little; and the patient fuffers
{carcely any other inconvenience, than what arifcs from the
fize and weight of the tumour gradually increafing. (Van.
Swieten ad Aph. 1226.) A cate of this fpecies of dropfy
is related in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, which occurred
in a woman, whofe belly was amazinyly fwelled, but who
lived upwards of 30 years, in other refpects healthy. And
a {till more extraordinary inftance of the fame fpecies of
dropfy, in the perfon of Elizabeth Boucheret, of Spital-
fields, is recorded in the firft vol. of the Med. Obf. and
Ingniries. She continued 44 years without any perceptible
change inthe fize of her fwelling, (fhe meafured upwards of
three yards round the waifl,) and died at the age of 82.
She would never confent to be tapped.

Drorsy of the Head, or chronic hydrocephalus. The title
of dropfy of the head has been given .0 two very difliné
forms of difeafe, differmg widely in their nature, ongin,
progrefs, and appearances from each other ; one of which
has been denominated-the acute, and the other the chronic
hydrocephalus. It is the latter only which, in its general
charateriftics, partakes of the true dropfical nature, and
therefore falls under our cognizance in this place. The
other difeafe, which has been varioufly named hydrocephalus
internus, and acutus; Apoplexia hydrocephalica, and Phreni-
cula, wall be defcribed hereafter under its moft common ap-
pellation, HyprocerHatus.

The chronic dropfy of the head is a difeafe, which com-
mences in early infancy, or fubfilts from or even before birth,
and confifts in a flow effufion of water, fometimes external
to the brain, but within the bones of the flcull, before thofe
bones have united by their futures, and thus preventing their
union, and diftending the head to an indefinite fize, while
the face remains unchanged, or at all events very diminutive
in comparifon with the cranial tumour. The head, thus
enlarged, is foft to the touch, and fomewhat elettic, and
the opennefs of the futures may be perceived by the touch,
This is an irremediable difeafe, and fortunately rare. In-
ftantaneous death is faid to have followed every attempt to

relieve the difordery, by opening the {welling. We are ac-
quated

DROPS Y.

quainted with oné cafe of this {pecies of dropfy, in a fe-
male, who lived to the age of 16 years. She wae blind, and
without the power of locomotion ; the head had attained an
enormous and unwieldy magnitude, fo that a hollow fup-
port, in the back of the chair in which fhe fat, was con-
ttruGied to receive it,

The Dropsy of the fpinal marrow, Jpina bifida, or by-
drorachitis, is alfo a congenital and univerfally mortal dif-
eafe, in which there isa deficiency in fome part of the {pine,
and a watery tumour communicating with the fpinal mar-
row. See Hyproracwitis.

Dropsy of the ferotum, in Surgery. See Hyprocete.

Dropsy of the eye. See HypropHTHALMIA.

¥rom the preceding view of the various forms and caufes
of dropfy, it mult be obvious, that the general prognoa/is
muftbe, en the whole, unfavourable. The difficulty of re-
moving the difeafe was thus long ago noticed by Areteus.
«Ab ipfo pauci liberantur, idque felicitate, ac deorum po-
tius quam artis auxilio.” And modern phyficians, fays Dr.
Elome, were they as honeft, could fay little more. Of
thirty cafes, however, which this intelligent phyfician has
detailed, twenty are reported as cured. (Sze Clinical Iex-
periments and Hiltories, p. 349, e¢ feg-) And of 47 cafes,
related by Dr. Ferriar, 22 are defcribed as cured, five relicv-
ed, feven not relieved, ten dead, and three convalefcent.
(See Medical Hift. and Reflec. vol. i. p. 108.) It appears,
from Dr. Ferriar’s table, ‘ that cafes of anafarca alone, or
of anafarca and afcites complicated, are the moft curable
fpecies of cropfy ;—next to thefe afcites;—and that the
molt intra€table kind is the complication of afcites and ana-
farca, or of either, with hydrotho-ax. The cafes of hy-
drothorax alone were very favourable ; but they are not in
fufficient number to jultify a conclufion.” Of four fuch
cafes, ¢zvo were cured, one relicved, and, one couvalefcent.
But in thefe difeafes relapfe is fo frequent, that feveral of
thefe cures would probably prove to be but inftances of a
temporary removal of the {wellings.

In forming a judgment rcfpeCiing the ultimate event of
dropfies, theage and conftitution of the patient, the nature
of the caufes, the fymptoms and duration of the complaint,
its fimplicity or combination with other diforders, and the
effe&ts which remedies, already applied, have produced,
muft be taken imto confideration. Univerfally, however,
tbe lefs the ftrength of thé conititution is impaired, or the
blood impoverifhed, the more readily may the difeafe be ex-
pected to be ameliorated by remedies. On the contrary, if
the difeafe occurs in advanced life, in a leucophlegmatic or
broken habit, and has been brought on by intemperance, or
is conneéted with organic difeafe of the heart, lungs, liver,
ovarium, &c. medicine may alleviate it, but will f{ldom
effe&ta cure. Among the unfavourable figns, are progreffive
wafting of the flefh, purple, or livid fpots, or eryfipelatous
eruptions on the fkin, fpontaneous hemorrhages from dif-
ferent parts, or diarrhcea, without relief, the fwelling, when
reduced by medicine, returning more .gnickly than before ;-—
all implying the great proftration of the living powers: and
conftant feverifh heat, and intenfe thirft, indicating the ex-
iftence and progrefs of organic diforder. Among the fa-
vouralle jigns may be mentioned the abfence of thofe jult
enumerated, the pulfe remaining of good itrength, fteady,
and not quick, the deficient excretions, efpecially the urine
and perfpiration, being fenfibly increafed by remedies of mo-
derate power, and the appetite, refpiration, and fleep, not
fuffering feverely.

Cure of Drorsy.—In attempting the cure of dropfy, three
indications prefent themfelves to the practitioner: the firlt
abje& to be accomplifhed, is the removal of the fluid already

eflufed; the fecond, to obviate or remove the caufes which
gave rife to it; and the third, to reftore the ftrength of the
fy tem, and prevent the return of the difeafe.

1, he fluids already colle€ted may be evacuated either
indirect/y, through the natural excretorics of the body, by ex-
citing them to increafed a€tion; in confcquence of which an
abforption may be excited in the droplical parts, and the
ferum, thus abforbed and carried into the blood-veflels, may
pafs out by one or other of the common excretions. The
principal emundories, through which the effufed fluids may
be made to pafs off, are the fomach, the inteltines, the kid-
nies, and the fkin, by means of their correfponding evacn-
ants, emetics, cathartics, diuretics, and diaphoretics. Or
they may be drawn off dired/y, by artificial openings, pro-
duced by punétures, blifters, &c.

Spontaneous vomiting has fometimes been obferved to
occation abforption in dropfical parts, and to evacuate the
fluids contained in them: acd hence perhaps the ufe of
emetics was firit fuggefted in the cure of dropfy. The
practice is very ancient; Aétius recommends emeétics in
fimple anafarce. Our countryman, Sydenham, ufed them
largely in the cure of dropfy, efpecially the draftic an-
timonial emetics, which he prefcribed in large dofes, fre-
quently repeated, and at fhort intervals. A copious purging
generally followed the emetic eff<& of thefe remedies,
Sydenham, as well as the ancient writers, feems to have cons
fidered the concuffion and commotion of the vifcera, as the
chief curative effect of emetics, which thus were fuppofed to
occafion the reforption of the fluids, as well as to open
obiiruGtions of the vifcera. And if purging did not enfue,
after the concufiion of vomiting, Sydenham ordered a_briflc
purgative to carry off the water, fo abforbed, from the ir-
teltines. (Syden. Traét. de Hydrope.) Itiscbvious, how-
ever, that the antihydropic effe¢ts of vomiting are extremely
uncertain; and that, where the patient is already much de-
bilitated, their operation in a violent way muft be attended
with detriment, if not with danger. he practice is, on the
whole, therefore, little reforted to at prefent.

The emetic operation of a fubftance much ufed in dropfy,
the /cilla, or {quill, has been the {ubjeét of fome diflerence
of opinion. Van Swieten, Ruflell, and others, centider this
medicine as more cffcCtually relieving dropfy, when its emetic
operation is avoided; (Swietenad Aph. 1243. Roffell de
tabe glandul. p. 68.) whereas Dr. Home deems it moft
chi-fly ufefui, when vomiting is excited by it. Of ten
hydropic patients, who took the fquill, feven were cured, in
each of whom it produced vomiting; and three were not
cured, none of whom had any vomiting, but in al! of whom
the other evacuations were increafed. ‘* During the vomit-
ing,’’ he obferves, ** much fluid is thrown up, and the abdo-
men falls in proportion. Sometimes a pint or two only,
fometimes twelve pints are evacuated, in one paroxy{m. In
this wey the hydropic fymptoms difappear, and take from
two to fixteen days before that bappeus.’”? (Clin. Exper.
Ps 371)

Cathartics, however, are among the more powerful reme-
dies againft dropfy, and patients more readily fubmit to
purging, than to the operation of emetics. This pra€tice
was alfo employed by the ancients, and was fuggefted pro-
bably by the occafional natural cure of dropfy, by a {pon-
taneous diarrhoea, Hippocrates, in feveral places in his
writings, notices the falutary effects of fuch a diarrhoea in
the beginning of dropfy. ‘ 1f a fpontaneous diarrhoea come
on,” he fays, “in the beginning of the difeafe, the patient
will probably recover; but if there be no fuch diarrhea, let
a cathartic be given.”? (De Morbis, lib. ii. cap. 28.) “There
are certainly no means in our power of procuring a copious

evacuation

DROPSY.

evacuation of ferous fluids more effeually than by the ope-
ration of purgative medicines, and none perhaps more fuc-
cefsfully employed in the cure of dropfy. (See Caruar-
rics.) The relief is generally in proportion to the quan-
tity of fluids difcharged; whence it is the cuftom to employ
purgatives of the more active or draftic kind, fuch as jalap,
alone, or combined with calomel, gamboge, or cryftals of
tartar, {cammony, and even elaterium. The employment of
eathartics fhould be regulated, however, with fome caution
and diferimination. Where the conftitution is obvioufly
much broken by age, long continued difeafe, or intempe-
rance, all violent operations and copious difcharges will be
detrimental; they will tend but farther to weaken the body,
and to render it lefs able to fupport the ravages of a fevere
diforder. When the ltrength, age, and other circumftances of
the patient admit of the ufe of cathartics, they thould be re-
peated at fhort intervals. They are more beneticial and fafe
in fimple a/cites, thar in the other forms of dropfy, or in che
combination of them. - or the watery fluids difcharged by
purging, are evacuated from branches of the fame arteries,
which pour out water into the abdomen, and the ftimulus of
the purgative is molt directly communicated to the abforbents
af the ab Lomiaal furfaces.

_ It has been obferved, however, of late years, that fome
éathartic mediciaes, of milder qualities than thofe jult enu-
merated, are beneficial in dropfy, efpecially the cry/lals of
fartar, or acidulous tartrite of potais. In confequence of the
fuggettions of Manghini, (in the Comment. Bonon. tom. 4.)
Dr. Home inftituted a feries of experiments upon the effects
of this falt in the various forms of dropfy; and his report of
the refult was very favourable. Since that period, the medi-
cine has been again made the fubject of comparative trial by
Dr, Ferriar, who has aifo experienced much benefit from its
adminiftration. Of twenty cafes under Dr. Home’s care,
the dropfical fymptoms difappeared in thirteen, under the
ule of the cryftals of tartar, and in feven they were not re-
moved. He obferved it to be more fuccefsful in anafarea,
next in afcites, and lefs in hydrothorax than in the other
two. He generally ordered half an ounce to be taken in
the morning, at different times, before breakfaft, diffolved
in about ten ounces of water; afterwards increafing the
dofe. It generally purged the patient twice or thrice a day
with eafe, and alfo ated as a diuretic. But Dr. Home re-
marks that its antihydropic powers were much greater than
thofe of many articles which are much ftronger diuretics ;
and, therefore, he confiders that its principal mode of ope-
ration is deobftruent: for it fometimes cured the dropfv,
when little cr no evacuation, either by ftool or urine, was
produced. (Clin. Exper. p. 326. et feg.) Dr. Ferriar found
the cream of tartar the molt effectual remedy for dropfy.
He gave it, after the manner of Dr. Home, in forty-three
cafes; of thefe thirty-three recovered, nine died, and three
were relieved. He generally found it purge the patient four
or five times a-day ; fo that inftead of increafing the dofe,
he was often obliged to order tonics and cordials, to enable
the patient to bear the ufual quantity. In the fuccefsful
cafes, it operated early, and generally produced alfo an in-
creafed flow of urine within twenty-four hours. But he
adds, that it diminifhes the {wellings more fpeedily than the
increale of urine would lead us to expeér. (Med. Hitt. &c.
vol. i. p. 88, & ii. p.162.) This medicine, however, lke
all other evacuants, employed for the cure of dropfy, fre-
quently difappoints the practitioner. .

The kidntes afford a natural outlet for the watery part of
the circulating fluids; and the diminution of the urine being
% promiuent fymptom, under every form ‘of droply, the re-
tucitement of that excretion at once fuggelts itfelf asa pros

Vou. XI,

bable means of carrying off the preternatural accumulation
of water, which conftitutes the difeafe. Druretic medicines
have, therefore, been always properly adminiltered in the
treatment of dropfies. Unfortunately, however, all medi-
cines of this clafs are very uncertain in their operation; and
we are ignorant of the circumftances which caufe them fome-
times to fucceed, and fometimes to fail, and which render
one article beneficial, and another imert. At all events
diuretics, like other evacuants, are rarely of themfelves ade»
quate toa cure, inafmuch as the effufion of the water, whicte
they remove, generally depends upon fome difezfe of the
confitution at large, or upon fome local obftruction,

The /guill, in a varicty of forms of preparation, i3 cftem
ufeful as a diuretic, and has been ufed from ancient times for
the purpofe of increafiog the urinary difcharge. The digitalis,
or foxplove, has been introduced in our own time by Dr. Wi-
thering, asa powerful diuretic: but on account of its powerful
effe&s on the pulfe and nervous f{yftem, much caution ts re~
quifite in adminiflering it. It appears that, where it prove
{uccefsful, it generally gives relict early, and in {mail-dofes;
hence, if it do not produce any decilive effects within the firlt
week or ten days, it is advifeable to exchange it for fome other
diuretic, @r to interpofe a cathartic. This obfervation, in-
deed, is applicable to diuretic medicines in general, Lt has
been obferved, that when given in {uch quantities as to ex-
cite naufea, or to produce evident narcotic effedts, the digi<
talis does not oprrate as a diuretic. Others, however, have
aflerted the contrary. Dr. Withering early remarked, that
a relaxed, weakened, and depreffed ftate of the fyftem, was
moft favourable for procuring the fu'l eff: @s of this medi-
cine; and that in perfons of tenfe fibre, florid complexion,
and much natural ftrength, labouring under dropfy, it fel-
dom fucceeded ; whereas, when the pulfe was fecble or in«
termitting, the anafarcous limbs and body foft and yielding,
the countenance pale, and the {kin cold, the duretic powers
of the plant were confpicuous. The laft writer on the fub-
je, Dr. Hamilton, of Bury St. Edmund’s, confirms this
fact ; as does the general experience, we believe, as far as
regards a/cifes and anafarca; but with re{pe& to hydrothorax,
he afferts that the digitalis {ucceeds in the oppofite {tate of
the fyftem. (Obfery. on’the preparation, &c. of Digitalis
purpurea, 1807.) Dy. Careno of Vienna aflirms, that the
digitalis /wea poflefles ftronger diuretic powers than the
D. purpurea, in common ufe.

Bacher’s tonic pills, (the principal article in which is the
melampodium, or heilebore,) are among the diuretics often
employed in dropfy. They generally purge alfo when fuc-
ceefsful; but in cafes of long itanding they evidently weaken
the patient. Yet whenever they produce a’diurefis, they
reduce the fweilings, according to Dr. Ferriar. ‘Vhefe two
effects, Dr. Home long ago obferved, are by no means re-
ciprocal in the ufe of all diuretics. The /piritus etheris nitrofi,
for inftance, is an aétive diuretic, but has a very feeble auti-
hydropic power.

Among other diuretic medicines, which, in cafe of failure
with the more common articles, may be reforted to, are, the
nicoliana, or tobacco, in tinéture, as recommended by the
late Dr. Fowler, of York; the /aduca virofa, as employed
by Collin of Vieana, (fee Lond. Med. Journal, vol. i. p. 2635
for 1781);—the fulphat of copper, or cuprum vitriolatumy
ufed with fuccefs by Dr. Wright, (fee the fame Journal,
vol, i,and x.);—and the mild neutral falta, fuch as nitrey
kali acetatum, &e. A numberof more ftimulant diuretics
may I:kewife be employed on particular occafions, efpeciaily
in the dropfies of the old and debilitated. ‘Whe tincture of
caniharides, the turpentines, and the ethers are medicines of
this clafe ;—and feveral vegetable {ub!tances may be alfo in-

Kk cluded

DROPSY.

eluded under this head, fuch as an infufion of muftard feed,

of the wild carrot, of the raphanus rufticus s—a decoGtion of

the tops of green broom, (geniffa,) of the petrofelinum, of
_ the artichoke, &c.

It muft be particularly obferved, that a practice pre-
vailed for many ages of interdicting the ufe of drink of
any kind ina dropfies, and that fuch an opinion is full exten-
fively prevalent among the vulgar, It was fuppofed that
watery liquors taken in by drinking muft run off by the ex-
halents into the dropfical parts, and augment the difeafe.
“ Crefcit, indulgens fibi, dirus hydrops’? was the notion of
phyficians as wel) as of pocts. But a more accurate invefti-
gation has taught us, that the thirlt attendant on dropfy,
like the fuggeltions of nature in general, is not a deceptive
tenfation, tending to pernicious ends; but, on the concrary,
that a free ufe of diluent drink is abfolutely medicinal, and
that, as Dr. Cullen fays, ‘* there is hardly any diuretic more
certainly powerful than a large quantity of common water
taken in by drinking.”? Dr. Home obferves, ‘¢ I have known
feveral cured by drinking Dunfe water plertifully, even after
it had been carried home, and fo no better than common
water ;” and he quotes Dr. Baker, who has related many
cafes in which cold water, in great quantity, brought ona
flow of urine, and cured the dropfy. Dr. Milman has alfo
ttrongly recommended the ufe of diluent drink, upon the
authority both of his own experience, and of that of feveral
eminent phyficians in other parts of Europe. (Tra¢tat. de
Hydrope.) In fhort, the teltimonies in favour of thie prac-
tice are copious and unqueftionable ; while it is not lefs fa-
tisfatorily afcertained, that abftinence from drink is detri-
mental, rather than beneficial. Dr. Cullen, indeed, is dif-
pofed to, attribute much of the good effeéts of the cryftals of
tartar, to the quantity of water in which it is adminiftered ;
fince Dr. Home found that it produced no benefit, when
given undiffolved. Wherever, therefore, diuretics are parti-
cularly ufeful, water may be taken largely with advantage,
Dropty, it is true, has been faid to be induced by a free po-
tation of watery liquids ; but fuch a cafe is, at a!l events,
rare, and occurs only under particular circumftances of the
conftitution; as when a perfon is much overheated, or when
the hydropic diathefis is extremely great. In general, large
guantities of diluents excite the action of the kidnies, if not
of the bowels and ikin, and run off readily by thofe excreto-
ries.

Diaphoretic medicines have alfo been employed asthe means
of producing a ferous excretion, with a view to the cure of
dropfy. But, although there are fome inftances on record of
the fuccefs of {weating in dropfical affections, yet they are
comparatively rare, and little certainty is to be looked for in
the operation of fudorific medicines. This funétion of the
{kin is indeed generally impaired in dropfy, and is with dif-
ficulty reltored ; and when it has been readily affe@ed by
medicine, we may generally conclude that there was a re-
turning difpofition to health already exifting in the habit.

Mercury is a medicine often adminiftered in dropfical dif-
eafes with much advantage. From its univerfal ftimulant
agency on the vafcular and abforbent fyftem, it feems parti«
cularly calculated to be ufeful in thofe fpecies of droply
in which there is vifceral obftruétion, by at once exciting the
action of the excretory organs, the kidnies, bowels, &c. and
ofthe other glandular vifcera, in which difeafe exitts, efpecially
the liver. It is fometimes employed externally by friction on
the furface of the abdomen, particularly in afcites, by which
means the action of the abforbents is fuppofed to be aided:
and it is often advantageoufly combined, as an internal medi-
eine, with other diuretics, efpecially the fquill and fox-glove,
er with the alcoholized xthers, Dr. Ferriar found the dius

retic effeét of mercurial friftion joined with /piritus atherie
vitriolici, fo powerful as to produce a conftant flow, amount-
ing to an incontinence of urine, in a very old and much en-
fecbled fubje&t. Mercury feems to be improper where the
difeafe exifts in broken down and aged conftitutions, or
where it arifes from an extreme dropfical diathefis ; and to be
chiefly indicated in afcites, conneéted with vifceral difeafe,
and occurring in habits whtch retain fomewhat of their
original ftamina. The intelligent phyfician, juit quoted, is
of opinion, that mercury fhould be confidered as a refourcey
only after the failure of milder remedies, which produce a
lefs fudden and a lcls permanent impreffion on the con
ftitution.

The dire methods of removing the effufed Suid confit,
as we have flated, of artificial openings into the dropfical cae
vities, by tapping, pun@ures; iflues, blifters, &c. The three
laft- mentioned modes of evacuations apply principally. to
Awnasarca, which fee.

The operation of paracentefis, or tapping,may be fometimes
reforted to with great benefit, and often at leaft with tempos
rary relief, in a/c‘fes, whether of the ency/led kind, or in the
cavity of the abdomen. In the encyited ovarial dropfy,
we have already remarked, that tapping afford; the only
means ef alleviation which we poflefs, and we have men-
tioned fome inftanccs in which life was prolonged, even to
a late period, by fucceffive repetitions of the operation. It
is not eafy to determine, under what circumftances of the
diffufed abdominal afcites the tapping is to be particularly
employed. The very early ufe of it is often injurious; and
yet it may be detrimental to poftpone it too long : for if the
tenfion is extreme, the functions of refpiration, and of the
ftomach and bowels, are much impaired by the extreme come .
preflion of the water upon thefe organs and upon the dias
phragm, and the danger of a fatal inflammation of the intef=
tines isincurred. Such a flate of the inteltines is often ob-
ferved on diffeCtion, efpecially when the patient had been
carried off by a diarrhoea, which H'ppocrates and his fols
lowers have pronounced fatal, when fupervening at a late
period in a dropfy of long continuance. Tapping muft
not be employed, of courfe, in the old and debilitated; and
it can only afford an uncertain temporary relief when the
difeafe depends upon a general hydropic diathefis. ‘The
water, in mott inftances, is fpeedily poured out again, after
the evacuation by tapping ; but fometimes the removal of it
favours the operation of diuretics, and a long interval of
freedom from the effufion is thus occafioned.

The manner of performing the operation, and the mae
nagement requilite during and after the performance of its
belong to the province of furgery. See ParacENTEsts.

The paracentefis of the thorax, in dropfy of that cavity,
was practifed by the ancients, and by fome of the moderns,
with occafional fuccefs. (See many authorities colle@ed
by Van Swieten Comment. ad Aph. 1219.) But from the
numerous well-founded obje€tions which occur to that prac-
tice, it is feldom or never attempted at prefent. In the firft
place, the fymptom:, we have feen, are fo equivocal, that
there is much room for miltake as to the a€tual exiftence of
hydrothorax ; and it is ftill more difficult to afcertain the feat
of the difeafe, whether it be in one fac of the pleura or in
both, or inthe pericardium only, or in the cellular tiflue of
the lunys themfelves, -In the next place, a wound of the lungs,
or pericardium, in a bad habit of body, cannot be deemed
free from danger. And thirdly, the tapping of the chefty
like that of the belly, does not remove the cau/é of the difeafe,
and therefore can at beft but afford a temporary relief:

Some practitioners have fo far loft fight of the nature of

the functions of the living body, as to propofe the ge es
@

DRO

of ftimplating liquids into the cavities of the thorax and
abdomen, after the evacuation of the water by tapping; in
order to excite an univerfal adhefive inflammation in the
peritoneum and pleura, by which thofe cavitics might be
obliterated, by. the adhefion of the inte‘tines and lungs to
them refpeCively ; and thus a recurrence of the effufion
prevented. ‘This is done effectually in the cafe of dropfy of
the fcrotum, or Hyprocexie. But, not to mention the
extreme danger of a general plenritic or peritoneal inflamma-
tion, however excited, it nmlt be obvious, that 2 general
achefion of thofe organs to the parietes of their refpective
cavities, mult be altogether inconfittent with the performance
of their funétions; and that neither refpiration, nor the
periftaltic motion of the bowels, could afterwards go on.
A proof that this is the confequence of general adhefion of
the lungs to the ribs may be found in a cafe related by Dr.
Marcet, in the Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. i.
- 412.

: Fatal experience has thewn, that the paracentefis cannot be
applied to the chronic Aydrocephalus, with any chance of fuc-
cef3. The operation has proved f{peedily mortal whenever
performed. (Swieten ad Aph. 1218.)

If. The /econd indication to be purfued in attempting the
eure of dropfy, is to obviate or remove fuch of the caufes,
which gave rife to it, as {till continue to operate. The
external caufes, which may {till continue their influence, are
the firft to be combated ; {uch as expofure to cold and moif-
ture, fcanty food, intemperance, &c. It will avail but little
to have removed the effufed fluids, if thefe caufes are per-
mitted to keep up their morbid operation. It will be alfo
neceflary to inveftigate accurately the internal caufe or caufes,
immediately producing the lofs of balance between the ex-
halation and abforption.

Where the internal caufe appears to be a general debility,
operating more efpecially upon the exhalent veffels, and con-
flituting the hydropic diathefis, tonic and corroborant me-
dicines mult be adminiftered, particularly the fimple bitters,
varioufly combined with ftimulants, chalybeates, alkalies, &c.
as the circumitances of the cafe may require. Thefe frength-
ening medicines, indeed, may be often advantageoufly com-
bined from the beginning with the diuretics, in dropfical cafes,
connected chicfly with debility. Friétion may be likewife
employed in fuch cafes, to aid the aétion of the blood-veflels,
and prevent the ftagnation of fluids in their extremities,
The ufe of the Acth brufh has often contributed to difeufs
eedematous {wellings ; and in afcites, along continued gen-
tle frgtion of the fkin over the whole abdomen, by the
fingers dipped in oil, has been fometimes ufeful in exciting an
increafed flow of urine. Exercife, too, is ufeful, not only
by contributing to obviate general debility, but by promoting
the motion of the venous blood, to which the action of the
mufcles, efpecially in walking, greatly contributes. In fome
inftances exercife has proved a cure to the difeafe, by ex-
citing a copious flow of urine. This occurred in a lady,
between 40 and 50 years old, after the operation of tapping
had been performed fixteen times. (Sce Lond. Med. Journ.
vol. vii. p. 54.)

Where the internal caufe is ob/rudtion, from congeftion of
blood, weak inflammatory ation, torpor or morbid change
of ftruéture, in any confiderable vifcus, (as the lungs, liver,
fpleen, &c.} the ufe of blifters is indicated ; and mereury
may be adminiftered in combination with opiates, and an-
timonials, with cicuta, hyo/cyamus, and other medicines, which
are believed to poffefs a deobitruent power, by the ftimulus
which they impart to the extremities of the arterial fyitem.

Ili, When the effufed fluids have ‘been fortunately re-
moved, aad the caufes obviated, by the means recommended

DRO

above, the next object is to adopt fuch means as are likely
to reftore the ftrength of the patient, aad to prevent a recur-
rence of the difeafe. A perfeverance in the ule of exercife,
of tonic medicines, and of a light, but nutritious dict, tempe-
rately taken, mutt be principally enjomed. Exercife is
{uited to promote the regular performance of every fun@ion
of the animal economy, particularly to promote perfpi-
ration, and thereby prevent the accumulation of wa-
tery fluids in the body, and to increafe the digeftive
powers of the ftomach. The latter funtion, digettion,
is likewife greatly promoted by the ufe of chalybeate,
bitter, and aromatic medicines, and the tone of the fyf-
tem in generalis thus alfo greatly reftored. The cold bath
ig, on many oceafions, the moft powerful ftrengthener that
we can employ; but at the beginning of dropfy, when the
debility of the fy tem is confiderable, it cannot be attempted
with fafety ; neither, after the waters have been fully eva-
cuated, can it be fafely employed, as a means of preventing
a relapfe, until the fyftem has otherwife recovered a good
deal of its vigour. Then cold bathing may be very ufeful
in confirming and completing it. But while the means of
ftrengthening the fyftem are thus adopted, it will be proper
to keep in view for fome time the fupport of the watery
excretions ; not only of the perfpiration by a great deal of
exercife, but alfo of the urinary excretion by the frequent
ufe of diuretics.

It were impoflible to point out every variety of treatment
more particularly fuited to each individual form or kind of
dropfy. A few general principles, as we have endeavoured
to {tate above, include the whole of its modifications; and
an attention to them will readily fuggeft the means adapted
to the particular circumitances of individual cafes. -

DROPWORT, in Botany. See Spirwxa.

Drorwort, Slemlock and Water. Ste OENANTHE.

DROSACHA, or Drosicua, ip Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, in the country of the Serres, according to
Ptolemy.

DROSCHOLM, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in
the ifland of Zealand; 40 miles W. of Copenhagen.

DROSENDORYF, a fmall town of Auitria, with an ane
cient caftle, fituated in Lower Auftria, in the circle above
the Manhartsberge, on the river Teya, on the borders of
Moravia; 24 miles S.W. of Znaim. It is fometimes mif-
{pelt Droflendorf. ;

DROSERA, in Botany, (Agosepa, dezvy, from Aposas, dew,
becaufe of the moifture which always ftands on the furface
of its leaves, and exudes from the glandular hairs that cover
them,) Sun Dew.—Linn. Gen. 154. Schreb. 207. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v.i. 1543. Juff. 245. Gaertn. t. 61. Clafs and
order, Pentandria Hexagynia (not Pentazynia). Nat. Ord.
Gruinales, Linn. Capparidibus affines, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, in five acute feg~
ments ; erect, permanent. Cor. funnel-fhaped, of five obo-
vate, obtufe petals, rather larger than the calyx. Stam,
Filaments five, rarely ten, awl-thaped, the length of the
calyx ; anthers fmall. i. Germen roundifh ; ftyles fix or
eight, fimple, the length of the ftamens; ttigmas fimple.
Peric, Capfule fuperior, fomewhat ovate, of one cell, with
three or four valves. Seeds niimerous, minute, nearly ovate,
rough, fixed to acentral ridge in each valve.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five fegments. Petals five. Capfule
fuperior, of one cell and three or four valves, with many
feeds.

Linnzus mentions eight fpecies, Willdenow 10, but fome
probably remain latent in the unexplored bogs of India and
New Holland. ‘The whole genus delights in a wet, turfy,
or mofly foil, and, as far as we know, 3s incapable of tranf-

Kka2 plantation,

DRO

plantation, or of cultivation from feed, Its habit is charae-
terized by’ the numerous, prominent, hairehke, glutinous
glands, generally coloured, which clothe the upper furface of
its leaves, and which feem to be irritable, clofing over and
enfolding any fmall infect that fettles upon the leaf. At leatt
fuch is the cafe with our three Britith {pecies, Drofera ro-
. tundifolia, Engl. Bot. t. 867, longifolia, t. 868, and anglica,
t. 869; which lat is diftinguifhed by having eight ftyles, and
acaplule with four valves. The flowers of thefe are white, or
flightly tinged with pink ; the glandular parts of the herb-
age bright red. D. capenfis is faid to have a violet-coloured

bloflom, Befides the elegant D. fpeltata, Sm. Exot. Bot.
t.41. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1546, whofe ftem bears trian-

gular peltate leaves fringed with numerous glands, and f{e-
veral rofe-coloured flowers, we have from the fame country,
New South Wales, a larger and ftill more remarkable foecics,
gamed by fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander 2). dichotoma,
hitherto not defcribed by any author. The /vaves are all
radical, ftalked, once or twice forked, linear, narrow, acute,
their upper fide clothed with glandular hairs, the margins en-
tire. Stalk folitary, naked, corymbofe, a foot or more in
height, {mpoth, bearing numerous, large, elegant, white
flowers, much refembling thofe of Disnea mufcipula, which
fee. This herb turns entirely black in drying, except the
petals, which become of a light brown.

Dodoneus mentions that fome phyficians of his time,
obferving the permanent moilture of our European fun-dew,
which is never dried up by the moft burning fun, conceived
the plant muft be an admirable medicine to reftore the vital
moifture of confumptive patients. He confeffes, however,
that experience did not confirm this ingenious hypothefis;
for the diftilled water being ufed, which, like the whole
plant, is acrid and even caufic, the unfo tunate patients who
took it died fooner than thofe who did not. An admirable
iluftration of theoretical phyfic!

DROSING, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auitria; {ix miles E. of Zitterfdorf.

DROSSEN, a fmall town of Pruffia, in the New Mark of
Brandenburg, op the river Lenzen; 12 miles off Cuftrin.
It is neatly built, and has a flourifhing manufa&ure of
woollen cloth.

DROSSENFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia and principality of Culmbach on the Maine ;
fix miles S. of Culmbach.

DROST, in Biography, painter of hiftory and portrait,
about the year 1636. [le was a difciple of Rembrandt,
whofe manuer he imitated. He afterwards travelled to Italy,
fettled at Rome, and adopted the ftyle of the Roman
{choo}. Defcamps. Vie des Peintres Flamands, &c.

DROP, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into
the Garonne, at Gironde.

DROTNINGHOLM, a fmall town of Sweden, in Up-
Yand, about nine miles to the welt of Stockholm, remarkable
for a roya! palace built in an ifland called Lofon, which is
indebted for its prefent magnificence to Eleonora, the con-

fort of p-ince Charles Guftavus, to whom it devolved in :

1652. “Che name of Drotningholm fignifies Queen’s ifland.

DROTZDORF, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Neyfza; three miles S. of Grotkow.

DROVA-DRUE, or Daou, atown of Africa, on the
Grain Coaft; 60 miles N. W. of cape Palmas.

DROUE, a {mall town of France, in the department of
Loir and Cher, chief place of a canton in the diftri& of
Venddme, with a population of 896 individuals. Its canton
comprizes 12 communes and 7336 inhabitants, upon a terri-
gcrial extent of 265 kiliometres. a

DRO
DROVERS, are perfons that buy cattle in one place, and

drive them for fele to another, ‘Trey are to be marricd
men, and houfholders, and to be licenfed by ftatute 5 Eliz.
cap. 123 and if they drive their cattle on the Lord’s day,
they thall forfeit 205. by r Car. I. cap. 1. 29 Car. IL. c.7.
DROUGHT, in the Natural Hiffory of the Air, is a long
continuance of dry weather. Great droughts are very pree
judicial to the farmer and his pafture; and fuch years af-
ford but very little reward for the labour and expence of
keeping it in order. ‘The only remedies are high inclofures,
and plenty of water at hand, ‘he firft of thefe is always in
the farmer’s power, and fhould be carefully provided by
planting hedges in a proper manner, in counties moft fubjeé
to fuffer by this difadvantage. The other is not always fo
eafy, but may be managed feveral ways, as by finking wells;

but thefe, when deep, are very expenfive; or by bringing’ '

the water in pipes, gutters, or other conveyances; and this
is eafily done where there 1s a {pring or brook in the neighs
bourhood higher thar the lands.” Pumps, wheels, and fuch
other engines, are al{o ufed in fome places to bring on the
water; and in others, ponds, cifterns, and receptacles, are
made to take in the rains and winter floods, and retain the
water till f{ummer, when it is wanted.

The farmers of England are very deficient in this laft me-
thod, which they might ufe to their great benefit in mary
places. In Spain they have no water in many parts but
what they preferve in this manner; and at Amit-rdam and
Venice they have whole cellars made into citterns, which re-
ceive the water that falls ia rains, and preferve it all the
year. Want of water for the cattle in fummer, in many
places, might be eafily remedied by fome care cf this kind,
and many thoufand acres of land made ufeful, which are
now left as wafte, by this means alone, ‘he practicability
of thus obtaining water is evinced by its being done in places
where there falls much lefs rain annually than with us; and
yet by this the inhabitants have always frefh water enough
for the ufe of their houfes. cattle, and gardens, none of
which ever fail. See CisTERN.

DROUN, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the
department of the Upper Vienne; fix miles S. E. of Derat.

DROWNED Lanps. Sze Ornanee.

DROWNING, the a& of fuffocating, or being fuffocated
by water. x

People not accuftomed to diving, Dr. Halley obferves,
begin to drown in about half a minute’s time.

Drowning was anciently a kind of punifhment. In the
time of Louis XI. of France, the chronicles aflure us, that
they frequently drowned their criminals, inftead of hanging
them. Chron. Scand. See Fossa and Furca. Natural
hiftorians and phyficians furnifh us with divers well attefted
inftances of furprifing recoveries of perfons drowned; which,
if maturely confidered, might perhaps let a little light into
the dark notions of life and death.

We fhall not particularly recite the improbable ftories
mentioned by Pechlin, De Aer. & Alim. Def. cap. 10.
of one who was under water fixteen hours, of another
who was under water three whole days, and of a third, who
was in this ftate feven weeks, and recovered. ‘* Sit penes
ipfum fides.’? But there are feveral unqueftionable facts,
though they’ have rarely occurred, im every country, which
fhew the poffibility of a recovery from fudden death, whether
by apoplexy, convulfive fits, fulfocation by noxious vapours,
ftrangulation by the cord, or drowning. However, initances
of this kind merely excited tranfient attention and furprize,
and many perfons were loft for want of proper attempts for
their recovery. This was particularly the cale in Holland,

> : ‘where,

a a

DROWNING,

where, from the great abundance of canals and inland feas,
the inhabitants are much expofed to accidents by water; and

where many perfons were drowned every year for want of

effitance. In 17657. a fociety was formed at Amfterdam,
which offered premiums to thofe who fhould fave the life of
a citizen in danger of perifhing by water; and which pro-
poled, from time to time, to publith the treatment, and me-
thod of recovery, obferved in fuch cafes,

This inftitution was every where encouraged through the
United Provinces, by the magiltrates, and by the States
General, and has been attended with very confiderable fuc-
cefs; and it appears thatno lefsthan two hundred perfons have
been recovered from death, by this inftitution, in the fpace
of about fix years. In feveral of thefe cafes, the recovered
patients had continued upwards of an hour, without any
fizns of life, after they had been taken out of the water.
Iniligated by this example, the magiftrates of health at
Milan and Venice iffued orders, in 1768, for the treatment
of drowned perfons. The city of Hamburgh appointed a
fimilar ordinance to be read in all their churches, extending
their fuccour not only to the drowned, but to the ftrangled,
to thofe fuffocated by noxious vapours, and to the frozen.
The fir part of the Dutch Memoirs was alfo tran{lated into
the Ruffian language, by command of the emprefs. Ta
1769, an edict was publifhed in Germany, extending its di-
rections and encouragement to every accident, like death,
that afforded a poffibility of relief. In £771, the magif-
trates of the city of Paris alfo founded an inititution in fa-
vour of the drowned; and in France they have been inftru-
mental in faving forty-five perfons out of fixty-nine, in about
fixteen months. In 1773, Dr. Cogan, and Dr. Hawes, of
London, propofed a pjan for the introdu@ion of a fimilar
inititution into thefe kingdoms. ‘The plan was fo weil re-
ceived and encouraged, that they were foon, viz. in 17745
enabled to form a fociety, fince-called the Humane Society,
for promoting its laudabie defigns.

The foilowing abitra&t of the plan of this fociety, and
method of treatment recommended by it, will not, we appre-
hend, be unacceptable to our readers. ‘This fociety has un-
dertaken to publith, in as extenfive a manner as poffible, the
proper methods of treating perfons in the unfortunate cir-
cumitances, to which they extend their relief; to diltribute
a premium of two guineas among the firlt perfons, not ex-
ceeding four in number, who attempt.to recover any perfon,
taken out of the water for dead, within thirty miles of the
cities of London and Weftmintter, provided they have not
been longer than two hours under the water, and provided
the affiftants perfevere in the ufe of the means recommended
for the {pace of two hours, whether their attempts are fuc-
celsful or not. Thefe rewards are alfo to include every
other inftance of fudden death, whether by fuffocation from
noxious vapours, hanging, fyncopies, freezing, &c. They
propofe to dittribute, in like manner, four guineas, wherever
the patient has been reftored tolife 5 to give to any publican,
or other perfon, who thall admit the body into his houfe, with-
out delay, and fura:th the neceflary accommodations, the fumof
one guinea, and to fecure them from the charge of burial in
unfuccefsful cafes ; and to prefent an honorary medal to thofe
medical gentlemen, or others, who give their afliltance gratis,
and who are provided with a fumigator, and other necef-
faries always in readinefs, in ail thofe cafes in which they
may prove inftrumental of fuccefs. The device on one fide
of their medal is a boy, who is reprefented blowing an ex-
tinguifhed torch, with the hope, as the legend, ‘ Lateat
{cintillula forfan,’? imports, that alittle fpark may itil re-
main. The reverfe exhibits a civic wreath, which was the
Roman reward for faving the life of a citizen, with a blank

for the name of a perfon to whom the medal may be givens
the infcription round the wreath, ‘* Hoc pretium cive fervato
tulit,’? exprefles the merit which obtained it.

Before giving any direétions concerning the treatment of
the drowned patient, it will be neceflary to defcribe the me«
thod of recovering the body; the implements for this pur-
pofe are termed drags. In navigable rivers, and where the
perfon falls-into the river clothed, the common boat-hook
is likely to prove the moft ufeful, from the circumftance of
its being almoft always at hand; and though not otherwife
well adapted for the purpofe, a body may often be recovered
by it, before other drags, kept for\the purpofe, can be pro-
cured; another circumflance in their favour 1s, that In towns
(where fuch accidents moftly occur) there are generally feve-
ral boats near, each furnifhed with its hook or hitcher, and
may be employed all at the fame time, while on the other
hand it cannot be expected, that more than one drag can be
got to the place in any reafonable time; for thefe reafons it
feems, that if any drag were contrived which would anfwer
well, for both boat-hook and hitcher, it would be the beft for
rivers and canals, where the drowning fubjeéts are moftly
clothed.

Dr. Cogan has lately invented two drags, for which the
Society of Arts prefented him with their gold medal ia
1806. The firft, which is a fimple one, is fhewn in fig. 2.
Plate XV. Mifcellany ; 1t is compofed of two iron prongs
a, 5, attached to the end of a pole: at the ends of the prongs
jointed hooks are fixed, which can be placed fo asto project
beyond the prongs, when the drag is ufed to get up a body
that 1s clothed, but for a naked fubjeé&t they muft be with-
drawn, by means of the ferew 4, jig. 3, which flides in the
groove in the end of the iron prong, and faftens the-hook at
any place, fo that it may proje€t beyond the prong, as A,
Jig. 3, or be placed by the fide of it, as B, fiz. 3.

The other drag has three prongs a, 4, d, fig. 1, each di-
vided into two at their extremities, and is furnifhed with
fix moveab'e hooks like the lafi; this drag is fitted toa pole fy
and along cord is faftened to it at e, and pafling through a
hole in the top or other end of the pole. It is intended to
be thrown into the water as far as it can, and then drawn
along the bottom to find the body; a {mall line g is fattened
to it at 4, to draw it back in a contrary direGtion, to difen-
gage it from weeds, roots, or other obftacles which: it may
meet with in being drawn along the bottom. This drag 1s
particularly adapted to ponds and other places where a boat
cannot be had; while it may alfo greatly expedite the re-
covery of the body, if boats are at hand, owing to the eale
and certainty with which it can be thrown to a conliderable
diftance.

Fig, 4. isa drag, or rather a pair of tongs, well adapted
for the purpofe when they can be ufed ina boat, or in {mall
and deep waters, like the locks on canals, wells, not deeper
than the pole’s length: aa isa pole, on the lower end of
which an iron focket is fixed, forming a centre for two
crooked irons bad’, l/a'd'; eisa firong ring fliding on the
pole, having two iron rods f, f, joined to it, and thereby
connecting it with the ends a, a’, of the crooked irons; the
ring has a double rope g, tied to it to move the tongs by;
the weight of the ring e always caufes the tongs to open,
as in the figure, and in this ftate the body is fearched for 5
when it is found the rope is pulled, and the tongs thereby fhut
up, (as fhewn by the dotted Jines,) enclofing the body in
them. The ends dof the tongs fhould be forked, and
may be furnifhed with fliding-hooks, the fame as Dr.
Cogan’s above.

The following is the method of treatment recommended
by the focisty,

1. In

DROWNING.

1. In removing the body to a convenient place, great
care mult be taken that it be not bruifed, mor fhaken violent-
. ly, nor roughly handled, nor carried over the fhoulders with
the head hanging downwards, mor rolled upon the ground,
or overa barrel, nor lifted upthe hills. For experience proves,
that all thefe methods are injurious, and often deftroy the
fmall remains of life. The unfortunate objet fhould be
cautioufly conveyed by two or more perfons, or in a carriage,
upon ftraw, lying as on a bed, with the head a little raifed,
and kept in as natural and eafy a pofition as poffible.

2. The body being well dried with a cloth, fhould be
placed ina moderate degree of heat, but not too near a large
fire. The windows, or door of the room, fhould be left
open, and no more perfons be admitted into it than thofe who
are abfolutely neceflary ; as the life of the patient greatly
depends upon having the benefit of a pure air. - The warmth
mott promifing of fuccefs is that of a bed, or bianket, pro-
perly warmed. Bottles of hot water fhould be laid at the
bottom of the feet, in the joints of the knees, ard under the
arm-pits; and a warming-pan, moderately heated, or hot
bricks, wrapped in cloths, fhould be rubbed over the body,
aud particularly along the back. The natural and kindly
warmth of a-healthy perfon lying by the fide of the body
has been found in many cafes very efficacious. The fhirt, or
cloaths, of an attendant, or the {kin of a theep frefh killed,
may alfo be ufed with advantage. Should thefe accidents
happen in the neighbourhood of a warm-bath, brew-houle,
baker, glafs-houfe, faltern, foap-boiler, or any fabrick where
warm lees, afhes, embers, grains, fand, water, &c. are eafily
procured, it would be of the utmoft fervice to place the body
‘im any of thefe, moderated to a degree of heat, but very
little exceeding that of a healthy perfon.

3. The fubject being placed in one or other of thefe ad-
vantageous circumftances as fpeedily as poffible, various
ftimulating methods fhould next be employed. The moft
efficacious are; to blow with force into the lungs, by ap-
plying the mouth to that of the patient, clofing his noftrils
with one hand, and gently expelling the air again by prefling
the cheft with the other, imitating the {trong breathing of a
healthy perfon. The medium of a handkerchief, or cloth,
‘may be ufed to render the operation lefs indelicate. If the
lungs cannot be inflated in this manner, it may be attempted
by blowing through one of the noltrils,; and at the fame
time keeping the other clofe. Dr. Monro, for this purpofe,
recommends a wooden pipe, fitted at one end for filling the
noftril, and at the other for being blown into by a perfon’s
mouth, or for receiving the pipe of a pair of bellows, to be
employed for the fame purpofe, if neceflary. Whillt one
affittant is conftantly employed in this operation, another
fhould throw the fmoke of tobacco up the fundament into
the bowels, by means of a pipe, or fumigator, {uch as are
ufed in adminiftering clyfters ; or by a pair of bellows, till
the other inftrument can be procured. A third attendant
fhould, in the mean time, rub the belly, cheft, back, and
arms, with a coarfe cloth, or flannel, dipped in brandy,
rum, or gin, or with dry falt, fo as not to rub off the {kin ;
{pirits of hartfhorn, volatile falts, or any other ftimulating
fubitance, mutt alfo be applied to the noftrils, and rubbed
upon the temples very frequently. Eleétrical fhocks, made
to pafs in different dire€tions through the body, and parti-
cularly through the heart and lungs, have been recommended
as very powerful ftimuli; and from the trials that have
already been made, promife confiderable fuccefs. The body
fhould, at intervals, be fhaken alfo, and varied in its pofi-
tion.

4. If there be any figns of returning life, fuch-as fighing,
gelping, twitching, or any convullive motions, beating of

the heart, the return of the natural colour and warmth, opens
ing a vein in the arm, or neck, may, prove beneficial ; but the
quantity of blood taken away fhou'd not be large; nor fhould
an artery ever be opened, as profufe dleeding has appeared
prejudicial, and even deftructive to the {mall remains of life.
The throat fhould be tickled with a feather, im order to ex
cite a propenlity to vomit; and the noltrils alfo with a
feather, fnuff, or any other fiimulant, fo as to provoke
{neezings. A tea-{poonful of warm water may be occa-
fionally adminiftered, in order to learn whether the power
of {wallowing be returned ; and if it be, a table-[poonful
of warm wine, or brandy and water, may be given with ad-
vantage; but not before, as the liquor may get into the
lungs, before the power of {wallowing returns. The other
methods fhould be continned with vigour, until the patient
be gradually reftored.

When the patient has been but a fhort time fenfelefs,
blowing into the lungs, or bowels, has been, in fome cafes,
found fufficient ; yet afpeedy recovery is not to be expeéted
in general. On the contrary, the above methods are to be
continued with fpirit for two hours, or upwards, although
there fhould not be the leaft fymptoms of returning life. The
fame means of reftoration are applicable to the various other
cafes of fudden death, recited in the beginning of this
article,

When thefe meafures prove unfuccefsful, the furzeon’s
laft refource is bronchotomy, or opening the arteria trachea;
for perhaps the air entering freely into the lungs, through
the aperture made in the canal, through which they received
it in their natural ftate, will reftore the play of the lungs,
and all the motions of the breatt.

Mr. Hunter, F. R.S. has, at the requeft of a member of
the Humane Society, publifhed propofals for recovering pers
fons apparently drowned. In the cafe of apparent death by
drowning, he confiders that a fu{penfion of the aétions of
life has taken place, owing to the lots of ref{piration, and the
immediate effe&ts which this has on the vital motions of the
animal; at leaft, he fays, this privation of breathing appears
to be the firft caufe of the heart’s motion ceafing ; therefore,
molt probably, the reftoration of breathing is all that is ne»
ceflary to reftore the heart’s motion. The lofs of life in
drowned people has been accounted for, by fuppofing that
the blood, damaged by want of the action of the air in re-
{piration, is fent, in that vitiated ftate, to the brain, and
other vital parts ; by which means the nerves lofe their effe@
upon the heart, and the heart, in confequence, its motions
But Mr. Hunter concludes from experiments on a dog, in
which a large column of bad blood, viz. all that was con-
tained in the heart and pulmonary veins, was pufhed forward,
without producing any i'l effeét, and alfo from the recovery
of drowned perfons, and ftul-born children, that the heart’s
motion muft depend immediately on the application of air to
the Jungs, and not on the effects which air has on the blood,
and which that blood has on the vital parts. Therefore,
blowing air into the lungs, foon after the immerfion, may be
fufficient to effet a recovery ; and the dephlogifticated air
of Dr. Prieftley may prove more efficacious than common
air. But if a confiderable time, as an hour, has been loft,
it may be neceflary to apply ftimulating medicines, as the
vapour of volatile alkali, mixed with the air; and thefe are
belt thrown in by the noftrils, as applications of this kind to
the olfa&tory nerves ronfe the living principle, and put the
mufcles of refpiration into aGion, while fome applications to
the mouth rather deprefs than roufe, by producing ficknefs.
The larynx fhould be at the fame time preffed againit the
celophagus and fpine, which will prevent the ftomach and
inteltines from being too much diftended by the air ; how-

every

DRO

ever, the trachea, and the aperture into the larynx, fhould
be both left per@Aly free. Heat alfo is congenial with the
living principle, which by increafing the neceflity of action,
jncreafes action; and to a due proportion of heat the living
principle owes its vigour. Bed-cloaths, properly heated,
fhould, therefore, be gently laid over the patient, and the
ftream ot volatile alkali, or of warm balfams, and effential
oils, may be thrown in, fo as to come in conta& with many
parts of his body. The fame ftream may alfo be conveyed
tto the ftomach by means of a hollow bougie, and a fyringe ;
together with fpirits of hartfhorn, pepper-mint-water, juice
of horfe-raddifh, and alfo balfams and turpentines, in fuch
fmall quantities, as not to produce ficknefs. Thefe may alfo
be thrown up by the anvs. When the heart begins to move,
Mr. Hunter advifes to kffen the application of air to the
lungs; he abfolutely forbids bleeding, becaufe it weakens
the animal principle, or that principle which preferves the
body from diffolution, and is the caufe of all its a€tions, and
which Mr. Hunter fuppofes to be inherent in the blood, and
confequently leffens both the power and difpofitions to action.
Nothing fhould be adminiftered that ordinarily produce a
naufea or vomiting, or by the anus, that has a tendency to
produce an evacuation that way ; beeaufe every fuch evacua-
tion tends to lcffen the animal powers. On this account he
does not particularly recommend the fumes of tobacco, be-
caufe they always produce ficknefs or purging, according to
the mode of their application. He recommends the tollow-
ing apparatus, with a view to the purpofes of this fociety,
Firft, a pair of bellows; fo contrived with two feparate cavi-
ties, that by opening them, when applied to the noftrils or
mouth of a patient, one cavity may be filled with the common
air, and the other with air fucked out from the lungs; and
by fhutting them again, the common air may be thrown into
the lungs, and that fueked out of the lungs difcharged into
the room. The pipe of thefe fhould‘be flexible, in length a
foot or a foot anda half, and at leaft three eighths of an inch
_ in width; by this the artificial breathing may be continued,
while the other operations, the application of the ftimuli to
the ftomach excepted, are going on, which could not conve-
niently be the cafe, if che muzzle of the bellows were intro-
duced into the nofe. ‘he end next the nofe fhould be dou-
ble, and applied to both noftrils. Secondly, a fyringe with
a hollow bougie, or flexible catheter, of fufficient length to
go into the ftomach, and to convey any ftimulating matter
into it, without affecting the lungs. Thirdly, a pair of
{mall bellows, fuch as are commonly ufed in throwing fumes
of tobacco up the anus. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvi. part ii.
P- 412. 425.

Fig. 5, Plate XV, Mifcellany, reprefents a pair of re{pira-
tion bellows, by which this artificial breathing may be per-
formed: thefe bellows are compofed of two diftin& pair of bel-
lows, feparated by a thick board a4; below this one pair of
bellows, abcd, is placed, and above it another, a ef; in the
top board, ef, isa valve g, opening upwards ; and in the lower
board, cd, the valve, 4, is placed, opening upwards. The
middie board of the bellows is made up of three boards, two
thin ones and a thicker one between them, as is plainly feen
in the figure; the middle board is cut through with a chan-
nel, reprefented in the fizure by a dark {pace; the lower
board is glued to it, and the upper one {crewed down on it
with leathered joints. This channel forms a pipe, which
communicates with the long flexible pipe 14; in this paflage
are two valves, one reprefented opening into the paflage from
the lower bellows, and the other opening out of it into the
upper bellows. The bellows aét in this manner: the upper
one is intended to draw the foul air from the lungs, and the
lower one to fupply them with freth, In the figure it is ree

or U

prefented, as though the lower one was in the a& of fhutting,
and forcing its air through the valve in the dark paflage and
pipe, 74, into the lungs of the patient: when thefe lower bel-
lows are completely clofed,a ftuffed cufhion at /clofes the valve
through which the air before iffued, and the operator keeps
it fo: he now opens the upper bellows, which draw the im-
pure air out of the dark paflage through the valve which is
within them, from the lungs of the patient; the ftuffed
cufhion preventing the air from coming through the valves
of the lower bellows: the upper lid, ¢/, is then to be forced
down again; this clofes the valve on the dark paflage, and
opens the valve at g in the lid, the foul air rufhing out thereat.
The operator now holds down the upper lid, that it may
prefs upon the valve within the upper bellows, and keep it
fhut, and he then opens the lower bellows; this raifcs the
valve at 4, and fills them with frefh air, or with gas from a
bladder, previoufly prepared, as fhewn in the figure (when
the ttop-cock and {crew-plate, deferibed below, are removed);
he then clofes them, and expels the air they contain, through
the valve in the dark paffage and pipe if, into the lungs.
Thefe operations are to be repeated as often as neceffary, and
reprefent the aétion of refpiration very naturally, if it be
done by a careful operator,

To render the bellows very portable, they may be made
{mall. The drawing is one-fourth the real fize, which may
be g inches long, 4 broad, and opens 3 inches at the farthelt.
When both bellows are fhut, they will be only 14 inch
thick, which is but the ufual fize of an o€tavo volume, and
may be carried in the pocket. It will be remembered, that
though this fize may not contain quite air enough for a
grown perfon, yet it will be rather more than neceflary for
a child, and may therefore be a proper average fize; and
they will be very convenient to ufe, as the operator may hold
them in his hands without a fupport. ‘To render them more
portable, the flexible pipe unfcrews at i, and the handles, p
and g, turn round upon centres, fo as to lay acrofs the
boards, without projecting from them ; the middle handle,.
n, turns half round into a recefs made in the middle board,
fo as to be out of the way. The pipe, 4, at the end of the
leather pipe, is of ivory, to be introduced into the nofe or
mouth of the patient.

Some phyficians have recommended various gafles to be
thrown into the lungs: this may be eafily done, by applying
a bladder of fuch gas, furnifhed with a itop-cock and {crew-
plate, to the lower valve of the bellows, as fhewn in the
figure, and forcing its contents mto the lungs, inftead of
pure air; but fromthe difficulty of procuring fuch gaffes in
time, we fear that this-plan (whatever may be its merits in
other refpeéts) cannot be generally applied.

The Humane Society, fince its firft eftablifhment, to
the prefent time, has been in{ftrumental in recovering a
great number of perfons out of the multitude of cafes
to which their attempts have been applied. See Reports
of the Society for the Recovery of Perfons apparently
drowned.

Societies of a fimilar nature have been formed at Nor-
wich, Briftol, Liverpool, Colchefter, Hull, &c. and like-
wife at Cork, in Ireland. The board of police in Scotland
has alfo interefted itfelf in\ favour of the fame benevolent
defign.

DROYE, in Geography, a river of Pruffia, which runs
into the Pregel ; 4 miles W. of Infterburg.

DROYSZIG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up~ -
per Saxony, in Thuringia; 6 miles S. E. of Stoffen.

DRUCKEBACH, a river of Germany, in Upper Ba-
varia, which runs into the Inn, about 3 miles below Kuff.

fein,
DRUENSIS,.

DR U

DRUENSIS, in Ancient Geography, an epilcopal fee of
Africa.

DRUENT, in Geocraphy, a town of the principality of
Piedmont ; 4 miles S. W. of Turin.

DRUG, in Commerce, a general name for all f{pices, and
other commodities, brought trom diftant countries, and ufed
in the bufinefs of medicine, and the mechanic arts. The
drugs ufed in medicine are very numerous, and make the
greateft part of the commerce of our drupgifts. Some of
them grow in England, France, &c. but the greatelt part
are brought from the Levant, and the Eaft Indies.

A lilt of all of them would be endlefs. Some of the prin-
cipal are, aloes, ambergris, amber, aila-festida, antimony,
bezoar, borax, benjoin, camphor, cantharides, cardamum,
caffia, caftoreum, coloquintida, civet, coral, cubebs, coflce,
cccoa, gum anime, armoniac, adraganth, elemi, gamboge,
labdanum, opopanax, fagapenum, fandarac, lacca, jalap,
manna, maftic, myrrh, mufk, opium, pearls, quinquinay
hellebore, galanga, zedoary, rhubarb, farfaparlia, Morax,
galbanum, fanguis draconis, fenna, {permaceti, {pica nardi,
{cammony, fal ammoniac, tamarinds, tea, turpentine, turbith,
tuti2, &c.

The natural hiftory, &c. whereof, fee under their refpec-
tive articles ALoes, AmBrrRGrRis, &c.

The drugs ufed by dyers are of two kinds: the colouring,
which give a dye, or colour; and non-colouring, which only
difpofe the ftufls to take the colours the better, or to render
the cojours more fhining. Of the firft kind are, pattels,
woad, indigo, kermes, cochineal, madder, turmeric, &e. Of
the fecond kind are, alum, tartar, arfenic, realga!, falt-petre,
common falt, fal gemme, fal ammoniac, cryitals of tartar,
agaric, {pirit of wine, urine, pewter, iron, bran, itarch, lime,
afhes, &c.

Yhere is a third fort of drugs, which anfwer both inten-
tions ; as the root, bark, and leaf, of the walnut-tree, galls,
copperas, &c.

DRUGGET, a fort of fiuff, very thin, and narrow,
fometimes all wool, and fometimes half wool, and half
thread; having fometimes the whale, but more ufually
without. :

Thofe without the whale in the plaiu druggets are woven
on a loom with two treddles, after the fame manner as linen,
camblet, &c. Thofe with the whale, or the corded drug-
gett, are wrought on a loom with four treddles. Thofe
are called threaded druggets that have the woof of wogl, and
the warp of thread. M. Savary invented a kind of gold and
filver druggets ; the warp being partly go!d and filver thread,
and the woof of linen.

DRUIA, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Wilna; 16 miles N.E. of Breflaw.—Alfo, a
town of Ruffia, in the government of Polotfk, feated on the
Duna; 52 miles N.W. of Polottk.

DRUIDS, Dauvipves, or Druide, the philofophers, as
weil as the priefts, or minifters of religion, among the ancient
Gauls, Britons, and other Celtic nations.

Etymology of the Name.—Some authors derive the word
from the Hebrew Toypq77, deru/fim, or drufim, which
they tran{late, contemplatores. Picard, Celtopzxd. lib. 1. p. 58.
believes the Druids to have been thus called frem Druis, or
Dryius, their leader, the fourth or fifth king of the Gauls,
and father of Saron, or Naumes. Piiny, Salmafius, Vigenere,
&c. derive the name from Jeus, gak ; on account of their in-
habiting, or at leaft frequenting, and teaching in forelts
or perhaps, becaule, as Pliny fays, they never facrificed but
under the oak. But it is hard to imagine, how the Druids
fhould come to fpeak Greek. Menage derives the word
from the old Britih drus, demon, magician, Gorop.

DRU

Becanus, lib. i. takes drwis to be an old Celtic, and Germaa
word, formed from trawis, or fruwis, a dotior cf the truth
and the faith; in which etymology Voflius acquiefces: ac-
cordingly M‘Pherfon derives Druid from the Teutonic word
Druthin, afervant of trath. Borel deduces it from the Saxon
dry, magician; or rather from the old Britith dru, or derw,
oak; whence he takes deus to be derived, which is the moft
probable fuppofition, ‘I'his laft derivation is much counte-
nanced by a paflage in Dicdorus Siculus (I. 5.), who,
f{pezking of the philofophers and priefts of Gaul, the fame
with our Druids; fays they were called Saronida, from Sazov,
the Greek name of an oak, and alfo from the above-men-
tioned etymology affigned by Pliny, &c. They werealfo called
Semnothe?, from their protefiion ef conducting the worihip
of the gods, and alfo Senani.

Hiftory of their origin and fettlement in Britain—The Druids
are faid by fome to have been atribe of the ancient Ceits or
Ceite, (fee that article,)who migrated, as Herodotus informs
us, from the Danube towards the more wefterly‘ parts of
Europe; and to have fettled in Gaul and in Brijain at a
very early period, Accordingly they have traced their erigin,
as well as that of the Celts, to the Gomerians, or the de-
{cendants of Gomer, the eldeft fon of Japhet. But little
certainis known concerning them before the time of Cafary
who fays, that they were one of the twoorders of perfonsy
that fubfifted in Gaul, the other being the nod/es. The cafe
was the fame in Britain, where it is iuppofed the principles
and rites of Druidifm originated, and from whence they
were transferred to Gaul. This feems to have been the
cuftem according tothe account of the hiftorian; fuch of
the Gaulsas were defirous of being thoroughly initruéted
in the principles of their religion, which was the fame with
that of the Britons, ufually took a journey into Britain for
that purpofe. It is univerfally acknowledged, that the
Britifh Druids were at this time very famous, both at home
and abroad, for their wifdom-and learning, as well as for
their probity ; and that they were held in high eftimation as
the teachers both of religionand philofophy. But it has
been dilputed whether they were the original inventors of
the opinions and fyftems, which they taught, or received
them from others ; fome have imagined, that the colony of
Phoczans, which left Greece and built Marfeilles in Gaul
about the fecond yeer of the Goth Olympiad (B.C. 539)5
imported the firit principles of learning and philofophy, and
communicated them to the Gauls and other nations in the
welt of Europe. (See Gronov: in Ammian. Marcell. 1. 15.

c.g.) We learn, indeed, from Strabo (I. 4.) as well.as from -

Ammianus Marcellinus, that this famous colony contri-
buted nota little to the improvement of that part of Gaul
where it fettled, and to the civilization of its inhabitants.
(See alfo Juttin, 1. 43.c. 4.) But though it fhould be
allowed, that the Druids of Gaul and Britain borrowed
fome hints and embellifhments of their philofophy from this
Greek colony, and perhaps from other quarters, there is
reafon to believe that the fubftance of it was their own,
Others have fuggelted that the Druids derived their philo-
fophy from Pythagoras, who publifhed his doctrines at Cro-
tona in Italy, and refided there in the higheit reputation
for virtue, wifdom, and learning, above 20 years. It is cer-
tain, that the philofophy of the Druids bore a much greater
refemblance to that of Pythagoras, than to that of any other
fage of antiquity: but chis refemblance, as Borlale fuggetts,
(Antiq. of Cornwall, p. 74.) may perhaps be accounted for,
by fuppofing that Pythagoras learned and adopted fome of
the opinions of the Druids, whilft he imparted to them
fome of bis difcoveries. It is well known, that this emi-
nent philofopher, animated by an ardent love of knowledge,

travelled

DRUIDS,

travelled into many countries in purfuit of it, and procured
admiflion into every fociety that was famous for its learning.
(Clem. Alex. Strom. 1. p:.304. Burnet, Archeolog, Phi-
lof, p. 11.) It is, therefore, highly probable in itfelf, as
well as dire@ly affected by feveral authors, that Pythagoras
heard the Drvids cf Gaul, and was initiated into their
philofophy. Thole who trace the religious prisciples of the
Droids; in their primary origin, to the grandfon of Noah,
mufl allow, that, at the period to which we now refer, and
among the people of whom we are now {peaking, religion
had degenerated into an abfurd, wicked, and cruel fuper-
flition. It does not appear how widely the Druids were
difperfed through Britain and che adjacent ifles; but it is well
known that their chief fettlement was in the ifle of Anglefey,
the ancient //ona, which they probably felefted tor this
purpofe, asit was weil ftored with fpacious groves of their
favourite oak. Many of them feemed to have lived a kind
of collegiate or monattic life united together in fraternities,
as Ammianus Marcellinus (1. 15. c. 9.) expreffes it, as the
authority of Pythagoras decreed among his followers. As
one principal part of their office was to dire& the worfhip
and religious rites of the people, the fervice of each tem.
ple required a confiderable number of them, and all thefe
lived together near the temple where they ferved. The
areh-druid of Britain is thought to have had his ftated refi-
dence io the ifland of Anglefey, above mentioned, where he
lived in great iplerdour and magnificence accerding to the
fafhion of the times, furrounded by a great number of the
mott eminent perfons of his order. In this ifle, it is afferted,
that the veltiges of the arch-druid’s palaces, and of the
houfes of the other Druids, who attended him, are flill vifi-
ble. (Rowland’s Mona Antiq, p. $3., &c.) But feveral
of the Druids led a more fecular and public way of life, in
the courts of princes, and families of great men, to perform
the various duties of their function ; for no facred rite oraét
of religion could be performed without a Druid, either in
temples orin private houfes. It is alfo probable, that fomeof
thefe ancient priefts retired from the world, and from the
focieties of their brethren, and lived as hermits, in order to
acquire a greater reputation of fanétity. In the moft unfre-
quented places of fome of the weltern iflands of Scotland,
there are ftill remaining the foundations of {mall circular
houfes, capable of containing onlvone perfon, whicharecalled
by the people of the country Druids’? houfes. (Martin’s
Defer. of the Weftern Ifles, p. 154.) As none of thefe
habitations were fuitable to a married life, it is probable
~ that the Druids generally lived in a ftate of celibacy, and
were waited upon by a fet of female devotees. (See
Devipesses.) Although it is not eafy to afcertain the
precife number of the Britifh Druids, we have reafon to
believe that it was very confiderable. Both the Gauls and
the Britons of this period were much addiéted to fupertti-
tion, and of courfe among a fuperftitious people there
will be many priefts. Befides, we are informed by Strabo
(i. 4.)that they entertained an opinion highly favourable
to the increafe of the prieflly order: for they were fully
perfuaded, that the greater the number of Druids they had
in their country, they would obtain the more plentiful
harvefts, and the greater abundance of all things. We
Jearn alfo from Czfar, (De Bell. Gall. 1. 6.c. 13.), that
many perfons, allured by the honours and privileges which
the Druids enjoyed, voluntarily embraced their difcipline,
and that many more were dedicated to it by their parents.
Upon the whole it is not unreafonable to conclude, that the
Britith Druids bore as great a proportion in number to the
reft of the people, as the clergy in popifh countries bear to
the laity, in the prefent age.
Vou, XII.

Claffes and Gradations of Druids.—-Cxfav informs us (udi
fupra) that the Druids were varioufly diftinguilhed by their
ranks and dignity ; fome of them being more eminent than
others; and the whole order being fubje& to one fupreme
head or arch-druid. This arch-druid was the high pricit, or
‘* pontifex maxifnus,” in all matters of religion, and the
fupreme judge in all civil caufes, to whom appeals might
be made from the tribunals of inferior judges, and from
whofe tribunal there was no appeal. In fhort, he had ab-
folute authority over the reft, and commanded, decreed,
puuifhed, &e. at pleafure. The chief refidence of the arch-
druid of Gaul was at Drenx, in the Pais Chartrain ; and in
Britain, as we have already obferved, in the ifle of Anglefey.
He was ele&ted from among ft the moft eminent Druids by a
plurality of votes; and as this ftation was attended with
very confiderable power and wealth, and with many privi-
leges and honours of various kinds, the attainment of it was
an obje& of great ambition, and the eleGtion of a perfon ta
cceupy it fometimes occafioned a civil war. ‘The Druids
were alfo divided into feveral claffes, or branches; viz. the
vacerri, bardi, eubages, femnothii, or femnothei, and fa-
ronide., ‘The vacerri are held to have been the priefts ; the
bardi, the poets; the eubages, the augurs; and the faronida,
the civil judges, and inftru€tors of youth. is to the fem-
nothei, who are faid to have been immediately devoted to
the ferv’ce of religion, it is’ probable, they were the fame
with the vacerri.

Strabo, however, lib. iv. p. 197. and Picard after him, in
his Celtopedia, do not comprehend all thefe different ordere
under the denomination of Druids, as fpecies under their
genus, or parts under the whole ; but make them quite dif-
ferent conditions, or orders. ;

Strabo, in effect, only diftinguifhes three kinds ; bardi,
eubages, or vates, and Druids, though the laft name was
frequently given to the whole order. The bards were the
heroic, hiltorical, and genealogical poets of Gaul and Bri-
tain. [hey did not properly belong to the prieftly order,
nor had they any immediate concern with the offices of re-
ligion ; on the contrary, they carefully ab{tained from intro-
ducing any thing of a religious nature into their poems.
(See Barpv.) Thofe of the fecond clafs were called by the
Greeks Ovazs:, by the Romans ates, and by the Gauls and
Britons J’aids. (See Faips.) The Druids were by far
the moft numerous clafs; and they performed all the offices
of religion.

Learning of the Druids.—It is not eafy to afcertain the na-
ture and extent of their learning, though we have no reafor
to doubt their having poffeffed various kinds of literature and
philofophy in an eminent degree, confidering the period im
which they lived. Diogenes Laertius affures us (in his Pro-
logue), that the Druids were the fame, among the ancient
Britons, with the Sophi, or philofophers, among the
Grecks; the Magi, among the Perfians; the Gymnofophilts
and Brachmars, among the Indians; and the Chaldeans,
among the Affyrians. As the Druids ftudioufly concealed
their principles and opinions from all the world but the
members of their own fociety, neither the Greeks nor Ro-
mans could obtain a perfeét and certain knowledge of their-
fyftems either of religion or philofophy ; and, on this ac-
count, we find few remains of them in the works of the
ancients. Befides, they itri€tly obferved the fubfifting law,
whith forbade them to commit any of their doGtrines to
writing. (Czf. de Bell. Gall. 1. 6..c. 13.) Accordingly,
when the living repofitorice of thefe doctrines were deflroyed,
they were irrecoverably lo&, as they had-not been preferved
in any written monuments. Some few fcattered fragments,
however, may be ftill colle@ed. Tt appears, that phyfiology»

L1 o

DRUIDS,

er natural philofophy, was the favourite Rudy of the Druids
both in Gaul and in Britain. Cicero tells us {De Divina-
tione, L,1.), that he was perfonally acquainted with one of
the Gaulifh Druids, Divitiacus the Aiduan, a man of quality
in his country, who profeffed to have a thorough knowledge
of the laws of nature. or that fcience which the Greeks cail
phyfiology. (See on this fubje&, Diod. Sicul. |. 5. ¢.31.
Strabo, I. 4. Caf. de Bell. Gall. 1.6. ¢. 13. Melia; 1g. ¢.12.
Ammian. Marcell. |. 1. c.9.) According to the authors
here cited, they entercd into many difquifitions and difputa-
tions in their {chools, concerning the form and magnitude of
the univerfe in general, and of the earth in particular, and
¢ven concerning the moft fublime and hidden fecrets of na-
ture. On thefe and the like fubjeéts they formed a variety
of fyftems and hypothefes, which they delivered to their
difciples in verfe, that they might the more eafily retain them
in their memories, fince they were not allowed to commit
them to writing. Strabo hes preferved one of the phy-
fiological opmions of the Druids concerning the univerfe,
wiz. that it was never to be entirely defroyed or annihilated,
bet was to undergo a fucceffion of great changes and revolu-
tions, which were to be produced fometimes by the power
and predominancy of water, and fometimes by that of fire.
In this refpe& the Druids agreed in opinion with the philo-
fophers of many other nations; and they alfo coincided with
them in their notions with regard to the origin of the uni-
verfe from two diitin& principles, the one intelligent and
omnipctent, which was God, the other inaétive and inani-
mate, which was matter. To this purpofe Czfar informs
vs, that they had many difquifitions about the power of
God, and, without doubt, among other particulars, about
his creating power. But it does not appear, whether they
believed with fome, that matter was eternal, or, with others,
that it was created, and in what manner they endeavoured
to account for the difpofition of it into the prefent form of
theuniverfe. On thefe beads they expreffed their fentiments,
whatever they were, in a dark, figurative, and enigmatical
manner. hey alfo difputed about the magnitude and form
of this world, and of the earth in particular; and though we
are not informed what were their opinions concerning the
dimenfions of the univerfe or of the earth, yet we have rea-
fon to conclude, that they believed both to be of a {pherical
form; the circle being the favourite figure of the Druids, as
appears from the form both of their houfes and temples.
The Druids likewife employed themfelves in particular in-
quiries into the natures and properties of the different kinds
of fubftances; but the refult of thefe inquiries has not been
tran{mitted to us Aitronomy feems to have been one of
the chief ftudies of the Drnids of Gaul and Britain; and
accordingly Cefar fays, that they had many difquifitions
concerning the heavenly bodies and their motions, in which
they inftructed their diiciples ; and Mela alfo obferves, that
they profeffed to have great knowledge of the motions of
the heavens and of the ftars. This laft author fuggeits, that
they were pretenders to the knowledge of aftrology, or the
art of difcovering future events and the fecrets of providence,
from the motions and afpeéts of the heavenly bodies; for he
exprefsly fays, that they pretended to difcover the counfels
and defigns of the gods. The Druids, befides thefe induce-
ments which led them in common with others to the ftudy
of aftronomy, in order to enable them to meafure time, to
mark the duration of the different feafons, and thus to re-
gulate the operations of the hufbandman, and to direé& the
courle of the mariner, and to fubferve many other purpofes
in civil life; had other motives peculiar to themfelves,
as they would thus be able to fix the times and regular re-
turns of their religious folemnities, of which they had the

fole direétion; fome of which were annual, and cthers
monthly. ‘This kind of knowledge was the more neccffary,
as thefe folemnities were attended by perfons from very dif.
ferent and diftant countries, who were all to meet at one place
on the fame day, fo that they muft have had fome rule for
difeovering the annual return of that day. Befides, the
circumftances of the Druids were favourable to the Rudy of
altoncmy: the fun and moon, and perhaps the planets, were
the great objeGis of their adoration, and therefore attra@ed
their frequent attention; and the places of their worfhip, in
which they {pent much of their time, both by day and night,
were all uncovered, and fituated on eminences, from which
they had a full view of the celeftial bodies. That the Britifh
Druids actually devoted themlelves to the ftudy of aftronomy
may be inferred from the veftiges that remain in the ifle of
Anglefey, concerning which Mr. Rowland remarks, that
as the ancients deciphered aftronomy by the name of * Edris,’”
a name attributed to Enoch, whom they took to be the
founder of aftronomy, fo there is juft by a fummit of a hill,
called ** Caer Edris,”’ or “ Idris,” and not far of, another
place called <‘Cerrig-Brudyr,” .e. the aftronomers” {tones
or circle ; the former of thefe places may have been the re-
fidence, and the latter the obfervatory of thefe Druids in the
ifle of Anglefey. If we advert to the faG, it is well known
that the Druids computed their time by nights and not by
days, in conformity to a cuftom which they had received by
tradition from their remote anceftors, and ia which they were
confirmed by their meafuring time very much by the moony
the emprefs and queen of thenight. By the age and afpe&
of the moon the Druids regulated all their great folemnities,
both facred and civil. Their moft auguft ceremony of cut=
ting the miffeitoe from the oak by the arch-druid was always
performed on the 6th day of the moon, as Pliny informs us.
(l.16..c.44.) And Cefar fays (De Bell. Gall. lL. 1. ¢. 50.).
that their military operations were very much regulated by
this luminary, and that they avoided, as much as poflible,
to engage in battle while the moon was on the wane. Whilit
they dire€ied their attention to this planet, they would foon
find, that fhe paffed through all her various afpeéts in 39
days; and by more accurate obfervations they would dii-
cover, that the regular period of her entire revolution was
very nearly 294 days. Hence they would be furnifhed with
the divifion of their time into months, or revolutions of the _
moon, of which it is known they were pofieifed. In procefs
of time, they would perceive that about 12 revolutions of
the moon comprehended the whole variety of feafons, which
recommenced and revolved again every 12 months. Thus
was fuggelted to them the larger divifion of time, called a
year, confifting of 12 lunations, or 354 days, which was the
moft ancient meafure of the year in all nations. That this
was, for fome time at leat, the form of the Druidical year,
is both probable in itfelf, and from the following expreflion
of Pliny (1. 16, c.44.): ‘that they began both their months
and years, not from the change, but from the 6th day of
the moon ;”” which expreffion plainly proves, that their years
confifted of a certain number of lunar revolutions, as they
always commenced on the fame day of the moon. Pliny
alfo informs us, that the Druids had a cycle or period of 30
years, commencing on the Oth day of the moon, which they
called an age. It is not pofitively afcertained what this cycle
was, nor to what ufes it was applied. It is not improbable
that, while the Druids ufed the year of 12 lunar months,
and had not invented a method of adjufting it to the real re-
volution of the fun, they obferved that the beginning of this
year had paffed through all the feafons, and returned to the
point from whence it fet out, ina courfe of about 33 years,
which they might, therefore, call an age. Others may
; perhaps

DR U

periaps be of opinion, that this 30 years’ cycle of the Druids
3s the fame with the great year of the Pythagoreans, or a re-
yolution of Saturn, Some have imagined that the Druids
were acquainted with the cycle of 19 years, commonly called
the cycle of the moon; but this fuppofes that the Hyper-
borean ifland, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, was Britain,
or one of the Britifh ifles. The Druids, in their numerous
obfervations on the moon, could not fail to difcover that fhe
fhone by means of rays borrowed from the fun; and concur-
ring with philofophers of other countries, they might con-
clude that fhe was inhabited. Such were the dorines of
Pythagoras, and we have, therefore, no reafon to donbt that
they were entertained by the Druids of Gaul and Britain.
Tt is poffible alfo, that they might have prediéted eclipfes
both of the fun and moon, ina vague and uncertain manner,
as modern altronomers predi@ the return of comets. We
are further informed by Czfar and Mela, that the Druids
fludied the ftars, as well as the fun and moon ; and that they
diftinguifhed thefe from the planets, with the motions and
revolutions of which they were acquainted; but though
they knew their number, and obferved their motions, it is
doubtful whether they had afcertained the time in which they
performed their feveral revolutions. If Plutarch’s teftimony
may be credited (De Defe&tu Oracul. et De Facie in Orbe
Lune), we fhall have pofitive proof that the Druids of the
Britith ifles were acquainted with the conftellations, and the
figns of the zodiac ; and that they mealured the revolutions
of the fun and planets, by obferving the length of time be-
tween their departure from, and return to, one of thefe figns.
Some have fuppofed that the Druids had inftruments of fome
kind or other, which anfwered the fame purpofes with our
telefcopes, in making obfervations on the heavenly bodies.
But this depends on an improbable conjecture of Diodorus
Siculus (1.2. §47.), in his defcription of the famous Hy-
perborean ifland,

As the Druids applied themfelves to the ftudy of philo-
fophy and altronomy, we cannot doubt their having poffeffed
fome degree of acquaintance with arithmetic and geometry.
In this refpe€t the want of written rules could be no great
‘difadvantage to them, as the precepts of this, as well as of
the other {ciences, were couched in verfe, which would be
eafily committed to memory and retained. Unacquainted
with the Arabic charaGers now in ufe, they probably made
ufe, in their calculations, of the letters of the Greek alpha-
bet. To this purpofe Cefar exprefsly fays, that the Druids
of Gaul, in almoft all their tranfaGtions, and private accounts
or computations, made ufe of the Greek letters. Their
knowledge of geometry is confirmed by the beft hiftorical
evidence; for Cefar fays (1.6. c.13.), that when any dif-
putes arofe about their inheritances, or any controverfies
about the limits of their fields, they were entirely referred to
the decifion of their Druids. Moreover, both Czfar and
Mela plainly intimate, that the Druids were converfant in
the moft fublime fpeculations of geometry, ‘ in meafuring
the magnitude of the earth, and even of the world.” It is
eertain that the Britifh Druids were well acquainted with the
geography at leaft of their own ifland; and it is not impro-
bable, that their knowledge in this refpeét extended much
farther. As feveral monuments were erected by the Druids
for religious and other purpofes, to fay nothing here of
Stonerhenge (which fee), we cannot queltion their having
made great progrefs in the {cience of mechanics, and in the
mode of applying mechanical power, fo as to produce very
aftonifhing Pee. Medicine, or the art of healing, muft
alfo have been the obje& of attention and ftudy among the
Druids ; for they were the phyficians, as well as the priefts,
both of Gaul and Britain. ‘Te this purpofe Cafar fays (De

PDS.

Beil. Gail. 1. 6.), that, beiag much addicted to fuperflition,
thofe who are afflited with a dangerons difeafe facrifice a
man, or promife that they will facrifice one for their re-
covery ; and with this intention. they recur to the miniftry
of the Druids, becaufe they declared, that the anger of the
immortal gods (to which they imputed various difeafes) can-
not be appealed, fo as to {pare the life of one man, but by
the life of another. Hence their medical praCtices were at-
tended with a great number of magieal rites and incantations.
They are alfo faid to have applied to the ftudy of anatomy ;
but to what extent we are not able to fay. It is affirmed,
however, that they difle&ted a prodigious number of human
fubje@s ; and that they encouraged the f{cience of anatomy
to fuch an excefs= and fo much beyond all reafon and hu-
manity, that one of their doors, called Herophilus, is faid
to have read leGures on the bodies of more than 7oo living
men, to fhew therein the fecrets and wonders of the human
fabric. (Borlafe’s Antiq. of Cornwall, p..96.) That they
had amongit them furgeons, as well as phyficians, we have
no reafon to doubt : but they concealed their mode of prac-
tice from all but the initiated; and of courfe difguifed and
blended all their applications with a multitude of infignificant
charms. Their materia medica feems to have confilted only
of a few herbs, which were believed to have certain falutary
and healing virtues. Of the medical virtues of the mifletoe
of the oak they entertained a very high opinion, and elteemed
it a kind of panacea, or remedy for all difeafes. Pliny fays,
(N. H. 1. 16. ¢. 44. 1. 24. ¢. 4.), thatthey called it by a
name which in their language fignified ** All-heal,’’ becaufe
they thought that it cured all difeafes; and that it was pecu-
liarly efficacious in the epilepfy or falling ficknefs. The
felago, a kind of hedge-hyffop, refembling favin, was alfo
much admired by the Druids both of Gaul and Britain for its
fuppofed medicinal virtues, particularly in all difeafes of the
eyes; but its efficacy much depended, as they fuperfti-
tioufly conceived, on the peculiar mode of gathering it.
They entertained a high opinion alfo of the herb famolus,
or marfhwort, for its fanative qualities, and alfo of other
plants, for an account of which we refer to Pliny, (N. H.
L. 24. c. 12. 1. 25.¢. 9. 1.29. c. 3. 1. 26. in proem.) From
the imperfe& hints pertaining to this fubject that have been
colleéted, it has been inferred, that for the age in which
they lived, the Druids were no contemptible botanifts. Their
circumi{tances were peculiarly favourable for the acquifition
of this kind of knowledge. For as they fpent moft of their
time in the recefles of mountains, groves, and woods, the
{pontancous vegetable produétions of the earth conftantly pre-
fented themfelves to their view, and engaged their attention.
For an account of the fuperftitious opinion they entertained
of the ferpent’s egg, or ANGuINU™M ovum, we refer to that
article. We learn from Pliny, (ubi fupra) that they had
fome knowledge of pharmacy, without which their practice
of phyfic, imperfe& as it was, could not have fubfifted. Ac-
cordingly we are told, that they fometimes extraéted the
juices of herbs and plants, by bruifing and fteeping them in
cold water, and fometimes by infufing them io wine; that
they made potions and decoétions by boiling them in water,
and other liquors; that they fometimes adminiftered them
in the way of fumigation ; that on fome occafions they dried
the leaves, ftalks, and roots of plants, aod afterwards infufed
them ; and that they were not igngrant of the art of making
falves and ointments of vegetables.

The noble art of rhetoric, which enabled them to difplay
their wifdom and learning, and which contributed to the fup-
port and advancement of their reputation, was diligently
itudied and taught by the Druids of Gaul and Britain. Mela
fays exprefly (De Situ Orbis, 1. 3. c.2.), that they were great

Lia maftere

DRUIDS.

matters and teachers of eldquence. Among their deities was
one named Ogmius, fignifying in their language the power of
eloquence, who was worfhipped by them, with great devotion,
as the patron of orators and the god of eloquence. He was
painted 2s an old man, furrounded by a great multitude of peoe
ple, with flender chains reaching from his tongue to their ears.
Lucian, expreffing his furprife at this picture, received from
a Druid the following explanation of it: ‘ You will ceafe
to be furprifed, when I tell you, that we make Hercules
(whom we call Ogmius) the god of eloquence, contrary to
the Greeks, who give that honour to Mercury, who is fo
far inferior to him in ftrength. We reprefent him as an old
man, becaufe eloquence never fhews itfelf fo lively and
ftrong as in the mouths of old people. The relation which
the ear has to the tongue, juitifies the pi€ture of the old
man who holds fo many people faft by the tongue. Neither
do we think it any affront to Hercules to have his tongue
bored ; fince, to teil you all in one word, it was that which
made him fuceced in every thing ; and that it was by his clo-
quence he fubdued the hearts of all men.” (Lucian in Her-
cule Gallico.) The Druids had many opportusitics of
exercifing their eloquence, whilft they taught their difciples
in their {chools; when they difcourfed in public to the peo-
ple on fubje&ts of religion and morality ; when they pleaded
caufes in the courts of juftice; and when they argued
in the great councils of the natiou, and at the head of armies
ready to engage in battle, {ometimes for inflaming their cou-
rage, and at other times for allaying their fury, and difpofing
them to make peace. Such was the effe& of thetr eloquence,
that it engaged refpe& both from friends and enemies, and
that when hoftile armies were jult commencing an engage-
ment, with their {words drawn and {pears extended, they
ftepped in between them and prevented, by the powers of
their eloquence, the fhedding of blood, and prevailed upon
them to fheath their fwords. (Diod. Sicul. }. 5.c.8.) Ac-
cordingly the Britifh kings and chieftains, who were educated
by the Druids, were famous for their eloquence.

It has been queftioned, notwithftanding the wifdom and
learning juftly attributed to the Druids, whether they had
the knowledge of letters, or whether they could read and
write. In favour of their knowledge in this department it
has been alleged, that though letters were neither generally
known nor in common ufe at the period that fucceeded the
Roman invefion, they muft have been known to the Druids,
and to fome few of thofe who had been educated by them.
The law of the Druids, it has been faid, which is mentioned
by Cefar. againft committing their do€trines to writing, af-
fords fufficient evidence, that they were not unacquainted
with the ufe of letters; for if they had been ignorant of
the art of writing, they could have had no neceffity for
fuch a law, nor, indeed, any idea of it. Befides, this hif-
torian fays, that in all tranfaGions, except thofe of religion
and learning, they made ufe of letters; and that the letters
which they ufed were thofe of the Greek alphabet. It has
been fuggefted, that the Britons; and particularly their
Druids, might bave received the knowledge of the Greek
letters, either dire@ly from the Greek merchants of) Mar-
feiiles, which city is reprefented by Scrabo (1. 4.) a3 a kind
of univerfity to the Barbarians, for they frequented this ifland
on account of trade, or from the Druids of Gaul, with
whom they kept up a conttant and friendly intercourle.
We may therefore conclude, that the letters of the Greek
alphabet! were known to the learned among the Britons, and
uled by them, on fome occafions, in writing contra&ts, trea-
ties, and other important deeds, before they were invaded
and corqucred by the Romans. By that conqueit the Ro-
man letters were introduced, and from that era continued to

be ufed, not only by thofe Britons who learned to write and
fpeak the Latin language, but even by thofe who flill res
tained the ufe of their native tongue.

Notwithftanding the proficiency which the Britith Druids
had made in feveral branches of real knowledge and ufeful
learning, they were much addiéted to magic and divination $
and by thefe they pretended to work a kind of miracles,
and exhibit aftonifhing appearances in nature; to penetrate
into the counfels of heaven; to foretel future events, and to
difcover the fuecefs or mifcarriage of public or private un=
dertakings. Thefe powers were afcribed to them, not only
by their own countrymen, but by the philofophers of Greece
and Rome. “ In Britain,?? fays Pliny (N. H. 1. 30. c. 1.),
«¢ the magic arts are cultivated with fuch aftonifhing fuccefs,
and fo many ceremonies at this day, that the Britons feem
to be capable of inftruGting even the Perfians themfelves in
thefe arts’? They pretend to difcover the dcfigns and
purpofes of-the gods,” fays Mela (I. 3. c. 2.) They were
{o famous for the fuppofed veracity of their prediGions, that
they were not only confulted on all important occafions by
their own princes and great men, buteven fometimes by the
Roman emperors. Deriving reputation, and alfo wealth, from
their magical and prophetical powers, they employed all
their art and cunning, and all their knowledge in philofophy
and mechanics, to encourage and promote the delufion.
Their natural and acquired fagacity, their long experience,
and their great concern in the conduét of affairs, enabled
them to form very probable conjeCtures about the events of
enterprifes. Thefe conjeCtures they pronounced as oracles,
when they were confulted, and they pretended to derive
them from the infpedtion of the entrails of vidims ; the ob-
fervation of the flight and feeding of certain birds; and
many other mummeries. By thefe and the like arts, they
obtained and preferved the reputation of prophetic forefight
among an ignorant and credulous people.

Before the invationof the Romans, the ancient Britons
had among them various {chocls and feminaries of learning,
which were wholly under the dircétion of the Druids, to
whofe care the education of youth wasaltogether committed.
Thefe Druidical academies wera very much crowded with
ftudents; as many of the youth of Gaul came over to finifh
their education in this ifland. ‘The ftudents, as well as the
teachers, were exempted from military fervices and from
taxes; and enjoyed many other privileges, which much ferved
to increafe theirnumber. he academies of the Druids, as
well as their temples, were fituated in the deepett recefles
of woodsand forefts; partly becaufe {uch fituations were
beft adapted to ftudy and contemplation, and principally
becaufe they were moft {nitable to that profound fecrecy
with which they inftru¢icd their pupils, and kept their doce
trines from the knowledge of others. Wherever the Druids
had any temple of any great note, attended by a confiderable
number of priefts, there they alfo had an academy, in which
fuch of thofe prietts as were efteemed moft learned were ap
pointed toteach. Ofthefe Britifh academies the moft con-
fiderable was ficuated in the ifle of Anglefey, near the
manfion of the arch-druid, who had the chief dire&tion in
matters of learning as wellas of religion. Here is one place,
which is till called ‘ Myfyrion,”. 7. e. the place of medita-
tion or ftudy; anotheryas-we have already mentioned, called
“© Cacr-Earis,” the city of aftronomers; and another ‘* Cer
rig-Brudyn,” the altronomers’ circle. In thefe feminaries
the profeffors delivered all their leQures to their pupils in
verfe; anda Druidical courfe of education, comprehending
the whole civcleof the fciences that were then taught, is
faid to have confilted.of about 20,000 verfes, and to have
lafted, in fome cafes; 20 years, The fcholars were not

allowed

DRUIDS,

allowed to commit any of thefe verfes to writing, but were
obliged to get them all by heart. When the youth were firft
admitted into thefe academies, they were obliged to take an
oath of fecrecy, in which they folemnly fwore, that they
would never reveal the myfteries, which they fhould there
learn. They conftantly refided with their teachers and
fellow-f%udents, and were forbidden to converfe with any
other perfons, till they were regularly difmiffed. One leffon,
which was feduloufly inculeated upon all their pupils, was a
fupreme veneration for the perfons and opinions of their
teachers; nor was this leffon ever obliterated from their
minds. This circumftance contributed to fupport the power
and influence of the Druids ; as all the principal perfons tn
every ftate were educated in their academies, where they
imbibed a high opinion of the wifdom and dignity of their
inftru@tors. From the charge and education of youth the
Druids muft have derived very confiderable emoluments,

Hornius, in his Hiftory of Philofophy, lib. ii. cap. 12.
believes all the learning and philofophy of the Druids to
have been derived from the Affyrian magi, who are ftill
called, in Germany, ¢rutten, or truttner 3 avd that as magus
has loft its ancient fignification, which was honourable, and
now fignifies a magician or forcerer; fo Druid, which had
the fame fenfe, haslikewife degenerated, and now lignifies
no other than a perfon who has commerce with the devil, or
is addiéted to magic. And accordingly, in Friefland, where
there anciently were Druids, witches are now called Druids.
Gale, Dickenfon, and {ome others, vainly contend, that the
Druids borrowed all their philofophy, as well as religion,
from the Jews.

Religion of the Druids.—The Druids, as well as the
Gymnofophifts of India, the magiof Perfia, the Chaldeans
of Aflyria, and all the other priefts of antiquity, had two
fets of do€trineg or opinions; one of which they communi-
cated only to the initiated, who were admitted into their
own order, and which they ftudioufly concealed from the
reft of mankind; teaching it in the caves or receffes of the
forefts, and forbidding its being committed to writing, left it
fhould be divulged and another, which was made public,
and adapted to the capacities and fuperftitious humours of
the people, and calculated to promote the honour and opu-
lence of the priefthood. ‘The fecret dofrines of our Druids
were much the fame with thofe of the other priefts of an-
tiquity, whom we have already mentioned, and are fuppofed
to have flowed by different itreams of tradition, from the
inftructions which the fons of Noah gave to their immediate
defcendants. | Accordingly thefe fecret Druidical doétrines
were more agreeable to primitive tradition and right reafon,
than'their public doftrines. It is not, therefore, improbable,
that they {till retained, in fecret, the great doctrine of one
God, the creator and governor of the univerfe ; and Cefar
informs us, (1. 6.c. 13.) that they taught their difciples
many things about the nature and perfections of God. Some
writers have, with much refearch and labour, endeavoured to
fhew, that our Druids, as well as other orders of ancient
prietts, taught their difciples many things concerning the
creation of the world, the formation of man, his primitive
innocence and felicity, his fall into guilt and mifery, the
creation of angels, their expulfion from heaven, the univer-
fal deluge, and the final dettru@ion of this world by fire;
and that their doétrines on thefe fubje&ts were not very dif-
ferent from thofe which are‘contained in the facred writings.
(Claver. Germ. Antiq. L. 1.c. 32.) However this be, it is
Mufficiently manifeit, that the Druids taught the dottrine
of theinimortality of the foul; and Mela fays (1. 3. c. 14:)
that this was one of their fecret doctrines which, for poli-

tical reafons, they were permitted to publifh in order té
render their difciples more brave and fearlefs.

Cefar (lib. 6. c. 13.) and Diodorus (I. 5.) fay, that the
Druids taught the Pythagorean doGirine of the metempfy-
chofis, or tranfmigration of fouls into other bodies : and this,
if they really taught it, was probably their public doétrine,
adapted.to the conceptions of the vulgar. Others, however,
reprefent them as teaching, that the foul after death afcended
to fome higher orb, and enjoyed a more fublime felicity,
which, perhaps, was their private doctrine, and exprefled
theirreal fentiments. But as the Druids conceived, in com-
mon with the other prie(ts of antiquity, that the commen
people were incapable of comprehending rational principles
of religion, or of being influenced by rational motives, and
that fuperttitious fables were better adapted to their facul-
ties and difpofition; their public theology confifted of
{uch mythological fables, concerning the genealogies, attri
butes, offices, and actions of their gods; the various fuper=
flitious methods of appeafing their anger, gaining their favour,
and difcovering their will. This farrago of fables was
couched in verfe, abounding with figures and metaphors,
and was delivered by the Druids from little eminences, (of
which many full remain) to the furrounding multitudes.
With this fabulous divinity they intermixed moral precepts,
for regulating the manners of their auditors; and they
warmly exhorted them to abltain from doing injury to one
another, and to fight valiantly in defence of their country.
(Rowland, Mona Antiqua. Diogenes Laert. in Proem.)
Thefe pathetic declamations imprefled their minds, and ex-
cited a fupreme veneration for their gods, an ardent love to
their country, an undaunted courage, and a fovereign con-
tewpt of death. (Lucan l. 1. v. 460, &c. Cafar de Bell.
Gall. 1, 6. c. 13.) The fecret aad public theology of the
Druids, together with their fy{tem of morals and philofophy,
had {welled to fuch an enormous fize, that,their difciples
employed no lefs than 20 years in acquainting them-
felves with it, ard committing to memory the great multi-
tude of verfes in which it was contained, At what period
a plurality of gods was introduced among them, it 1s not
poflible to afcertain; but this innovation was probably in-
troduced by degrees, and the following caufes might ferve
to promote it. The different names and attributes of the
one true God were miftaken for, and adored as fo many dif-
ferent divinities. The fun, moon, and ftars, which were at
firft regarded with veneration as the moft glorious works
and lively emblems of the Deity, were gradually adored as
gods. Illuftrious princes, who had been the objeéts of uni-
verfal admiration during their lives, and who had performed
fome fignal exploits, became objets of adoration after their
deceafe. The Britons had gods of all thefe different kinds.
The fupreme Being was worfhipped by the Gauls and Bri-
tons under the name of Hefus, a word exprefflive of omnipo-
tence, as hizzuz isinthe Hebrew. (Pf. xiv. 8.) But when
the plurality of gods was introduced, Hefus was adored only
as a particular divinity, who, by his great power, prelided
over war and armies, and was the fame with Mare. Andas :
the Germans, Gauls, and Britons, were a warlike people,
they were great worfhippers of Hefus, whofe favour and
affittance they endeavoured to gain by fuch cruel and bloody
rites as could be acceptable only to a being who delizhted in
the deftru€tion of mankind. (Czfar de Bell. Gall. 1. 6.
e.17. Lucan, 1. 1. v. 445.) ) Teutates was another name,
or attribute, of the fupreme Being, being compounded of
the two Britifh words, ** Deu-Tatt,” or God the Father,
and was worfhipped by the Gauls and Britons as a parti-
cular divinity. By the progrefs of idolatry, Teutates was

I degraded =

DRUIDS.

degraded into the fovereign of the infernal world, and be-
came the fame with Dis, or Pluto, of the Greeks and Ro-
mans, or, as others think, with Mercury, and was worfhipped
in fach a manner, as could be agreeable to none but an in-
fernal power. (Baxter, Gloff. Brit. p. 277. Czfar de
Fell. Gall. 1. 6. c. 18. Dionyf. Halicarn. 1. r. p. 16.)
When gods were multiplied, Taranis, fo called from taran,
thunder, and confidered as the voice of the fupreme Being,
became a particular divinity, and was worfhipped by very in-
human rites. (Lucan, |. 1. v. 446. Job, xl.9. Pf. xxix.
3+ 4, 5+) “The fun, the moft ancient and univerfal object
of idolatrous worfhip, received the homage of the ancient
Britons, under the names of Bel, Belinus, Blatucardus,
Apollo, &c. which names were expreffive, in their language,
of the nature and properties of that vifible fountain of light
and heat, To this illuftrous objeét of idolatrous worfhip,
thofe famous circlesof ttone, feveralof which ftill remain, feem
to have been chiefly dedicated ; where the Druids kept the
facred fire, the fymbol of this divinity, and from whence, as
they were fituated on eminences, they had a full view of the
heavenly bodies. The moonalfo obtained an early and large
fhare of the idolatrous veneration of mankind. ~The Gauls
and Britons, feem to have paid the fame kind of worfhip to
the moon as to the fun; and it has been obferved, that the
circular temples dedicated to thefe two laminaries were of
the fame conftruction, and commonly contiguous. (Mar-
tin’s Defer. of Welt. Ifles, p. 365.) It farther appears,
that thofe deified mortals, who were adored by the Gauls
and Britons, were generally the fame perfons, who were
worfhipped by the Greeks and Romans ; and who had been
victorious princes, wife legiflators, inventors of ufeful arts,
&e. (Cicero de Nat. Deor. I. 1. Diod. Sic. 1. 3. Cefar
de Bell. Gall. 1.6. c. 17. Perron. Antiq. Celt. 1. 1. ¢. 9.
&c.) The Celtic gods are fuppofed by many writers to
have been the originals, and thofe of the Greeks and
Romans copies; to which purpofe, it has been al-
leged, that all the deified princes, {uch as Saturn, Jupiter,
Mercury, &c. belonged: to the Celte by their birth, and
were fovereigns of the Celtic tribes, which peopled Gaul and
Britain; that all their names were fignificant in the Celtic
language, and expreflive of their feveral charaGters ; and that
the Gauls and Britons, and other nations denominated bar-
barians, were much more tenacieus of the opinions and cuf-
toms of their anceftors, than the Grecks and Romans, who
difcovered a great propenfity to adopt the gods and religious
ceremonies of other nations. (Dionyf. Halicar. 1.7. (See
Dzmon.) The worfhip of the ancient Britons was expreffed
in four different ways, and confifted of fongs of praife and
thank{giving, prayers, and fupplications, offerings, and facri-
fices, and the various rites of augury and divination. The
Druids in Britain direG&ted and fuperintended thefe different
modes of worfhip, and both inftruéted and aided their dif-
ciples in the performance of them. As to their facrifices,
it is much to be lamented that human victims conftituted
a part of them; for it was an article in the Druidical
ereed, ** That nothing but the life of man could atone for
the life of man.” In confequence of this maxim, their
altars ftreamed with human blood, and great numbers of
wretched men fell a facrifice to their barbarous fuperttition.
Criminals, who had been guilty of robbery and other crimes,
were feleCted in the firft inftance; but when there was a
{carcity of criminals, they did not fcruple to fupply their
place with innocent perfons. ‘hefe dreadful facrifices were
offered by the Druids, on behalf of the public, at the eve of
a dangerous war, or in atime of any national calamity ; and
alfo for perfons of high rank, when they were afflicted with

«

any dangerous difeafe. By fuch as of ernelty, the ascicat
Britons endeavoured to avert the difpleafure and ezin the
favour of their gods. Suetonius, in his Life of Claudius,
affures us, they facrificed men; and Mercury is faid to be
the god to whom they offered thefe victims. Diod. Siculus,
lib. 6. obferves, it was only upon extraordinary occafions
they made fuch offerings: as, to confult what meafures to
take, to learn what fhould befalthem, &c. by the fall of the
vi&im, the tearing of his members, and the manner of his
blood gufhing out. Auguftus condemned the cuftom ; and
Tiberius and Claudius punifhed and abolifhed it. (See
Cefar, lib. 6. cap. 13, and Mela, lib. 3. cap.2.) We
learn from Pliny, that the ancient Britons were greatly ad-
di&ted to divination, and that they excelled fo much in the
practice of all its arts, as to be able to give a leffon even to
the Perfians. See Divination.

The ancient Britons were fo much addicted to the fuper-
ftitious rites of their religion, that they had daily facrifices
and other ats of worfhip, at lealt in their moft famous
places of devotion. The hours of thefe daily facrifices were
perhaps at noon and midnight, when they imagined, accord-
ing to Lucan (I. 3.v. 423, &c.), that the gods vifited their
facred groves. Atnoon they probably paid their homage
to the fun and the celeftial gods, and at midnight to the
moon and the infernal powers. They were not ignorant of
the ancient and univerfal divifion of time into weeks, con-
fifting of feven days each; but it is not certain, whether
they confecrated one of thefe feven days to aéts of religion.
They divided their time, as we have already obferved, by
lunar months, commencing with the fixth day of one moon
and terminating with the fame day of another; and the firlt
day of every lunar month, according to their mode of reck-
oning, or the fixth according to our computation, was a
religious feftival. Pliny, fpeaking of one of their religious
folemnities, fays, that this was always obferved on the fixth
day of the moon: a day, he fays, fo much elteemed among
them, that they have made their months and years, and even
ages, which confift but of 30 yeara, to take their beginning
fromit. The reafon of their chufing that day is, becaufe
the moon is by that time grown ftrong enough, though nor
arrived at halfitsfulnefs. (N.H.1. 16.c. 44.) The Gaule
and Britons had feveral annual feftivals, which were obferved
with great devotion; of this kind was the auguit folemnity
of cutting the mifletoe from the oak, which was performed
by the arch-druid ; andit isthus defcribed by Pliny: “* The
Druids held nothing fo facred as the mifletoe of the oak ;
as this is very fcarce and rarely to be found, when any of it
is difcovered, they go with great pomp and ceremony on a
certain day to gatherit. When they have got every thing
in readisefs under the oak, both for the facrifice and the
banquet which they make on this great fettival, they begin
by tying two white bulls to it by the horns, then one of the
Druids, clothed in white, ‘mounts the tree, and with a knife
of gold, cuts the mifletoe, which is received in a white
fagum ; this done, they proceed to their facrifices and feait-
ings.’ (N.H. 1. 14. c. 44.) This feftival is faid to
have been kept as near as the age of the moon permitted to
the roth of March, which was their New-year’s day. The
firft day of May was a great annual feftival, in honour o
Belinus, or thefun. (See Beu-rzin.) ‘

Midfummer day and the firit of November were likewife
annual feftivals; the oneto implore the friendly influences of
heaven upon their fields, and the other to return thanks for
the tavourable feafons and the fruits of the earth ; as well as
to pay their yearly contributions to the miniftera of their
religion. It is alfo probable, that alltheir gods and god-

5 defies,

DRUIDS.

deffes, their facred groves, their hallowed hills, lakes, and
fountains, had their feveral annual feftivale; fo that the
Druidith calendar was perhaps as much crowded with holy-
days as the popifh one is at prefent. On thefe feltivals, after
the appointed facrifices and other aéts of devotion were
finifhed, the reft of the time was {pent in feafting, finging,
dancing, and all kinds of diverftons,

Inthe Druidical creed it was an article, ‘ that it was
unlawful to build temples to the gods, or to worfhip them
within walls, or under roofs.’ (Tacit. de Mor. Germ.
c.g:

Xn their places of worfhip, were, therefore, in the open
air, and’ generally on eminences, from whence they had a
full view of the heavenly bodies, to whom much of their
adoration was dire€ted. But to prevent being incommoded
by the winds and raing, or diflracted by the view of external
objefs, or difturbed. by the intrufion of unhallowed feet,
when they were either inftruting their difciples or perform-
ing their religious rites, they fele€ted the deepelt recefles ot
groves and woods for their facred places; thefe groves were
planted for that purpofe, inthe moft proper fituations, and
thofe trees in which they moft delighted. ‘T'he chief of thefe

trees was the ftrong and fpreading oak, for which the
~ Druids hada very high and fuperftitious veneration. The
Druids (fays Pliny) have fo high an elteem for the oak, that
they do not perform the leaft religious ceremony, without
being adorned with garlands of its leaves. Thefe philofophers
believe, that-every thing which grows upon that tree comes
from heaven; and that God hath chofen that tree above all
others,”’ (N.H.1. 16. c. 44.) In this refpect they re-
fembled the priefts of other ancient nations, and particularly
the Hebrew patriarchs. (Gen. xxvi. 4. 8. Joh. xxiv. 26.)
Thefe facred groves were watered by fome confecrated foun-
tain or river, and furrounded by a ditch or mound, to pre-
vent the intrufion of improper perfons. In the centre of
the grove was a circular area, inclofed with one or two rows
of large ftones fet perpendicularly in the earth, which con-
ftituted the temple within which the altar flood, on which
the facrifices were offered. In fome of thefe moft magnifi-
cent temples, they laid ftones of prodigious weight on the
tops of the flanding pillars, which formed a kind of circle
aloft in the air,and added much to the grandeur of the whole;
fuch was Srone-nENGE, if it wasa Druidical temple. Near
tothe temple, fo called for want of a proper word, they
ere&ted their carnedde, or facred mounts; their cromlechs, or
ftone tables, on which they prepared their facrifices, and
other things neceffary for their worfhip. Of thefe temples,
carnedde, and cromlechs, there are ftill mary vetltiges in the
Britith ifles, and other parts of Europe. Lucan has poeti-
cally deferibed one of the Druidical groves above-mentioned,
in the following manner.

« Lucus erat longo nunquam violatus ab zvo, &c,”

Pharf. 1. 3. ve 399.

* Not far away, for ages paft had ftood
Ain old unviolated facred wood :
Whofe gloomy boughs thick interwoven mede
A. chilly cheerlefs everlafting fhade:
‘There, nor the ruftic gods, nor fatyrs fport,
Nor fawns, and fylvans with the Nymphs refort ;
But barb’rous priefts fome dreadful pow’r adore,
And luftrate ev’ry tree with human gore, &c. &c.”?
Rowe’s Lucan, b. 3.1. 594.

Although the ancient Britons had do images of their gods,
at leaft none in the fhape of menor other animals, in their
facred groves,yet they had certain vifible fymbols or emblems

ofthem, ‘All the Celtic nations,’? fays Maximus Tyrius
(Dull, 38), ‘ wo: hipped Jupiter, whofe emblem or repres
{entation among them wasa lofty oak.” ‘The caks which
they ufed for this purpofe were truncated, that they might
be the better emblems of unfhaken firmnefs and ftabilty.
Such were thofe in the Druidical grove defcribed by Lucany
(see. gina
i. Simulacraque meefta deorum
Artecarent. Czfifque extant informia truncis.’”

6

Strong knotted trunks of oak ftood near,
And artlefs emblems of their gods appear.”

Reputation, Authority, and Lnfluence of the Druids.—The
Druids were the firlt and molt diftinguifhed order, in a va-
riety of refpe€ts, among the Gauls and Britons. They were
chofen out of the belt families; and the honours of their
birth, joined with thofe of their funétion, procured for them
the higheft veneration among the people. They were
verfed, as we have already Rated, in altronomy, aftrologys
arithmetic, geometry, natural philofophy, geography, and
politics; they were well acquainted with the arts of divina-
tion and magic; and they had the adminiftration of all facred
things, being the interpreters of religion, and the judges
of ali affairs Whofoever refufed obedience to them wae
declared impious and accurfed. As religion feems to have
been the chief bond of union among the Britifh tribes and
nations, the Druids, as the minifters of their religion, appear
to have poffeffed the fole authority of making, explaining,
and executing the laws. T'hefe laws were not confidered,
among the ancient Britons, as the decrees of their princes,
but as the commands of their gods: and the Druids were
fuppofed to be the only perfons to whom the gods communi-
cated the knowledge of their commands, and confequently
they were the only perfons who could declare and explain
them to the people. The violations of the laws were not
conlidered as crims againft the prince or ftate, but as fins
againft Heaven; for which the Druids, as the minifters of
Heaven, had alone the right of taking vengeance. All
thefe important prerogatives of declaring, explaining, and
executing the laws, the Druids enjoyed and cxercifed in their
full extent. ‘¢ All controverfies (f2ys Cxfar), both public
and private, are determined by the Druids. If any crime is
committed, or any murder perpetrated ; if any.difpures arife
about the divifion of inheritances, or the b xundaries of eftates,
they alone have the right to pronounce fentence; and they
are the only difpenfers both of rewards and punifhments.’?
(De Bell. Gall. 1.6. c.13.) ‘ All the people (fays Strabo)
entertain the higheft opinion of the juitice of the Druids.
To them all judgment, in public and private, in civil and
criminal cafes, is committed.’? ‘The Druids poffeffed fo
fully the power of judging in all cafes, that they were not
under the neceffity of calling ia the afliftance of the fecular
arm to execute their fentences, but performed this alfo by
their own authority, infliting with their own hands ftripes,
and even death, on thofe whom they had condemned. ‘Their
decifions claimed at all times implicit f{ubmiffion, as it be+
longed to them to pronounce the fentence of excommunica-
tion or interdi& againft all perfons, or whole tribes, when
they refufed to fubmit to their decrees. “This fentence was
fo awful, that the perfons againft whom it was fulminated
were not only excluded from all facrifices and religious rites,
but they were held in univerfal deteftatiou, as impious and
abominable; their company was avoided as dangerous and
contaminating ; they were declared ineapable of any trult
or honour, put out of the protedion of the laws, and ex-
pofed to injuries of every kind. (Cxf. De Bell. Gall. 1. 6.
¢.33-) Althotigh it is not poflible to obtain accurate in-

formation

DRUIDS.

fermation concerning the times, places, forms, and circum-
ftances of the judicial proceedings of thefe awful judges; yet
there can be no doubt of their attention to thefe particulars.
‘That the {cafons or terms of their judicial proceedings might
not interfere with thofe devoted to religion, nor with thofe
appropriated by the people to their neceflary occupations,
fuch as feed-time and harve, which were vacations, they
held only two law-terms in very ancient times; one in fum-
mer, from the gth day of May to the gth of Auguit, ard
the other m winter, from the gth of November to the gth
of February. Whilft the right of adminiftering juitice be-
longed to the order of Druids in general, there were, how-
ever, particular members of that order who were appoiated
to exercife this right, and to execute the office of judges.
"Thejr courts were probably held in the open air, for the
convenience of all who had occafion to attend them ; and on
an eminence, that all might fee and hear their judges ; and
near their temples, to give the greater folemnity to their
proceedings. ‘There was at leaft one of thefe places of jud?-
€ature in the territories of every ftate, perhaps in the lands
of every clan or tribe. The arch-dreid, who was the fu-
preme judge, held, for the purpofe of hearing and deter-
mining all caufes in the laft refort, a grand affize orce in the
year, at a fixed time and place; which was commonly at his
-ordinary or chief refidence. The chief refidence of the arch-
druid of Gaul was at Dreux, and here the grand affize for
Gaul was held; and that of Britain was in the ifle of Angle-
fey. OF this latter Mr. Rowland defcribes the veftiges:
s¢ In the other end of chis townthip of Fe’r Dryw, there firft
appears a large cirque or theatre, raifed up of earth or ftones
to a great height, refembling a horfe-fhoe, opening directly
to the weit, upon an even fair fpot of ground. This cirque
or theatre is made of earth and ftones, carried and heaped
there to form the bank. It is, within the circumvallation,
about 20 paces over; and the banks, where they are whole
and unbroken, above 5 yards perpendicular height. It is
caJled ‘* Bryn-gwyn,” or ‘ Brein-gwyn,”’ that is, the fu-
preme or royal tribunal: and fuch the place mutt have been,
wherever it was, in which a fupreme judge gave laws toa
whole nation.”? (Mona Antiq. p. 89, 90.) The laws, enacted
and enforced among the ancient Britons, were compofed in
verfe, and they were never committed to writing. Whilft
thefe laws were unwritten, they were more entirely at the
difpofal of the Druids, who alone could make themfelves
complete mafters of them: and, therefore, when they were
deftroyed. their laws in a great degree perifhed with them.
‘Thofe which related to their religion, the worfhip of the
gods, and the privileges of their minifters, obtained, of
courfe, the firft place in their fyftem of jurifprudence; and
the obligation of thefe was declared to be moft facred and
inviolable. ‘Fhat the gods are to be worfhipped was, pro-
bably, the very firft law in the Druidical fyilem. To this
ail the other prefcriptions relating to the rites, times, places,
and other circumftances of that worfhip would naturally fel-
Jow, accompanied with proper fan¢tions to fecure obedience.
‘The laws afcertaining the honours, rights, and privileges of
the Druids; thofe declaring their perfons inviolable, and
providing for their immunity from taxes and military fervices,
were not forgotten. (Caf. De Bell. Gali l.6.c¢.14.) The
Druids exercifed a degree of authority, which was paramount
-to that of the Britifh fovereigns. They conftantly attended
their armies ; and to them it belonged, independently of the
kings, to imprifon or punifh any of their foldiers. Nor
could the princes give battle until the prietts had performed
their auguries, and declared that they were favourable.
Revenues of the Druids.—Thefe cannot, at this diltance of
atime, be accurately afcertained: but confidering their in-

fluence and fervices, and the fuperfitious veneration with
which they were regarded by the people, we may naturally
imagine, that they were as great es the people could afford,
Théole who have obtained the entire direttton of men’s con-
{ciences may f{ecure to themfelves, without mec® difficulty,
a confiderable portion of their pofleffions, The Druids feem
to have had the fuperiority, if not the entire property, of
cértain iflands on the coafts both of England and Scotland,

2s Anglefey, Man, Harris, &c.; and it is kighly probable,

thac they had e!fo territories in different parts of the con-
tinent, near their feveral temples. efides, a great part of
the offerings, which were brought to their facred places, and
prefented te their gods, and thefe were frequent; and fome-
times very great, fell to their hare. “Among the nations of
Gaul and Britain, it was a common pra€tice to dedicate all
the cattle, and other fpoils teken in war, to that’ deity by
whofe affiftance they imagined they had gained the vittory.
Of thefe devoted {poiis the pricits were at leaft the adminif-
trators, if not the proprietors. ‘They were frequently con-
fulted, both by flates and private perfons, about the fuccefs
of intended enterprifes, and other future events ; and were
well rewarded for the gocd fortune which they promifed,
and the fecrets of futurity which they pretend:d to reveal.
(421. Var. Hift. 1.2. c.31.) They derived alfo confider-
able profits from the adminiftration of juflice, the p:actice
of phyfic, and teaching the fciences, ail which were in their
bands; and aifo from the inftruction they gave to their
difciples in the principles and mytteries of their theology.
We are alfo traditionally informed, that there were certain
ancual dues exacted from every family, ty the priefts of that
temple within whofe diftri& the family dwelt; and thefe
artful priefts had invented a moft effe€tual method to fecure
the punétual payment of thefe dues. All thefe families were
obliged, under the dreadful penalties of excommunication,
to extinguifh their fires on the laft evening of OGober, and
to attend at the temple with their annual payment ; and the
firlt day of November to receive fome of the facred fire from
the altar, to rekindle thofe in their houfes. By this device,
they were obliged to pay, or to be deprived of the ufe of
fire, at the approach of winter, when tife want of it would
be mot felt. If any neighbours out of compaffion fupplied

them with fire, or even converfed with them in their ftate of-

deliz.quency, they were laid under the fame terrible fentence
of excommunication, which excluded them not only from all
the facred folemnitics, but from all the fweets of fociety,
and all the benefits of law and juftice. (Toland’s Hift. of
the Druids, p. 71, 72.
When we advert to thefe feveral fources of wealth, we may
reafonably conclude, that the Britifh Drnids were the moft
opulent, as well as the molt refpe€&ted body of men in the
country, in the times in which they flourifhed.

Decline and Extin@ion of the Druids.—At the period. of
the firit invafion of Britain by the Romans under Julius
Cefar, B.C. 55, the Britifh Druids were in the zenith of
their power and glory ; bat as the Romans gained ground
in the ifland, their power generally declined, until it was al-
moft quite deftroyed. Thefe victorious people, contrary to
their ufual policy, difcovered every where a great animofity
againft the perfons and religion of the Druids. This ani-
molity was partly owing to their abhorrence of the cruel
rites, of which the Druids were guilty, and partly to con-

fiderations of a political nature. The Druids, dreading the ©

prevalence of the Romans, as threatening deftrution to the
authority and influence, which belonged to them under the
charaGer of minifters of religion, and alfo under the rank of
civil judges, legiflaters, and even fovereigns in their feveral
countries, animated their countrymen to rcfilt thefe 7
an

Czf. De Bell. Gall. 1. 6. ©. 13°) -

—_—

DRU

end excited frequent revolts among them, after they had
‘fubmitted. ‘The Romans, at the fame time, knew that they
‘could not eftablifh their own authority, and fecure the obedi-
ence of Gau! and Britain, without deftroying the authority
and influence of the Druids in thefe countries. With this
‘view, they obliged their fubje&ts in thefe provinces to build
‘temples, to ercit ftatues, and to offer facrifices after the
Roman manner ; and enaéted fevere laws againft the ufe of
‘human victims. They deprived the Druids of all authority
in civil matters, and fhewed them no mercy when found
tranfgrefling the laws, or concerned in any revolt. By
thefe means, the authority of the Druids was brought fo
low in Gaul, in the reign of the emperor Claudius, about
A.D. 45, that he is faid by Suetonius (in Vit. Claud. c. 25.)
to have deftroyed them in that country. About the fame
time they began to be perfecuted in the Roman province,
newly erected by that emperor, in the fouth-eaft parts of
Britain ; from whence many of them retired into the ifle of
Anglefey, which was a kind of little world of their own.
But they did not long remain undifturbed in this retirement.
For Suetonius Paulinus, who was governor of Britain under
Nero, A.D. 61, obferving that the ifle of Angleiey was the
great feat of difaffection to the Roman government, and
the afylum of all who were forming plots againit it, deter-
mined to fubdue it. Having conduéted his army to the
‘ifland, and defeated the Britons, who attempted to defend
it, though they were animated by the prefence, the prayers,
and the exhortations of a great multitude of Druids and
Druideffes, he made a very cruel ufe of his vitory. Not
contented with cutting down their facred groves, demolifh-
‘ing their temples, and overturning their altars, he burnt
~ many of them inthe fires, which they had kindled for facri-
ficing the Roman prifoners, if the Britons had gained the
‘victory. (Tacit. Annal. 1.14. c. 3.) So many of the
‘Druids perifhed on this occafion, and in the unfortunate re-
volt of the Britons under Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, which
happened foon after, that they were never able to make any
confiderablefigure after this period in South Britain. Thofe,
‘however, who did not think fit to fubmit to the Roman go-
vernment, and comply with the Roman rites, fled into Cale-
donia, Ireland, and the lefler Britifh ifles, where they main-
tained their authority and fuperftition for fome time longer.
‘But though the dominion of the Druids in South Britain
was deftroyed at this time, their pernicious principles and
fuperftitious practices continued much longer. Nay, fo
deeply rooted were thefe principles in the minds of the people
‘both of Gaul and Britain, that they not only baffled all the
‘power of the Romans, but even refifted the fuperior power
‘and divine light of the gofpel for a long time after they had
embraced the Chriftian religion. Hence we meet with many
edi&s of emperors and canons of councils, in the 6th, 7th,
and 8th centuries, againft the worfhio of the fun, moon,
‘mountains, rivers, lakes, and trees. This wretched fuper-
‘Rition was afterwards revived, frit by the Saxons, and next
by the Danes; and even at fo late a period as the reign of
‘Canute, in the 11th century, it was neceflary to ena a law
againit thefe heathenifh feperitirions in the following terms :
“ We ftriétly forbid all our fubjeéts to worfhip the pods of
the Gentiles; that is to fay, the fun, moon, fires, rivers,
fountains, hills, or trees, and woods of any kind.”’
Druidefes —Vhele were females, who affifted in the of-
fices, and fhared in the honours and emoluments of the
Druidical priefthood. When Suetonius invaded the ifle of
wAnglefey, his foldiers were fomewhat daunted by the ap-
pearance of a great number of thefe confecrated females,
who ran to and fro among the ranks of the Britifh army,
like enraged furies, with their hair difhevelled, and Aiming
Vou. X11,

DRU

torches in their hands, imprecating the wrath of heaven on
the invaders of their country. ‘Che Druideffes of Gaul and
Britzin are faid to have been divided into three ranks or
claffes. Thofe of the firft clafs had vowed perpetual virginity,
and lived together in fifterhoods, very much fequeftered from
the world. They were great pretenders to divination, pro-
phecy, and miracles ; and they were held in high e&imation
by tbe people, who confulted them on all important occas
fions as infallible oracles, and gave them the honourable
appellation of ‘* Senz,’’ that is, venerable women. Mela,
who has defcribed one of thefe Druidical nunneries, fays,
that ic was fituated on an ifland in the Britih fea, and con-
tained nine of thefe venerable vefta!s, who pretended to raife
ftorms and tempelts by their incantatiors, to cure the moff in-
veterate difeafes, to transform themfelves into all kinds of
animals, and to prediét future events. However, they dif
clofed the things which they difcovered to none but thofe
who came into their ifland for the avowed purpofe of confult~
ing their oracle ; none of whom, we may well imagine, would
come empty-handed. ‘The fecond clafs confifted of certain
female devotees, who were, indeed, married, but fpent the
greateft part of their time in the company of the Druids,
aud in the offices of religion, and converfed only occafionally
with their hufbands. The third clafs was the loweft of all,
and was compofed of fuch as performed the moft fervile of.
fices about the temples, the facrifices, and the perfons of
the Druids. Henry’s Hift. of England, vol. i. ii.

DRUIVENSTEIN, Aart, or Arnoxp, Janze, in
Biography, painter of landfcape and animals, born at Haer-
lem in 1564, died 1607. He was a burgomatter of Haer-
lem, of eafy fortune, and praétifed his art without a view
to pecuniary advantage. Defcamps. Vie des Peintres, &c.

DRULINGEN, in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department of the Lower Rhine in the diftriét of
Saverne. It is the chief placeof a canton, but contains only
272 inhabitants. The whole canton, however, hasan extent
of 175 kiliometres, and a population of 10,368 individuals,
difperfed in 30 communes,

DRUM of the Ear, in Anatomy, is a {mall cavity in the
petrous part of the temporal bones, fituated within the mem-
brana tympani, and called in Latin the tympanum. See
Ear, and Cranium.

Drum, in Architedure, the bell-formed part of the Corine
thian or Compolite capitals, concave in the upper part under
the abacus, and as it de{cends towards the aftragal approaches
to a cylindric furface : from this the leaves and volutes pro-
ject.

J Drum end of the flep of a ftair, is when the firft afcending
ftep has the end of its rifer made with a convexity inftead of
a curtail ftep.

Drum, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitzmeritz; 3 miles S. of Leypa.

Drum, or Drom, which figniles in the Irifh language a
high narrow ridge of hills, is applied to a range of mountains
in the county of Waterford, near Durgarvan, which divide two
baronies, called Dectes within Drum, and Decies without Drum.
{t forms part of the name of many viliages and parifhes in
[reland.

Daum, in Jchthyology, is ufed to fignify a kind of fith in
Virginia. The oil of this fith is faid to cure pains in the
limbs, frequent in that country. See Phil. Trans.
454. § 1.

Drum, in Afechanics. See Carstan.

Daum, is a term applied to any fhort cylinder (which
in fhape refembles a mufical drum): it is, however,
moftly reftricted to thofe which revolve on an axis, as
the drum of a thrafhing-mill, coal-gin, &c. A drum is

Mm frequently

Noe

DR DM,

frequently ufed to turn feveral fmall wheels, by means of
ilraps paffing round its periphery ; of this {pecies is the ex-
panding riggcr invented by Mr. Andrew Flint, and rewarded
by the Society of Artsin 1805. See Expanpinc Riccer,
and Mine~-WinpinG-Encine. In fmaller machines, the
parts an{wering the purpofes of a drum are frequently called
Barrels, as of a Clock, a Fack, &c. which fee.

Deum, in the Military Art, an inftrument ufed particu-
larly in martial mufic ; and in fome inftances to be found
in modern orcheftras. It-is fatd by Le Clerc to bean oriental
invention, and brought by the Arabians, or perhaps the
Moors, into Spain. he ordinary military or fide-drum is
made either of brafs or of very thin board, turned round into
a cylinder; in which form it is well fecured by glue and
rivets; and further, to ftrengthenit, is lined throughout with
a ftrong kind of hempen cloth, or coarfe Holland, cemented
to its interior; fo as to prevent the wood from {fplitting.
The drum thus made, will not, however, ftand great heats
or intenfe cold ; nor will it in damp weather yield fo full a
tone as one with a brafs barrel. Within each end of the
barrel there is a flat wooden hocp firmly fixed, and projecting
about the third of an inch beyond the brafs or wood:
thefe, which are called the batrea-hoops, ferve to prevent the
head from being cut by the edges. The head is made of
parchment cut to a circular form, about two inches each
way larger than the ends of the drum-barrel: itis faftened,
while moift, to a fmall ring of copper, or of very firm, tough
wood, called the fleth-hoop, fo as juft to exceed the fize of
the band. The head properly means the parchment cover-
ing of that end which is beat upon: the other end, which is
covered with a coarfer parchment, is called the reverfe. The
head and the reverfe, being applied to their refpetive ends
of the barrel; over each a hocp, of about an inch and a half
broad, and about the third of an inch in thicknefs, is drawn,
to prefs the parchments ciofe over the ends of the barrelg
but not to pafs over the flefh-hoops. The bracing-
hoops, having holes made for pafling a cord alternately
from one to the other, backwards and forwards, ave pulled
down as near as poffible towards each other, thereby to ftrain
the head and reverfe parchments very tight; butas the cord
is fubjc& to relax, it is neceflary to have fliders of very ftrong
buff leather, called Zraces, which being prefled downwards
from the head hoop, towards the reverfe hoop, caufe them
to approach {till nearer, and to tighten the two parehments
to an extreme. :

When in this ftate the drum is faid to be “‘braced;’? when
otherwife, “unbraced.”” To give greater effeét, and to
caufe that vibration which occafionsa rough intonation, three
pieces of thick cat-gut are flretched acrofs the. reverfe, flat
upon it, and parallel When thefe, which are cailed
** {nares,”’ are flackened, fo as not to vibrate when the head
is beat upon, the drum is faid to be ‘¢ damped,” or * un-
{nared ;”” fome, in‘tead of flackening the f{nares, put a cloth
between them and the reverfe ; whereby the found is confider-
ably deadened : this properly is termed ** muffling ;” though
mott perfons confider that term to be appropriate only when
the head is covered with crape, &c. as at funerals.

After all the foregoing preparation, the drum would have
little or no found, were it not that a round hole, about the
fize of a large pea, is left in the centre of that fide which
is neareft the body when the in{trument is fufpended by
means of a “ fling” paffing over the right fhoulder and under
the left arm.

However fimple the beats of the drum may appear, it is,
neverthelefs, by long praGtice only, that perfection can be
attained ; and then requiring both a corre& ear, and a very
nimble wrift, Every beat is perfetly regular in the number

and divifion of the flrokes from the two flicks; of which
that held by the right hand is flightly grafped, while that
in the left hand is retained in an oblique pofition; paffing
between the middle and third fingers, and being held by the
two firlt fingers and the thumb; the two lower fingers
crofling under it, and, the palm being turned upwards.
Such is the eftablifhed precifion in which the drum-majors
take great pride, that if all the drummers of the Britifh
fervice were affembled together, they would be found to
beat perfeGly alike throughout what is called “ the duty ;”?
that is to fay, all the beats in ufe; of which the following
may be confidered the principal.

The Roll, which is a continued rolling found, without the
leait inequality or intermiffion ; this is produced by giving
two taps with the fame ftick, ufing the different flicks alter-
nately, each beating twice. The ordinary mode of teaching
the roll is by the beat of ‘* daddy mammy ;”? fo called from
the double taps, in which each hand, after its two taps, is
raifed as high as the fhoulder; thus forcing the pupil to ftrike
ditinGly and Icifurely. By degrees he is able to beat
quicker, and, ultimately, ‘to roll,’ in the manner above
defcribed, with fuch incredible celerity and evennels, as to
produce a clofe and f{mooth found.

The Swell is nothing more than the roll occefionally beat
fo foitly asfearce to be heard ;, then increafing to the utmolt
of the performer’s ftrength ; and again lowering fo as almof&
to die away upon the ear: the great difficulty is to raife and
to lower the found very gradually. ‘This beat is merely orna-
mental; it is ufually performed in the reviellez, &c., while
the fifea are-filent; itis quite arbitrary, being an ad /ibitum
performance.

The Flam isa beat made by the two fticks ftriking almoft
at the fame inftant on the head, but fo as to be heard lepa-
rately: it is ufed as a fignal for various motions and ma-
neuvres.

The Preparative cannot be decribed in letter-prefs; it is
the ordinary fignal for the firings to commence.

The General is an air, which, when performed at full length,
is the fignal for marching to fome new ground, or to fome
other ftation: the firft bar of its meafure is beat as a fignal
for the firings to ceafe.

The Affembly, or Affemblex, is a fignal for the line to fall
in; and, when beat after the gencral, is followed by the
march, which is beat by each corps as it moves from it
ground,

The March i3 almoft indefinite, but is ordinarily beat in
compliment to a reviewing, or a pafling, field marfha), gene-
ral, prince of the blood, &c.; as alfo during falutes, when
the battalion prefent their arms. ‘* The Dead March” ig
beat with muffled drums, as already defcribed. ‘* The Gre-
nadiers’? March,’? and # The Lilies of France,” are compli-
mentary marches, and, in ftri¢tnefs, ought not to be beat but
to acorps of grenadiers, or when a grenadier officer com-
mands, or when the colours of the regiment are flying.
* Slow March” is in flow, folemn time; and * Quick
March”? is in quick time: what are commonly called marches,
and which have no particular dillinguifhing charafter, are
ufually performed in ordinary time. ‘* The Rogue’s March”?
is played when men, and ‘The Whore’s March” when
women, are drummed out of a town.

The Ruffle isa fhort roll; perhaps of five or fix feconds
duration, beat very clofe and firm, decreafing a little in force
juft before it concludes, which it does in an abrupt and {mart
manner, and with a {trong flam.

The Reveillez is beat early in the morning, ufually at day-
break, to waken the garrifon: it is a medley of various airs
and beats,

The

DRUM.

The Tattoo is always beat at night, at fuch hour as the

armfon fhould retire to reft; it is the fignal for extinguilh-
ing fires and light, except in public guard-tooms. All fol-
diers found abroad after the ‘* Tattco”’ is beat, are confi-
dered as trefpaflers againft martial law. This beat is a med-
ley of airsaad beats; the drums accompanying only at certain
intervals.

Beat for Orders ; a peculiar mixture of rolls, flams, and
fingie taps, beat at the adjutant-general’s quarters, or office,
for affembling all perfous whofe duty it is to receive the or-
ders of the day. Each regiment alfo beats for orders, to
affembte the ferjeants, &c., who keep the order- books of the
feveral companies.

The Retreat is beat every evening at fun-fet, or after a
¢orps has been difmifled to their quarters; it is often beat in
rather a quick time along the front of a corps, when pa-
raded for infpeétion or roll-call. This beat likewife warns
corps engaged in action, or performing evolutions, to retreat,

The Troop is beat before the new ‘guards, &c., about to
march off from their place of aflembly, to relieve others then
on duty. This, as well as the “ Retreat,” is ordinarily in
triple time of three crotchets or quavers; not unlike the
* Waltz,”’? when performed rather flowly.

To Arms is a beat reforted to on all emergencies, whether
owing to diflurbances, fire, invafion, &c.

There is a kind of accompaniment performed on the drum,
when beating to marches, and to other airs played by a fife.
‘This is called the Drag, ard is either double or fingle, ac-
Cording as the mufic may admit. The Single Drag is little
more than a tap of the drum for each note in the air; the
taps being given in exact time with the divifions of the mutic,
This'is what we commonly beat as an accompaniment to
quick fteps, “* Rule Britannia,” &c. The Double Drag isa
much fuller accompaniment, in which, for the moft part, two
or three taps are given for every note in each bar; or, eventu-
ally, the whole is performed in a kind of articulate roll, not to
be eafily defcribed, in which the accented parts are reinforced
with much ‘ftrength. But to fay the mott of the fide-drum,
ita monotony foon tires the ear; its rattling found becomes
oppreffive, and the little variety of its beats, in general not
ever-well executed, adds to the fatigue of liftening, and pro-
duces fomething worfe than indifference towards its founds,
This, however, is a doftrine by no means tolerated among
drum-majors, who affe& to produce infinite variations from
what the vulgar call the ‘* parchment fiddle.’? They have
a long train of * fingle reveilleze,””? &c., which are intended
to be performed without the fife, and are confidered as con-
certantes among the fages in this branch of mufic: many
pride themfelves on the number of thofe folos, which, poffibly,
may have charms for their ears, though failing to fafcinate
ours. When we fpeak of the drum as a mufical inftrument,
we mult, at all events, exempt the fide, or military drum ;
which was moft quaintly and ludicroufly defcribed by an
American, the author of “ Yankee Doodle ;’’ who, in de-
tailing the gay appearance of the firft regiments which were
fent to fupprefs the infurreétion, ftates ;

« They have got little barrels,
The heads be kiver’d wi’ leather ;
They beats upon em wi’ little clubs,
To call their folk together.”

Bafs Drum, or Turkifh Drum, is an inftrument of the
fame con{truction as the tide drum above deferibed ; only it
isona very large feale, has no fuares, is lung by the middie
acrofs the performer’s body, and is beat upon at both ends ;
the right hand being furnifhed with a large flick, havipg a
knob at its end, the left being provided either with a whifk

or a ftick, whofe knob is covered with buff leather, to foften
thetone. The rizht-hand beats the accented parts of the
meafure, the left filling up the time according to the pers
former’s judgment.. This inltrument is of great fervice in
military bands, giving a marked emphafis and a fine effe& to
the mulic, and proving an admirable guide to the corps
while marching, fo as to make them prelerve a corre@ and
regular pace,

The Kettle Drum, fo called becaufe the bottoms, which
are made generally of copper, ftanding upon three or four
fhort legs, like thof:at the bottom of a caft iron pot, f»
much refemble large boilers or kettles. ‘Thefe drums are
ufed in pairs, the one being pitched to the key-note, the
other to the dominant, or fourth below the key. In fome
inftances three kettle-drums have been ufed, the third being
tuned to the filth below the key ; but this is very rare. It
were to be wifhed that praétice were more common; be-
caufe not only could the kettle drums then accompany in the
key, and its two adjuncts, but when performing in the key,
the perfect cadence could be completely fupported by this
powerful inftrument. For example: fuppofe a picce to be
compofed in C major; then the centre drum, ftanding be
fore the performer, would be tuned to C; that to the per=
former’s left would be G; and that to his right would be F.
Now the perfect cadence in the key of C comprifes FGC;
all which notes are thus attainable. When the modulation
pies into the key of G, the left hand drum will become the

ey; and when it pafies into F, the right hand drum will
be the key, with the important advantage of having its do-
minant, C, ftanding at its fide. It is to be obferved, that
the three drums muft ftand in a triangular pofition; the two
adjunéts rather near to the key, but not quite touching, and
the performer ftanding between the two adjunéts, which
would rarely be required in the fame bar, except in the per
fect cadence.

The Double Drums and Tromboni, which were introduced
in the band at the commemoration of Handel, for a blow
and a d/a/, now-and-then, produced an admirable effe@ ; but
by a conitant roll and {cream they reverfe the effect by
fhortening the concords, and making them as tranfient as the
difcords in Acciaccatura, which fee.

The kettle-drum is furnifhed with fcrews, whereby the
head can be tightened at pleafure; and that head is faftened
to a large hoop, which being moveable upwards or down
wards for feveral inches, fo as to increafe or to diminifh the
internal area of the inftrument, it fo!lows that the kettle«
drum can be tuned in exa& accord with the inftruments of
the band; the fize of the bottom, or kettle, being duly pro
portioned to the note it is to yield.

Formerly, kettle drume, of a {mall fize, were in ufe in our
feveral regiments of horfe, but being found extremely un-
wieldy, they have been for many years laid afide. It is dif-
ficult to account for our adoption of the Turkifh cuftom in
a branch fo peculiarly ili adapted to its reception. Through-
out Afia kettle-drums, of an immenfe fize, are carried acrofs
camels in the train of all crowned heads: the inflrument is
adorned with fuperb trappings, and beat by a man, who
has a kind of feat made for him on the faddle.

The Naugaurah, as it is there termed, is one of the types
of royalty, though it is fometimes ufurped by, and tacitly
tolerated with, perfons of diftinétion, when in authority at a
diltance from the court. Thefe alfo imitate their fovercigns,
by having nobuis, or bands of mutic, ftationed in a gallery
over the entrance into the palace-yard. “The bands, in which
the Naugaurah is extremely audible, perform at ftated hours
during the day and night, to the great delight of their re-

tainers, but in a ftrain highly offenfive to a well-tuned car.
Mim 2 The

DR VU

The muficians of Hindooftan perform with incredible
dexterity on a pair of very fmall kettle-drums, cauled Taz-
blahs, which they fatten before them, by means of a cleth

rapped feveral times round their waifts ; they ufe no flicks,
ae beat with their fingers in a peculiar ftyle, fo as to vary
the intonation in a manner far from difpleafing, according as
the fingers {trike more or lefs near to the rims of the Taz-
blahs. The note js not pitched to any particular concord-
ance, but, as in the fide-drum, is perfeétly adventitious.
Single drums, of the fame deicription, and faftened in front
of the performer, by means of leather ftraps paffing round
the wailt, are alfo ufed on many occafions; efpecially to ac-
company the poit, for the purpofe of intimidating tigers,
which are in fome places very numerous, and not to be de-
terred either by the found of thefe drums, called Doogdongies,
which are beat with two [ticks of hard wood, keeping up a
continual ro//, nor by the flambeaus, which likewife attend
the letter carriers during the night. Many of the poft-office
people are annually carried off by tigers.

The drum ufed by the Hindoos in their religious pro-
ceffions, and in their recreations, is cylindrical, and about
20 inches in length, the diameter about a foot; they are
beat with one hand at each end, and are ufually made of
wood. The fame people likewife ufe very large drums, per-
haps a yard in length, and refembling a fiultrated parabo-
hical fpmdle; or, in other words, like a long narrow cafk,
whofe centre may be about double, or even treble, the dia-
meter of either end. Thefe drums, which, as well as the
wooden cylindrical kind juft defcribed, are called Doles, are
commonly made of baked earth, and, like the former, have
their heads made of parchment.

Drum, or Drummer, alfo denotes a foldier appointed to
beat the drum. When a battalion is drawn up, the drums
are on the flank ; and when it marches by divifions, they
march between them.

Drum-major, is that perfon in a regiment who-beats
the beft drum, commands the others, and teaches them their
duty. Every regiment has a drum-major.

Drum Poiut, in Geography, a cape of America, on the
norch fide of the Patuxin, at the mouth oppofite to Cedar

oint.

DRUMLANRIG, a town of Scotland, in the county
of Dumfries, fituated on the Nith; 13 miles N. of Dum-
fries.

DRUMMOND, Winvram, in Biography, an elegant
Scottifh poet, was born in 1585. He was inftruéted ia
grammar-learning at the high {chool of Edinburgh, and
completed his itudies at the univerfity there. He then
fpent four vears in foreign travel, and in the ftudy of
civil law at Bourges. But, on his return to Scotland,
his father being dead, he devoted himfelf to the purfuits
of polite literature. A dangerous illnefs gave his thoughts.
a ferious turn, and his firft literary produGion was a
work in profe, intitled “* The Cyprefs Grove,” contain-
ing refleCtions on death; and his next was called “* Flowers
of Sion, or Spiritual Poems.’? The lofs of a young lady,
to whom he was fhortly to have been united in marriage,
threw him into a deep. melancholy, which rendered his own
home infupportable. He refolved;. therefore, to feek relief
by foreign travel, and again to vilit the principal cities on the
continent. He remained abroad eight years, cultivating.
an acquaintance with men of letters, .and forming a colleCtion
of vaiuable books in various languages. On his return, ke:
employed himfelf at the feat of bis brother-in-law, fir John
Scott, in compofing the hiftory of the five Jamefes, kings of
Scotland, a work which did not fee the light till after the
deaibof{the author. In his 45th year, he married:a lady of

DR U
the family of Logan, by whom he had feveral children. He

was a zealous friend to high monarchical principles, and was
deeply affli&ted when the civil war broke out : it is thought
to have been the means of fhortening his life. He died in
his 64th year, in December, 1649. It is as a poet that
Mr. Drummond is now remembered, and in that clafs he
claims as high a rank as any of his contemporaries. His
diction is Englifth of the moft cultivated kind then in ufe,
and muft have been derived from the ftudy of the bef
models. He excels chiefly m the tender-and delicate, partie
cularly in thofe fonnets which celebrate the virtues of the
ladies to whom he was attached. He poffeffed that gentle
and unambitious difpofition whick fits a man for the retired*
walks of life, and which becomes a votary of the mufes,.
Befides the occupations of reading and writing, which he
contidered as the bufinefs of his life, he amufed himfelf with-
chefs, and playing on the lute. He maintained a corre-
fpondence and intimacy with many literary characters, par-
ticularly with Drayton and Ben Jonfon, the latter of whonz.
regarded him with fo much enthufiaftic veneration, that he
walked from London to Drummond’s feat in Scotland om
purpofe to vifit him. Biog. Brit.

Daummonp, or Accomuc Court-houfe, in Geography, ie
fituated in Virginia, America, on the poft road from Phila.
delphia to Norfolk ; 20 miles from Belhaven, and 194 from
Philadelphia.

DRUMSLADE, the performer on the kettle-drum ine
the time of Edward VI., perhaps from ¢rommel /chlagery
drum-beater.

DRUMSNAW, in Geography, a neat village in the
county of Leitrim, Ireland, charmingly fituated on the
wooded banks of the Shannon. Near it is a chalybeate
fpring, which has been much efteemed for its medicinal vir-
tues. It is 73 miles N.W. from Dublin, and within four
miles of Carrick, the county-town. Beaufort’s Memoir.

DRUNA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gaul, whichy.
according to M. D’Anville, is the Drome ; which fee.

DRUNGUS, Apeyy@, a body, or company of forces 3:
thus called in the latter times of the Roman empire.

The name drungus, as appears from Vegetius, lib. iii.
cap. 16..was at firlt only applied to foreign, and even enemies?
troops; but under the Eaitern empire, 1t came in ufe for the:
troops of the empire itfelf ; where 1t amounted, pretty nearly,
to what we call a regiment, or brigade.

The fame author notes, that ApelyG@-, among the modern
Greeks, fignifies a ftaff, or rod, the badge of a dignity, or
office, as ag/a among the Turks ; and he thinks, that the
name may be formed from the Latin ¢runcus. But it ape
pears from Vegetius, that drungus is a barbarous, not a
Latin word. Spelman takes it for Saxon ; becaufe, at this
day, throng, in Englifh, fignifies a multitude. Salmafius de=-
rives it from fuyxo5, beaé 3. on account of the drungufes being:
difpofed beak-wife, or terminating ina point. ;

Leunclavius obferves, that the drungus was not lefs than
one thoufand men, nor more than four thoufand.

DRUNKENNESS, Esrieras, eonfidered in a Phy/ficaly
point of view, fignifies that derangement of the functions
of the animal economy, which is produced by drinking
{pirituous, or fermented liquors.

Thefe liquors have been principally ufed in all ages and~
countries, for the purpofes of. exhilaration and inebriation :
but, in the eaftern parts of the globe, in which.the religion.
of Mahomet has-interdi€ted the ufe of wines, other fub-
ftances.have been adopted, by which that agreeable derange-
ment of the animal fun@tions, which amounts to intoxication,
is reddily produced. In Turkey the infpiflated juice of the
poppy is catenin large quantities. for that purpofe, and

2 gives

‘

DRUNKENNESS.

gives rife to very fimilar feelings, and, when confirmed into
a habit, brings on many difeafes of the conftitution, like
thofe confequent on the potation of vinous liquors. (See
the Memoirs of Baron de Tott. See alfo Opium.) In
Perfia the leaves of the hemp plant, cannabis, are prepared
in various ways, and fwallowed as a means of intoxication,
under the name of Bangue. This fubftance is {aid to pro-
duce a pleafing fort of delirium, during which the perfon
under its influence talks incoherently, laughs, and fings
ina merry mood ; “yet is he not giddy, or drunk, but walks
and dances, and fheweth many odd tricks.” The fit is ter-
minated by fleep, from which he awakes refrefhed, without
any untoward fymptom, as giddinefs, pain in the head, or
ftomach, &c. (See Dr. Hook’s Philof. Exper. and Ob-
fervat. p. 211.) A pleafing temporary intoxication, of a
fimilar defcription, was lately difcovered by Mr. Davy, to
refult from breathing an artificial gas, the nitrous oxyd, or
gafeous oxyd of azot. The effects of this gas are generally
a brief and flight delirium, accompanied with a confiderable
propenfity to motion, which, when tt ceafes, leaves the indi-
vidual in a flate of agreeable exhilaration for fome hours.
(See Davy’s Chemical Refearches.) The ufe of this inebriat-
ing gas has as yet, however, been confined to a few of the
curious in chemical experiments.

Our fole obje&, then, at prefent, is to inquire into thenature
and effects of intoxication, produced by the fpirit of fermented
liquors, which, whether under the title of wine, mait-liquors,
cyder, perry, mead, oumi/s, &c. yield the fame effence on
. diftillation; namely, alcohol, or {pirit of wine, which is it-
felf varioufly modified, by intermixture with colouring, fapid,
and odorous fubftances, in the form of gin, brandy, rum,
whifky, noyau, and other /igueurs. In fome of the varieties
of fermented liquor, in addition to the {pirit, there is prefent
aconfiderable portion of carbonic acid, or fixed air, (alfo
one of the produéts of the vinons fermentation.) which is
difengaged by uncorking the veffel, and gives a f{parkling and
pungency to the liquors, fuch as champaign, cyder, bottled
beer, &c. while it adds to their inebriating quality. But
this kind of ebriety appears to be of fhort duration, arifing
only from the temporary aétion of the gas on the nerves of
the ftomach.

The effects of fermented liquor on the animal economy,
arife principally from its /fimulating power, or the power
which it poffeffes of exciting the mulcular parts to an in-
ereafed rapidity and {trength of aGion, as well as the
nervous and mental qualities, to an unufual degree
of acutenefs. When the animal funétions are carried on
with langour and feeblenefs, from whatever caufe, the gene-
ral fenfations of the body are uneafy, fometimes to a degree
of pain. Thus, after long fafting, want of fleep, fatigue, or
difeafe, this condition of the frame exiits, and prompts us in-
ftin@ively to the employment of fome {ftimulus, as food,
tepid, or fermented drink, the warm bath, &c. The im-
mediate effet of fuch ftimuli, efoecially of fermented liquors,
is the diffufion of a grateful fenfation throughout the body ;
the-languor and liftlefsnefs of the previous {tate are fuper-
féded by a general pleafureable feeling of warmth, energy,
and felf-command, accompanied{with an indefcribable tran-
‘quillity and complacency of mind; the countenance is en-
livened with a glow of animation, in confequence of the free
circulation through the cutaneous blood-veffels, and the re-
newed energy of the mufcular parts, which were before lan-
guid and relaxed. From the fame moderate excitement of
the circulation and nervous {yftem, the flow of animal fpirits
becomes more free and {pontaneous, giving birth to lively
converfation, to the flow of eloquence, and the fallies of wit :

anxieties and corroding cares refpeQing the bufinefs of life

are laid afide for the time; and good humour and cheerful-
nefs prevail, With thofe who are habitually temperate, this
degree of excitement, both mental and corporeal, is the re«
fult of a very moderate ftimulus ; taking food alone is ade-
quate to produce it, with little aid from fermented liquors,
This is the excitement of nature, is confiftent with, and cons
ducive to, the healthy operations of the conftitution, and
contributes to cherifh the flame of life to its lateft {park.
But

—_. « Know, whate’er

Beyond its natural fervour hurries on

The fanguine tide; whether the frequent bowl,

High feafon’d fare, or exercife to toil

Protraéted, fpurs to its laft ftage tir’d life,

And fows the temples with untimely fnow.”’

Armftrong.

If the heating draught is continued beyond this moderate
excitement, the increafing effeéts of the ftimulation become
obvious. The circulation is farther quickened and ftrengths
ened, fo that the whole furface glows with rednefs and
warmth, the face is flufhed, the eyes, which were at firft
bright, become fuffufed with a degree of rednefs, from the
blood being carried into the {maller veffels, which are ordi-
narily tranfparent with lymph only. The mufcles acquire a
yreater power of ation, and a greater propenfity to exertion
enfues, whether to dancing, wreltling, or to whimfical gelti-
culations: and the mental faculties are in a fimilar manner
roufed. Cheerfulnefs arifes to boifttrous mirth; noife and
ribaldry, paffing with rapidity from fubjeé& to fubjeat, fuc-
ceed to the eloquence of rational converfation and chatte wit 3
the fong becomes louder, and exceflive laughter marks the
high excitement of the mind. The paffions and difpofitions
are alfo elevated beyond their-natural pitch. ‘* In the bot~
tle,?? as Dr. Johnfon obferves, ‘¢ difcontent feeks for coms
fort, cowardice for courage, and bafhfulnefs for confidence.”
In a word, the whole man, mind and body, is elevated by thee
ufe of vinous liquors, in all his qualities and funétions, far
above the accuftomed powers naturally inherent in his cons
ftitution.

This ftate of inordinate exeitement manifelts itfelf in va-
rious ways, in different individuals, and alfo under the influ-
ence of different {pecies of liquor. Thus, intoxication from
drinking porter, or other malt liquors which contain the nar-
cotic fubftance of the hop, or other veretables, together with
much mucilaginous matter, and require to be drank-in large
quantities, is generally accompanied with more of {tupor, than
the inebriation occafroned by wines, or diftilled fpirits ; and
thefame may be faid of the heavier wines, as compared with
the lighter, or thofe which contain carbonic acid gas. But
the variety of the {ymptoms of drunkennefs depends much
more on the natural difpofition, and on the corporeal tem«
perament of the individual, than on the {pecies of the intoxt-
cating hquors,. We thus fee fome, in their cups, mild, good-
natured, and gentle; while others are fierce, irafcible, and
implacable: this one is complaifant to his enemy, and for-
getful of injury; that is infulting to his friend, and thought-
ful of revenge. This perfonis gay, mufical, and loquacious 5
that one is dull, fullen, and filent; and a third is turbulent
and loud, making the dome echo with oaths and impreca-
tions.. Asin other fpecies of infanity, fo under the influ
ence of intoxication, the inebriate feels not the bluth of i-
genuous fhame, and commits many indecencics.

The doétrine of temperaments is not well underftgod; and
it would be difficult to explain the peculiar actions of per-
fons under the excitement of wine, upon the principles of
fuch doétrine. * The fanguineous and choleric tempera=
ments, I conceive,” fays Dr, Trotter, in his “ Effay on

Drunkennefs,’?

DRUNKENNESS.

Drunkennefs,”’ ‘to be mofk prone to refentment and fe-

rocity ; as may be obferved in thofe whofe countenance be-
gomes very much flushed or bloated, with their eyes as if
flarting from their fockets: the former of the two is the
moit lafcivious and amorous. The nervous temperament
¢xhibits moft figns of idiotifm, and is childish and foolth in
its drunken pranks. The phlegmatic temperament is diffi-

‘cult to be roufed ; is paffive ard filent, and may fall from the
chair before many external figns of ebriety appear. “The me-
lancholic temperament, as when fober, is tenacious of what-
ever it undertakes, and fhews leait of the inebriate in its
manner. . But ail conftitutions have fomethiog peculiar to
them, and the fhades of diftinétion blend fo infenfibly with
one “norher, that diftinction becomes difficult.”? P. 27.
2d edit. ‘

On the whole, however, the fort of delirium, which the
fever of intoxication will produce in any individual, cannot
be known @ priori, either from the nature of the liquor em-
ployed, orof the difpofition ard temperament of the drinker.
Tt will neceffarily vary, like delirium under other. circum-
{tances, according to the particular fenfations which preva,
and therefore according to the facility of derangement, in
different organs of the body, as well as to the general idio-
fyncrafis. (See Detrrium.) So that the difpofition of
many perfons, in a {tate of inebriation, is often obferved to
be the reverfe of their fober difpofition; the placid man will
become irafcible, and the furly man kind and complaifant ;
in ccnfequence, no doubt, of the new ftate of feeling in-
duced by the ftimulus of the liquor. In this view of the
fubje&t, the adage in vino veritas, is altogether untrue ; for
the natural difpofition is changed, or reprefented in an un-
natural light. And even when unaltered in kind, it is exag-
gerated in degree: fo that it has been juftly remarked by
the Speiator, that the perfon you converfe with, after the
third bottle, is not the fame man who at firft fat down at
table with you. ‘‘ Wine heightens indifference into lave,
love into jealoufy, and jealoufy into madnefs. It often turns
the good natured man into an idcot, and the choleric into an
affaflin; it gives bitternefs to refentment, and makes vanity
infupportable,’? &c. Ina word, it exhibits the individual
in a new and foreign character, and infules qualities into the
mind, to which it is a ftranger in its fober moments. Hence
the juftice, as well as neatnefs, of the faying of Publius
Syrius; ‘* He who jefts upon a man that is drunk, injures
the abjent”’ Spe€tator, vol. viii. No. 569.

We thall not {top here, to amufe our readers with a nar-
ration of the follies and vices, which men have been induced
to commit, under the influence of that degree of deliricus
excitement, which we have above defcribed ; when the ra-
pidity of the conceptions, the vigour of the paffions, and
the ftrength and propenfity to mufcular motions, all ftimu-
lated to a morbid pitch, conftitute what may be confidered
the firft ftage of intoxication. For fuch narrations, we re-
fer to Dr. Trotter’s effay before quoted, and to the works
of fatyrical writers. See alfo Burton’s Anat. of Melan-
choly, part 1.§ 2. mem.5. Brydone’s Tour through
Sicily, let. xx.

If the ftimulus of the inebriating liquor continues to be
applied, a confiderable change, both in the mental and cor-
poreal faculties, foon enfues. This change is partly to be
attributed to the debility, which refults from every excels
of ftimulation in the animal economy (fee Desixiry);
and partly to the narcotic effects of the liquars on the
Jenforium, through the medium of the nerves of the ftomach ;
but it is, perhaps, chiefly owiag to the increafing preflure on
the brain, oceafioned by the icreafing fulnefs of the blood-
veHels in that organ, from the contiqued ftimulus to the

action of the heart and arteries. This concluSion isdeducible,
both from the phenomena, which refemble the fymptoms
of oppreffed brain, from other caufes; and from the-confe-
quences, in the left ttage of drunkennels, as we fhall pre.
fently fhew.

Tue vivacity and aGive powers and propenfities, before
deferbed, are now gradually fucceeded by an imbecility of
all the faculties. ‘Che corporeal ftrength is diminifhed ;
giddinefs comes on; the voluntary power over the mufcles
fails; fo that the attempt to walk is marked by a tottering
and ftaggering, and the hands cannot be directed fleadily to
any object: the mufcles of the countenance at length re-
lax, the lip falls, the eyelids are half clofed, and the head
nods, depicting the enervated condition of the frame. The
mufcular organs of the mouth, throat, and chelt, become alfo
enfeebled, and the powers of voice ard articulation are by
degrees ciminifhed.. The eyes are no longer dire&ted to the
fame focus by the mulcles of the orbits, and vifion becomes
double, or indiftingt, as if a mift were floating in the atmo.
fphere. The firft of thefe conditions conftitutes the aphonia
temulentorum, the latter the diplopia a@ temulentia, in the ar-
rangement of cifeafes by Sauvages. ‘Thomfon has accu
rately defcribed them:

‘“ Their feeble tongues,
Unable to take up the cumbrous word,

Lie quite diffolved. Before their maudlin eyes,
Seen dim and blue, the double tapers dance,
Like the fun wading through the milty iky.”

Sometimes this lofs of mufcular contraélion extends even
to the {phinéters of the bladder and redum, et ebrius improvilo
minget, et alvum exonerat,

The debility of the mental powers keeps pace with the.

corporeal relaxation. The flow of ideas becomes more tardy,
and lefs various, till at length the conceptions are incoherent
and indiftin@, and the perfon is altogether incapable of con-
verfation, and is filent, or mutters an unintelligible foliloquy,

The fenfations become extremely obtufe, fo that external.

impreffions produce no effeé& on any of the fenfes, and pafs
altogether unregarded. ‘The paflions partake of the gene
ral enervation of the frame, and ceafe to excite any emotion,
or to prompt any adtion or effort.

In this ftate of intoxication there is a confiderable refem-
blance to the condition of the maniac, in refpect to the
power with which the body refilts the aGtion of cold, and
of contagion, as well as to its infenfibility to pain.

No itronger proofs of the power of the conititution, under
fuch a ftate of inebriation, in refilting the operation of cold,
need be adduced, it is obferved by Dr. Trotter, than what
are daily witnefled among our feamen in the great fea-ports.
‘© Thefe men are permitted to come on fhore to recreate
themfelves ; but, from a thoughtleffnefs of difpofition, and
the cunning addrefs of their landlords, they drink till the
laft fhilling is fpent; they are then thruft out of the door,
and left to pafs the night on the pavement. It is furpriing
how they fhould efcape death on fuch occafions; for I have
known many of them who have flept on the ftreet the
greateft part of the night in the fevereit weather.”’ Loc. cit.
The following fa& alfo affords a ftriking iluftration of the
refiftance of cold under fimilar circumitances. A miller,
very much intoxicated, returning from market late at night,
while it fnowed and froze very hard, mifled his way, and fell
down a itrep bank into the milldam. By the fright and
{udden immerfion he became fo far fenlible as to recolleé&
where he was. Hethen thought the fureft way home would
be to follow the ftream, which would take him within piftol-
fhot of his own door. Infead, hawever, of taking that

: ccurle,

DRUNKENNESS,

courfe, he waded again the current, without knowing it,
till his peffage was oppofed by a wooden bridge. This
bridge he kn=w; and though he felt fome difappointment,
he (till thought his beft way was to follow the itream, for
the banks were fteep and difficult to climb. He now found
himfelf in a comfortable glow, turned about, and arrived at
his own houfe at midnizht, perfectly fober, after having
been nearly two hours in the water, and often up to the
breech. He went immediately to bed, and rofe in perfe&
health. Trotter. ,

With refpe&t to contagion, the fame author flates, that
men in a flate of toebriation have certainly, on many occa-
fions, been expofed to typhous contagion, and efcaped,
while others have fuffered. And infenfibility to pain, in the
fame condition, is daily exemplified among feamen, whofe
heedlefs revels expofe them to more difafters than other
defcriptions of mankind. The moft dreadful wounds and
bruifes are thus often inflicted without the f{malleft figns
of feeling, and often without the flightelt recolleQion how
they were effeted. Dr. Trotter mentions the circumftance
of a failor belonging toa king’s fhip, in which he then
ferved, having quarrelled, while drunk, with his wife; in
the fury of paffion, he feized a butcher’s cleaver, and cut
off two of his fingers by the root. The wounds were
dreffed, and the man put to bed. When he waked in the
morning, he had no remembrance of what had happened,
fhewed the utmoft contrition, and wept like a child for his
misfortunes, when he was told that he had done it himfelf.

This fecond ftage of inebriation, characterifed by relaxa-
- tion and enervation of the animal powers, as the former was
diftinguifhed by inordinate excitement, generally terminates
in fleep, which continues for the fpace of feveral hours.
After this period, the offending liquors being neutralized or
decompofed by the aétion of the digettive organs, and eva-
cuated through the perfpiratory and urinary paflages, or
more directly by vomiting, the drunkard awakes, feeling
head-ach, Janguor, and low fpirits, with naufea, and loath-
ing of food,—the proofs of a debilitated frame, confequent
on exceflive {timulation,

In this way the fit of drunkennefs ufually goes off. But
fometimes a third ftage fucceeds, in which the fenfes and
voluntary powers are altogether fufpended; and the inebriate
lies in a fate of /opor, or profound fleep, from which nothing
can roufe him, In this condition, (as ina paroxy{m of apo-
plexy,) the only figns of life are a flow and ftertorous breath-
ing, with a full and flow pulfe, and the remaining warmth
of the body;—fymptoms, which are often only to be diftin-
guifhed from thofe of true apopLexy, by a knowledge of
their'caufe, (fermented liquors;) or, where this cannot be
learnt, by a conjecture, from the fmell of liquor in the
breath, or the ejection of it from the ftomach. The ine-
briate is faid, in the vulgar phrafe, to be ‘dead drunk ;”
and occafionally the obfervation proves to be literally true ;
for aétual and fatal aropLexy (the epoplexia temulenta of
Sauvages) fometimes clofes the fcene; or the opprefled ftate
of the brain is evinced by. the occurrence of Patsy and
CONVULSIONS, fcarcely lefs fatal.

In fuch cafes, the condition of the brain has been afcer-
tained, by diffection after death, to be the fame as it is com-
monly obferved to be, when apoplexy and convulfions prove
mortal, under other circumftances. Morgagni has related
fome examples of this fort, in his great work, De /edibus et
caufis Morborum. In one of thefe cafes, aman was brought
home drunk, and apopleétic, and died in the courfe of the
night. On examination, the veffels of the invefting mem-
brane (pia mater) of the brain, as well as thofe of the plexus
eboroides, and other internal parts of that vifcus, were found

filled and diftended with blood, in an extraordinary degrees
and there was fome water effufed into the lateral ventricles.
(See Epift. Ix. art. 12.) In another cafe, in which convul-
fions and palfy were induced by the fame caufe, and which
terminated fatally in fix or feven days, nearly the fame ap-
pearanees prefented themfelves on diffeting the brain: the
veflels of the pia mater feemed as if they had been filled by
injection, even to the fmalleft branches; and thofe of the
ventricles’ (in which a confiderable quantity of limpid water
was found) as well as of the medullary fubftance itfelf,
were alfo much diftended. ( Epilt. Ixti. art. 5.)

Such are the phenomena and confequences of a fit of intoxi-
cation. It is rarely, indeed, carried to a fatal extent at
once; and in the leffer degrees, or when feldom repeated,
it may not materially injure a hardy conftitution: nay,
fome men have fufficient ftrength of frame, to bear the habi-
tual repetition of it, during many years. But thefe are, ia
truth, rare exceptions, and more rare than the world at large
is aware of. As the ftimulus of fermented liquors is more
frequently reforted to, it becomes gradually lefs efficient ;
and, therefore, a greater quantity, or a {tronger {pecies of it,
becomes neceflary to produce the ufual degree of excitement.
For it is a general law, in the animal economy, that as the
confitution becomes habituated to any ftimulus, the effe&
of that flimulus decreafes, whether it be of a mental, or
corporeal nature. Hence, the charm of novelty and variety
in all our gratifications ; and hence the pampered voluptuary,
who has exhaufted every fource of pleafure, exclaims in
difguft, that ‘¢ all is vanity.’ But great as the ennui of the
voluptuary may be, in the intervals of pleafure, there isa
degree of horror and painful depreflion confequent on the
over-excitement by fpirituous liquors, (when habit has ren-
deréd the extreme of flimulation requifite to produce the
ordinary effe@t,) which is, perhaps, the moft intolerable of
all fenfations, that follow exceflive excitement from any
caufe, if we except that from {wallowing opium.

—‘ An anxious ftomach well

May be endured ; fo may the throbbing head :

But fuch a dim delirium, fuch a dream

Involves you, fuch a daftardly defpair

Unmans your foul, as maddening Pentheus felt,

When, baited round Cithzron’s cruel fides,

He faw two funs, and double Thebes afcend.’’
Armftrong.

Hence, then, the danger of frequent indulgence in the
agreeable ftimulation of fermented liquors. However inno-
cently begun, or moderately taken at firit, the continuance
of the pradlice may gradually induce a difpofition to increafe
the quantity and ftrength of the liquor, and to fhorten the
intervals of drinking, until the cafual gratification become
converted into an appetite; i. e. until the call for the ftimu-
lus of {pirituous liquors become as much a part of the con-
ftitution, as the demand for food; with this difference, that
the fenfations of languor and pain, and the finking and
daftardly defpair that accompany them, are infinitely more
urgent and more infupportable than the keenett pain of
hunger. The condition of the fpirit drinker, then, while
it is a fubje& of jult reproach, 1s likewife truly pitiable.
He may be confidered as labou-ing under a conftitutional
difeafe, the removal, or palliation of which mutt be difficult,
in proportion to its inveteracy.

But this is not the whole of the evil. The habit of in-
temperance in the ufe of f{pirituous liquors, (we fay /piri/uons,
becaufe, when the habit is confirmed, the weaker and more
dilute forts of fermented drink are feldom adequate to the
proper ftimulating effect,) is, fooner or later, produGive of

a lericg

DRUNKENNESS.

a ferics of painful and fatal difeafes, of a chronic nature, and
conduces to render fevers, internal imflammations, and many
pulmonic diforders, inveterate, and even mortal. ‘This fact,
it is true, fome will pretend to queftion, and cite the lon-
gevity of individual drunkards as a perfe& refutation of the
polition ; forgetting that individual ftrength of conititution,
in thofe infulated examples, had withftood the deleterious
effeGts of the practice, but as exceptions to a general rule;
and that both theory and experience concur in difproving
their hypothefis. Mark, fays Darwin, what happens to a
man, who drinks a quart of wine, if he has not been habi-
tuated to it. “ He lofes the ufe both of his limbs
and of his underltanding! He becomes a temporary
ideot, and has a temporary ftroke of the palfy ! and though
he flowly recovers after fome hours, is it not reafonable to
-conclude, that a perpetual repetition of fo powerful a poifon
mutt at length permanently affe& him?’ (See Zoonomia,
vol. i. fe&. xxi. 10.) To this queftion the following ob-
fervation may be ftated, as the an{wer of experience. ‘* On
comparing my own obfervations with the bills of mortality,
I amconvinced, that confiderably more than one-eighth of all
the deaths which take place in perfons above twenty years old
hapoen prematurely, through excefs in drinking fpirits.” (See
Dr. Willan’s Report on the Difeafes in London, p. 152.)
Among the difeafes thus brought on, and prematurely ter-
minating life, are enumerated many cafes af what are called
bilious and nervous diforders, paia in the itemach, pain in the
bowels, inteltinal haemorrhage, palfy, apoplexy, gravel, or
dyfury, {chirrous liver, jaundice, and droply. .And befides
the aggravation of the febrile, inflammatory, and pulmonic
complaints above-mentioned, the habitual drinking of {pirits
manifeftly augments every f[ymptom of fea-fcurvy in our
fleets, and retards the healing of wounds, converting them
into ulcers. (See Dr. Trotter /oc. cit.) We have already
had occafion to remark, that in all the examples of Europeans
wintering within the arétic circle, thofe who drank {pirits
died from fcurvy, while thofe who poffeffed no fuch liquors,
and drank water only, furvived. See Corn.

Although thefe various difeafes and injuries are occafioned
by drinking fpirituous and vinous liquors, in various conftitu-
tions, yet there is a certain gradual progrefs of decay and
diforder, which may be obferved to go on in general, as the
pernicious practice is continued. It is generally fuppofed
that thefe deleterious liquors have an immediate and f{pecific
effeét on the liver: which vifcus has been often found after
death, in drinkers of {pirits, hardened or altered as to its
texture, difcoloured, enlarged, or diminifhed. It appears,
however, that the ftomach and bowels fuffcr firlt from the
afe of fpirits; and that their baneful influence is after-
wards extended gradually to every part of the body, pro-
ducing a variety of morbid ymptoms, nearly in the following
order of fucccflion.

The firtt appearances of dveafe are the ufual fymptoms
of indigeftion, or dy/pepfiz, attended with a difrelifh of plain
food, with a frequent naufea, heat, and oppreffive pain at
the ftomach, particularly foon after taking victuals; with
fudden, flight!ly convulfive difcharges of a clear, acid, or
fweetith fluid f om the ttomachintothe mouth. This fymp-
tom (the Pyrofis and Cardialgia, or Gaftradynta fputatoria of
authors) is termed the cwater-bra/h in Scotland, where itis
an ufual efe& of the deleterious fpirit, whifkey. Along
with thefe{ymptoms, thcre is frequently an inexpreffible fen-
fation of finking, faintnefs, and horrer, efpecially at thofe times
when the influence of the ftimulating liquor has gone off.

Racking pains and violent contraGions of the bowels and of
the abdominal mufcles fucceed : often returning periodically,
about four in the moraing, being attended with extreme

depreffion, or langour, a fhortnefs of breath, and the mo
dreadful apprehenfions.

The unhappy patient fometimes drags on a miferable lifes
rendered now and then more fupportable by renewed pota-
tions, for feveral years. But other fymptoms fooner or
later enfue. The ftomach will take and retain food, but
after receiving it, it is oppreffed, and feels tightened or con-
trated in its dimenfions; the patient expreffes it as if it
were tied by a ftraight bandage, and the mufcles being :drawn
inte Irregular contraGtions the furface of the belly ‘is diver-
fified with protuberances and cavities. The pain continues
increafing to fuch excefs, that the miferable patient is obliged
to prefs againft a table or fome hard body, to mitigate his
diftrefs, till vomiting brings a refpite; or he haftens this
operation, by thrufting his finger into his throat, aod thus
relieves bimfelf, till the next reception of nourifiment, whea
the fame fuffering is repeated. In perfons of the fanguine
temperament, inflammations of the peritoneal membrane
enfue, which continue long, producing intenfe pain, fo that
the flighteft preffure on the abdomen cannot be endured.

The lower extremities now become emaciated, and are

attacked with frequent cramps and pains in the joints, which
finally fettle in the foles of the feet ; thefe, as well as the legs,
become {mooth and fhining, and at the fame time fo tender,
that the weight of the finger excites exclamations of pain,
yet in a moment’s time heavy preflure fometimes gives no
uneafinefs. To thefe fucceed a degree of paraly/is in all the
limbs, or at leaft an incapacity of moving them with any
confiderable effet, fo that, wherever they are placed, there
they generally remain till removed again by the attendant.
The whole of the fkin becomes dry and fealy, and the com.
plexion fallow. As the powers of the circulation are more
and more impaired, the red veflels difappear from the white
of the eye, the fecretion of bile is imperfectly performed,
and the {mall hairs of the fkin fall off, leaving the furface
{mooth, efpecially on the legs, as we have already mene
tioned. After fome time jaundice begins to appear, the
belly fills with water, and dropfical {wellings arile in the
legs, with general rednefs cr inflammation of the fkin, termi-
nating in black {pots and grangrenous ulcers. Sometimes
petechie, or purple {pots, appear and difappear for many
months, and if the furface of the extremities be fcratched,
blood exudes. The me/ena, or morbus niger, conlifting of a
difcharge of grumous blood from the bowels, or vomitings
of a fimilar fluid, like coffee-grounds from the ftomach, fuc-
ceed : often, indeed, profufe difcharges of blood take place
from the noftrils, ftomach, bowels, kidnies, or bladder; and
from the lungs in perfons of a confumptive habit. Women
of a fanguine temperament, who indulge to excels, frequently
have the catamenia very profufely, long after the ufual pe-
riod ; even, fometimes, beyond the fixtieth year of age.
A frequent recurrence of aphthous ulcerations in the mouth
and throat takes place, and the {mell of the breath is offen-
five, being fimilar to that of rotten appkcs. ‘

In the courfe cf thefe bodily complaints, the mental
powers fuffer a change no lefs remarkable. At firfl, low
{pirits, ftrange fenfations, and groundle{s fears occur to the
patient ,—‘ fuch horrors take place,’? it is remarked by
Dr. Lettfom, ‘as are dreadful even to a by-ftander; the
poor victim is fo depreffed, as to fancy a thoufand imaginary
evils ; he expe&ts momentarily to expire, and flarts up {nde
denly from his feat, walks wildly about the room, breathes
fhort, and feems to flruggle for breath: if thefe horrors
feize him in bed, when waking from flumber, he {prings up
like an elaftic body, with a fenfe of {uffocation, and “the
horrors of frightful obje€ts around bim.” Yet thefe pain-
ful depreffions fometimes alternate with unicafonable, aad

even

Se

-

DRUNKENNESS.

Seven bo'ferous mirth, But at length a degree of ftupidity,
or confufion of ideas, fucceeds. ‘* The memory,”’ to ufe
‘the words of Dr. Willan, * and the faculties depending on
it, being impaired, there tekes place an indifference towards
ufual occupations, and accuitomed fociety or amufements :
No intereft is taken in the concerns of others; no love, no
fympathy remain.
‘tives is gradually extinguifhed, and the moral feafe feems
obliterated. The wretched victims of a fatal poifon fall,
at length, into a {tate of fatuity, and die with the powers
both of body and mind wholly exhaulted. Some, after re-
peated fits of derangement, expire in a fudden ard vielent
phrenzy: fore are hurried out of the world by apoolexies:
others perifh by the flower procefs of jaundice, dropfy, aph-
thous filcerations of the alimentary canal, and gangrenous
ulcers of the extremities.” (See Dr. Willan, Reports, &c.
P- 132: et feg. Dr. Lettfom on Hard Drinking, and alfo in
the Memoirs of the Med. Soc. of London, vol. i. p. 152.
Dr. A. Fethergiil on the Abufe of Spirituous Liquors.)
This is the moft ufual courfe of the deleterious operation
of fpirituous liquors on the human conftitution. It is not
to be inferred, however, that this feries of fymptoms is ob-
feryed in every drunkard, without variety ; or that other
complaints do nct often occur, as a confequence of habitual
inebria’ion: nor, on the other hand, is it to be concluded,
“that any, or all of thefe merbid changes, are not frequently
“produced by that degree of ¢ippling, which many people
practice without getting drunk, and without acquiriog the
charaéter of intemperate drinkers. Fatal cafes of jaurdice,
dropfy, fchirrous liver, apoplexy, &c. from the latter degree
of habitual potation, are but too numerousin the experience
of every phyfician. TThefe fober drunkards, if the expreffion
may be allowed, deceive themfelves, as well as others; they
advince more flowly, but not lcfs certainly, in the road to
~ the ru’n of their health. And even this is not invariably
true; for intemperance is a relative term: what is an a@ive
* poifon to one individual, the conftitution of another will
enable him to bear’ with a trivial detriment. We have ro
accurate accounts of the quantity of liquor which fome in-
ebriates are capable of contuming. Even now, when bar-
barous exploits in drinking are no longer the fubje@ of rival
boalling, as in the time of the Spe&tator, fome men may be
found to equal “ honelt Will Funnel,” in the hogfheads of
Ofteber, and tons of Port, that have paffed through them.
(See vol. viii, N° 579.) But this, aswell as the effeéts on
the conttitution, will depend on the ftrength and kind of
the liquor. and its combinations with other fubftances. Dr.
‘Trotter mentions a marine, in a king’s fhip, who drank four
gallons of beerin the day ; he foon grew bloated and ftupid,
and died of apoplexy. - A fimilar cafe fell under the obferva-
tion of the writer of this article, in a fedentary man, employed
"in writing; he took little folid food, but drank 12 or 13 quarts
of porter daily, and foon grew corpulent, with a pallid
or leucophlegmatic complexion, and exceffively dull and in-
capable of exercife, and at length was feized with a fit of
_ apoplexy, of which he died in a few hours. Wine of courfe
may be taken in much larger quantities than the pure fpirit,
but it produces nearly the fame effets; a purple rednefs of
the complexion, with eruptions called gutta re/acea, efpecially
about the nofe; of which Shakefpeare has given a humour-
ous caricature in Falftafi’s defeription of Bardolph’s nofe.
Henry IV. Part i. aét 3.) “An officer of the hofpital
~ fhip of the fleet in which Dr. Trotter ferved, befides bis
~ allowance of wine at the mefs table, ufually drank a bottle
anda half of gin in twenty-four hours: his face at times
~ was equal to Bardolph’s, with bloodfhot eyes, foetid breath,
~&e.; he died of apoplexy and difeafed liver,
Vou, XII,

Even natural affeftion to nearelt rela”

Spirits, like other poifons, if taken in 2 fufficient dz, prove
immediately fatal. The newfpapers frequently furnifh us with
examples of almoft inftantaneous death, occafioned by wan-
tonly {wallowing a pint or other large quantity of fpirit for
the fake of a wager, or in boalt, The author lafl quoted
obferves, that ‘‘amorg the numerous deaths from intoxic2-
tion, which have come under his own obfervation, or been
reported to him by furgeons, no feaman ever exceeded
the bottle of {pirit,”? (p. 163.) But f{maller quantities, if
repeated at fhort intervals, will induce difeates, that {peedicy
terminate life, without running the courle which we above
deferibed ; of which two inftances are related by Dr. Rollo,
in the feventh vol. of the London Medical Journal (of Dr.
Simmons) for 1756, p. 33.

Prevention and Cure.—When it is confidered that the de-
fire for ftimulating liquors, with which the habiteal tippler
or drunkard is actuated, isin facta conttitutional feeling, an
appetite, an inclination cf nature for the time (a morbid one,
it is true) as much as the thirftof the parched and panting
traveller for a draught of cold water, or of the feverifh man
for the fame refrefhinent; it mult be obvious, thet, as iu
other chronic difealed conditions of the body, it may be mott
effectually checked in its commencement, and that much
more is to be hoped froma fyftem of prevention, than from
any attempts to cure. Venienti occurrite morbo, fhou'd be
the maxim of every individualin this matter, for in fuchia
cafe, ‘©the patient muft minifter to himfelf.? « IT would
guard every perfon,”’ fays Dr. Lettfom, ‘from beginning
with even a little drop of this fafcinating poifon, which, once
admitted, is feldom, if ever, afterwards overcome.’’ Loc. cit.

The moft important preventive caution that can be given,
efpecially to the female fex, isto avoid the firft encroach-
ments of the enemy in difguife. Many of the unhappy vic-
tims to drinking, have to date their firft propenfiry to that
pradtice from the frequent ufe of fpirituous tin@ures, ufed as
medicines, rathly prefcribed for janguora, ftomachic pains, and
ether nervous and hyfterical complaints; or from the time
when, by the unguarded advice of fome medical practitioner,
or good lady-dogtor, a little brandy and water was fubiti-
tuted for wine, under an ideathat the latter turned four on
the ftomach. But if much mifchief has accrued from thefe
fources, what a catalogue of moral and phyfical evils is to
be attributed to the circulation of thofe difguifed and medi-
cated drams, which the avarice and charlatancrie of the queck
impoltors of this country palm upon the public, under the
titles of nervous cordials, cordial balms, &c. &c. Thefle
potions of coloured whifkey not only become the origin of
the pernicious habit of dram-drinking, butafford the means of
continuing and increafing the practice of it, without any
of the moral compunétion or reproach, with which the po-
tation of vulgar rum and brandy is ufually ftigmatized. The
lat remark, indeed, applies alfo tothe ufe of cordials and
liqueurs, which is common in many families. The names of
noyau, &c. ferve to deceive the unwary; for, doubtlefs, there
are many who drink of thofe /igueurs, that would blufh to
tafte brandy: yet they are nothing more than brandy dif-
guifed.

Thereare many well-meaning people, who take frequent
drams, under one fhape or another, to relieve uneafinefs at
the ftomach, or lownefs of {pirits, without at all fufpe@ing
that they are doing any harm. They mention thefe fymp-
toms flightly, as nervous, or gouty, and*attempt to avert
prefent fuffering, by indulging more freely in the very caufe
of the mifchief, until the habit, with all its lamentable con-
fequences, is eftablifhed. And it is painful to hear the de-
Jufive arguments, with which they juitify the choice of their
liquor, Some, who avoid brandy, have been induced to

Non take

DRUNKENNESS.

take rum, from avulgar opinion, that itis more oily and
balfamic !—others, wno condemn both brandy and rum,
make no objeGion to gin, becaufe they think it déuretic ;
whereas half the dropfies, among the lower clafles of the
people, originate, or are confirmed by the ufe of this fpint.
They are ail nearly alike deleterious.

There is another caution, which the temperate wi.l ever
attend to: never to drink wine or fpirituous liquors on an
empty ftomach, or after long faiting. In this condition the
ftomach is much more eafily affected, and a {mail quantity
will produce a powerful imprefiion, Un the theoretical lan-
guage of Browa and Darwin, the excitability or {cuforial
power is accumulated in confequence of the abfence of fli-
mulus. A friking iliufration of this factis afforded in
captain Bligh’s narrative. ‘Che allowance of water and pro-
vilion was fo exceedingly fmall, that it was little better than
fafting. The rum was mea{fured out to each man in a tea-
fpoon; yet the body was in that ftate fo fufceptible of fti-
mulus, that this quantity produced a degree of intoxication.
Whena morning giafs becomes neceffary to banifh the lan-
guor, finking, and tremors of the tippler, the cafe may be
confidered as a difeafe rooted in the Habit, asd therefore
nearly hopelefs.

For thefe beginnings of the practice of drunkennefs, each
individual is re{ponfible chiefly to himfelf ; but the founda-
tion of this pernicious vice is, in many cafes, laid by others,
even by thofe who ave the natural guardians of the health,
which they contribute to undermine, and ata period when
the fufferer is totaily unable to refift the mifchief. The
feeds of the difeafe are unqueftionably often fown in infancy,
by the miitaken indulgence of parents and friends. The
mild bland nutriment, which nature has prepared for the
youvg of animals of our own clafs, as fuited to the delicate
excitability of thofe tender beings, ought furely to be the
model of the preparations, which we fubftitute for it. Natural
appetite requires no ftimulants; and it cannot be doubted,
that fpirits, wine, and fermented liquors of all kinds, ought
to be excluded from the dict of infancy, childhood,and youth ;
except, in the latter period, ill health demand its occafional
ufe medicinally.

«« Nothing like the fimple element dilutes
The food, or gives the chyle fo foon to flow ;”

isa truth, which, in infancy and childhood, at leaft, is in-
controvertible.

As to the cure of drunkennefs, when the habit is eftablifh-
ed, experience teaches us, that it is fcarcely to be expected,
that fuccefs will attend any fuch attempt. In the earlier
periods of the praétice, when the effects of the liquor on
the conftitution, have not greatly contaminated it, beyond
the frequent recurrence of indigeftion, and pains and op-
preflion of the ftomach, {pirits fhould be at once interdi&ted
altogether; and fome lefs pernicious ftimulant for a time
fhould be fubftituted, asthe bitter drugs, Columbo, Quaffia,
Peruvian bark, or fteel in {mall quantities between the meals.
The food fhould be light, and taken often, at regular inter-
vals. But where the ftomach is {till more affe€ted, and ren-
dered incapable of retaining nutriment in any quantity, a
{mall portion of fome one light fubftance fhould be taken,
until that organ acquire tone enough to digeft a ftronger, or
more mixed diet. Dr. Lettfom mentions the cafe of a lady,
who could not retain any food on her ftemach above an hour
or two. He requested her to fix upon fome light nourifhment,
that fhe could fancy palatable, and fhe mentioned milk: he
then reftrained her to four table fpoonfuls of it every fix
hours, and afterwards increafed the quantity as the ftomach
could bear it. From this fhe went to broth, and thus grae

5

dually acquired fuch a flate of the ftomach, as to’ bear the
ufual food of the family : and fortwo years patt fhe had en-
joyed good health with the moderate ufe of a glafs of wine,
or of beer, but not one drop of fpirit. (Memoirs of the
Med. Soc. vol. 1. p. 164.)

But where the habit of {pint dricking has been long con-
tinued, and the debility and derangement of the funétions
brought on by it are very confiderable, the total and fudden
omiffion of the ufual ftimulus, has funk the perfon into irre-
trievable weaknefs. Health can only be recovered in this
cafe by a gradual abandanment of the pernicious draughts.
Dr Darwin mentions what he calls a golden rale, by which
he has fuccefsfully dire€ted the diminution of the quantity
of {pirit in fuch cafes. Hehas prefcribed to feveral of his
patients to omit one-fourth part of the quantity, they had
lately been accultomed to, and if ina fortnight their appe-
tite inercafed, they were advifed to omit another fourth part.
But fo little was his hope of fuccels, if the digeition ap-
peared to be impaired from the want of that quantity of
{pirituous potation, that he thea advifcd them rather to con~
tinue as they were, and bear the ills they had, than rifk the
encounter of greater. He recommended at the fame time
ficfh-meat, with or without {pice, with bark and fteel, and
half agrain ora grain of opium, with6 orS grains of rhu-
barb, at night.

Perhaps, however, this fear of the fudden omiffion of the
ftimulus of {pirits is carried farther, in confequence of hypo-
thetical opinion, than actual expericnce would juftify. Dr.
Trotter remarks that, we daily fee, in all parts of the world,
men who by profligacy and hard drinking have brought
themfelves to a gaol; yet, 1f we confult the regifter of the
prifon, it does not appear that any of thefe habitual ¢runk-
arde die by being forced to lead fober lives. And he con-
tends, that whatever debility of the conititution exilts, it is
to be cured by the ufual medicinal means, which are ems
ployed to reftore the weakened organs. But the great dif-
ficulty in thefe attempts to cure inebriety is in fatisfying the
mind, and in whetting the blunted refolutions of the patient.
And this is, doubtlefs, more eafily accomplifhed bya gra-
dual abftraétion of his favourite potation. The recommen-
dation of a celebrated phyfician to a Highland chieftain, to
put as much fealing wax daily into his cup,as would receive
the impreffion of his feal, is faid to have been attended with
the happy eflect, of curing his habit of inebriation. ~Dr.
Lettfom mentions a perfon who ufually drank twelve dramsa
day, but being convinced of his approaching mifery, took
the refolution to wean himfelf from this poifon. He always
drank out of one glafs; into this he daily dropped a drop of
fealing wax: by this means he had twelve drops lefs of {pirit
every day, till, at length, his glafs being filled with wax,
his habit was cured.

The waters of Bath are in confiderable repute for their
efficacy in recruiting the worn down conftitutions of inebriates.
To the wealthy, who can afford to procure this remedy by
a journey to Bath, the ufe of it is certainly to be recom-
mended. In addition to the warmth, thefe waters contain
iron in a very diffufed ftate. The change of place and of
general habits may contribute to introduce new modes of
thinking, to divert the attention from tov much brooding
over the corporeal feelings, and therefore to change the habit
in refpeét to liquors. The ufe of warm, weak, diluent
liquors, in any fituation, with a plain diet, and reg@lar tem-
perance, will effect a great deal, even under the otherwife
unaided efforts of nature, in removing thofe violent ftomachic
and hepatic affeGtions, which have been brought on by the
free ufe of vinous and {pirituous potation. Nay, thofe dif-
eafes, when pronounced incurable, have fometimes yielded,

iD

DRUNKENNESS.

in a few months, to fuch a fyftem of regularity, plain diet,
and water-beverage :—an encouraging fact to thofe perfons,
who refolve firmiy to change their pernicious mode of life.

In aiding fuch a refolution, the phy fician has unfortunately
many prejudices of the mind, as well as diitreffing feelings in
the nervous fyftem of the patient, to encounter. The
Speétator juflly obferves, that ‘*no vices are fo incurable a3
thofe which men are apt to glory in ;’? but, be adds, ‘* one
would wonder how drunkennefs fhould have the good luck
to be of this number.””? (See N° 569.) » But the wonder
ceafes, when we refle@t, that from our earlieft education we
are accuftomed to read of the pleafures of Bacchus, and the
preifes of wine, in the mott elegant languages of antiquity ;—
that our own poets and dramatifts have employed their va-
rious talents in extolling the fame fubjeGis ;—that not only
Horace, and Anacreon, and Shakefpeare, but even our
grave Milton wrote, in a beautiful Latin ode, the praifes of
the {pirit of the grape. And Haller and Hoffmann, both
phylicians of great learning, have expreffed an opinion that
wine infpires a genius favourable to the effufions of tue poet.
(Sce Haller Phyfiol. lib. 17. Hoffm. de l'emperan.) The
opinion, moreover, has extended among the people gene-
rally, that a generofity of {pirit, a cheerfulnefs, courage,
and manlincfs, belong to thofe only who do not flinch from
the cheerful cup; and the high and low, therefore, applaud
the fentiments of Falftaff: ‘* Good faith, this fame young
fober-blooded boy doth not love me, nor a man cannot make
him laugh :—but that’s no marvel, he drinks no wine.
There’s never any of the/e demure boys come to any proof: for
thin drink doth fo over-cool their blood, and making many
fifh meals, they fall into a kind of male green-ficknefs ; and
then when they marry, they get wenches: they are gene-
rally fools and cowards, which fome of us fhould be too, but
for inflammation.” (Henry lV. p. ii. act 4.)

Now, it may be an encouragement to the drunkard to
know, that thefe are arrant prejudices ; and it is happy for
the prefent age, that they are much lefs prevalent than in
the preceding one, and that drunkennefs, among the better
educated claffes of the community, is no longer a vice that
*< men are apt to glory in.””? The following fentiments of
Dr. Trotter are the refult of ftri@ obfervation: “ My whole
experience affures me, that wine is no friend to vigour or
activity of mind: it whirls the fancy beyond the judgment,
and leaves body and foul in a ftate of liftlefs indolence and
floth. The man that, on arduous occafions, is to truft to
his own judgment, muft preferve an equilibrium of mind,
alike proof again{t contingencies as internal paffions. He
mutt be prompt in his decifions ; bold in enterprize; fruitful
in refources; patient under expectation; not elated with
fucce{s or deprefled with difappointment. But if his fpirits
are of that ftandard as to needa /i/lip from wine, he will
never conceive or execute any thing magnanimous or grand.
In a furvey of my whole acquaintance and friends, I find that
water-drinkers poflefs the moit equal temper and cheerful
difpofitions.” (Loc. cit. p.170.) This, we believe, will
be confirmed by the experience of every perfon. This de-
nomination, however, does not exclude the idea of an occa-
foul temperate ufe of wine; for, let us not be mifunder-

ood :

*© We curfe not wine: the vile excefs we blame ;
More fruitful than th? accumulated board
Of pain and mifery,”? &c.

In regard to the ewre of the fit of intoxication, the prin-
cipal objeéts are, to evacuate the inebriating fluid from the
ftomach by vomiting, or to dilute it by means of warm wa-
ter poured down the throat. “his lalt expedient will often

produce vomiting. If the perfon is in the Jait ftage of
drunkennefs, havir g fo far loft the power of fenfe and motion
as to be unable to help himfelf, he fhould be treated as if
under the danger of an impending apoplexy. He ought to
be placed either in an arm chair, where he cannot fall, or
laid on a bed, with the head and fhoulders raifed nearly
erect ; the neckcloth fhould be removed, and the collar of
the fhirt unbuttoned ; a free ventilation fliould be admitted,
and all ufelefs vifitors excluded. If his face is much fwollen,
and unufually fiufhed or bleated, his breathing {tertorous,
the eyes fixed, with their veffels turgid, there is danger of
an inflant fit of apoplexy. In this cafe, bleeding, or cup-
ping the templee, may be advifable, to relieve the preflure
on the brain; and it will then be defirable to unload the {to-
mach as {peedily as poffible: and this is ofcen readily accom-
plifhed, by introducing a feather, or any fuitable fub@ance
into the throat. Throughout the whole paroxy{m, the ap-
plication of cold water, reGtified {pirit, or ether, to the head
and temples, is proper: the actual cold of the firlt, and the
cold occefioned by the evaporaion of the latter, tend to re-
prefs the inordinate ation of the arteries of the head, and
therefore to diminifh the quantity of blood fent to the brain.
Immerfion in the cold bath has often brought a drunkard to
his fenfes, as occurred in the miller before mentioned ; and
as is often obferved among feamen, who fall over-board in a
itate of ftupid intoxication, they are generally fober when
picked’ up. There was a cuftom of ducking a drunken huf-
band prevalent in fome parts of this ifland, of uncertain
origin ; but it is to be lamented that our fair country-women
fhould not exercife fo wholefome a privilege more gene-
rally,

It might perhaps be confidered by fome as too great a
compliment to inftruG the drunkard, how to corre morn-
ing headach and fick ftomach. A wet cloth over the fore-
head is effeétually employed by fome perfons for the relief
of the former: for the latter, a little falted fifh, ham, &c.
is often ferved up; and kitchen falt, in any way, is doubt-
lefs a very grateful ftimulus to a ftomach weakened by excefs.
Dr. Cullen ufed to fay, in his le€tures on Indigeftion, that
he found it reprefs ficknefs, when every thing eife failed.
Vitriolic acid, riding on horfeback, and even continuance in
bed, contribute to the fame effe€t, according to Dr. Home.
Where acidity prevails, the abforbent earths, as magnelia
and chalk, or alkaline medicines, are ufeful.

We have now to mention one of the moft formidable
effets of habitual intoxication, of which many inftances are
recorded in the Philofophical Tranfactions, and other works
of authority, namely, the combuflion of the individuals fo
habituated. As we do not afk our readers for that faith in
thefe ftories, which we do not give them ourfelves, we fhall
content ourfelves with relating one example of fuch burn-
ings; and refer to the authorities before-mentioned for a
farther account of them. ‘‘ Madame de Boifeon, 80 years
of age, exceedingly meagre, who had drunk nothing but
{pirits for feveral years, was fitting in her elbow chair before
the fire, while ber waiting maid went out of the room a few
moments. On her return, feeing her miftrefs on fire, fhe
immediately gave an alarm, and fome people having come to
her affiftance, one of them endeavoured to extinguifh the
flames with his hands, but they adhered to it as if it had
been dipped in brandy or oil on fire. Water was brought,
and thrown on the body in abundance ; yet the fire appeared
more violent, and was not extinguifhed till the whole flefh
had been confumed. Her fkeleton, exceedingly black, re-
mained entire in the chair, which was only a little fcorched ;
one leg only, and the two hands, detached themfelves from
the reit of the bones.”? Trotter, p. 76. See Phil. Traof.

Nn2 At&t

DRU
A&. Med. Hafn. Encyclopedie Methodiq., &c. quoted
by Dr. Trotter.

The ancient Lacedemonians ufed to make their flaves
frequently drunk, to give their children an averfion and hor-
ror for this vice. “Che Indians hold drunkennefs a fpecies of
madnefs; and, in their languages, the fame term ramjam,
that fignifies drunkard, fignifies alfo a phrenetic.

Drunkennefs is punifhable by the Jaws of England. The
penalty is five fhillings fine, or the fitting fix hours in the
ftocks in cafe of non-payment. Tor a fecond offence, the
guilty perfon may be bound with two fureties in ro/. each
to his good behaviour, And an alehoufe-keeper, convicted
of the fame offence, fhall be difabled to keep any fuch ale-
houfe for three years. Tippling is a foecies of drunkennefs.
If any inn-keeper, vi€tualler, or alehoufe-keeper, fhall fuffer
any perfon (except travellers, and labouring people at their
dinner hour) to continue drinking or tippling in an alchoufe,
&c. he fhall forfeit ten fhillings to the poor, to be recovered
by diftrefs ; or the party offending to be committed till pay-
ment, and difabled to keep an alehoufe for three years.
The perfons tippling fhall forfeit 35. 4d., or be fet in the
ftocks for four hours. Alli flag officers and perfous belong-
ing to his majefty’s fhips of war, being guilty of drunken-
nefs, are liable to fuch punifhmeut as a court-martial fhall
think fitto impofe. See flat. 1 Jac.I.c.g. 4 Jac. Ic. 5.
q7Jac.I.c.10. 2tJac.I.c.7. 1Car.I.c.4. 22 Geo. II.

SeME
Punts makes voluntary drunkennefs a breach of the law
of nature, which direéts us to preferve the ufe of our reafon.
The law ef England alfo does not allow it to be am excufe in
any cafe whatfoever, but rather an aggravation of an offence.
To this purpofe fir Edward Coke obferves (1 Inft. 247.),
that a drunkard, who is “ voluntarius demon,” hath no pri-
vilege thereby; but whatfoever hurt or ill he doth, his
drunkennefs doth aggravate it: ‘*nam omne crimen ebrictas,
et incendit, et detegit.”? It hath been obferved, that the
real ufe of ftrong liquors, and the abufe of them by drinking
to excefs, depend much upon the temperature in which we
live. The fame indulgence, which may be neceflary to
make the blood move in Norway, would make an Italian
mad. A German, therefore, fays Montefquieu (Sp. Laws,
1. 14. c,10.), drinks through cuftom, founded upon con-
ftitutional neceflity ; a Spaniard drinks through choice, or
out of the mere wantonnefs of luxury: and drunkennefs, he
adds, ought to be more feverely puntfhed, where it makes
men mifchievous and mad, as in Spain and Italy, than where
it only renders them ftupid and heavy, as in Germany and
more northern countries. Accordingly, in the warm climate
of Greece, a law of Pittacus enaéted, “ that he who com-
mitted a crime, when drunk, fhould receive a double punith-
ment :”? one for the crime itfelf, and the other for the ebriety
which prompted him to commit it. (Puffend. L. of N. 1. 8.
ce. 5.) The Roman law, indeed, made great allowances for
this vice: ‘per vinum delapfis capitalis poena remittitur.’’
But the law of England, confidering how eafy it is to coun-
terfeit this excufe, and how weak an excufe it is (thouch
real), will not fuffer any man thus to privilege one crime by
another. (Plowd. 19.) It has been held that drunkennefs
is a fufficient caufe to remove a magiftrate ; and the profe-
cution for this offence by ftat. 4 Jac. [. c. 5. was to be, and
ftill may be, before juftices of peace in their feflions, by way
of indittment, &c. Equity will not relieve againft a bond,
&e. given by a man when drunk, unlefs drunkennefs is oc-
cafioned through the management or contrivance of him to
whom it is given. (3 P. Wm. 130,inn. 1 Inft. 247.)
DRUPA, in Botany, (rege of the Latin writers are
wnripe olives, or any ed ae fruit.) A ftone fruit.

- 01D Sk Op

This confifts of a flefhy coat, not feparating into valves,
ufually of a juicy fubftance, though fometimes, as in the
Cocoa-nut, dry and fpongy, enclofing a fingle hard and bony
nut, to which it is clofely attached, as in tne Peach, Plum,
Cherry, &c. Sometimes the nut, though not feparating
into diflin&t valves, contains more than one cell, and confe-
quently feveral feeds, as in the Cornel-tree, Cornus, and the
Olive, Olea, though only one cell of the latter ufually comes
to perfection, the other being entirely obliterated as the fruit
advances in growth. Linnzus reckons fome fruits drupa, in
which there are feveral feparate feeds or nuts, on account of’
the hardnefs of thofe feeds, as inthe Medlar, Me/pilus ; but
Gertner more commodioufly reckons them berries, bacce, it
being found beft to reflrain the term drupa to a fruit with a
fingle nut, of one or more cells, even though its nut be
fometimes furnifhed with a very tender fhell, as in Daphne.
Sm. Intr. to Botany.

DRUPATRIS, (arame contrived by Loureiro, from
Drupa, a tone fruit, and tres, three, to exprefs its ternate
or three-celled nut,) Loureir. Cochinch. 314. Clafs and
order, Lcofandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. He/peridee, Linn.
Myrti, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth bell-fhaped, fuperior, its limb in
five acute fegments. Cor. Petals four, roundifh, concave,
fpreading, rather longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments
more than twenty, thick, fhorter than the corolla, inferted
into the calyx; anthers two-lobed, roundifh, fixed. Pift.
Germen roundifh; ftyle thick, equal to the ftamens ; ftigma
thickifh. Peric. Drupa oval, {mooth, dry. Seed. Nut of
three cells.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, fuperior. Petals four.
with a nut of three cells.

D. cochinchinenfis, native of the deep woods of Cochin-
china, where it 1s called Cay Deung. A large tree, with a
few afcending branches. eaves alternate, large, ovate-
oblong, pointed, ferrated. fmooth. Spikes numerous, ob-
long, nearly terminal. Fowers white, {mall. Drupa of a
middling fize, not eatable.

Such is Loureiro’s account, which is all we know of the
plant orits genus. It appears very nearly related to Eugenia
racemofa of Linneus, Stravadium of Jufliex, Rumph. Am-
boin. v.3. t. 116, butif the above defcription be correét it
can fearcely be the fame. ‘The name of Loureiro is at leaft
as good as that of Jufficu, and might remain, if by a com-
parifon of the two drupe in an early ftate, each fhould be
found to have three cells. Still there wi!l be fome difficulty
on account of the fhortnefs of the filaments in Loureiro’s

lant.

DRURYD, in Geography, a river of Wales, in the
county of Merioneth, which runs into the Irifh fea, about
2 miles N.N.W. of Harlech.

DRUSA, in Natural Hifory, a name given by fome of
the Saxon miners to the comuon pyrites, and by others to
fome peculiar kind of it. But in general it is underftood to
fignify both the pyrites and the marcafite. ‘

DRUSENHEIM, in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department of the Lower Rhine, fituated at the con-
fluence of the Motte and Rhine, in the diftri@ of Wiffem-
bourg ; 15 miles N.E. of Strafbourg.

DRUSES, Druzes, or Deroux, a people of Syria,
bordering upon the Maronires to the fouth, ang extending
from the river Nahr-el-Kell, or the river of the Dog, which
difcharges itfelf into the Mediterranean, in N. lat. 33° 48’,
to the neighbourhood of Sour (Tyre), between the valley of
Bekaa and the Mediterranean fea. ‘The whole country con-
tains 100 {quare leagues, including a population of 120,000,
and of which 40,000 are able to bear arms; fo that each

league

Drupa

tah

DRUSES.

Teague contains rogo perfons: a population equal to that of
the richeft provinces in France. ‘Thisis the more remarkable,
as their foil is not fertile, and many eminences remain uncul-
tivated ; infomuch, that they do not produce corn enough to
fupport themfelves three months in the year. Befides, they
have no mann faQures, and all their exportations are confined
to filks and cottons, the balance of which exceeds very little
the importation of corn from the Hauran, the oils:of Palef-
tine, and the rice and coffee they procure from Buirout.
Volney attributes this extraordinary number of inhabitants,
oceupying fo {mall a fpace, to that ray of liberty which
glimmers in this country. Unlike the Turks, every man
lives in a flate of perfe& fecurity with regard to his life and
property. he peafant is not richer than in other countries,
but he is free, and rot fubje& to pillage and oppreflion,
which are unknown amonz thefe mountains. Security,
therefore, has been the original caufe of population, from
that inherent defire which ali men.have to multiply themfelves,
wherever they find an eafy fubfiflence. The frugality of the
nation, which is content with little, has been a fecondary
caufe; and a third is the emigration of a number of Chriflian
families, who daily defert the Turkifh provinces to fettle in
Mount Lebanon, where they are cordially received by the
Maronites from fimilarity of religion, and by the Druzes
from principles of toleration, and a conviétion how much it
is the intere{t of every country to multiply the number of its
cultivators, confumers, and allies. The Druzes, who en-
gaged the attention of Europe about the clofe of the 16th
century, bear a ftriking refemblance to the Maronites in
their mode of life, form of government, language, and cul-
toms; the principal diff-rence between them confiiting in
their religion. Volney traces their origin to a diffenfion that
took place about the commencement of the 11th century
between the followers of Mahomet ; and particularly to the
contempt manifefted by the third caliph of Egypt, called
Hakem-bamr-ellah, to the Mahometan religion. This
caliph caufed the firlt caliphs, the companions of Mahomet,
to be curfed in the mofques, and afterwards revoked the
anathema; he compelled the Jews and Chriftians to abjure
their religion, and then permitted them to refume it; he
burnt one-half of the city of Cairo for his diverfion, while his
foldiers pillaged the other; and not content with thefe ex-
travagant ats, he forbade the pilgrimage to Mecca, fafting,
and the five prayers; and at length carried his madnefs fo
far as to defire to pafs for God himfelf. This impious pre-
tenlion was fupported by a falfe prophet, who came from
Perfia into Egypt, and was called Mohammed-ben-I{mael.
This Mohammed taught that it was not neceffary to fat or
ld to practife circumcifion, to make the pilgrimage to

ecea, or obferve fettivals; that the prohibition of pork
and wine was abfurd; and that marriage between brothers
and fitters, fathers and children, was lawful. To ingratiate
himfelf with Hakem, he maintained that this caliph was
God himfelf incarnate. Both the impoltor and the caliph
were foon brought to an untimely death by the hands of
violence. However, the death of thefe two chiefs did not
prevent the progrefs of their opinions. A difciple of Mo-
hammed-ben-I{mael, named Hamza-ben-Ahmud, propagated
them with indefatigable zeal in Egypt, Paleftine, and along
the coaft of Syria, as far as Sidon and Berytus. His pro-
felytes underwent the fame fate with that of the Mar-
onites (which fee); for, being perfecuted by the fect in

ower, they took refuge in the mountains of Lebanon, and

ere, being better able to defend themfelves, they formed an
independent fociety. Notwith{tanding difference of opinions,
they find it their intereft to allow mutual toleration, and
they have united in their oppofition, at different times, to

the ervfaders, the fultans of Aleppo, the Mamlouks, and the
Ottomans. The conquelt of Syria by the latter made no
change in their fituation. The Druzes, thus fecure, and
unmolefted by Selim I. and his fucccffor, Soliman 11., but
not fatisfied with their independence, frequently defcendsd
from their mountains to pillage the Turks. At length, in
the yeer 1588, Amuyath IIL, refolved to reduce them ; and
his general, Ibrahim Pacha, marched from Cairo, and at-
tacked the Druzes and Maronites with {uch vigour, as to
force them into their flrong holds, the mountains. Djf-
fenfion took place among their chiefs, of which he availed
himfelf, for exacting a contribution of upwards of one mil-
jon of piaftres, and for impofing a tribute which has con-
tinued to the prefent time. Until this expedition, the
Druzes had lived in a fort of anarchy, under the command
of different {cheiks, or lords. The nation wes alfo divided
into two faétions, dillinguified by the appellations of
“Kavi,” and « Yumani,’’? and by the red and white co-
lours of their flags. Ibrahim allowed them only one chief,
who fhould be refponfible for the tribute, and execute the
office of chief magiltrate ; and this governor became king
of the repubic. As he was always chofen from among
the Druzes, he had at his difpofal the whole {trength of the
nation, and being able to give it dire@lion, as well as unani-
mity and force, he turned it again{t the ‘Turks, engaging in
fecret hoftilities whenever favourable opportunities occurred,
and avoiding epen war. About this time, that 1s, in the
beginning of the 17th century, the power of the Druzes
attained its greateft height ; which it owed to the talents
and ambition of the celebrated Emir Fakr-el-din, commonly
called Fakardin. This chief firft gained the confidence of
the Porte, by every demonttration of loyalty and fidelity ;
repulfed the Arabs, who infefted the plain of Balbec, and
the countries of Sour and Acre; took poffeffion of the city
of Bairout, and proceeded in the fame manner at Saide,
Baibec,.and Sour; till at length, in the year 1613, he faw
himfelf mafter of all the country, as far as Adjaloun and
Safad. Whilft he was making this progrefs, the pachas of
Tripoli and Damafcus oppofed him, fometimes with open
force, and at other times by complaints at the Porte; but
the Emir, who there maintained his {pies and defenders,
defeated every attempt. The divan, at length, began to
be alarmed by the progrefs of the Druzes, and made prepa-
rations for effectually crufhing them. In the mean while,
Fakr-el-din embarked at Bairout for Italy to folicit {uccours,
and having refigned the adminiftration to his fon Ali, re-
paired to the court of the Medici, at Florence. His arrival
excited attention-and curiofity ; and as the hiftory and reli-
gion of the Druzes were little known, it was doubted
whether they fhould be claffed with the Mahometans, or
Chriftians. In this ftate of uncertainty, it was fuggetted,
that a people who had taken refuge in the mountains, and
were enemies to the natives, could be no other than the off-
{pring of the crufaders. Of this groundlefs conceit, Fakr-
el-din availed himfelf, and pretended that he was related to
the houfe of Lorraine. The miffionaries.and merchants,
who promifed themfelves a new opening for converfions and
commerce, encouraged his pretenfions. The learned in ety~
mology, ftruck with the refemblance of the names, infited
that ** Druzes’’ and ‘¢ Dreux’”’ mutt be the fame word, and
thus formed the fyftem of a pretended colony of French
crufaders, who, under the conduct of a comte * de Dreux,”
had formed a fettlement in Lebanon. The hypothefis, how-
ever, has been totally overthrown, by the difcovery, that the
name of the Druzes is to be found in the Itinerary of Ben-
jamin of Tudela, who travelled before the time of the cru-
fades. Not to mention other circumftances, which once

ihe

DRUSES.

the futility of this hypothefis, we may remark, that the term
*Druzes”’ is pure Arabic; and that it originates from the
founder of the fe& of Mohammed-ben-If{mael, who was fur-
named * Fl-Dorzi.?? After a ftay of nine years in Italy,
Vakr-el-din returned to refume the government of his coun-
try, which had been preferved fecure, and in good order, by
his fon Alt. Upon his arrival, he fet about perfeCting the
internal adminifration, and promoting the welfare of his
country ; but in doing this, he purfued the frivolous ard
extravagant plan, the idea of which he had acquired in
Ttaly. He built numerous villas, conftru&ted baths, and
planted gardens; and, without refpect to the prejudices of
his country, he employed the ornaments of painting and
4culpture, though they are prohibited by the Koran. The
Druzes, who paid the fame tribute asin time of war, became
diffatisfed ; the people murmured at the expence of the
prince ; and the luxury he difplayed renewed the jealoufy of
the pachas. Hoftilities commenced ; and Fakr-el-din, hav-
ing loft his fon, whillt he was bravely refilling the progrefs
ofthe Turkifh army, and enfeebled by age and a voluptuous
life, loft both courage and prefence of mind. Having fled
from the field of conieft, and retired to the fteep eminence of
Nitra, he was at Jength betrayed by the companions of his
adverfity, and delivered up to the Turks. Upon his arrival
at Conftantinople, Amurath yielded to the inftigations of
his courtiers, and ordered him to be ftrangled, about the vear
1631. After bis death, his pofterity continued in pofleffion
of the government, at the pleafure, and as vaflals, of the
‘Turks. This family, failing in the male line, the authority
devolved, by the eleGtion of the fcheiks, on the houle of
Shehab, in which ir {tll continues.

The religion of the Druzes is formed upon the opinions of
Mohammed-ber-I{mael, already mentioned ; neverthelef:,
the religious cultoms of one clafs of them are very peculiar.
Thofe who compofe it are, with refpeét to the relt of the
nation, the fame as the initiated were to the profane: they
affume the name of ¢ Okkals,’? denoting fpiritualitts, and
beltow on the vulgar the epithet of * Djahel,” or ignorant ;
and they have various degrees of imtiation, the highett
orders of which require celibacy. Thefe are diftinguithable
‘by the white turban, as a fymbol of their purity ;_ which they
conceive to be fullied by even touching a profane perfon.
Tf one eat out of their plate, or drink out of their cup, they
‘break them; and hence has originated the cuftom, fo gene-
yal in this country, of ufing vafes, with a fort of cock, which
may be drank out of without touching them with the lips.
All thefe pra€tices are enveloped in myfteries. Their ora-
tories are folitary, and fituated on eminences, and in thefe
they hold their fecret aflemblies, to which women are ad-
mitted. They have one or two books, which they care-
fully conceal ; but chance has difeovered that one of thefe
contains only a myftic jargon, valuable only to adepts. It
reprefents God, meaning Hakem bamr ellah, as incarnated
in the perfon of the caliph: it likewife treats of another life,
of a place of punifhment, and a place of happinefs, where the
Okkals fhall, of courfe, be molt diftinzuifhed. The rett of
the Druzes are wholly indifferent with regard to religion.
‘The Chrittians, who live in this country, pretend that feve-
ral of them believe in the metempfychofis, or tranf{migration ;
and that others worfhip the fun, moor, and ftars:-. When
among the Turks, they affe@ the extcrior of Mahometans,
frequent the mofques, and perform their oblations and

rayers. Among the Maronites, they accompany them to
church, and, like them, make ufe of holy water. Many of
them, importuned by the miffionaries, fuffer themfelves to
be baptized ; and, if folicited by the Turks, receive circum-
eifion, and conclude by dying, neither Chrittians nor Maho-

metans; but in matters of civil policy they are not fo in«
differezit.

The Druzes, as well as the Maronites, may be divided in-
to two clafles, the common people, and the people of emi-
nence and property, called {cheiks, and emirs, or defcendants
of princes. Molt of them are cultivators, either as farmers
or proprietors; every man lives on his own inheritance,
improving’ his mulberry trees and vineyards, and in fome
diltriéts they grow tobacco, cotton, and grain, in inconfider=
able quantities. At firft the lands were in the hands of a
{mall number of families; but in order to render them pro-
dutive, the great proprietors fold part, and let leafes of
other parts. he fcheiks of the principal families, who
poflefs large property, amounting to one-tenth p-rt of the
whole country, have great influence among their infertors
and dependents, and involve all the Druzes in their diffen-
fions. However, in confequence, probably, of the confli@
between contending parties, the nation has never been en-
flaved by its chier. This chicf, called ‘* Hakem,”’ or go-
vernor, and alfo mir,” or prince, is a fort of king, or
general, who unites in his own perfon the civil and military
powers. lis authority is hereditary; but the fucceflion ts
determined rather by force than by any certain laws, Fe-
males areexcluded. But whoever be the fucceflor, and this
is generally determined by che greateft number of fuffrages
and refources, when the male Jine of any family is become
exting, it is neccflary for him to obtain the approbation of
the Turks, of whom he becomes the vaffal and. tributary.
The office of the governor is to watch over the good order
of the ttate, and to prevent the emirs, fchciks, and villagers,
from making waron each other. He is alfoat the head of
the civil power, and names the Cadis, alwaya referving to
himfelf the power of life and death. He colleéts the tri-
bute, from which he always allows an annual fum to the
pacha, his tribute, which varies from 160 purfcs (83 3c/.)
to fixty, is called ‘* Mui,”? and is impofed on the mulberry
tree, vineyards, catton, and grain. he furplus of this
tribute is for the prince, fo that it is his intereit to reduce
the demands of the Turks, and to augment the impott>
but this meafure requires the fan@ion of the fcheiks, and
their confent is neceflary for peace or war. In thefe cafes the
emir mut convoke general aflembiies, and lay before them the
{tate of his affairs. There every {cheik and every peafant, in
reputation for courage or under{tanding attend; fo that this
government may be corfidered as a well-proportioned mix-
ture of monarchy, ariltocracy, and democracy. Neither the
chief, nor the individual emirs, maintain troops; they have
only perfons attached to the domeltie fervice of their houfes,
and a few black flaves. When the nation makes war, every
maa, whether fcheik or peafant, able to bear arms, is called
upon to march. He takes with hima little bag of flour,
a mufquet, fome bullets, a {mall quantity of powder, made in
his village, and repairs to the rend: zvous appointed by the
governor. The ceremonies, previous to war, very much re-
femble the cuftoms of ancient times. When the emir and
the {cheiks determined on war, at Dair-el- Kamar, eryers,
in the evening, afcended the fummits of the mountain, and
there began to cry with a loud voice; “To war, to war;
take your guns, take your piltols; noble {cheiks, mount
your horfes ; arm yourfelves with the lance and fabre; ren-
dezvous to-morrow at Dair-el- Kamar. Zeal of God! Zeal
of combats!’? ‘This fummons, teard in the neighbouring vil-
lages, was repeated there; and, as the whole country is
nothing but a chain of lofty mountains and dcep vallies,
the proclamation paffed in a few hours to the frontiers.
Thefe voices, from the ftillnefs of the night, the long-re=
founding echoes, and the nature of the fubje&, bad fomee

thing

Ze |

; DRU
thing awful and terrifying in their effet. Three days after,

1,000 armed men rendeavoved at Dair-el-Kamar, and ove-
yations might have been immediately commenced. The
troops of the Druzes have neither uniforms, nor difcipline,
nor order; they are mere peafants with fhort coats, naked
legs, and mufquets in their hands, differing from the Turks
and Mamiouks, in being all foot; the fchetks and emars
only having horfes, which are of little ufe from the rugzed-
nefs of the coustry. The war of the Druzes is mercly a
war of polts; for they never rifk themfelves in the plain, as
they would not be ab!e to ftand the fhock of cavalry, having
no bayonets to their mufquets. ‘They are excellent markf{-
men, and accuftomed to fudden furprifes; though they are
daring even to temerity, and fometimes ferocious; they pof-
fefs two qualities eflential to the excellence cf any troops;
they ftriGiy obey theirleaders, and are endowed with a tem-
perance and vigour of health, unknown to moft civilized na-
tions. They can pafs three months in the open air, with-
out tents, or any other covering than a fheep. fkin, and their
provifions confilt of {mall loaves baked on the afhes or on a
brick, raw onions, cheefe, olives, fruits, and a little wine.
They have no knowledge of fortification, the management
of artillery, or the mode of encampments ; in a word, they
are ignorant of war, confidered as an art.

The Druzes, comparing their own fituation with that of
the fudje&s of the Turkifh government, acquire an idea of
their own fuperiority, which has an influence om their per-
fonal charaGer. Hence they are in their difpofition ele-
vated, energetic, and a€tive; and they are confidered, through
the Levant, as reftlefs, enterprizing, hardy, and brave even
totemerity. No people have a higher fenfe of honour than
the Druzes, and this has produced a politenefs which 1s
vifible even among the peafants. They are alfo diftinguifhed
for their hofpitality ; for any one who prefents himfelf at
their door as a fuppliant or paflenger, is fure of being en-
tertained with lodging and food, in the molt generous man-
ner. The poorett peafants have given the laft morfel of
bread to the hungry traveller; alleging that ‘* God is
liberal and great, and all men are brethren”? They have,
therefore, no inns in this country ; and when they have
once contraéted with their guett the facred engagement of
bread and falt, no {ubfc quent event can induce them to vio-
late it. The Druzes, like the Bedoueens, pay great refpeéct
to the antiquity of families; but nobility exempts no fcheik
or emir frota paying tribute, in proportion to their refpective
revenues ; camel confers upon them no prerogatives. Every
thing among the Druzes is held in freehold; after paying
his miri and his rent, every man is matter of his property.
Fathers have here, as in the Roman law, the power of pre-
ferring fuch of their children as they think proper. Such
are their prejudices, that they do not chufe to make alliances
out of their own families. Tbey invariably prefer a poor
relation to a rich ftranger; it is ufual with them for a bro-
ther to efpoufe a brother’s widow ; and, in various refpecis,
they retain the cuftoms of the Hebrews, in common with
other inhabitants of Syria, and all the Arab tribes.

The proper and diltinguifhing character of the Druzes
is a fort of republican fpirit, which gives them a greater
degree of energy than other fubjets of the Turkifh go-
vernment, and an indifference for religion,..which forms
a ftriking contraft with the zeal of the Mahometans and
Chriftians, In other refpe&ts their private life, their cuf-
toms and prejudices are the {ame with other orientals. They
may marry feveral wives and repudiate them when they
choofe ; but this is feldom practifed, except by the emir,
and a few men of eminence. Occupied with their rural Ja-
dours, they experience neither artificial wants, nor thofe in-

DRU

ordinate paffions which are produced by the idlenefs of the
inhabitants of cities and towns. ~The veil, worn by their wo-
men, is their prote€tion ; infomuch that no one knows the
face of any other woman befides his wifz, his mother, his
filter, and fifter-in-law. Tbe women are perfely dome ftic ;
thofe-even of the fcheiks make the bread, roaft the coifre,
wafh the iinen, cook the victuals, and perform all the «ffices
of the family. The men cultivate their lands and vine-
yards, and dig canals for watering them. In the evening
they affemble in the area, or court, or houfe of the chief of
the viliage or family ; where, feated in a circle, with legs
croffed, pipes in their mouths, and poniards at their belts,
they difcourfe of their various labours, the fearcity or plenty
of their harvelts, peace or war, the conduct of the emir,
or the amount of the taxes; they relate paft tranfactione,-
cifcufs prefent interefts, and form conjetures on the future.
Their children liften, and at 10 or 12 years of age they talx
with a ferious air of war and taxes. This is their only edu-
cation. bey are not taugit to read either the Pfalms, as
among the Maronites, nor the Koran, like the Mahometans:
and even the fcheiks fearcely know how to write a: letter.
Among the Druzes there is little appearance of the grada-
tion of ranks; all, both fcheiks and peafants, treat one”
another with a familiarity, which is equally remote from
rudenefs and fervility. Ina word their manners are thofe of
ancient times, and that ruftic life, which marks the origin of
every nation; and which proves that the people, among
whom they are found, are hitherto only in the infancy of the
focial ftate. Wolney’s Travels in Egypt and Syria. Tott’s
Memoirs. Pococke’s Defcription of the Eaft, vol. ii.
DRUSIAS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine,
placed by Ptolemy W. of the Jordan.
DRUSILLIANIA, an epifcopal town of the proconfu-
lar Africa. :
DRUSIUS, Joun, in Biography, a very learned theolo-
gian of the Protettant faith, was born at Oudenard, in Flan-
ders, about the year 1550. The firlt rudiments of his edu-
cation he had at Ghent, and from thence he was fent to
Louvain to go through a courfe of philofophy. His father,
in 1567, was one of the viSims of the favage tribunal efta-
blifhed by the duke of Alva in the Netherlands, which ~
{tripped him of his eftate, and obliged him to feek refuge in
England. Young Drufius, notwithftanding the vigilance of
his mother, who, being herfelf a zealous Catholic, took
every method of detaining the youth in Flanders, found
means to efcape and join his father in London. He almott
immediately entered himfelf at Cambridge, and ftudied with
much ardour the claflics and philofophy, and was at the fame
time employed as private tutor to fome young men at the
fame college with himfelf. In 1571 he returned to the
metropolis, and was preparing for a journey to France, with
a view of farther improvement, when the news arrived of the
dreadful maffacre in Parison St. Bartholomew’s day. In
the following year he was admitted a member of Merton
college, Oxford, took his degree of B. A., and had an
eftablifhment appointed him for reading a le¢ture in the ori-
ental languages. He continued the duties of this office four
years, and then feeling a ftrong defire to vifit his native
country, he quitted Oxford and went to Louvain, where he
applied himfelf to the ftudy of the civil law. Here his con-
tinuance was very fhort, on accoant of the troubles excited
by bigots in religion, and he returned to his father in Lon-
don. A fudden turn in the affaira of bis country, by the
pacification of Ghent, enabled both father and fon to return
home in fecurity. The latter began now to look for a fet-
tlement in fome Proteftant country on the continent, and
was accordingly appointed profe {pr of the oritntal languages
ine

D&S

in the univerfity of Leyden. In the duties of this office he
laboured with indefatigable indultry, and, during’ the eight
years which bore witnefs to his affiduity as a le€&turer, he
publifhed works that eftablithed his fame for folid erudition
in various departments of literature. In the year 1580 he
married, and openly exprefled a with for a more lucrative
fettlement, in order that his means might correfpond to the
additional! expences in which a family might involve him.
The prince of Orange knew his value in the univerfity, and,
with his own hand, wrote to the magiltrates of Leyden,
exhorting them to furnifh Drufius with fuch emple provifien
as fhould prevent him from leaving their city. Inattentive,
however, to his great merits, they fuffered him to accept
of the fituation of Hebrew profeffor in the univerfity of
Franeker. He entered upon the duties of h's new office in
the year 1585, and retained it with the highe% reputation to
himfelf till his death, in 1616. He left behind him, in his
yumerous works, monuments to his fame, as one of the ablelt
{cripture critics, having written upwards of thirty feparate
works on the fubje&. The greateft part of thefe has been
incorporated in‘the well-known and higkly efteemed “ Critici
Sacriin Vet. et Nov. Teft,”* firt publifhed in this country,
and of which we have an abridgment in Pool’s “ Synopfis
Criticorum,’”’ a work that is become almotlt as fearce as it is
valuable. Befides this we have many other writings of Drn-
fius, which indifputably prove his deep {kill in the Hebrew
language, and his extenfive acquaintance with the Jewith
antiquities, and with whatever is conneSted with biblical lite-
rature. The private chara¢ter of this excellent fcholar was
as amiable and unafluming as his learning was profound.
He had a fon, of the fame name with himfeif, who exhibited
an aftonifhing initance of genius at a very early age: he un-
derftood accurately the Hebrew language when he was only
eight or nine years old; and, before he was 17, he was pre-
fented to James I. ef England; before whom, in the midft
of huxcourtiers, he delivered a Latin oration, which obtained
the applaufe and admiration of all who heard it. He died
of the ftone, before he was 21 years of age, at the houfe of
the dean of eae leaving behind him many memorials
of his learning an@unaffefted piety.

DRUSOMAGUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Vin-
delicia, now Memmingen.

DRUSUS, Marcus Livius, in Biography, a perfon of
coniiderable diftin&tion at Rome, was defcended from an an-
cient family, and became tribune of the people about the
year gt, B.C. At this period there were great diffenfions
in the ftate; Drufus hoped to reconcile the contending par-
ties, but his plan was oppofed by all thofe whom he aimed
to benefit by it. Confcious, perhaps, of his own good in-
tentions, he did not readily abandon the fcheme, and in fome
inltances he made ufe of means which were by no means
juftifiable to promote its fuccefs. Finding himfelf growing
unpopular, he propofed, as a bait to the multitude, a gra-
tuitous diftribution of corn among them: this meafure he
. followed by a ftill more alarming motion, of giving to the
Latins the privileges of Roman citizens. Hence violent
confpiracies were formed, which required all his addre{s to
ward off for a time, and which, in the end, proved fatal to
him. Returning from the forum, where he had been ha-
ranguing in favour of the allics, he was attended to his houfe
by a great crowd of people, in the midit of which an af-
faffin, faid to be C. Varus, plunged a knife into his body,
and made his efcape. Drufus fell, and expired a few hours
after, exclaiming, with his laft breath, “* When will the re-
public again poffefs a citizen like myfelf!?? By the party
whofe caufe he efpoufed his death was finczrely deplored,
while thofe on the oppoiite fide regarded it as a timely deli-

Bike a

verance of the {tate from one who was only ambitious of
being difinguifhed as a popular léader. Univer. Hitt.

Deusus. Nero Craupiws, fecond fon of Tiberius Nero,
by Livia, afterwards the wife of Auguttus, was diftinguifhed
on many occzfions for his courage and talents in public em~
ployments. His condu& againft the Rhetians, a fierce peo-
ple, inhabiting the country of the modern Grifons, over whom
he obtained a complete victory, is celebrated by Horace tn
the fourth ode of the fourth book, This was about the year
15, B.C.; and in two years afterwards, Auguitus, who was
his patron, committed to him the charge of {topping the in-
eurfions of the Germans into Gaul. In this, and in various
other inftances, he evinced the charaéteriflics of courage and
of the ‘higheft military prudence and fkcill; till, at length,
his fucceffes were fo brilliant and important, that his army,
on the field of battle, faluted him Imperator. On his return
to Rome he obtained the honour of 2 triumph, and in the
foilowing year, 9, B.C., he was raifed to the confulate.
Foreign war called him again to Germany: he crofled the
Rhine and the Wefer, and made fome ineffectual attempts
to pafs the Elbe. Here he ereéted trophies to atteft his
conquefts, and then began to march homewards: a fall from
his horfe, however, impeded his progrefs; and a fever, the
confequence of the accident, put an end to his life, in the
goth year of his age. Though cut off in the prime of life,
and even in the ardour of youth, he had lived fufficiently
long to eftablifh a high reputation as a foldier and magiitrate.
His public and private charafter exhibited the ttrongett
marks of honour and integrity. He was lamented by the
army and the people, and all claffes of the citizens rendered
him every token of homage and refpe&. He left three
children; wiz., the celebrated Germanicus ; Claudius, who
was afterwards emperor; and Livilla. Rom. and Univer.
Hitt.

Drusus, Casar, fon of the emperor Tiberius, was born
B.C. 13. He was introduced by Auguttus to offices in the
{tate at a very early age, and at the time of the death of that
emperor, he was nominated to the confulfhip. In the firft
year of his father’s reign, ; wiz. A.D. 14, he was fen: out
to appeafe a fedition, which had broken our in the legions in
Pannonia, in which he, happily, fucceeded. Inthe year 17,
he was fent to command in Illyricum, in order to keep that
province free from the war, which was then raging in Ger-
many. For his prudent and fuccefsful fervices he had the
honour of an ovation on hisreturn. He was eleGted conful,
a fecond time, in the year 21, and during the abfence of the
emperor in Campania, he fulfilled, alone, the funétions of
the office to the entire fatisfaétion of the public. _{n the fol-
lowing year the tribunitial authonty was conferred upon
him, for which he returned thanks by letter, inftead of pre-
fenting himfelf in due form before the fenate, which was
regarded in the light of an infult. Drufus, however, felt his
importance in,the {tate, and could not brook a rival, which led
him to dread the growing influence of Sejanus, and to take
every opportunity of treating him with indignity. Sejanus
was too afpiring and ambitious to {ubmit even to the prince,
and determined to deftroy him. For this purpofe, he infinu-
ated himfelf into the favour of Livilla, the wife of Drufus,
and, at length, {educed her affections, and contrived, by her
means, to adminifter poifon to ker own hufband, the foe of
her infamous gallant. In early life Drufus was fuppofed te
betray a cruel difpofition, by fome feats at the gladiatorian
games: he was allo, in fome degree, addified to wine, and iz
other inftances he gave tokens of a haughty and violent cha-
raGter. It muft, however, be mentioned to his credit, that,
while the court was divided Hetween him and his coufin
Germanicus, the two princes remained in perfect union, and

almoft

«

Wy. K. &

almo% indifferent as to the final decifion.
ver. Hilt. .

Drusus, the tower of Straton, or Cafarea, in Ancient
Geography, a port of Judea on the fea, formerly in the
half-tribe of Manafleh, on this fide of Jordan, and called
Drufus in honour of the fon of Czfar’s wife. See Cx-
SAREA.

DRUSWER, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in
the palatinate of Wilna; 14 miles W. of Braflaw.

DRUTHMARUS, Curisrtiay, in Biography, a learned
French monk in the ninth century, was a native of Aqui-
taine, but he was ordained priet in the diocefe of Amiens.
His various works prove that he was an excellent {cholar ;
arid very converfant in the facred writings. He left behind
him commentaries on the gofpels of St. Matthew, Luke, and
John; of the laft, two fragments only have reached us.’ His
objeét,as acritic and illuttrator of the facred writings, was to
give the natural and plain fenfe of the original language; and
he is thought by able judzes to have obtained his with. His
commentary on St. Matthew, and the fragments of the others,
were publithed at Strafburgh in 1514, which were foon after
fuppreffed on account of their tendency, which was decidedly
in favour of protettantifm. The catholics maintained, that
thefe paflages are infidious interpolations, and of no authority
whatever. ;

DRUTISCHKEN, in Geography, atown of Pruffian
Lithuania, on the Rominte; four miles ©. S. E. of Gum-
binnen.

DRUTZ, a riverof Ruffia, which runs into the Dnieper
at Rogatchev, in the government of Mogilev.

DRUYE, atown of France, in the department of the
Yonne, and diftriét of St. Fargeau; 16 miles S. of Aux-
etre.

DRUYN, or Drevin Perri, or Grand Drewin, a town
of Africa, on the lvory coatt, at the mouth of the river St.
Andre. N. lat. 5°. W. long. 4° 5’.

DRUYSKIDWAR, a town of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Wilna ; 8 miles N. E. of Braflaw.

DRUZIPARA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Thrace,
near the river Agrianes, towards the north-weft, and at
fome dittance from Perinthus.

DRY. A dry air, ceteris paribus, leffens the weight of
the human body, and the contrary quality increafes it. See
Moisture of the air.

Day Aguedud, is anarch made under a canal fora road
to pafs through.

Dey Baths, Confeds, Dock. See the fubftantives.

Day Exchange, Cambium ficcum, a foft appellation, an-
ciently ufed to difguife ufury, intimating fomething to
pafs on both fides ; whereas, in truth, nothing paffed but on
one: in which refpe& it might be called dry. Sec Inre-
REST, and Usury,

“€ Cambium ficcum,” fays Lud. Lopes, de Contra&. &
Negot. * eft cambium non habens exiftentiam cambii, fed
apparentiam, ad inftar arboris exficcate, &c.”?

Dry Harbour, in Geography, a bay on the N. coaft of
the ifland of Jamaica, N. lat. 18° 30’. W. long.77° 16',

Dry Mafs, Meafures. See the fubttantives.

Dry Meat, in the Manege, is ufed for corn and hay.
A\fter taking the horfe from grafs, or houfing him, he is fre-
quently put to dry meat.

Dey Moat, Rent, Storax, Suture, Spavin. See the fub-
ftantives.

Day Needles or Dry point, a tool ufed in copper-plate en-
raving, generally for the more delicate parts, fuch as the
lights of clouds, white drapery, the light fur of animals, &c,

Vou. XII,

Rom. and Uni-

DRY
It is called dy, in’ contradiftin@ion to the eching-néedle,
and becaufe its ufe is not followed* by the application of
aqua fortis.

Dry-needles are formed of fteel-wire, which fhould be of
excellent temper, that it'may cut the copper freely, without
breaking. ‘he wire fhould be from one to two inches in
length, and-from the 4th to the =4.th part of an inch in di-
ameter, according to the required {trength of the lines which
they may be intended to cut. Being thus formed and temp-
ered, the wire fhould be carefully inferted in flender handles,
which are commonly formed of ebony or box, and whetted to
conical points, more or lefs acute or obtufe, in proportion
as the lines or incifions in the copper are required to be
broad or deep.

That the point may cut lines exa€tly of the fame breadth
and depth on every fide, it fhould be whetted as nearly as pof-
fible to a perfect cone: in order to which, it fhould be very
carefully inferted in the handle, and fo that a right line being
fuppofed to pafs from its extreme point, to the centre of
the upper extremity of the handle, might form an ideal axis
to the whole, during the procefs of whetting. In propor-
tion to the truth of this ideal axis, will be the truth of the
conical point, and the confequent truth of the workman-
fhip for which it may be employed: and to -enfure
purpofes of fo much importance to the engraver, the belt
tool-makers generally infert a brafs focket in the handle
very correétly, by means of a watch-maker’s lathe and wheel,
before the dry-needle itfelf is introduced.

The dry-needle is ufually whetted toa point, witha little
cil, on a hone of the fineft kind: by the French engravers lati«
tudinally on the flat furface of the ftone, and by molt of the
Englith engravers, longitudinally, in 2 groove of an-inconfi«
derable depth, whichis formed im the bone for that purpofe.

When the dry-needle is thus prepared, it is ufed by dif-
ferent artifts, with various degrees of freedom or exa@titude;
the degrees of flrength of the incifions in the copper, being
efleéted by mere dint of preffure as the needle is held between
the fingers and thumb.

It fhould be mentioned, that in ufing this tool, ftill more
than in ufing the graver, the copper is forced up on cither
fide the incifions, as earth land-is forced up in ploughing a
furrow. The copper thus forced up, is termed by en-
gravers the burr, which is removed either by a feraper, (fee
Scraper.) or bya piece of foft charcoal with a flat furface,
ufed either with oil or with water.

Aliamet, Le Bas, and feveral other of the French engra-
vers, occafionally ufed oval inftead of circular wire for (h<ir
dry-needles ; and Worlidge, who engraved his {mall portraits
and prints from antique gems almoft entirely with this tool,
ufed triangular points, clearing off the burr which he railed
with charcoal; though, as may be feen in his prints, not
always clearing it off to the furface of the copper-plate.

DRYADES, Dryans, in the Heathen Theology, the
nymphs of the woods; a fort of imaginary deities, which
the ancients believed to inhabit the woods and groves, and
to hide themfelves under the bark of the oak, called by the
Greeks dpuz.

The dryades differed from the bamadryades, in that thefe
latter were attached to fome particular tree, with which
they were bora, and with which they died; whereas the
dryades were the goddefles of the trees and woods in generals
and lived at large, in the middle thereof. Yor, though dpys
properly fignities an oak, it was alfo ufed for tree in
general.

We likewife find mention made, in divers authors, of
akind of prophetefles, or witches, among the Gauls, called
dryades, or rather druides. See Devins,

Oo DRY ENAg

DRY

DRYZENA, or Curvsopouis, in Ancient Geography, a
town-of Afia, in Cilicia. Steph. Byz.

DRYANDER, Joun, in Biography, but whofe. real
name was Eichmens, was born at Wetterau in Hefle, but
received his education in France, and took his degree of
dogtor at Mayence. He went thence to Marpurg, where
he was engaged in teaching anatomy for twenty-four years,
viz. from the year 1536, to 1560, when he died, His
works are, * Anatomia pars prior, in qua membra ad caput
{peétantia, recenfentur, et delineantur,”? Marpurg, 4to. 1637.
He firft obferved feveral diftin@ions, before unnoticed, be-
tween the medullary and cortical part of the brain, and he
faw the olfactory nerves, which he mifcalls the optic nerves.
in 1541, he gave * Anatomiam Mundini ad vetuttiffimorum
aliquot manufcriptorum codicum fidem collatam,” gto. with
notes, in which he frequently correéts the errors of his author,
and for which heis defervedly placed by Haller among
the reftorers, and improvers of anatomy. He is alfo men-
tioned with honour inthe Bib, Anat. of Douglas. Haller
Bib. Anat.

DRYANDRA, in Botany, (fo named by Thunberg in
honour of his much-valued friend, Jonas Dryander, M. A.
the pupil and friend of the great Linnzus and of his fon,
Jong refident in this country, and now a vice-prefident of the
Linnzaa Society,) Thunb. Japon. 13. Murray in Linn.
Syft. Veg. ed. 14.612. Schreb. 708. Juff. 389. Mart.
Mill. Di@.v.2. Clafs and order, Dioecia Monadelphia.
Nat. Ord. Euphorbia, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of two avate, acute, equal
leaves, fhorter thanthe corolla. Cor. Petals five, obovate-
oblong, reflexed, fomewhat {preading, rather above half an
inchlong. Stam. Filaments nine, united below into one fet,
unequal, half the length of the petals; anthers minute. Pi/.
none.

Female, Ca/. and Pi/f. not obferved. Cor. Petals five.
Peric. Drupa pear-fhaped, angular, furrowed. Nut of
three or four cells. Seeds folitary, oval.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx two-leaved. Petals five.
nine. Female, Petals five. Drupa.
four cells. Seeds folitary.

D. cordata. Thunb. Jap. 267. t. 27. (Abrafin; Kempf.
Amoen. 789. Ic.t.23.) Dodiekn or Abrafin of the Ja-
panefe. Native of the ifland of Nipon, the country of Fa-
Konia, and other places in Japan, flowering in May and June.
it forms a {mall tree, luxuriantly branched; its wood is
compared by Kempfer to that of the willow, and the pith
islight and very abundant. Branches round, with a rugged,
dotted bark. Leaves about the ends of the branches, fpread-
ing, alternate, on footftalks, heart-fhaped, acute, entire, {mooth,
sa beneath, five-ribbed, veiny, broad, three or four inches
ong. In Kempfer’s figure they are undulated and fome-
aimes lobed, and bear two ftalked glands at the bafe, or one
between the lobes, which he alfo defcribes in his Amoenitates.
Flowers in corymbofe, aggregate, nearly terminal panicles,
white according to Kempfer, Thunberg fays yellow. The
feeds are compared to thofe of the Ricinus or Patma Chrifii,
and afford. oil for lamps. It is nearly allied to Fatropa, or
at leat to fome fpecies incorre&ly ranged by Linnzus under
that genus.

DRYAS, elegantly fo named by Linnzus, from the
Dryades, or fylvan goddeffes, to whom the oak, Apus, which
its leaves refemb!<, was facred. Linn. Gen. 256. Schreb.343.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2, 1118. Sm. Fl. Brit. 555. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 2. Jul. 338. Gaertn. t. 74. Clafs and order,
ee Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Senticofe, Linn. Rofacee,

u

Stamens
Nut with three or

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, in eight

DRY

deep fepments, which are fpreading, linear, obtufe, eqnat,
rather fhorterthan the corolla. Cor. Petals eight, oblong,
emarginate, {preading, inferted into the calyx. Stam. Filae
ments numerous, capillary, fhort, inferted into the calyx ; ane
thers {mall. Pi/?, Germens numerous, crowded, fmall; ftyles
capillary, inferted into the fides of the germens; ftigmas fim-
ple. Peric..none. Seeds numerous, roundifh, compreffed,
each crowned with its long, woolly, permanent ftyle.

Schreber remarks, that the fegments of the calyx, and
confequently the number of petals, vary from fix to ten.
This is true, but it happens very feldom.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in eight equal fegments. Petale
eight. Seeds with feathery tails. Receptacle depreffed.

D. odopetala, Linn. Sp. Pl. 717. Fl. Lapp. ed, 2. 181,
Sm. Engl. Bot.t. 451. (Chamedrys tertia, five montana;
Clus. Hift. v. 1. 351.) is the original, and as Willdenow
juftly obferves, only genuine fpecies, its generic cha-
rater depending not only on the number of petals, and core
refponding number of the fegments of the calyx, but on the
equality and uniformity of the latter. By this rule the
other fpecies are removed to Geum. It is found on moft of
the high Alpine heaths of Europe, forming wide entangled.
deprefled tufts or patches, flowering from the middle of
June till late in Auguft, The /fems are woody, branchedy.
leafy, a few inches in height. eaves evergreen, erowded,
ftalked, ovate, blunt, ftrongly ferrated; dark fhining green
above, fnow-white, veiny, downy and concave beneath.
Stipulas united with the footftalk, as in rofes. Flowers foe
licary, white, large, and handfome, each on along, ere&,
folitary, terminal, reddifh, glandular ftalk. Calyx alfo glan~
dular and brownith. Anthers yellow. It is one of the moft
elegant of Alpine plants, and may be cultivated in a gravelly
foil, mixed with loam and fome bog-earth, under a north
wall in our gardens, but it requires a pure air, and fome
cover during the cold windy weather ufual in our tardy
{fpring. S. :

Dryas, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece, it
Theffaly, 20 ftadia S. of the river Sperchius, and about the
fame diftance N. of Afopus.

Dryas, in Zoology, a {pecies of Myoxus, which fee.

DRYBACTA, er Trysactra, in Ancient Geographyy
a people of Afia, in Sogdiana. Ptolemy.

DRYBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and bifhopric of Paderburn; feven
miles E.N.E. of Paderburn.

DRYDEN, Joun, in Biography, one of the moft cele
brated poets of which this country can boat, was born
about the year 1631, in the parifh of Aldwinkle-All-Saints,
in Northamptonfhire. He was grandfon to fir Eraf{mus
Driden, (the name being then fpelt with an z,) of Canons-
Afby, in the fame county. The father of our poet poffefled
a {mall eftate, a&ed as a county magiltrate during the
ufurpation, and was, in religion, probably, a prefbyterian.
John laid the foundation of a learned education at Weft«
minfter, under the famous Bufby, and was thence eleéted to
a f{cholarfhip in Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1650. It
is faid that he was not diftinguifhed for peculiar talents or
genius, either at the fchool or at the univerfity. In the latter
he took his degrees, and though he had, at the time of his
admiffion, written two fhort copies of verfes, yet his name
is not recorded among the academical poets of the period.
His father died in 1654, and John fucceeded to fo much of
the eftate as could be {pared from the widow, who had
other children to provide for. He removed to the metro=
polis, and was patronized by a diftant relation, fir Gilbert
Pickering, one of Cromwell’s ftri@teft adherents. Dryden
was his clerk or fecretary, and probably concurred in the

Opinions

DRYDEN.

opinions and praétices of the family in which he refided.
Hence, fays his biographer, ‘‘in the hiltory of the changes
of the human mind, few facts will appear more extraordi-
nary, than that Milton fhould have been defcended from a
catholic and loyalift family, and Dryden from a feétarian
and republican one.’ On the death of Cromwell, Dryden
celebrated his memory, in heroic {tanzas, which faét has been
perpetually referred to in difpraife of the poet, who, on the
reftoration, ardently embraced the royal caufe. It mutt,
however, be admitted, that Dryden’s praife of the prote&or
went chiefly to that trait in his charaéter, which enabled him
firft to put an end to domeflic contentions, and then to in-
{pire awe and refpe& for his country throughout Enrope.
On the return of Charles {I. he publifhed his ‘* Aftrea
Redux,” which he followed by ‘ A Panegyric on the
Coronation.”? In 1662, he addreffed fome lines to lord
chancellor Clarendon, in the fame ftrains of loyalty ; but it
was fuppofed to be owing to fome elegant verfes in praife
of the modern improvements in philofophy, which he prefixed
to Dr. Charleton’s treatife on Stonehenge, that he was
ele€ted a member of the Royal Society. About the fame
time he appeared firft as a writer for the ftage, and his
comedy, entitled the ‘* Wild Gallant,’’ was aéted in Febru-
ary 1663. Bythe public this firft effort was ungracioufly
received, but by the intereft of Barbara Villiers, afterwards
duchefs of Cleveland, it obtained a kind reception at court.
His next pieces were, the ** Rival Ladies,’’ and the “ Indian
Emperor,”’ in which he difplayed a facility of harmonious
verfification, and a fplendour of poetic diction: while his
s* Effay on dramatic Poefy’’? exhibited him as an elegant
writer in profe, and an able and ingenious critic. About
the year 1665, he married lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter
of the earl of Berkeley, a connection which promifed more
advantages than really refulted from it. In 1667, Dryden
added to his fame, by the publication of his ** Annus Mira-
bilis,”” for which the fubjeéts were the fire of London, and
the war with the Dutch. He now engaged, under certain
conditions, with the managers of the king’s theatye, to fup-
ply them with three plays annually. Has profits under this
joint concern have been eftimated at nearly 4oo/. a-year, and
were probably the principal part of his income. On the death
of fir William Davenant, in 1668, he obtained the office of
poet-laureat, and foon after the finecure place*vf hiftorio-
grapher, the joint falaries of which produced him 200/. per
ann. For fome defeéts in his ftyle as a tragedian, he was
attacked under the name of Bayes, in the ‘ Rehearfal.”’
This fatire was written by Villiers, duke of Buckingham, in
conjunétion with other wits of the time. Dryyden felt the
lath which the burlefque drama meant to inflict, and can-
didly acknowledged that feveral of the ftrokes contained
in ic were truly appropriate. In 1679 Dryden himfelf be-
came a fatyrift, but his Effay’? provoked from lord. Ro-
chefter a fevere retaliation by the hands of ruffians
hired by his lordflip to infli& on the poet a cudgeiling,
as he was returning from the coffee-houfe. In 1651, by
the royal command, Dryden wrote his celebrated poem of
s* Abfalom and Achitophel,’”? which was an application of
the events in the life of David, king of Ifrael, to the reign of
his own fovercign Charles IJ., relative to the duke of Mon-
mouth and the earl of Shaftefbury, This work was eagerly
read, and as it raifed him very high in the eflimation of the
court, fo it involved him in irreconcilable enmity with its op-
ponents. The hatred was greatly increafed by his ‘* Medal,
a fatire on fedition,’? written the fame year, on occafion of
a medal ftruck by the whig party, when a grand jury re-
turned ignoramus to an indiétment preferred again{t lord

Shaftefbury for high treafon.

Dryden next tried his powers in literary fatire, hy the
publication of a piece entitled “* Mac-Flecknoe,’’ which was
written in ridicule of an unequal rival, Shadwell. From
this, which cannot well be juftified by the poet’a warmeft
admirers, we turn to his more ferious poem, the * Religio
Laici,”? which appeared in the fame year. Its purpofe is
to give a compendious view of the arguments for revealed
religion, and to afcertain in what the authority of revelation
effentially confifts. Soon after this, he ceafed to write for
the ftage, but he was then deeply involved in his pecuniary
circumitances, and folicited moft earneflly any employment,
either in the cuftoms or excife, that might be vacant, on the
{core of abfolute neceffity. ‘ I have,’ fays he, ‘ three
fons, growing to man’s cftate. I breed them all to learning
beyond my fortune, but chey are too hopeful to be negleéed,
though I want.—I am going to write fomewhat by his
majefty’s command, and cannot ftir into the country for my
health and ftudies, till I fecure my family from want.”? The
cafe of Dryden, like a thoufand fimilar cafes, proved that
real want was not the beft recommendation to the affluent :
his petition was unheeded, and he obtained from thofe
Meecenafes of the age, the bookfellers, that patronage which
an ungrateful monarch refufed to beftow, upon his needy,
but very faithful poet and friend.

Soon after the acceflion of James II., Dryden conformed
to the religion of the king, in the profeflion of which‘he con-
tinued till his death. Whether this important change be
imputable to conviction, or to a defire of the royal favour,
has been a fubje&t of much difpute. It is, however, cer-
tain, that he never feems to have regarded the bufinefs of
religion with that attention which its importance demands,
and on this account, probably, thought the difference be-
tween the proteftant and catholic faith of no great moment.
He obtained from the new king an additional penfion of
100/, as a reward of his ready compliance; to which was
annexed, it is fuppofed, a condition that he fhould employ
his pen in defence’ of the religion which he embraced,
and he faithfully performed his part of the contraé&t. The
revolution, in 1688, deprived the poet of all his pofts and

enfions, and the laureatefhip was beftowed upon his rival
Shadwell, to the no {mall mortification of Dryden, and not
a little to the difgrace of thofe who could {natch it from a
poet of extraordinary merit, to give it toa man who poffeffed
no qualification worthy of the office.

Dryden, now advanged in life, was obliged to depend
wholly upon his own exertions for a fecurity from abfolute
indigence. Fortunately for him, his faculties were equal
to his wants, and what is very furprifing, the pieces which
he wrote during the laft ten years of his life, for aGtual fub-
fiftence, were thofe which have molt contributed to immor-
talize hismame. Among thefe were his tranflations of Ju»
venal and Perfius, and Virgil; by the latter he gained about
1300/., it being publifhed by fubicription. Soon after the
publication of his Virgil, he was folicited by the ftewards
of the mufical celebration of St. Cecilia’s day, to write a
fecond ode for the purpofe: he had written the firk in
1687. This requelt produced his celebrated ‘* Alexander’s
Feait,’’ the moit popular of all his compofitions, and, per-
haps, fays a good writer, it ftands at the head of all the
lyric poemsin the Englifh language. About this period he
meditated a tranflation of Homer, and agreed, as we are
told, to furnifh his bookfeller with 10,000 lines for the fum
ef go0/. His laft work was a colleGtion of fables, of which
the fubjects are taken frogs Chaucer, Boccace, Ovid, &c.
He died on the firlt of May, 1700,*and his body was in-
terred with eyery mark of refpeét, in Weltmiofter Abbey,
where a monument was erected to his memory, by Shef-

Oo2 ficld,

DRYDEN.

field, duke of Buckingham: his name alone fupplied his
€pitaph. ;

No modern writer, unlefs Voltaire be an exception, has
pofleffd equal verfatility of talent with Dryden. For the
drama he had no original predilection: the bent of his genius
would have impelled him to epic poetry: he wrote plays
becaufe he was poor: and that he ever wrote tnem well
mut be afcribed to the exuberance of his powers. His thea-
trical pieces are indeed unequal in the extreme. In fome he
finks below criticifm, in others he foars far above it. The
plays of Dryden, though never to be entirely approved, are
fill read and admired, while thofe of his competitors are
mouldering in oblivion. In his heroic plays, Dryden opened
a field of compofition peculiarly his own. In the * Con-
quett of Grenada,” he delights by the diverfity of his cha-
raéters, the vivacity of his defcription, the eloquence of the
language, and occafionally the fublimity of the fentiments.
What he has produced is not fo much a drama as an epic
romance, and it has been the fubje& of regret that he had
not leifure to produce a poem on a plan fo confonant to his
genius. ‘ In bis “ Don Sebaftian,”’ fays an elegant writer,
“ he has rivalled Corneille ; in hia ‘Anthony and Cleopatra,”
he bas caught a portion of Shakfpear’s fpirit, and employed
it better than his mafter: in his Spanifh. Fryar,” he has
given the happielt example of a double plot, and in every
refpeét, but morals, of a perfeét play. In the drama, there-
fore, if Dryden fometimes fell fhort of his own powers, he
commonly proves fuperior to other men; as an original poet
he is yet more to be praifed. Perhaps no individual writer
ever contributed fo largely to polifh and refine a language:
in fatire he was a matter: his ‘* Medal;”’ his * M«Flexnoe,”
and his * Abfalom,” are all original treafures which have
enriched fucceeding writers: his chara¢teriftic excellencies
are verfatility and ftrength ; his faults are innumerable, but
they are redeemed by the originality and energy of his con-
ceptions. Asa tranflator, he deferves much blame as well as
praife. His genius aflimilated better with Juvenal and Per-
fins than with Virgil. His fables are not the lealt pleafing
of his performances: his ‘ Alexander’s Fealt,”? which
alone might have immortalized his name, was among the
Jateft of his produ@tions. Such an acceffion of valuable
poetry no other writer has fupplied to our language: but his
merits are not limited to poetical compofitions; in his various
prefaces, and in his ‘¢ Eflay on Dramatic Poetry,” he has
eftablifhed his reputation asa profe writer. The inequalities
Yo obvious in his verfe are not difcovered in his profe; he is
uniformly graceful and elegant ; always animated and various,
and fometimes eloquent. To compare Dryden with Pope
would be invidious: the latter could not have written fo
well, had not the former written before him. Under Dry-
den’s aufpices, Congreve wrote for the ftage: emulous of
his genius, Pope lifped in numbers, for the numbers came 5
Bolingbroke caught the glow of Dryden's fancy; and
Addifon learnt from him to conftru& festences with that
exquifite felicity which eludes cenfure, and baffles imitation.”

In private life Dryden was cold and referved; yet he was
friendly and humane. Though his pen was extremely licen-
tious, his manners were decently reguiar. He was domettic
in bis habits, and aff-Gionate towards his fami'y. Witha
ue fenfe of his own fuperior merit, he was fenfible of his
defe&ts and patient under criticifm. Biog. Brit. Jchnfon.
Hitt. of Knowledge, in New Ann. Regifter.

Our great bard, belides his dramatic works for declama-
tion, fingle poems of length, occafional verfes, epiitles, fables,
elegics, prologues, epilogues, epitaphs,and tranflations, is well
entitled to eulogy asa lyric poet ; having not only written in-
gumerable fongs, “* Alexander’s Feaft,” and another, ** Ode

for St. Cecilia’s Day,”? but feveral dramas exprefsly for mu-
fic: as, ** The State of Tanocence. or, Fall of Man,” an
opera; * Albion and Albanius,’? ditto; ‘¢ King Arthur,
or the Britifh Worthies,”? a dramatic opera; and the
« Drama of Dioclefian,”? written originally by Beaumont
and Fletcher, which he formed into an opera for Purcell.

Though the State of Innocence is formed into an opcray
it can hardly be called a lyric poem: it is written in regular
heroic verfe, and in rhyme. There is, deed, much ma-
chinery and piturefque and inftrumental mufic planned ;
but in the two firlt ats not a fingle ftanza calculated to form
an air or duet. There is, indeed, a dance of devils, among
other amuflements, between the firft and fecond a&s ; and it
is faid in the inftrutions, that they may fing a fong expreflive
of the change of their condition, from what they once en-
joyed, and how they fell bravely in battle, having deferved
victory by their valour, and what they would have done
had they conquered. In the third act only devils fing,
difguifed like angels. There is no fong or vocal mufic in
the fourth a&. In the laf fcene of the fifth aé, foft mufic
and a fong are mentioned ; but for which no words are pro-
vided. Eve’s laft fpeech, however, might be fet and fung, as
an adieu to the joys of paradife.

This drama, framed from Milton’s Paradife Loft, was never
brought on the ftage, or even fet to mufic, as we have been
able todifcover. Nor do we know whether the dialogue
was intended for recitative or declamation. The author,
while he has endeavoured to preferve the beautiful, bold, and
daring fentiments of Milton, quitting blank verfe, and Mil-
ton’s epic ftyle, has dreffed his thoughts in his own melo-
dious, powerful, and happy verfification.

Turoughout the preface to his next opera, 2s it is called,
«© Albion and Albanius,’”’ Dryden, in his ufual manner, dif-
fufes entertainment and inftru€tion; and though he proba-
bly had never feen or heard a fingle feene of an Italian opera
performed, his definition of that fpecies of drama, and pre-
cepts for its conftruétion and perfeCtion, are admirable, and
in many refpects ftiil applicable to fimilar exhibitions.

« An opera,” fays he, ‘tis a poetical tale, or fiGtion, repre=
fented by vocal and inftrumental mufic, adorned with {cenes,
machines, and dancing. The fuppofed perfoas of this mu-
fical drama are generaily fupernatural, as gods and goddefics,
and heroes, which at leaft are defcended from them, and in due
time are to be adopted into their number. The fubjedt,
therefore, being extended beyond the limits of haman nature,
admits of that fort of marvellous and furpniz nz condu@,
which is rejeted in other plays. Human impoilibilities are
to be received, as they are in taith; becaufe, where gods are
introduced, a Supreme power is to be underilood. and fecond
caufes are out of doors: yet propriety is to be obferved even
here. he gods are ail to manage their peculiar provinces ;
and what was attributed by the Heathensto one power,
ought not to be performed by any other. If the perfons
reprefented were to {peak on the {lage, 1t would follow of
neceflity, that the expreffions fhould be lofty, figurative, and
majettrcal; but the nature of an opera denis the frequent
ufe of thefe poetical ornaments; for vocal mulic, though it
often admits a Joftinefs of found, yet always exacts a melodious
{weetnefs; or to diltinguifh yet more jultly, the recitative
part of an opera requires a more mafculine beauty of expref-
fion and found: the airs muit abound in the foftnefs and
variety of numbers; their principal intention being to pleafe
the hearing, rather than to gratify the underftanding. As
the fiift inventors of any art or fcience, provided they have
brought it to perfe@tion, are, in reafon, to give laws to it;
fo whofoever undertakes the writing an opera, is obliged to
imitate the Italians, who have not only invented, but perteGed

this.

>

Oh. ue

DRY

this fort of dramatic mufical entertainment. We know that
for fome centuries, the knowledge of mufic has flourifhed
principally in Italy, the mother of learning and of arts ; that
poetry and painting have been there reftored, and fo culti-
vated by Italian matters, that all Europe has been euriched out
of their treafury.

“It is almoft needlefs to {peak any thing of that noble
language, in which this mufical drama was firft invented and
performed. All who are converfant in the Italian, cannot
but obferve, that it is the fofteft, the fweeteft, the moft
harmonious, not only of any modern tongue, but even beyond
any of the learned. It feems, indeed, to have been invented
for the fake of poetry and mufic ; the vowels are fo abound
ing in all words, and the pronunciation fo manly and fo fo-
norous, that their very {peaking has more of mufic in it than
Dutch poetry or fong. This language has in a manner
been refined and purified from the Gothic, ever fince the time
of Dante, which is above four hundred years.ago ; aad the
French, who now catt a longing eye to their country, are
not lefs ambitious to poflefs their elegance in poetry and
mufic; in both which they labour at impofiibilities: for
nothing caa be improved beyond its own fpecies, or further
than its own original nature will allow: as one with an ill-
toned voice, though ever fo well inftructed in the rules of
mufic, can never make a great finger. The Englifh have
yet more natural difadvantages than the French ; our original
Teutonic confifting moft in monofyllables, and thofe in-
cumbered with confonants, cannot poflibly be freed from
thofe inconveniences.”

He tells us, that ‘this opera was only intended as a pro-
logue toa play of the nature of the ‘« Tempeft ;””? which is a
tragedy mixed with opera, or a drama written in blank verfe,
adorned with fcenes, machines, fongs, and dances; fo that
the fable of it is all fpoken and ated by the belt of the co-
medians; the other part of the entertainment to be per-
formed by the fame fingers and dancers who are introduced
in this prefent opera.”” The tragedy here alluded to was
‘King Arthur,” which was not performed till about the
year 1690. rm

By dramatic opera, Dryden, and writers of his time,
mean a drama that is deciaimed or {poken, and in which
fongs and fymphonies are introduced ; differing from real
operas, where there is no fpeaking, and where the narrative
part and dialogue is fet to recitative. And this isthe plan
that has of late years been fo fuccefsfully fo!lowed by Bicker-
fiaff and others, in the comic-operas that have appeared on
the Englith ttage. ‘lo fay the truth, though recitative was
tolerated in Dr. Arne’s Artaxerxes in favour of the airs, fung
by favourite fingers, we have properly no zational recitative,
which, in a&ion, is not languid, or ridiculous.

In the epiitle dedicatory to his third opera, ‘* King Ar-
thur,”’ to the marquis of Hallifax, the poet makes a very
eandid, liberal, and unufual conceffion to the mufician, Pur-
cell, who compofed the opera, by faying that “* thefe forts
of entertainment are principally defigned for the ear and
¢ye; and therefore in reafon my art on this occalion ought
to be fubfervient to his.”?

Dryden, no mufician himfelf, feems to have been more
fentible to the charms of mufic, than any of our poets of the
higher clafs, except Milton and Mafon, who knew what
they were talking about. Burney.

DRYERS, in Painting, are fubitances, fo called from their
ufe in remedying the fault of oils, which dry too flowly.
See Drying Oi.

DRYINAS, Oak-/nake,.in Zoology, a {pecies of Crotalus 3
which fee.

DRYITA, in Ancient Ceography, a people of Africa, in

r

DRY

Mauritania Czfarienfis, placed by Ptolemy on mount Durdus,
—Alfo, a people of the ifle of Crete.

DRYITES Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
authors to a fubitance but ill deferving the name of a ftone ;
it being only foffile wood found in detached maffes. There
is much of this foffile wood found in Italy, on the banks, and
on the fhores of rivers. We know alfo by what we fee of
the foffile wood of England, that it may be found in all
degrees of petrifaction,. from that of almott unaltered wood,
to abfolute ftone, or mineral matter, with only the fuper-
ficial grain of wood. See Fofile Woop.

DRYMA, or Dayne, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Libya, the ddryma of Strabo, {uppofed to be the
fame with ddrumetum.

DRYMAA, Deymos, or Drymus, a town of Greece,
in the Phocide, on the banks of the Cephiffus, N.E. of
mount Parnaffus, and 20 ftadia from mount Tithronium. In
this place was an ancient temple, dedicated to Ceres Thef-
mophora, or Legiftatrix, in which was celebrated an annual
fealt. The ftatue of the goddefs was of marble. Paufa-
nias favs that the inhabitants of this town were ancicntly
called Nauboliani. It is called -Drymia by Steph. Byz.,
and Pliny denominates its territory Drymia and Daulis.

DRYNESS of a Place, means the ftate of that place with
refpect to the want of moilture ; and, fince dry and moitft,
dry and damp, dry and wet, are relative terms, a place A
may be faid to be dryer than another place B ; or the place
B may be faid to be moifter than the place A, and the
meaning of both expreffions is exa@ly the fame. There is
no place upon the furface of the earth which is perfe@tly
dry, and there is none that may be called perfetly damp,
unlefs it were entirely covered by water. The philofophical.
in{trument, which meafures and indicates the atual degree
of drynefs, or of moilture, is called an hygrometer, and a vatt
variety of hygrometers have been contrived and ufed ; but
they are moftly imperfect. The belt hygrometers at prefent
known, are thofe of Mr. De Luc, and Mr. Sauffure. (See
the article Hycrometer.) The general principle upon
which hygrometers act is as follows:

A flender piece of animal, or vegetable fubftance, capable
of abforbing and of yielding moifture with readinefs, and
likewife capable of expanding itfelf, more or lefs, in propor-
tion to the quantity of moiiture, (of which there is a great
number, ) is fixed in a proper frame of metal, or wood, or
glafs, &c. and by means of a graduated feale, its expanfion
is fhewn to the obferver ; and fince this expanfion is nearly
proportional to the degree of moifture in the hygrometrical
fubltance, which is not materially different from the moifture
of the furrounding air ; therefore, the degree of expaniion
of the hygrometrical fubftance, indicates the contemporary
moitture of the furrounding air. But the more general defeéts
ofhygrometers are, 1{t, that the points of extreme moiltureand
extreme drynefs, or theutmolt expanfionandcontrz tion of the
hygrometrical fubftance, cannot be fixed on many of them ;
and, 2dly, that even in the belt hygrometers, the animal, or
vegetable hygrometrical fubitance, is apt to alter its degree
of expanfion and contraction in the courfe of no great length
of time ; hence, two or more hygrometers, made upon the
very fame principle, even by the fame workmen, but at dif-
ferent times, will hardly ever be found to agree, when placed
in the fame fituation, and exa@lly-in the fame circumftances.
The. hygrometers of De Luc and Sauffure, though fuperior
to all the others, are not quite free from this imperfection.
In confequence of thefe defeats, and of the recent invention
of the two laft mentioned hygrometers, we have not a great
number of periodical hygrometrical obfervations made in
different countries ;. whence, the comparative drynefs of °

different

DRYNESS.

diferent places might be determined, It is not from the
obfervations of one or two years, that a tolerably good etti-
mate of the drynefs of a particular place may be derived.
A mean of feveral years conftant obfervation, is the only
approximation that-can be depended upon. Notwithftand-
ing thefe defects and thefe difficulties, the drynefs of
places frequently forms the fubje& of common converfation,
and common inquiry ; for, in truth, the real ftate of it 1s a
matter of no {mall confequence to the welfare of the human
{pecies.

The drynefs, or moifture, of a particular foot, arifes from
a variety of circumftances, which mult be all taken into con-
fideration, in order to forma proper eftimate ; and, after all,
at leaft in the prefent ftate of knowledge, the real ftate of
any particular {pot, with refpeét to drynels, or moifture,
may, with more confidence, be derived from vilible effe& in
common occurrences, than from the meteorological journal.
The common occurrences we allude to, are the ufual colour
of vegetables; their growing more or lefs readily upon
walls, houfes, trees, &c.; the frequent moifture of common
falt, and fo forth.

The-average quantity of rain which falls upon a country
throughout the year, is by no means a fure indication of the
nature of that country with refpeét to drynefs ; for, if the
rains fall feldom, though in abundance, the place may be
much dryer than if the rain fell frequently and flightly. In
the former cafe, the great quantity of rain-water ts abforbed,
or drained, or evaporated ; and not long after the place may
be remarkably dry. In the latter cafe, the {mall quantity
of rain which falls at one time is hardly evaporated, or ab-
forbed, before more rain comes down, and thus a fucceffion of
moiftureis keptup. Dr. Huxham obferves, that {mall rains
keep the air moift, while heavy ones render it drier, by beat-
ing down vapours. The perpendicular height of water
which falls at Barbadves in one year, meafures 67 inches (a
remarkably great quantity); yet the air of that ifland is by
no means reckoned damp. In India, the air generally is fo
remarkably dry, as to abforb moifture, with furprifing quick-
nefs, from whatever is expofed to it; yet, during the rains,
viz. the period during which the rain falls almoft inceffantly,
the water that falls, and the copious evaporation of that
which has fallen, render the air fo very damp, as to loofen all
forts of furniture that are faftened by means of glue, and the
hygrometer nearly points to extreme moifture. See the
article Rain.

The dews, which fall much more abundantly upon certain
places than upon others, contribute, at Jeaft for a particular
time, to moiften the air of the place. See the article
Dew.

Numerous plants, clofely growing, contribute to the
dampnefs of the place; 1{t, becaufe they themfelves evapo-
rate abundance of water; 2dly, becaufe they prevent the
‘rays of the fun, and the aétion of the winds, having any
effe&t upon the ground below them.

In general, warm countries, viz. thofe which are fituated
near the torrid zone, when they are not furrounded by
marfhes, are drier than thofe which lie nearer to the poles of
the earth ; excepting, however, in a hard froft.

Iflands, and efpecially fmall ones, moftly are lefs dry than
‘continental traéts. And valleys, together with other places
that lie clofe to -hills, mountains, &c. generally are leis dry
‘than thofe which ftand in open countries. About the lati-
‘tude of Great Britain, thofe places which lie clofe to the
weftern fhores, are le{a dry than thofe which are otherwife
fituated. ,

The winds which are predominant in any particular coun-
try, influence, in a confiderable degree; the drynefs of the

place; for, according as they moflly come from the fea,
or from the land, from the north, or from the fouth, or elfe-
where, fo they bring dry, or moift air with them. i

In no place does the hygrometer ever reach the points of
extreme drynefs, or of extreme moifture ; excepting, indeed,
when it is improperly fituated. In London, the mean
annual altitude of the hygrometer feems to be about 82°;
the whole fcale between the points of extreme drynefs and
extreme moifture being divided into 100 degrees.

The movements of the hygrometer indicate the changes
of drynefs to moifture, and vice ver/#, in the furrounding air,
with {ufficient quicknefs. And from the joint movements
of the hygrometer and the barometer, the approaching
change of weather may frequently be forefeen. When the
barometer falls, and the hygrometer rifes, rain is at hand.
When the barometer rifes, and the hygrometer falls, we may
expect fair weather.

Dryness, Extreme Point of, means a total privation of
moifture. But upon the furface of the earth a place fo cir-
cumftanced does not occur ; for the air, in its natural ftate,
is always more or lefs combined with aqueous vapour ; and
hot air holds in folution a greater quantity of water, than an
equal bulk of colder air can do; fo that heated air has a
greater drying power, becaufe the additional heat has ren-
dered it capable of diffolving more water ; whence, it evi-
dently appears, that heating is not one of the means by
which air may be deprived of its moifture; yet, (in confe-
quence of the above-mentioned circumitance, ) it is the molt
effc&tual method of drying other things.

The only method of depriving air of its moifture, to a
very confiderable degree, if not entirely, is to expofe a piven
quantity of it to fuch fubftances as abforb water with great
avidicy. Strong fulphuric acid, hot cauftic alkalies, and
quick-lime recently calcined, have each of them the pro-
perty of abforbing the humidity of the air. here are
other fubftances which likewife peffefs the fame power,
though not in an equal degree, or which may not be ulcd
with equal conveniency. For this purpofe, the air mutt he
confined into a veffel, fo as to have no communication with
the external air, and the fubftance which is to abforb its
moi{ture, muft then be introduced to it.

This operation is not frequently required in philofophical
experiments ; and the principal ufe to which it is at prefent
applied, is to fettle the point of extreme drynefs in the con-
ftruction of hygrometers ; and this is eccomplifhed in the
following manner: About 10, 15, or 20 pounds weight of
quick-lime juft burned, are placed in an oblong tin veffel,
the capacity of which exceeds the bulk of the lime. On
one fide of this veflel, and againft its empty fpace, there is
a pane of glafs, through which one may fee what pafles
within the veffel. Now, when the vefle] has been charged
with the lime, the hygrometers which are finifhed, fo far as
to want only the graduation of the feale, are placed within
the tin veffel, and exaétly behind the pane of glafs. "Che lid
of the veffel is then put or, and is waxed, or cemented down,
in order to prevent any paflage of air either in or out of the
veffel. In this fituation, the whole is left undifturbed for feve-
ral days, during which the movements of the indexes of she
hygrometers are obferved daily through the pane ef glafs,
In proportion as the lime abforbs the moifture of the air,
the index of each hygrometer is feen to defcend ; but, after
a certain period, they become ftationary ; and that point at
which the index of each hygrometer ftops, gives the point of
extreme drynefs whicg is there marked, (for which purpofe a
few arbitrary marks are made upon the undivided feales of the
inftruments before they are confined within the tin vefel.)
The point of extreme moifture is afterwards determined, by

placing

DRY

placing the hygrometer under water, And the diftance
between thofe two extreme points is diyided into a hun-
dred equal parts, called degrees. :

In the above-deferibed operation, quick-lime has been
preferred, principally on account of its continuing to abforb
moitture gradually, but for a very long time. For farther
particulars relative to the conftruétion and the ufe of this
veffel with quick-lime, fee the article HyGromerer.

DRYOPA, in Ancient Geography, atown of the Pelo-
ponnetus, in the Argolide, near Hermione. Steph. Byz.

DRYOPEIA, Ajuorsa, in Antiquity, an anniverfary day,
obferved in memory of Dryops, one of Apollo’s fons.

DRYOPIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of Greece,
fituate in the vicinity of Mounts Oeta and Parnaflus, and fo
called, as it is faid, from Dryope, the daughter of Eurypy-
lus, or, as the poets feign, anymph ravifhed by Apollo; but
more probably from pus, an oak, and ol, voice, on account
of the number of oaks that grew about the mountains and
the ruftling of their leaves. The Dryopes, however, valued
themfelves much upon their fabulous origin, and cailed
themfelves the fons of Apollo; and therefore, Hercules,
having overcome this people, carried them ‘prifoners to
Delphos, where he prefented them to their divine progenitor,
~who commanded that hero to'take them with him into Pe-
loponnefus. Hercules obeyed, and gave them a fettlement
there, near the Afinean and Hermionian territories; hence
the Afinzans came to be blended withand to call them-
felves Dryopes. Paufanias, in Meffen.

DRYOPTE RIS, in Botany, from Agus; the oak, and TT EDL
a fern, fee Potyropium. ‘T'ragus feems the firft modern
writer who gave this name to what is now Polypodium Dry-
opteris ; but the celebrated Polypody of the Oak 1s, with Eng-
hith pharmacologifts, merely P. vulcare happening to grow
in that fituation, which has been {uppofed to encreafe its
reputed medical virtues. The Ajuoxdpss of Diofcorides is
defcribed by him asa fern with very finely cut leaves, growing
‘on old mofly oaks, and may as probably be the plant of
‘Tragus as any other.

DRYPIS, (Apums of Theophratus, fo called from dpuriuy
to tsar, appears to have been a thorny leaflefs fhrub, not
now to be afcertained. Anguiilara firft applied this ancient
name to the plant before us, and was followed by Lobel,
Gerarde, and Linneus, _ It is perhaps the only plant for
which the latter quotes Gerarde’s herbal.) Linn. Gen. 150.
Schreb. 202. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1513. Mart. Mill. Dia.
v. 2. Jufl. 303. Gertn.t.128. Clafs and order, Pen-
tandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Caryophyllee.

Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth of one leaf, tubular, divided half
way down into five fegments, permanent. Cor. Petals five;
their claws narrow, the length of the calyx; borders flat,
deeply divided into two linear blunt fegments, and crowned
at the bafe with a pair of {mallteeth to each petal. Stam.
Filaments five, as long as the corolla; anthers fimple, oblong,
incumbent. Pi. Germen fuperior, obovate, compreffed ;
Atyles three, fimple, fpreading; ftigmas fimple. Peric. Cap-
fule roundifh, clothed with the calyx, fmall, of one cell, cut
all round. Sted folitary, kidney-fhaped, polifhed with fpiral
cotyledons and embryo. ‘

Eff. Ch. Calyx with five teeth. Petals five, cloven, crown-
ed. Capfule burfting all round, of one cell. Seed folitary.

D. fpinofa. Linn. Sp. Pl. 390. Jacq. Hort. Vind, v. 1.
39.t. 49. (Drypis; Ger.em. 1112. D, italica aculeata,
floribus albis umbellatim compaétis ; Mich. Gen. 24. t. 23,
badly copied in Lamarck t. 214.) This is the only known
{pecies, nor can any plant conftitute a more natural genus,
though it belongs to fo very natural anorder.. It grows in
Barbary, Italy, and feveral ai of the Levant. Dr, Sib-

DRY

thorp gathered the Drypis on mount Parnailus; fee Prod:
Fl. Gree. vy. 1.209. Jacquin communicated it to the Kew
garden in 1775. The rootis biennial. Stems decumbent
at the bafe, then afcending, fquare ; branched in an oppo-
fite manner. Leaves oppotite, feffile, awl-fhaped, pungent ;
thofe onthe main ftem having often two or three {pinous:
fegments or teeth on each fide, whilethofe on the branches
are all undivided and entire. The ftem terminates in a.
forked leafy panicle. Flowers {eflile, white or purplifh, re--
fembling thofe of a Svel/aria. The whole herb is fmooth,
and of apale rather glaucous giecn, Affes are faid by
Micheli to be fond of it.

DRYS, in Ancient Geagraphy, a town of Thrace.—Alfo,
a town of Italy, in Oenotria.— A'io, a town of Greece, in-
Epirus.—-Alfo, a trading fea-port town of Afia Minor, in
Bithynia, over-againft Nicomedia ;. it was one of the faux-
bourgs of the town of Chalcedon; and was alfo called
Riufiniana.

DRYSDALE, Joun, D. D. in Biography, a diftinguith-
ed clergyman of the eftablifhed church of Scotland, was the
third fon of the Rev. John Dryfdale, minifter of Kirkaldy;
at which place Dr. Dryfdale was born, on the 29th of April,
in the year 1718. The elementary parts of claflical learning
he received under Mr. Miller, who kept a fchool in that
town; and had among his contemporaries the learned Dr,
George Kay, and the celebrated Dr. Adam Smith. In 17325
he wasfent to finifh his ftudies at the univerfity of Edinburgh;
and in the year 1740, was licenfed to preach by the prefbytery
of Kirkaldy, ‘Taking holy orders, he was feveral yeara
affiftant minifter of the collegiate church in Edinburgh, and
in 1748 was prefented to the church of Kirklifion.. After
refiding there for fifteen years, he was prefented to lady
Yelter’s church, by the town councilof Edinburgh. This
being the firft inftance in which the magiftrates of that city
had exercifed their right of prefentation, and Mr. Dryfdale
being fufpe€ted of favouring in his difcourfes the Arminian
tenets; a formidable oppofition was made to his inftitution ;
but the magifterial party proving victorious, he obtained a
fettlement in lady Yefter’s church. And the fermons he
delivered there, fays profeffor Dalzel, always attraGted a-
great concourfe of hearers, whom he never failed to delight
and inftru@, by an eloquence of the moft nervous, and in=
terefling kind. His natural diffidence for fome time pres
vented his appearing as afpeaker in the ecclefiattical judica«
tories ; but he was at length induced to co-operate with Dr.
Robertfon, in defence of what is termed the Afoderate Party,
in the church of Scotland. In 1755, the univerfity of Aber-
deen, unfolicited, conferred upon him the honorary degree
of dottor in divinity ; and on the death of Dr. Jardine, he
was preferred to the church of T’ron, and appointed a king’s
chaplain, with the allowance of one-third’ the emoluments
arifing from the deanery of the chapel royal. In 1973,
having obtained the character of an able and impartial di-
vine, he was unanimovfly elected moderator of the general
aflembly of the Scottifh kirk; “ the greateft mark of re-
fpe&t,”? obferves his biographer, “ which an ecclefiattical
commonwealth can beftow.” In 1784, he was re-eleGted by
a great majority, amd again raifed to the fame dignity. In
May, 1738, he appeared at the general aflembly, and, the
firlt day, ated as principal clerk, but was taken ill, and died
on the 16th of June following, aged -7o years. His general
character was that of benevolence and inflexible integrity.
His candour obtained him many friends; and even {uch as
were of different fentiments- in church affairs, and held differ.
ent religious tenets, efteemed the man, and with thefe he
kept up a friendly intercourfe, ‘* Indeed,’? adds the pro-
fellor, “ never any man more fucceféfully illutrated what he

taught

DSJ

taught by his own condu& and manners.” His reputation
as a preacher was vety great; and, on an occafional vifit he
mude to London, Mr. Strahan endeavoured to perfuade him
ts pubiifh a volume of fermons. On his return to Scotland
he began a feleAion for the purpofe, but his modefty hin-
dered his proceeding, and induced him, finally, to relinquifh
the plan. After his death, his friend, profeflor Dalzel, who
had the infpe€tion of his manufcripts, made a {election of
his fermons, ard publifhed them in two o€tavo volumes, with
biographical anecdotes of his life, from whence this account
has been extracted.

DRYSWIATY, in Geography, a town of Lithuania,
in the palatinate of Wilna; 16 milesS. W. of Braflaw.

DRZEWICZE, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomir; 24 miles W. N. W. of Sandomir.

DSAPRONG, or TcuarronG,a town of Afia,in the
scountry of Thibet, on the Lantchau; 345 leagues W.
of Laffa.

DSARIN, a lake of Thibet, about 12 leagues in cir-
cumference. N, lat. 32° ro’. E. long. 77° 24!.

DSATCEOU, or Tsarcuov, or Saichow, a river of
Afia, which rifes in Thibet, and. paffes into the Chinefe
province of Yun-nan, where it aflumes the name of Lan-tfan ;
and after croffing the province of Yun-nan, it is called Kiou-
long.

, DSEPTONG, or Serrone,atown of Afia, in Thibet;
§ leagues W. N. W. of Rimbox.

DSJABBE-Tar, a {mall ifland of Arabia, in the Redfea,
about 40 miles W. S. W. of Loheia. N. lat. 15°32’. E.
long. 41° 35’.

DSJABBEL, a {mall ifland in the Red fea, about $
leagues from the coalt of Arabia. N. lat. 14° 4. E.
long. 43° 34’.

DSJALIE, a town of Arabia; 24 miles S. E. of
Loheia.

DSJAR, atownof Arabia; 80 miles S.W. of Medina.

DSJEBI, a town of Arabia, in the country of Yemen,
s6miles E. of Hodeida. N. lat. 14° 51’. E. long. 43° 40’.
To this town belongs a diltri& of confiderable extent, in
which are a number of independent fcheiks. This diftnG
forms with thatof Kufma the country of Rema, which is a
fertiletra&t, abounding chiefly in grapes and coffee, and with
re{peét to external appearance, foil, and production, poflefl-
ing the fame character with Kufma.

DSJELLEDI, a town of Arabia, in the country of
Yemen; 24 miles E.S. E. of Chamir.

DS JERENANG, in Botany, a name by which fome au-
thors have called a {pecies of palm-tree, from the fruit of which
-is procured dragon’s blood. Kampfer, Ameen. Exot. p.552.

DSJOBLA, in Geography,a town of Arabia,in the country
of Yemen; 60 miles N.E. of Mocha. This town is the capital
of a diftri&, and the feat of adola. It.ftands upon the brink
of a fteep precipice, and contains about 600 houfes, of a con-
Aiderable height and good appearance. Its ftreets are paved,
which is not common in Arabia. The Jews, inthis place,
and through the whole country of Yemen, inhabit a feparate
quarter, without the city. This is a place of ancient note,
azd exhibits the ruins of fome mofques. It has neither a
caftle nor walls. At fome diftance is a place inclofed with
walls, where-a Turkifh pacha has-been interred: whence we
may infer, that the conquefts of the Ottoman Porte have
-been exterded even over thefe mountainous regions.

DSJOF, an extenfive diftri& of the province of Yemen,
-in Arabia, reaching fouthward from Nedsjeran to Hadra-
smaut, and eaftward from Halchid-u-Bekil to the Defart, by
-which Yemen is feparated from Oman. It abounds with

t

DUB

defart and fandy plains; neverthelefa, in feveral places, the
inhabitants want neither cheefe, vor durra, nor any other
neceffaries of life, The horfes and camels of Dejof are much
valued in the Imam’s dominions. ‘This country is divided
into Bellad-el-Bedoni, a diftrit occupied by wandering
Arabs; Bellad-es-Saiadin, the highland diftria, governed
by independent chiefs, who affume the title of fultan; and
Bellad-es-Scheraf, the diftri& in which the fupreme power
is poffeffed by fheriffs.

The wandering Arabs of this country are of a martial
character; and in their military expeditions they ride upon
horfes or camels. Their arms are a lance, a fabre, and
fometimes a match fire-lock. Sometimes they put on’ coats
of mail, a piece of defenfive armour, which the other Arabs
have ceafed to wear. They are troublefome to their neigh-
bours, who are fettled in villages, plundering them, and
often’carrying away their young women. But though they
are robbers, they are not ferocionfly cruel. Thefe Bedouins
of Dsjof are faid to have uncommon talents for poetry, and
to excel all the other Arabs in this elegant art. In the
dittrict of Bellad-es-Saladin are many petty fovereigns. ‘The
title of fultan is no where ufed in Arabia, except in Dsjof
and Jafa; and it feems to diftinguifh the f{cheiks of the
Highlanders from thofe of the Bedouins. The moft ccn-
fiderable princes in the diltri& of Bellad-es-Scheraf are the
three fheriffs of Mareb, Harib, and Rachvan. But the
firft, although chief of the defcendants of Mahomet in this
country, pofleffes only the town of Mareb, with fome ad-
jacent villages. (See Mares.) The only other place in
the country of Dsjof, that is at all remarkable, is Kafler-el-

Nat, a citadel which ilands upon a lofty hill, and was built-

by the Hamjare princes.

DSOUKIOAG, a lake of Thibet, 15 leagues in cir=
cumference. N. lat. 30° 30’. E. long. 74° 24’. =

DSJULFAR, a name given by the Perfians to the prin-
cipality of Seer in Arabia. See Seer.

DUABOS, Le, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 36 miles
E. of Villa-del-Principe.

DUALISM, or Dirueism, an opinion which fuppofes
two principles, twe gods, or two independent uncreated
beings, of which one 1s the firft caufe of good, the other of
evil. See ManicHEEs.

DUANESBURG, in Geography, a pofl-town of Ame-
rica, in the ftate of New York, and county of Albany; con-
taining 2787 inhabitants. es

DUARE, a town of Venetian Dalmatia; 20 miles
E.N.E. of Spalatro. ‘

DUARZE, ariver of Spain, in the province of Gui-

ufeoa, which runs into the Orie at Tolofa.

DUATUS Sinus, in Ancient Geography, a bay of
Arabia Felix. Pliny. ‘

DUAULT-QueExin, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the North Coaits; 3-leagaes'N.W. of
Roftrenen.

DUBBA Ferree, a river of Hindooftan, one of the
branches of the Sinde.

DUBBING a Cock, cutting off his comb and wattles.

DUBCHESKIAIA, in Geography, a town of Ruffian
Siberia, in the government of Tobolik, on the Enifeiz 164
miles N.N.E. of Enifeifk.

DUBDU, or Dusvupv, a walled town of Africa, on
the farther fide of the kingdom of Fez, in the province of
Shaus or-Chaus, near the river Mullavia, feated on an emi-
nence, and furrounded by fertile vallies, This town, fup-
pofed to have been built by the ancient Africans, was a
confiderable place in the 16th century, when the _ of

erini

ie

DUB

Merini reigned at Fez.
habitante, though it has a garriion, and a confidential al-
cayde to guard the frontier; 80 miles E. of Vez.

DUBEN, anciently Débin, a {mall town of the kingdom
of Saxony, in the circle of Leipfick, fituated on the river
Malde, 20 miles of Leipfick, on the high road to Witten-
berg and Berlin, with a population of about 1300 individuals.
It has-a flourifhing woollen cloth manufacture; and a con-
fiderable quantity of pitch is made in the adjacent extenfive
foreft.

The diftri& of Diiben comprifes, befides the town, 6 vil-
lages and 7 hamlets, containing all together above 3000 in-
habitants, and is remarkable for its alum works,

DUBENDORF, a {mall town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Zurich, in the neighbourhood of which, at a place
called Oerliken, is a fpring of mineral water.

DUBENINKEN, a town of Pruffian Lithuania ; 4 miles
E. of Goldapp.

DUBENOW, a town of the duchy of Courland; 20
miles S.E. of Seclburg.

DUBICE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 20 miles W.N.W. of Lida.

DUBIECZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lemberg; 52 miles W. of Lemberg.

DUBINKY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 24 miles N. of Wilna.

DUBITATIVE Conjyunctions. See Conyuncrion.

DUBITZA, in Geography, a {mall town of Bofnia, in
Torkih Illyricum, in the diltriét of Bamaluck, on the river

. Unna. 5

Dusirza, a town and fortrefs of Croatia, on the Unna;
a1 miles N_E. of Kaftanovitz.

DUBKI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Peterf-
burg, on the gulf of Finland; 16 miles N.N.W. of Peterf-
burg. ‘

DUBLIN, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leintter, and nearly in the centre of the ealtern coaft.. It
has Meath on the north; the fame county and Kildare on
the weit; and Wicklow onthe fouth. It is from north to
fouth 24 Irith miles (go Enghfh), and from ealt to weft
15 (19 Englith) miles. Ut contains in Irifh meafure 147,840
acres, or about 231 {quare miles; and in Englifh meafure
237,513 acres, or about 371 fquare miles. Of this, about
an eighth part is wafte and mountain. The number of
houles, as returned in 1792, was 25,510, including the city,
which exceeded 14,000; but thefe mutt have increafed, not-
wichltanding the circumftances which have fince that period
contributed to check population. Reckoning the city at
0 to each bonfe, and the reft of the county at’ 6, this would
give a population of about 210,000, which is lefs than what
the city alone has been often eflimated. There are 108 pa-
rifhes, of which 21 are within the city ; feveral of the coun-
try ones ave without churches. ~ This county is not to be
claffed among the mot trustful, or the belt cultivated; and
towards the borders of Wicklow, affumes the mountainous
and rocky charater of that county. The remainder is flat
and uninterefting, except in the neighbourhood of the fea-
coaft, which, being broken into bays and creeks, affords
many picturefque and pleafing profpedts. The foil is in
general a cold wet clay: but it is not like thofe deep and
tenacious clays fo common in England ; there being fcarcely
any part of it without a mixture of gravel; and in molt
parts there may be found, at no very great depth, lime-ftone,
or other beneficial gravels; with this uncommon advantage,
that the operation of draining the ground generally raifes a
fufficiency of gravel to manure the whole furface. Great
im aoe have been made in many parts of this couaty,

OL. . :

“

a A >
At prefent it contains few in-

PUB

by this pra@tice; and where caution is obferved in the mode
of filing in the drains over the feds or other materials, with
which thedrains are conflruGied, the practice, aided by the
great facility of procuring manures from Dublin and elfe-
where, mult tend to counteraé the bad effects attendant.on
retentive foils.. In the northern part of this county, called
Fingal, the fyftem of hufbandry has been ftigmatifed as very
bad; but, from the efforts of the Dublin Society, and the
Farming Society of Ireland, it may be hoped that it will
not long deferve the charaéter given it. The old fyitem
of fallowing feems to have been more pertinacioufly adhered
to in this than almoft any other diftriG, from its farmers
having been formerly in high eftimation, and having acquired
an opinion of their own fuperiority, which prevents their at-
tending to the fuggeftions of others.

’ The minerals of the county of Dublin are various, but
not likely to contribute much to the wealth of the country.
The mountains in the fouthern part confit of granite, which
is very ufeful for building, and for paving the ftreets of the
capital. There is alfo abundance of lime-ftone, lime-ftone
gravel, and marle.. Among ft thofe which have been reckoned
as lime-{tone is ca/p, or the black quarry ftone of Dublin,
firft made a diftinét fpecies by Mr. Kirwan, and particularly
deferibed by Mr. Knox in the TranfaGions of the Royal .
Irifh Academy. (See Caup.) Siderocelcite is often found
interfeCting and invefting calp. Copper and lead have been
found in this county, and mines of them have been formerly
worked ; and a lead mine lately difcovered at the Scalp, near
the county of Wicklow, which 1s likely to prove produtive.
The principal river of this county is the Liffey, or, as it is
fometimes called, Anna, or Awin, i. e. river Liffey, which
runs nearly through the middle of it, difcharging itfelf into
the bay of Dublin. - A few other ftreams of no confiderable
note empty themfelves into this river, and have a number of
mills for various manufaétures. ‘The navigation of the Liffey
will be noticed in another place. (See Dusvin City, and
Lirrey.) The Dodder, though next in importance, is a
{mall ftream, which takes its rife in the mountains bordering
on Wicklow, and running by the villages of Rathfarnham,
Milltown, and Donnybrook, difcharges itfelf into the bay
of Dublin at Rings-end. ‘There are other fmall ftreams,
which run through different parts of the county, and fall
into the Irifh fea; but they are too infignificant to be parti-
cularly mentioned. But if the county of Dublin cannot
boaft much of its rivers, it may of its canals ; for there are
two pafling through it, which contribute greatly to its prof-
perity, and which for extent, if not for ufefulnefs, may vie
with almoft any in Great Britain. Thefe are the Grand
and Royal Canals, of the firft of which, there is a fhort ac-
count in our article CANAL, to which we are now able to
add fome particulars. The Grand Canal was commenced
in 1753, by the commiffioners of inland navigation; and
in 1772, a company was incorporated for carrying on and
completing it, from Dublin to the river Shannon, with a
power of levying a toll of 3d. per ton per mile. The diffi-
culties to be overcome were, however, fuch, from the na-
ture of the ground through which the line lay, that, together
with fome mifmanagement, upwards of one million flerling
has been expended, of which 116,000/. has been from time
to time given by parliament. ‘The length of the canal is 62
Irith, or 782 Englifh miles, from Dublin to Shannon hare
bour, on the Shannon near Banagher. There is alfo a branch,
of 2x Irifh miles, to the river Barrow, at Athy, and two or
three fhorter branches, making in all 96 Irifh, or 122 Englifh
miles, on the different parts of which boats are now cone
ftantly employed, At Dublin there is a complete floating
dock, capable of containing ppnare of 400 fhips, with three

P large

DUBLIN,

large graving docks for repairs, The principal commodities
carried on it are flour, malt, wheat, oats, and barley, tarf,
Kilkenny coal, timber, bricks, furniture, and camp equipage.
‘The numberof boats plying on it exceeds 4oo. The amount
of freight in the year 1301 was 120,000’ tons, fince which
time. it has been completed to the Shannon. When the
French landed at Killala, the late marquis Cornwallis found
the canal very ufeful for tranfporting his troops without the
fatigue of marching, and thus had them frefh for fervice at a
coaliderable diftance from the capital. There: are 56 locks
aed eight aqueducts on this canal and its branches. The
locks are 7o feet long, and 14 fect fx inches wide. Their
average fall is nine feet. The fummit level is well fupplied
with water; its height is 240 feet above the fea. The depth
of the canal is five feet over the cills of the locks and aque-
duéis, asd five feet fix inches in the body of the canal ; it is
25 feet wide at bottom and 40 feet wide at water furface-
For. feveral miles from Dublin the banks are planted with
trees, which have a very plealing effect. The revenues of
the Grand Canal company have been gradually rifing. In
3787 the amount was-only 6984/., but in 1S02 47,100/.; and
it is- expe@ed that ic will exceed 100,000/ per aunum.
The Royal Canal commenced, under an aét of parliament
anda charter from his majeity, in the year 1789, and it alfo
has received large grants from the national purfe. Thefe
grants amounted to g1,000/. previous to 1S01, at which

time the. direétors general of inland navigation, in confe-"

quence-of 2 reduétion of the tolls, agreed to give a further:
fum of 95,866. The obje& of this canal is to carry a line
of navigation from Dublin to the Shannon, at Tarmonbury,
in-a north-weft direGtion; and it has been already carried
nearly to Mullingar, in the county of Weftmeath, which is
about fifty Englifh miles from the capital. The ground
through which the canal runs is fo favourable, that one level
is fix miles in length, another fixteen, and the fummit level
will be £7 miles in extent without a lock; into this lafi-the
grand fupply of water comes from Lough Owel, near Mul-
ingar. The conftruction of this canal is much approved;
the locks are 80 feet clear in length and 14 in breadth, the:
banks floping 20 inches for each foot they rife. At prefent
great quantities of goods are carried by this canal; but the
national benefit muft mfe ftill higher when it reaches the
Shannon, as coals, masufaGured iron, clays and ores of va-
rious kinds, will then be brought from the counties of Ro&
common and Leitrim.

To return from a digreffion, which the importance of the

fubje&; and the want ofa better opportunity of-introducing,

it, will, it-is hoped, excufe: the coaft of the county of
Dublin extends for about 30 miles along the Irifh fea; on
the northern part are feveral {mall fifhing towns, which were
formerly noted for {muggling. The iflands of Lambay-and
Ireland’s Eye form interefling obje&ts from the coaft, and are
frequented by fhooting parties. The Hill of Howth is a
peninfula projeGing confiderably into-the fea, and forming
the northern boundary of Dublin bay. New works have
lately been ereG@ted on the northern fide of it, for maintaining
a better communication with England, for an account of
which, fee Howrn.

To the fouth of the bay. the land alfo projets as far as
Howth, and then the coaft takes. fouthern direGtion. There
are no towns of any confequence in this couoty, except the
capital, and, like Middlefex, it has a feffions for adminiftra-
tion of juftice entirely ditin@ from the circuits. 1t is repre-
fented in parliament by four members, two for the county
and two for the city of Dublin, befides a member for the
uniyerfity. This county of courfe formed a part: of the
Englifh pale, and contains the ruins of a great number of

caftles and religious foundations. Archer’s Sratiftical Aes
count of Dublin. Detton’s Remarks on it. Beaufort’s-
Memoir,

Duauin, the capital of Ireland, the fecond city ir
the Britifh dominions, and fometimes reckoned the fifth
for extent in Europe, is on, the eaftern coait of Ireland, in
the province of Leinfter, and in the county defcrided in the
preceding article, Dublin isfeated in view of the fea on the
ealt, and ina fine country, which f{welisinto gently rifing emi-
nences‘on the north and well, whilft lofty mcuntsins bouad
the horizon en the fourth. The city itfelf cannot be feen'to
full advantage on entering the harbour, but the approach to
it from thence exhibits a fine profpeé of the country for
imprayement and cultivation, inter{perfed* with numerous
villas; which have a molt agreeable efle% to enliven this de=
lightivl fcene. The Wicklow mountaine, onthe fouths
with the poiated cone of the fagar-loaf, contribute not a
little to embellih a land{cape fo extenfive and piGturefque-
as not to be equalled by any one view» in Europe, excepting,
perhaps, the bay of Naples, to: which it has been thought to
bear: a. very itrikiog refemblance. The early hiftory of
Dublin, previous to the landing of the Englifh, is not well
afcertained ; and though its name has employed the talents
of many antiquarians, it has not been fatisfaétorily accounted.
for. A town, fuppofed to be on the fite of the prefent-
Dublin, is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Eb/anay
about A. D. 140; and the Danes are fuppofed to have en--
tered the Liffey, and encircled Dublin with walls in 49S.
In a charter of king Edgar’s, called Ofwald’s Jaw, dated at
Gloucefter in 964, Dublin is mentioned as a place of confee
quence, but this charter is by many fulpe&ted to bea forgery.
‘The Danes appear to have been in poiicflion of Dublin in
the 11th century, and were perhaps the founders of it, as
they were of other maritime towns. It was then befieged
and ftormed by the Irifh, under Brien Boromhe, who was-
killed-at the battle of Clontarf; and after this event the
Danes, or O/fmen, as they were called, feem to have admitted
the fovereignty of the king of Leinfter, though they were
often in rebellion. The contefts, indeed, among the Irifh
chieftains, afforded them a favourable opportunity of re-
eftablifhing their independence; and when the league was
formed againft Dermod M‘ Morrough, king of Leinfter,
his Oftmen fubje&s of Dublin, under their governor M* Tor-
kill, or as Cambrenfis calls him, Hafculphus, took an a@tive
part againft him. A {trong force, under Raymond le Gros,
having reduced Dublin in 1171,. M:'Torkill efcaped by fea,
and returned foon after with a firong fleet to recover it; he
was however taken prifoner and put io. death. Strongbow,
who laid claim to the kingdom of Leinfter in right of his
wife eva, daughter of Dermod, was foon after befieged in
Dublin by the confederate Irifh, and reduced to great diffie-
culty, from which he was delivered by the defperate valour
of his foliowers. In the year 1172, Dublin was given up
by Strongbow to king Henry, that he might appeafe his
refentment, and we-find that this monarch paifed the enfuing:
Chrifimas’in his new acqnifition. The Infh chieftains. who
had fubmitted flocked to Dublia from ail quarters; and we:
are told, that, as the city afforded no building capable of
receiving the royal train, Henry caufed.a temporary ftru€iure
to be raifed after the Irth fafhion, where his new vaflals .
were admitted freely and feafted fumptuoufly. Soon: after
he had taken: poffeflion of Dublin, Henry granted it, by
charter, to a colony of Briftolians, with the fame privilegeg-
which they had enjoyed at Briftol; and he, afterwards, con
firmed to his burgefles of Dublin, or Divedia; as it is called
in ancient records, all manner of rights and immunities
throughout his whole land of England, Normandy, a

an

DUBLIN.

and Treland. “On bis departure he alfo appointed it to be
the refidence of his governor, and ordered a caftle to be built
there. In 1210, upwards of 20 Irifhprinces {wore allegiance
to king John at Dublm, engaging to eftablifh the Englith
Jaws and cuftoms, and in the fame year courts of judicature
Were inftitunted. In 1217, the city was granted to the citi-
gens in fee farm, at 200 marks per annum. In 1308, the
civil government of Dublin was eftablifhed under a provoft
and two bailiffs; but in 1409, the title of the chief ma-
giftrate was changed to that of mayor, by charter of Henry
IV. ; and in 1547, the office of bailiffs was changed to fhe-
riffs. Stanihurft, who compiled the defcription of Ireland
for Holinfhed, which was re-publifhed by Hooker in 1586,
gives a particular account of the hofpitality of thefe ma-
giftrates: “* They that fpend leaft in their mayoralty,” fays
he, (as thofe of credit and fuch as bear the office have in-
‘formed me) “make an ordinary account of 5oo/. for their
viands and diet that year.” This was no fmall fum, when
the cheapnefs of provilions is taken into account. In 1609,
the charter of the city of Dublin was renewed by James I.
After the reftoration, Charles II. gave to the mayor a collar
of S.S., and a company of foot-guards; and in 1665, he
conferred the title of lord mayor on the chief magiftrate, and
granted him 500/. per annum in heu of the foot company.
‘The government of the city was further regulated by the
earl of Effex in 1672. Itis executed by a lord mayor, a
recorder, two fheriffs, 24 aldermen, and a common-council,
formed of reprefentatives from the 25 corporations. The
aldermen are eleCted from amongft thofe who have ferved or
_ fined for the office of fheriff, and the lord mayor is elected
from amongit the aldermen by the common council. ‘The
Next in rotation is generally chofen; but there have been
inftances of departure from this rule, when fuch perfon has
been obnoxious to the commons. The lord mayor tries all
offences, even capital ones, except murder and treafon, and
matters of property for any fum under 20/, Though Dub-
lin became early the feat of the Englith governor, it conti-
ued a very {mall town. In 1610, when a map of it was
drawn by W. Speed, the Liffey was not embanked by quays
on the north fide, and only a part of it on the fouth, here
swere only three or four ftreets on the north fide, which went
by the name of Oxmantown, or O/fmentown, and fome villages
at a fhort diftance, which are now part of the city. On the
fouth of the river it was alfo very much confined. The col-
‘lege was at fome diftance from the walls, and, comparatively,
a very imall part of what is called the Liberty was built. The
great increafe of population will, however, mark the change
swhich has taken place more ftrikingly. In 1644, it appears
that the inhabitants were numbered by order of government,
when there were only 8159 perfons. Perhaps at this time
the population was lefs than it had been from the diftreffed
fituation of the country. In 1681, the number was 40,000.
Between the years 1711 and 1755, above 4000 houfes were
‘built, and, in the laft of thefe years, the inhabitants were
eftimated at 125,570, by the late Dr. Rutty. By the ap-
parently accurate enumeration of the Rev. James Whitelaw,
m 1798, of which he has publifhed an account, ard which
agrees very nearly with the return made by the diftri& com-
mittees in 1804, the number of inhabitants appears to be
182,370, including the garrifon, houfe of induttry, college,
&e. The number of houfes, according to the fame énume-
ration, was 16,401, allowing a population of above ro to
‘ach houfe. It appears evident, therefore, that the popula-
tion of Dublin is below 200,000, though it is frequently
reckoned at 300,000.
Dublin would be a’ commodious ftation for fhipping, were
it not fortwo fand banks, called the North and South Bulls,

which prevent large velfels Trot croffing the bar, and
fad experience has proved that the bay is not a fefe place
for anchorage. In confequence of this a new harbour iz
forming at Howth, of which an account will be given here-
after. (See Mowri.) The river, however, has been
greatly improved for fach veffcls as do not draw too
much water to crofs the bar, by a prodigions work on the
fouth fide of it, called the South wall, which was begun ih
1748, and which extends from the point of Rinefend to the
light-houfe about three miles. It is formed of large blocks
of granite ftrongly cemented, and ftrengthened with iron
cramps. ‘The breadth of the road is near forty feet, rifing
five feet above high water. About midway, between Ringf-
end and the light-houfe, at a place called the Blockhou/e, a
new bafon has been formed of an oblong fhape which is goo
feet long and 450 broad, where the packets of all defcrip-
tions ufually lie. The light-houfe was begua in 1762 under
confiderable difficulties from the depth of the water, from
the power of the winds in fuch an expofed fituation, and
from the raging of the feas. Thefe, however, were ovcre

‘come by the archite@, Mr. Smyth, who colle&ted vatt rocks.

and depofited them in a caiffoon or cheft, which was funk
to the bed of the fea, and afterwards guarded with a but-
trefs of folid mafonry, 25 feet broad at the bafe. On this
he raifed a beautiful circular ftru€ture, three ftories high,
furrounded by an octegonal lantern of eight windows. Tt
is compofed of white hewn granite, firmly cemented, gra-
dually tapering to the fummit, and each flory ftrengthened
with flcne archwork. A ftone ftaircafe, with an irom ba-
luftrade, winds round the building to the fecond ttory, where
an iron gallery furrounds the whole. The lantern is fup-
plied with large oil lamps, the light of which is powerfully
increafed by refle€ting lenfes. From Ringfend, up through
the whole city, the river is commodioufly embanked with
quays ; and excellent docks are laid out on each fide fufii-
ciently large to contain feveral hundred veffels. There are
feven bridges, of which that formerly called 2/land bridge,
but which having been rebuilt is now called Sarah bridge,
has been confidered as the /ri/h Rialto. It forms one grand
arch that {weeps in a beautiful and well proportioned direc-
tion from north to fouth, extending three hundred and fifty-
fix feet : the arch is an ellipfis, the fpan of which meafures
one hundred and four feet, being twelve feet wider than the
celebrated Rialto at Venice. Effex bridge was built in imi-
tation of Weltminfter bridge. Carlifle bridge is remarkably
wide, being fixty feet between the baluftrades, which leaves
ample room both for carriages aiid foot paflengers. The
old bridge, which was lately earried away bya flood, will be
replaced by a handfome one oppofite to the couris of juftice,
which is to be named Richmond bridge. It was not until
the year 1768 that even in London the projecting figns and
penthonfes were removed, the ftreets flagged, and the houfes
numbered. The fame regulations were effeGed in Dublin
by an a& of parliament in 1774, and another act was pafled
in 1735 for better paving, lighting, and cleanfing the city, by
which an additional number of globes with double burners
were erected. In confequence of the exertions of the paving
board, the ftreets are, in general, fufficiently wide, and well
flagged; there are, however, fome exceptions, and in the old
part of the city, the buildmgs are very irregular. The nume-
rous ftreets and fquares which have been added of late years,
are magnificent and {pacious, and the buildings reeular and
commodious. Among thofe on the fouth fide of the river,
thofe wherein perfons of diftinGion refide, lie chiefly to the
eaftward of the college and Stephen’s green. This laft,
though it does not rank with the new buildings, pofleiles
much grandeur and elegance, being one of the largeft {quares

EoD 2 .. an

DUBLIN,

in Europe: it is an Englifh mile in circumference, fur-
rounded by a gravel walk planted on each fide with trees ;
within this walk isa fmooth level meadow, having in the
centre an equeftrian ftatue of George II. There are feveral
handfome houfes, but they are by no means uniform, and
have others amongft them of a very mean appearance. Mer-
rion fquare, to the ealt of it, is nearly as extenfive, and the
buildings are elegant and uniform; the centre is inclofed
with iron palifades, and formed into a beautiful garden,
adorned with fhrubberies, gravel walks, and handiome en-
trance lodges. On the north fide, Rutland and Montjoy
f{quares are deferving of attention. The garden of the lying-
in-hofpital, which is {urrounded by iron palifades, is in the
centre of the former, and that of the latter is laid out like
Merrion {quare. Sackville ftreet, which, though built up-
wards of fixty years ago, is often reckoned amongft the new
itreets, has been lately extended, and confiderably improved.
it is 120 feet wide from Carlifle bridge to the rotunda and
public aflembly rooms, and having on the other fide of that
bridge Weitmoreland ftreet, extending to the college and
national bank. Towards the middle of Sackville ftreet a
noble column, with fuitable decorations, has been erected to
the memory of that illuftrious naval officer lord Nelfon. The
circumference:of Dublin, as it now ftands, is above ten miles
varying to an irregular oval form. A road, called the Circu-
Jar, is carried round the greater part of the city, but whit
in fome parts it includes gardens and orchards, fome new
ftreets are fituated without it in other parts. There is,
perhaps, no city of its fize, which can boait of fuch a num-
ber of magnificent and ufeful buildings. Of thefe, as well as
of fome valuable eftabiifhments, it will be neceflary to give
fome account. The caltle of Dublin was built, or at leaft
completed and flanked with towers by Henry de Londres,
archbifhop of Dublin and lord deputy, about 1213. Of
thefe towers the ftrongeft and moft famed was that called
Birmingham tower, from fir William Birmingham, who was
imprifoned there and afterwards executed about 1331. It
was long ufed asa ftate prifon, but the old tower having
been taken down and a new one ereéted on the fite, this has
been ufed for preferving the archives of the kingdom. The
caftle was difmantled of its warlike garb in the reign of
queen Elizabeth, being intended for the refidence of the go-
vernor. It has continued fince that period to be the feat of
government, and, at prefent, like St. James’s in Londen, is
the place where the viceroy gives audience, and whichis ufed
on other ftate occafions. There are two courts ; the upper
court is that in which are the ftate apartments, and the
chief fecretary’s apartments; in the lower court are the
treafury, regifter office, and an armoury. The whole is en-
clofed, and fince the rebellion, has been fortified, fo as to be
able to refilt a fudden attack. The royal exchange, which
adjoins the caltle, was finifhed in the year 1779, at an ex-
pence of forty thoufand pounds. As this building, however,
does not poffefs all the advantages which the merchants
expeCted from it, a new ftruéture has therefore been
ereGted in Dame ftreet, called the “* Commercial buildings,”
which is more immediately intended for a ftock exchange,
brokers’ fales, fhip infurance, &c. The National bank
is a moft fuperb ftru&ure, and is fronted with a grand
arcade of Ionic columns, all of Portland ftone. This
is the building in which the fenators of Ireland were
accuftomed to aflemble; and fince the union it has been
converted to its prefent purpofe. Oppofite to this is the
college, of which a feparate account will be given, (fee
Dustin, Univerfity of). The ftamp office, in William ftreet,
formerly Powericourt houfe, is another fine building, the
archite@ure of which is chiefly Doric, The barracks on the

north fide of the river were founded in 1704, and are
reckoned the largeft and moft commodious in Europe. They
confit of five large {quares, capable of containing 4000
cavalry and infantry. On the oppofite fide of the river
ftands Kilmainham hofpita!, founded by Charles II. for inva-
lids of the Irifh army, on the plan fimilar to Chelfea in
England. The building was finifhed in 1683, and coft
24,000/7.; itis of a quadrangular form, with a ipacious area
in the centre laid out in gravelled walks. The commander
in chief, the matter and officers, have excellent apartments
and gardens. The ground anciently belonged to. the
knights templars. ‘The new courts of ju‘tice on the north
fide of the river are extremely handfome and convenient: the
building is of a circnlar form ; and within, the upper part of
the dome is ornamented with the bufts of the mo‘ celebrated
legiflators, ancient and modern, adorned at the fame time
with {culptured devices, executed in a matterly ftyle. A
range of law-oifices, finifhed in a ftriking manner, completes
this beautiful edifice. The Linen hall is a neat building,
ereCted in the year 1728, for the purpofe of dete€ting frauds
in this the grand manufacture of Ireland. The merchants
have rooms where the cloth is fold, and the trade is under
the controul of a board coofifting of the principal men in the
country. ‘The Cultom houfe, if we confider the beauty of
its architecture, or the judicious choice of fite and accom-
modations, muit be acknowledged to ftand at the head of
all thofe eftablifhments ere€ted for commercial purpofes
among European nations. It is fituated on the northern
divifion of the city clofe by the fide of the river. The
expence of this magnificent {tru@ure, which is larger than the
trade of Dublin feemed to require, was no lefs then 255,000
pounds. The buildings of the Dublin fociety in Hawkins’s
{treet are alfo extenfive. (See Dustin Society.) The private
houfes which chiefly deferve attention are, Leiniter houfe,
Waterford houfe, and Charlemont houfe. The latter con-
tains a valuable library, and fome excellent works of Titian
and Rembrandt, chiefly collected by the late earl of Charle-
mont, whofe patronage of {cience, as well as his other public
virtues, will long be remembered. Dublin contains 20
parifhes, that have nineteen churches and two chapels of eafe,
fifteen Roman catholic chapels, and about fixteen places of
worfhip belonging to different claffes of protettant diffenters.
Dublin is the fee of an archbifhop, and contains two cathe-
drals, both within the city.. Chnit-church, or the church of
the Bleffed Trinity, was firft built by the Ofimen of Dublia
about the year 1035. Its fituation is nearly in the middle
of the city, and the whole building {pacious and ornamental,
containing a vait number of {uperb and curious mopuments,
particularly that of Strongbow, which {till continues in good,
prefervation. This church was founded for regular canons
and converted into a collegiate for a dean and chapter by
Henry VIII. in 1514. The bilhop of Kildare. unites
this deanery to his bifhopric. The other cathedral, that of
St. Patrick, was founded for thirteen prebends, which
number has fince been increafed to 22. This cathedral,
fituated on the fouth fide of the city, was ereted about
the year 1190 by John Comyn, then archbifhop of Dublin.

In its firft conftitution it was collegiate, but De Londres, .

Comyn’s fucceffor, made it his cathedral. In the year 1370
archbifhop Minot added to it a high fteeple of fquared ftone;
and in 1750 Dr. Sterne, bifhop of Clogher, on this fteeple
erected a lofty and beautiful {pire, little inferior to that of
Salifbury, and which-is feen at a confiderable diftance. This
cathedral contains feveral excellent monuments, among which
that of Dr. Swift, who was dean of St. Patrick’s, and whofe
name is fo juftly dear to the Irifh nation, claims pre-eminent
regard, Of the other churches, many are neat ftru@ures,

and

oo

DUBLIN.

and capable of containing large audiences, but that which
mott deferves attention is St. Andrew’s, in the neighbourhood
of the college. If none of the diffenting meeting houfes is
remarkable for its appearance, yet two of them can boatt of
having had as miniftcrs two of the ableft defenders of religion
in the Englith language, Abernethy and Leland. The
charitable inftitutions in Dublin are very numerous, and
the buildings in fome inftances very ornamental. To
enter into a detailed account of thefe would [well this
article beyond reafonable bounds, yet there are fome
which ought not to pafs unnoticed. ‘The houfe of induftry
was partly founded for receiving fuch as were by age, fick-
nefs, cr misfortune, rendered incapable of earning their
bread, and for relieving the city from the clamours and im-
politions of fturdy beggars. Poor perfons of every defcrip-
tion are always admitted into this houfe, whether young or
old, that are in apparent diftrefs; here they are lodged and
fed, but not clothed, it being found to be produétive of bad
effeéts, many going into the houfe merely to be clothed, and
afterwards difpofing of their apparel for fpirituous liquors;
they afe now, therefore, obliged to fupply themfelves with
this comfort from their own exertions, from fhops kept for
that purpofe within the walls of the inftitution, and by this
means are better clad than formerly. The average number
annually maintained is 1718, yet the flreets of Dublin are
ftill crowded with beggars, The lying-in hofpital 1s an
elegant piece of archite€ture. It was founded by Dr. Mofle,
a phyfician of Dublin, who obtained a charter for it, and
in addition to private fubfcriptions, it has an annval grant
from parliament. There are about 700 females delivered
here every year. The Fever hofpital is an extenfive build.
ing, capable of containing above a hundred patients, and is
admirably well conducted. The Foundling hofpital receives
all expofed and deferted children of either fex, and is fup-
ported partly by a tax of three-pence in the pound or all
houfes in Dublin, and partly by a parliamentary grant.
‘There are feveral infirmaries and medical charities of various
kinds, and befides feveral {chools on public foundations, al-
molt every place of worfhip in Dublin has a fchool con-
neéted with it, which is fupported by an annual charity
fermon. Befides the Univerfity and Dublin Society, which
require particular notice, the literary inftitutions in Dublin
are, the Royal Irifh Academy, which has publifhed feveral
volumes, the Dublin Library Society, the colleges of Phy-
ficians and Surgeons, and the King’s Inns, where Irifh bar-
rifters muft now pafs a certain number of terms before they
can be called, and which has a good library. . There are
feveral good private libraries, and fome valuable private
colleGtions of minerals, and other natural productions. The
Farming Society of Ireland, which moftly holds its meet-
ings in the capital, is likely to render molt effential fervice
to the country.
_ Dublin is remarkably well fupplied with flefh, fowl, and
fith, the latter in much greater perfeflion than any other
capital in Europe. It is fupplied with coals chiefly from
Cumberland and Scotlaad, and with turf by the canals.
Water is conveyed to the city on the north fide from the
Lower Liffey, by machines conftruéted for the purpofe at
an outlet called Ifland bridge. The fouth fide is fupplied
from a refervoir or bafin, which joins the grand canal,
with the direG&tors of which, the corporation contract for a
fupply. Asatax is laid on every houfe, fo the fupply is
eneral, and there are befides fountains erected in various
-parts of the city, for the convenience of the poorer inhabit-
ants. ‘The Phoenix park is a fine extenfive enclofure at the
weft end of the town, which is diverfified with woodland,
champaign, and rifing ground, and is a moft interefting ride.

‘

It is feven miles in circuit, and contains the Vice Regal
Lodge, where the lord-lieutenants now conftantly refide,
the feat of the principal fecretary, and fome other handfome
lodges. In this park are alfo a magazine for powder, and a
battery that commands the city. In 1747, 4 fluted pillar,
thirty feet high, with a pheenix on the top, was erected in
the centre of a ring in this park, by the celebrated earl of
Chefterfield, when lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Such is Dub-
lin, a city which rapidly increafed for many years, and was
beautified at the national expence. It was aflerted, previous
to the a& ef union, that the effect of that meafure would be
to ruin Dublin, and that grafs would foon grow in the frreets.
It muft be admitted that no place was likely to reccive fo
much injury as Dublin from that important change, but the
parliament would not have been juitified in rejecting an ar-~
rangement beneficial to Ireland in general, becaufe it might
interfere with theintereft of thofe who inhabited the capital.
The injury fuftained, however, does not appear fo great as
was apprehended. The nobility have indeed in great meafure
forfaken Dublin, and their manfions have become the habi-
tations of bankers or wealthy merchants; and in fome in-
ftances have been converted into {plendid hotels. S me par-
ticular claffes of tradefmen alfo appear to have fuffered, and
the often beneficial buftle occafioned by the meeting of par
liament is no longer felt. There are, however, many caufes
which draw numbers to the capital, and the high rent of
houfes, with the exception of very f{plendid ones, is a proot
that they do not yet exceed the demand for them, though
fome new ftreets have been laid out fince the union. Dublin
is reprefented by two members in the imperial parliament,
who are chofen by the freemen at large. It is fixty miles
W. from Holyhead in Wales, and 330 miles N.W. from
London, in long. 6° 30’ W. from Greenwich, and in 53° 14!
N. lat. Archer’s Survey of Dublin. Dodd’s and Wilfon’s
Directories, &c. &c. j
Dustin, Archbifbopric of, one of the four provinces
into which Ireland 1s divided, which contains five fees under
four prelates, viz. the archbifhop of Dublin, and the bifhops-
of Kildare, Leighlin and Ferns, and Offory.. The firlt
mention of the fee of Dublin isin the 7th century. In the
year 1152, it was ereted intoanarchbifhopric. At thetime
of the landing of the Englifh, it was filled by a prelate named
Laurence, who appears to have had great influence in the-
country, arid who was afterwards canonized. In the year
1214, the bifhopric of Glandelough, which had been
founded in the 6th century, was incorporated with it. This
fee is 50 miles in length from north to fouth,.and 36 in the
greatelt breadth, containing the whole county of Dublin,
the molt of Wicklow, and part of the counties of Wicklow
and Wexford. It contains 209 parifhes, which form 86
bevefices. In thefe are 82 churches, twenty of which are
in the city of Dublin. Amongit thofe who have filled this
fee was Dr. King, author of an elteemed work on the
“ Origin of Evi!.”” The archbifhop of Dublin is primate
of Ireland, and is the fecond in point of dignity. lt was
long the policy of the Englith government, as appears from
the letters of archbifhop Boulter, to confine the chief of-
fices to men of Englifh birth, regarding thofe who had been
born and fettled in Ireland, although of Englifh extraction,
as not fufficiently attached to the intere(t of England. At
that time the archbifhopric of Dublin was the higheft dig
nity an Irifhman could obtain. Dr. Beaufort’s Memoir.
Abp. Boulter’s State Letters.
~ Dusuin' Society. This fociety, which, as Mr. A. Young
obferves, has the undifputed merit of being the father of all the
fimilar focieties now exifting in Europe, was ettablifhed in the
year 1731, and owed its originto one of the moft patriotic in-
dividuals

DUBLIN.

dividaals which any country has produced, Dr. Samucl Madan.
For fome years it was fupported only by the voluntary fab-
fcriptions of the members, forming a fund under a thoufand
pounds a-year, but for a long time paft parliament has regu-
larly granted ten thon{ard pounds each feffion in atd of the fub-
fcriptions. To enter upon the hiftory of this fociety, and
detail the vatious objects which formerly engaged its atten-
tion, would be tedious; but fome account of its prefent ob-
jects, and the progrefs made in accomplilhing them, will bein-
terefimg to many readers. The focicty was incorporated in
1749, by the title of the Dublin Society, for promoting huf-
bandry and other ufeful arts in Ireland. The members of it
have accordingly adopted many meafures for the improves
ment of agriculture, plants, &c. They have contributed in
particular to the increafe of plants, and to the formation of
large and extenfive nurferies. They alfo, like the London
Society, give premiums for all ufeful inventions, and for
proficiency in the fine arts. They purchafed the celebrated
Lefkean colleGion of minerals, and have adopted different
meafures to encourage the ftudy of mineralogy. They have
eftabhithed annual lectures on chemiltry, with a particular
view to its application to manufaGiyres. They have appro-
priated above 27 Englith acres to a botanic garden, at Glaf-
nevin, in the neighbourhood of Dublin, in which particular
attention is paid to promote a praGical knowledge of botany,
fo far as it ts ufeful to the farmer, the grazier, the planter,
and the artificer, and they have alfo eftablithed Je@tures on
thisfcience. They have further eftabhfhed leCtures on na-
tural philofophy, and on the veterinary art. They have
procured furveys to be made of the counties of Ireland,
which have been publifhed at their expence. They have
formed a valuable library, which is open to the members,
and have various collections of objects of natural hiftory,
and of models for the imitation of young artifts. The
buildings of the fociety in Hawkin’s-ltreet are very exten-
‘five and convenient, and if ufeful knowledge be not ad-
vauced im Ireland, it cannot be attributed to any want of
exertion in this fociety, or of liberality in parliament,
A. Young’s Tour—Appendix. Charter and Petition of
the Society.
Dosis, Univerfity of. This noble inftitution was
founded by queen Elizabeth in 1591; Loftus, archbifhop
of Dublin, having prevailed on the corporation of that city
to give up for this purpofe the monattery of All-hallows, at
that time in the neighbourhood of Dublin, on the fouth-
seaftern fhore ; it having been velted in the mayor and citi-
zens, on the diffolution of religious houfes. By the charter,
the college was ere&ted as ‘‘ mother of a univerfity,”’ by the
Ryle of ‘ the College of the holy and undivided Trinity, of
queen Ehzabeth, near Dublin.” It deferves notice, that
tne jaftly celebrated Ufher, afterwards promoted to the
primacy, was the frit ftudent admitted. Several grants of
Jand in different parts of Ireland were made for its {upport 5
and the patronage of feveral livings in the counties planted
by James I. was affigned to it. In 1637, the original con-
ftirution being found imperfect, a new charter was given to
it, and a fet of ftatutes compiled by archbifhop Laud, which
are {till in force. This prelate made feveral effential altera-
tions in the conftitution of the college; the moft material of
which was the depriving the fellows of the eleGion of their
provolt, the appointment to that important office being from
thenceforth referved to the crown. To make the fellows
fome amends for the lofs of their firft privilege, it was ap-
pointed by the new charter that they fhould be tenants for
fife in their fellowfhips, if they remained unmarried, or un-
rovided with a benefice of more than io/. in the king’s
Bodks ; whereas, by the firft charter, they were to quit

‘

their office in feven years after they became of mafter’s ftand-
ing. At the fame time, the number of fellowfhips was en-

_larged; aad the government of the college was placed in the

provoft and major part of the fenior fellows, from whofe
decifion an appeal was given to the vifitors, who are the
chanceilor of the univerfity, or his vice-chancellor, and the
archbifhop of Dublin. The office of provol, being of con-
fiderable dignity and emolument, has in fome inftances been
given to laymen, and perfons previoufly unconnefted with
the univerfity ; but fuch appointments are always difagree-
able ; and, in general, fo much refpe& is paid to the feelings
of the members of this learned body, as to.place over them
one who had for fome time filled the office of fellow, and is
capable of filling the ftation with propriety. During the
provoft’s abfence, his place is filled by the fenior of the fcl-
lows, who is always called vice-provolt. The provoft and
feven fenior fellows form a council called the board, which
meets every Saturday, and by which all matters relating to the
internal government of the college are decided. The income
of a femior fellow, arifing from various fources, is generally
eftimated at about a thoufand pounds Ae annum ; but it
neceflarily flu€tuates according to the offices held, and, on
an average, is probably not fo great. ‘The number of junior
fellows is at prefent (1S0S) fixteen; but it is intended te
augmentit. Thefe are the tutors of the college ; and their
income depends, -ina great meafure, on the number of
their pupils. Some who, from merit or intereft, have a
large number, have 7ool. or Sool. fer annuum, Attempts
were made by former provolts, to aflign tutors to every
young perfon entering the college, which would give very
great influence ; but, at prefent, the parents, or guardians
of the pupils chufe the tutor under whom he is placed.
The number of livings in the gift of the univerfity is 19, the
value of which was, fome years ago, from 5ool. to roool.
per annum, and muft have confiderably advanced from the
increafe of tillage. On one of thefe becoming vacant, it is
offered to the clerical fellows in rotation, beginning with the
fenior, until one chufes to accept of it, who then vacates his
fellowfhip. ‘The profeffors, alfo, of divinity and commor
law mutt vacate their fellowfhips to hold thefe two offices.
The fupplying the benefices and profeflorfhips as they become
vacant, keeps up a conftant circulation among the leading
members of the univerfity. By this means, there is aconftant
encouragement to exertion among the ftudents, and the
church of Ireland is fupplied with fome of its moft ufeful
and refpeétable members. There is, perhaps, no patronage
fo beneficial to the country as this. “The mode of filling a
fenior fellowfhip, on its becoming vacant is, for the board
to ele&t the fenior of the junior fellows, if no objeétion lie
againft him, within three days after a vacancy 1s known,
But, to a junior fellowfhip, admiffion is obtained only by
fuftaining publicly one of the fevereft trials of the-human
faculties of which there is any account. The candidates for
this office, who muft have taken a bachelor’s degree in arts,
are examined in the public hall, three days fucceflively, for
two hours in the morning, and as many in the afternoon of
each day; the firft morning in logic and metaphyfics; firlt
afternoon in all the branches of the mathematics; fecond
morning in natural philofophy ; fecond evening in ethics ;
third morning in hiftory and chronology ; third evening in
the Greek, Latin, and Hebrew languages. The fourth day
is private, and is devoted tocompofition. The examination
is ia Latins and the days appointed for it are the four days
immediately preceding Trimty Sunday. The examiners,
who are the provoft and feven fentor fellows, (or, in the
abfence of any of thefe, the next in feniority among the ju-
niors,) after a {erutiny among themfelves in the board-room,

on

for.

-limited, and generally exceeds 500.

DUBLIN.

on the fucceeding Monday, proceed to give their votes, in
the mof folemn manner, for the candidate, or candidates,
they thirk fitteft to fupply the vacancies, when, if the pro-
volt do not chufe to ivterpofe, the vote of the majority. is
decifive, and the fuccefsful candidate is prefently after {worn
into office in the college chapel. As the ftruggle is often
elofe, and the decifion, confequently, difficult, the refult is
naturally expeéted with much anxiety ; for tbe fuccefsful
candidate is confidered as honourably and happily provided
Te will often happen, that men of preat merit will fail
from various caufes ; but, when unfuecefsful candidates have
anfwered refpeCtably; they have a {um of moncy allotted to.
them at the time ; and, if they chufe to decline further at-
tempts, generally fucceed in procuring pupils, or entering
fome of the learned profeffions, derive benefit from their palt
exertions. The difficulty, indeed, is fo great, that it is
conlidered: honourable to have made the attempt, even with-
out fuccefs. ‘There are only three of the fellows aliowed to
be members of the lay profeffions, one of medicine, and two
of law, without an exprefs difpenfation from the crown.
All the reft muft becume clergymen of the eitablifhed church,
and take their fhare of the clerical duties of the univerfity.
By the ftatutes of the college, every fellow, on marrying,
may, be obliged to vacate his fellowfhip ; but feveral difpen-
fations have been given by the crown ; and, of late years,
molt of the fellows have married, without any attempt to
enforce the penalty. Befides the fellows, there are 70:
{cholars, who have a right of voting at the election of the
member returned by the college to parliament, and who
have fome other privileges and emoluments.- Twenty of
thefe have what are called native places, attended by aa
additional income ; and thefe are filled up, as vacancies occur,
from. the molt diligent of the icholars. ‘The candidates for
a{cholarfhip mult have arrived at the rank of fophifters ; and)
ave examined, for two days in the week, before Whitfuntide,
in the Greek and Latin elaffics, by the provoft and fenior
fellows. Asa f{cholarfhip cannot be held by one arrived at
the ftanding of mafter in arts, it terminates in four, or, at
moft, five years, from the time of obtaining it ; but it is
often vacated before that time, as the emolument is trifling,
and the neceflary attendance on college duties often inter-
feres with protefiional purfuits, after the completion of the
undergraduate courfe. The ftudents are claffed under three
ranks, diltinguified by the names of fellow commoners, pen-
fioners, and fizars.. The number of the two former is un-
‘ They are publicly
examined before admiffion, by the fenior leGturer, and fuch
fellows as he chules to affociate with him, in feveral Greek
and Latin books appointed to be read at {choos for this

urpofe, and in Latin compofition, either profe or verfe.
rhe candidates admitted, are entered according to their
merit; and to obtain-the firft place on this occafion is
efteemed very honourable, Extraordinary rewards are alfo
adjudged, on fome occafions, to thofe who diltinguifh them-
feives ; whilft thofe who are fhamefully deficient are refufed
admiffion, and are obliged to return to fchool, or to feek re-
fuge in fome other college, where the proficiency of the
ftudents is lefy attended to. The fellow-commoners are
diftinguifhed by a peculiar gown and cap, and’ have the
privilege of dining at the fame table with the fellows, for
which they pay a much higher ftipend; whilft penfioners, at
a lef expence, poffefs all the real advantages which the col-
lege affords ; and, if they condu&t themfelves with propriety,
réccive every: attention from their fuperiors.- The fizars are
limited’ in. number to-about 30, and receive their commons
and inftruétion gratis. As vacancies occur, they are feleéted,
after examination, from a number of competitors, Though

- ¥3

their fituation may appear degrading, yet, by good condué,
they may remove any thing that would be painful, and, in a
very fhort time, by continued diligence, they may raife them-
felyes to a higher rank. Some of this clafs have, indeed,
rifen to the higheft honours of the univerfity ; but this does
not generally happen. ‘The undergraduate courfe continues
for four years, during the two firlt of which, the ftudente
are called: frefhmen, and the two latt fophifters ; and there
are four examinations in each year in the public hall, ina
courfe of reading appointed by the board. Judgments are
given for each branch of the examination, which are pub<
licly read, \and thofe who get a very bad judgment lofe the
examination for that time.. To encourage application, pre-
miums and certificates are liberally, but not negligently,
beltowed; and the youth who omits no examination, and
obtains good: judgments at every one, during his undzgras
duate courfe, is honoured with a gold medal, which, being
only obtained by the union of refpectable talents, with un-
remitting application, is jultly and highly valued. The
premiums are books, flamped with the college arms; and
the certificates, which are on vellum, are given only to
thofe who, being the beft im the divifton, are precluded froma
a premium, in order to fpread the flame of emulation more
widely. Befides thefe regular rewards, there are occafional
ones for compofition ; and the provoft is empowered to give
annual fums, called exhibitions, to thofe he efteems deferving.
There are alfo premiums for Hebrew; mathematics, divinity;
&c. 3 for thofe who, having taken their bachelor’s degree,
continue in the college, either with a view to a fellowthip, or’
in purfuance of their profeffional ftudies. Befides the ads
vantages derived from the regular examinations, &c; there is a:
fociety compofed of a number of thofe who have arrived at
the ftanding of fophifters, called the Hiftorical Society,
under the patronage of the fellows, in which queftions are
debated, portions of hittory examined into, and compofitior
in profe and verfe occafionally read. Thefe exercifes ferve
to call forth the exertions of the ftudents, and have particu=
larly contributed to form fome of the moft diftinguifhed
members of the Irifh bar, who here cultivated thofe powers
of oratory, by which they have fince rifen to the mott emi-
nent ftations. Idaving given this general account of the
fyttem of education purfued in Dublin college, it may be
expected that fome notice fhould be taken of the illuftrious
characters it has produced. Here, however, if we confider
the length of time fince its eftablifhment, it muft be acknows
ledged, thet the number is very few; and fome of thofe
who are moit celebrated, appear to have derived lirtle advana
tage from their alma mater. Amongtt thefe lalt, we muft,
perhaps, confider Swift, Congreve, and Goldimith. But
though the litt will not be great, it will include Uther,
Berkeley, Molineaux, and Edmund Burke. To thefe we.
may add the lefs eminent, but truly refpeétable names of
archb. King, bifhops Bedell, P. Browne, Chandler, H. Ha-
milton, and Young, Drs. T’. Leland, Helfham, Delaney;
Lawfon, Murray, Parnell; Meffrs, Farquhar and Dod«
well, with a long lift of diftinguifhed lawyers and ftatefmen,
fuch as lord chancellor Clare, Yelverton, lord Avonmore;
Hufley Burgh, Henry Flood, &c. Perfons yet living have
been purpofely excluded from this lift, or it might have been '
increafed by names well known, and highly refpe@ed:
throughout the Britifh empire. It may, however, be
afked, why the number of eminent writers is’ not
greater? And it'may be anfwered, that the courfe
of ftudy neceflary to obtain a fellowfhip is very fatigu-
ing; ‘that when this honour is- obtained, the time of
a fellow is ufefully employed in teaching his pupils,.
and. that when after feverak years of labour, he-arrives
ate

DUBLIN.

at a ftate in which he can enjoy “ ctium cum digni-
tate,”’ it can hardly be expeted that he fhould devote him-
felf to new Jabours, without that inducement which moft
authors have of thus providing for the maintefance of a famity.
It requires uncommon exertion in men fo fituated, to become
authers, and it is perhaps rather to be wondered at, that
fo many have added this to their other labors. Is itthen
to be inferred, that the univerfity of Dublin is lefs ufeful,
or its fellows lefs refpeGiable ? Is authorihip more honourable
than forming the youth of their country for aétive life? And
js it tobe defired, that the fellows fhould ceafe to labour as
tutors, or that they fhould be compelled by reduced in-
comes to add to this Jabour; that Dublin college may be
zble to rival her fifter univerfities in the produ@ion of authors?
Is it not rather their firfl duty and their higheft honour to
awatch over the morals of the youth entrufted to their care,
to maintain itri@ difcipline, to encourage and aflid nifing
merit, and to torm their pupils for future ufefulnefs? After
all, though Dublin cannot boaft any name equal to Bacon,
Newton, or Locke, yet confidering the much greater num-
Der of ftudents in Oxford and Cambridge than in it, there
will not be as much reafon to fhrink from the comparifon as
might at firft be imagined. The fyitem of education in Dublin
has alfo been objeéted to, efpecitally by thofe -who admire
that of the Scotch univerfities. Itis faid, that learning
would be more confiderably advanced, by cach fellow devot-
ing himfelf to fome one fcience, and leéturing on it, than by
his being obliged to inftruét in all. There is fome force in
this objeétion ; but if the fyftem in Dublin college be not as
favourable to the advancement of fcience, it will be found
much more fo to the diffafion of it, for every tutor is more
interefted in the general improvement of his pupils, feel-
ing himfelf in fome degree anfwerable for it, than if they
avere merely to attend toa difcourfe delivered by him: Ino
fa&, in education, it isof much more confequence to have
good elementary works carefully explained toa ftudent, than
that a le@urer fhould aim at eitablithing his own charaéter
by new difcoveries, when more than three-fourths of \his
hearers probably want to be inftruéted in the firft principles.
‘The confequence is, that at other univerfities, the youth
who has been well trained at fchool, and who burns with
the defire of knowledge, may learn more ina fhorter time,
than he can doin Dublin, but on the other hand, the many,
thofe who require the ftimulus of reward, or the dread of
punifhment to induce them to fludy, and who are unable to
proceed, without the affiftance of a tutor, will perhaps
derive much greater advantage in Dublin, than at any other:
Befides, though the junior fellows inftruG the undergradu-
ates in every part of their courfe of initruction, the lectures
to the more advanced ftudents, are given by profeflors who
have only one purfuit, and the leGures on natural philofo-
phy and mathematics, will nct be found inferior to thofe
given at other univerfities. It may be added, that the at-
tention paid throughout the courfe to logic and mathema-
tics, Jays a very ufeful foundation for future labours. It
may be perceived, from what has been already noticed, that
a confiderable {um out of the coliege revenues is devoted to
giving rewards to the ftudents, a fyftem purfued here more
regularly and extenfively than in any other univerfity, and
which has been of late years adopted at two or three colleges
in Oxford and Cambridge. The advantage of a large re-
venueis alfo apparent in other inftances. ‘The library, efpe-
cially fince the addition of the Fagel colleétion, is of the firit
rank, and is highly creditable to the college. This library
is open for four hours each day, from eight to ten in the
morning, and from tweive to two in the afternoon, and
ftudents may remain in it for the intermediate hours, if they.
8

chufe to te locked in, during the abfence of the librarian.
Every ‘perfon who has taken the degree of bachelor of arts
in the univerfity is entitled to go there, if he once enter into
an engagement to obferve the rules of the library, and this
privilege is liberally extended, by the fpecial favour of the
board, to gentlemen, who, having no claim, may derive
benefit from the ufe of it. If undergraduates cannot obtain
this privilege, it is becaufe they are thought to be moft ufe-
fully employed in preparing for their refpective examinations,
and the frequenting the library would interfere with theic
peculiar fludies. The manafcript room contains many
curious Irifh manufcripts, aud Dr. Barrett, the prefent vice-
provoit, difcovered there-an old manufcript.of the gofpel of
Matthew, of which he has publithed a fac fimile. The colleGion
of apparatus for le€tures on natural philofophy is very valuable,
and was in great part a donation from that adtive promoter
of f{cience, the late primate Robinfon. The mufeum is a
fine room, and contains many curious articles; the colle&tion
of minerals, in particular, hes been confiderably increafed,
and would be efteemed valuable, if it were not naturally
compared with the neighbouring one belonging to the Duodlia
Society, which is excelled by very few in the world. The
anatomy-houfe contains the celebrated wax models of the
human figure, executed by monfieur de Roue at Paris, and
purchafed by the earl of Shelburne, who prefented them
to the coilege in 17.52. On the fummit of Dunfink-hill,
about four miles north-weft from the caftle of Dublin, an
obfervatory was founded at the in{tigation of the late Dr.
Henry Ufher, profeflor ef aitronomy, and one of the or-
naments of the univerfity, of which a particular account is
given in the TranfaGtions of the Royal Ivifh Academy. »No
expence has been {pared to provide the building with the beft
inftruments. Amongft others, a circular inftrument, begun
by Ramfden and completed by his fucceffor, has been lately
brought over at an expence of more than 1000/. The board
alfo, with a liberality not often met with, in eleGiing a profeffor
of altronomy to. fucceed Dr. Uther, paffed overa re{pectable
candidate of their own college, in favour of a gentleman from
another univerfity, who appeared more fit for the fituation.
A lot of ground, of about four acres, has been lately taken
at about a mile diftance from the college, for a botanical
garden, which is laying out in the beft manner, ata confi-
derable expence. Such are the advantages whieh the uni-
vertity of Dublin poffeffes, and thefe advantages are not, as
at Oxford and Cambridge, confined to thofe who ean fubs
feribe the articles, or attend on the worfnip of the efta-
blifhed church. The Roman catholic and the Proteftant dif-
fenter, may pals through every itage of education, without
being required to do any thing inconfiftent with their opi-
nions as fuch, and fub{cription which is at Oxford required
on matriculation, and at Cambridge on taking the loweft
degree, is here never afked except on attaining a fellowship,
or on admiflion to a degree in divinity. Such liberal condué&
muft add confiderably to the number of ftudents, though it
will be in fome meafure counteratted by the influence of
fafhion, and by the unwillingnefs of many young men to
fubmitto thefe falutary reftu@ions which have been intro-
duced, aud which, in fo large a city, are peculiarly necef-
fary.. It may be proper to add a fhort account of the
buildings, which, though formerly only in the neighbourhood,
are now within the city, and contribute greatly to its orna-
ment. Thefe buildings confit of two f{pacious fquares.
The area of the firft; called Parliament fquare, is 212 feet by
316, and was built chiefly by grants from parliament. Itie
formed entirely of hewn itone, ornamented with Corinthian
pillars, and contains the refeGtory, chapel, and theatre for
Jectures and examinations. _ Tne front of the theatre is well

decorated

DUB

decorated with four Corinthian columns, fupporting a pé+
diment. The interior, exclufive of a femicircular recefs, 36
feet in diameter, is 80 feet long, 4o broad, and 44 high, ex-
cellently ornamented with ftucco work. A ruftic bafement
fupports arange of pilafters of the Compofite order, highly
decorated, from which the rich mofaicked cieling rifes in
groined arches: and in the pannels, between thefe pilatters,
are hung the portraits of queen Elizabeth the foundrefs,
and of feven eminert perfons educated in the fociety. The
only portrait of a living perfon, was that of the Right Hon.
Heary Grattan. This portrait of one, who mutt be ever
confidered an honour te the univerfity, was removed on fome
difapprobation of his political fentiments, and that of. the
Right Hon. John Folter fubftituted in its place. Ifthe re-
moval be regretted, it muft however be acknowledged, that
the latter gentleman has deferved well of the college and of
his country. Direétly oppofite to the theatre, on the north
fide of the {quare, is the chapel with a frent exa&ly fimilar.
In thisis placed a noble monument of Dr. Baldwin, a
former provolt, who left a fortune of 80,090 pounds to the
univerfity. This monument was executed by an Irifh artift
at Rome, and doesthe higheft honour to hisabilities.s The
theatre and chapel were both built from the defigns of fir
Wm. Chambers. The library extendsthe entire lencth of
the inner fquare ; it sa double building compofed of brick
and faced with ftone, witha magnificent Corinthian entabla-
ture crowned with a baluftrade. It is the moft fuperb room
in Europe for fuch a purpofe, being 210 feet long, 41
road, and 40 high. Beyond this is a well planted and ex-
tenfive park, containing feven acres, on the northern fide of
which is the printing office, ornamented with a good portico
ofthe Doric order. Oppolite to this isa building containing
the laboratory, and anatomical leGture room. The grand
front of the college is 350 feet in extent, ornamented with
Corinthian pillars and other decorations. Over the veltibule,
which is an o€tagon, terminated with groined arches, in the
centre of this front, is the mufeum, a fine room 60 feet by
40. Atafmall diftance to the fouth fide of this front, is
an elegant edifice, in which the provolt refides. Such is the
univerfity of Dublin, yielding to no other in proportion to
its extent. It hasits defe€ts, but there is a difpofition to
corre them, and adifcuffion of them here wou'd {well an
article already too long. ‘The writer cannot conclude,
what he trufts will be found a fairand impartial account of
his ala mater, without adding his fincere prayer c/o perpetua.

Dustin, a townfhip of America, iv the ftate of New
Hampilhire and Chcfhire county, feated on a branch of
Afhuelot river, and north of the great Monadnock, contain-
ing 1188 inhabitants; 28 miles 5.£. of Charleftown, and
63 W. of Portfmouth ; incorporated in the year 1771.

Dustin, Lower, a pleafant town in Philadelphia county
and ftate of Pennfylvania, 10 miles N.E. of Philadelphia,
and as far'S.W. of Briftol, containing 1495 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfhip of Huntingdon county in Pennfylvania,
including 978 inhabitants.

DUBNO, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Vol-
hynia; 24 miles S.S.E. of Lucko.—Alfo, a town of Poland,
in the palatinate of Belez; 40 miles N. of Belcz.

DUBOJA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefe’; 10 miles W.S.W. of Brzefe.

DUBOIS, Wirriam, in Biography, was born in 1656,
at Brive-la-Gaillarde in Limofin, where he received the
early parts of his education, and exhibited thofe nafcent
talents which evince to the pofleffor the power of becoming
great. When he was very young, he manifelted a propen-
fity to falfehood that feems never to have left him. To
complete his ftudies, he entered himfelf at the college of St.
Michael at Paris: fuch, however, was his indigence, that

Vou. XII.

DUB

he was obliged to ferve the principal in the fubordinate office
of valet. Having acquired a good portion of learning, a*
well in philofophy as in the languages, he became a pre-
ceptor in different families, and at length was fub-governor
to the duke de Chartres, afterwards the regent duke of
Orleans. Here he aéted his part fo well, that he was fhortly
made preceptor, with aconliderable falary. he principles
of Dubois at this period were pliant and corrupt, fo that no-
thing ftood in his way of preferment. He was employed to
perfuade his pupil to marry the king’s natural daughter,
madame de Blois; and bis fuccefs in this was rewarded with
the abbacy of St. Jult. He was fest to England in a po-
litical charater; and on this and other occafions performed
the duties required of him with fo much diligence, that he
obtained very confiderable preferment in the church: this
being regarded as the only proper method of rewarding the
agents of the court. In the year 1715 his pupil became
regent; and fuch was the character of Dubois at this time,
that almo!t the only condition impofed on the prince by his
mother was, ‘that he fhonld not employ the knave Dubois.’”
To this, however, he paid but little attention; and after a
fhort time appointed him counfellor of ftate; and in 1717,
he was fent ambaflador into England, where he figned the
triple alliance. On his return he was made minilter and
{ecretary of ftate; and fhortly after, he obtained the richeft
archbifhopric in the kingdom, viz. that of Cambray, though
no man feems to have been lefs fitted for the office than Du-
bois. Againft this elevation cardinal Noailles entered his pro-
tell, regarding it as calculated to defircy ali veneration for the
church in the minds of thelaity. In the next year, 1721, he
was made cardinal, but not without meeting with a decided
oppofition from the pope, Innocent I1I., who was well
acquainted with the infamy of his moral chara&ter. In this
rank of life he commanded the higheft offices of ftate, and
was admitted into the council of regency in 1722, and firlt
minifter of ftate. He alfo claimed the right of being a
member of the French academy, under the title of “* Mone
feignenr ;” and, in the following year, the French clergy
chofe this man to be their firit prefident. Thus, arrived at
the fummit of power and place, rolling in opulence, and be«
holding almoit every thing crouch in obeifance before him,
there feemed nothing wanting to render him great and
happy, if happinefs could be the refult of power; but, in
the midft of his honours, he was attacked with a fatal dif-
eafe, the confequence of early debaucheries, which, after a-
painful chirurgical operation, put a {peedy end to his life.
He died Augult, 1723, at the age of 67, leaving behind
him a charaéter more famous than can well be conceived.
Moreri. ;

Dvuzors, Joun, born at Lifle in Flanders, after finifh-
ing his courfe of claflics, applied to the ftudy of medicines .
and in 1557, he was admitted a door in that faculty, at
the univerfity of Louvain. On taking his degree, he pro-
nounced a declamation, in Latin, “ De Lue Venerea,”
which procured him fome credit. He then went and fettied
at Valencien, where he dillinguifhed himfelf fo well, as to
be appointed principal of the college of St. John. In 1562,
he was made profeflor of medicine, in the univerfity which
Philip II. had recently founded, at Douay. In this pott,
which he filled with credit, he continued 13 years. He
died April sth, 1576. His works are, “ De Curatione

Morbi Articularis, Vraftatus quatuor,” 8vo. 15575 “Morbi
populariter graffantis Prafervatio’ et Curatio,’’ Lovanii,

15725 ‘* De Studioforum et eorum qui Corporis Exercita-
tionibus addidti non funt, tuenda Valctudine,’’ Duaci, 1574;

8vo. Haller Bib, Med. Eloy Diet. Hitt.
Dusots, Francis, or Francis Syivius De tz Bor,
born at Hanau, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, in 1674,
Qq receayed

DUB

received the rudiments of his education at Sedan, whence he
went to Bale, where he was admitted dogtor in medicine in
1637. Not fatisfied with his acquirements, he vifited fe-
veral of the univerfities in France and Germany. At length
he went to Leyden; andin 1658 he was appointed to the
chair of profeffor in medicine in that univerfity, which had
become vacant by the death of Albert Kyper. His cha-
racter here, both as a teacher and praétitioner, foon became
fo extended, that as there were few cafes in medicine that
were difficult in which he was not confulted, fo there were
none of the claffes fo numeroufly attended as that over which
he prefided. In 1670 he was made reétor of the univerfity,
and two years after he died, inthe 5Sth year of his age.
He attended with his pupils the fick wards of the hofpital,
explained to them the nature of the difeafes with which the
patiencs were afllifted ; and he opened before them fuch of
the patients as died, and fhewed them the’changes which had
taken place in the organs that were the feat of the difeafes,
He had the merit of being one of the mo ftrenuous de-
fenders of the doétrine of the circulation of the blood, as
deferibed by Dr. Harvey, and which, we know, at firft met
with much oppofition. He alfo mace confiderabie advances
in the ftudy of chemiltry, to which he was much attached.
He was, however, too much attached to the bumoral patho-
logy, attributing all difeafes to fome fault in the blood or
juices, which he fuppofed, in molt cafes, were vitiated by
a redundancy of acid. His remedies, therefore, were prin-
cipaily taken from the alkalies, a doctrine which by degrees
became general over Europe. Notwithitanding his nume-
rous avocations, he found time to write a confiderable num-
ber of treatifes on various parts of medicine, though few of
them were publifhed in his life-time. ‘They have been fince
colle&ted, and form a large volume in folio. ‘ Opera
medica, tam hactenus inedita, quam variis Formis et Locis
edita, nunc vero certo Ordine difpofita, et in unum Volumen
redudta,’? Amftel. 1679. It has been feveral times re-

printed. For the titles of the feveral treatifer, tee Haller’s
Bib. Med. Eloy Did. Hilt.

Dusois, or, as he is more commonly called, James
Sy vius, a itarned and voluminous writer of the 16th cen-
tury, was fo attached to the ancients, particularly to Hip-
pocrates and Galen, the greater part of whofe works he
trinflated and edited, that he conftantly oppofed every thing
that was novel in doéirine or prattice. Heuce he kept upa
con{tant warfare with Velalius, his cotemporary, whole
difcoveries and improvements in anatomy, although obvious
to the fenfes, he refufed to admit. Sylvius was born in the
diocefe of Amiens, in 1478, and was educated under his
brother Francis, who had fo far d‘{tinguifhed himfelf by his
knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages, that he was
promoted to the office of principal of the college of Tourney.
After remaining feveral years with his brother, and having
been initiated in the knowledge of medicine, which he alfo
taught to younger ftudents, to obtain what was neceflary
for his maintenance, he went to Montpellier in 1529, where,
by the favour of the univerfity, and in confideration of his
great learuing and his age, he was immediately received
bachelor, and the year following doétor in medicine. He
then returned to Paris, and was appointed profeflor in medi-
cine; a poft which he filled with honour to himfelf and ad-
vantage to his pupils, to the time of his death, which hap-
pened on the 13th of January, 1555, in the 76th year of
his age.

His works, which were numerous and much elteemed in
his time, were collected by Rene Moreau, and publifhed in
one volume folio, at Geneva, in 1635, under the title of
«© Opera medica, jam demum in fex Partes digefta, calti-
gata, ct cum Indicibus hig inftru@ta.”? For the titles

DUB

of the particular treatifes, with. the times and order oF their
publication, the reader is referred to Hiallcr’s Bib. Med,
As Dubois had fuffered much, for want of being able to
procure proper aids for his fiudies in the younger part of Iris
life, ard he was old before he attaiged to affluence, it is pre-
bable he could not then give vp the habits of parfimony
which his indigence had obliged him to adopt. Some wit
has lathed that vice with the following:

“* Sylvius hic fitus eft, gratis qui ril dedit unquam,
Mortuus, et gratis quod legis ilta, dolet.’?

Haller Bib. Med. E'oy Di&. Hitt.

Dunois, Simon, a painter of portraits, battles, and
cattle, was born at Antwerp ; and having become rich by
his profeffion, diedin 1708.

Dusors Lake, in Geography. See Lake Du Bots.

DUBOS, Cuartes Francis, in Biography, wasborn in
the year 1661, in the diocefe of St. Flour in Auvergne. He
was fent to Paris for education, where, after having gone
throuzh a courfe of claffical learning and philofophy, he de-
voted himfelf to the fludy of theology, and took his degrees in
the college of the Sorbonne. Many offers of preferment were
propofed to him, at length he clofed with one from the
bifhop cf Lucon, who appointed him principal archdeacoa
of his church, and confidential grand vicar. In this fitua-
tion, he obtained the friendfhip of the prelate, became an
inmate in his houfe, and entrufted by him with the mot
important of his concerns. After the death of his worthy
patron, he was eleGted to a deanery under very honourable
circumftances. This office he held till the 64th year of his
age, whenhedied. He lived honoured and eltcemed by all
ranks, and hie death was lamented by his friends, to whom
he was endeared by the tendereft tie, and by the poor, wha
had experienced in him a kind and aétive benefactor. Dubos
refumed the celebrated “* Lucon conferencss,”? which, after
the publication of five volumes bad been fulpended about ten
years. ‘l'o thefe headded 17 others in 12zmo., and left ma-
terials for 15 more. He was alfo the author of ‘* A fketch
of the life of M. Bariilon, bifhop of Lucor,” publifhed in
1700. Morert.

Dusos, Joun Baptist, abbot of Refons, was born ia
1670 at Beauvois, where he was educated for the church,
but fome difappoirtmeuts caufed him to turn his attention to
the civil law, hiftory, and politics. In 1695, he publifhed
his ‘* Hiftory of the Four Gordians proved and ‘illu!trated
by Medals,”? in which he attempted to prove the exiltence of
a fourth of this imperial family, in addition to the three
ufually reckoned. After this, he was employed in many
foreign negociations. He came to England to perfuade the
people to confent to a peace with France; for this purpofe
he publifhed a work, entitled ‘* The interefsof England ill
underftood im the prefent War,”’ 1704, which obtained a
very limited circulation, and made fearcely any impreffion
on thofe for whom it was intended. The only thing re-
markable in it, is a predition of the future feparation of the
North American colonies. In 1709, he publihed a ** Hife
tory of the League of Cambray againft the Venetian repud-
lic,”? which was intended to ferve the caufe of peace, by
effording a ftriking example of theill fuccefs of a league of
many powers again{t an individual flate. Dubos was em-
ployed in the negociations at Utrecht, Baden, and Rad-
{tadt, and his labours'were rewarded by church preferment.
He was an agent in the hands of the duke of Orleans, and
cardinal Dubois, but never acted even for thefe a difhonour-
able part, though he ufually gave them fatisfation. Wea-
ried, perhaps, of a political life, he became diltinguifhed
for his zeal in polite literature and the fine arts, and in 1719,

publuthed

silt

act hm

DUB
“publithed a work, entitled « Critical Reflections on Poetry

and Pamnting,’? in two vols. 12mo. which has gone through
feveral editions. This work obtained for the author the
office of perpetual fecretary to the French Academy, in the
place of Andrew Dacitr, © He next employed himfelf in
‘elaborate enquiries relative to the early Vrench hittory,
which Iced him to pubilth “ A critical Flittory of the Etta-
blifhment of the French Monarchy in Gaul,” in 3 vols. 4to.
which was highly efeemed by many of the moft eminent
authors of the day. He wrote feveral other pieces, and
died in March 17.42. Moreri.

The abbé Dubos, an eminent writer on mary fubjects,
was wether fo faithful as an antiquary, nor fo ingenious in
his conje@ures as he was long imagined, « His agreeable ftyle,
and infinuat'nge manner, were fach as to make his readers
forget to doubt. In bis “* Reflexions critiques fur la Poetie
et furla Peinture;?? tom. iii. there are fomre bold and un-
qualified aff-rtions concerning ancient mulic, that feem to re-
quire particular notice mong mufical articles. ‘Tne abbé
does not write ex profeffo on mufic ; itis chiefly in his dif-
fertation on the theatrical repre fentations of the ancients that
he fpeaks with fo much firmnrfs of Greek mufic, as a good
judge might be allowed to do of mufic which he heard but
yelterday. ;

Voltaire, in charaéterizing this ingenious writer in his
<6 Siecle de Louis K1V.” faye: “he did not underitand
mutic, had never written a line of poctry, and was not in
pel finn of a fingle piéture; but he hed sead much, and
deen and refleéted much oa the arts. He was as well ac-
quaiinted with ancient literature as the moderna, and with
ancient and foregn languazes as with his own.’? But it
does not follow, that becaufe Voltatre was a man of wit, and
a good poet, that he was a good judge of painting and mufic,
for neither of which does he manifelt partiality, or difcover
‘the leaft knowledge in its principles.

Dubos’s eloge on Leili, whom he flyles the greateft poet
in mufic, with whofe works he was acquainted 3 0n the fubli-
mity of his airs fordancing, &c. ceafes to command attention.
The fame raptures, and {till preater, were afterwards cx prefled
in France for the works of Rameau, than for thofe of Giuck
and Piccini; and now for thofe of Hay?n, Mozart, and
Paeficllo. At prefent, however, there does not remain in
France a fingle idea of that mulic, which Dubos fo exclu-
fively extolled ; and his notions of ancient mufic are fill lefs
to be confided in, than the modern: among other abfurdities
he afferts, boldly, that the performer in the ancient dramas
wasaccompanied by a da/> continuo, not like that of the
French opera, butlke tue bafe accompaniment to Tralian
recitative ; avd determines, froma paflage and plate in Bar-
tholinus, that the inffrument upon which this continued ba/e
was played, was a flute! With the fame courage, and the
fame truth, this lively avthor afferts, that the /emera, or mu-
fical charaéters of the Greeks, were nothing more than the
initial letters of the names of the fixtcen notes in the great
fy{tem; or diagram! Opinions which mercly to mention, Is to
confute.

Dilettanti, mufical critics, withont poffeffing the neecflary
precognite, know rot what is practicable, what imp: ffible,
what is already known, or what is {till to be difeovered. We
have known many gentlenien and ladies who have been ad-
mirable performers of the mufic of others; but when they
erest themfeives into compofers and critics, they difcover
more ignorance than the loweft and moit clumfy .profteflor
that was ever admitted into an orcheltra or organ-Jott.

» What Dabos fays in defence of the ma/ks through which
theatrical performers fpoke or fung, is more reafonable,
“& The SpeGator, fays he, lott but litle onthe fide of fuce-
playing, by the introduGion of ma/ks.; for not one-third of
the audience was near enough to the ator to difcern the

DUB
play of mufcles, or working of the paffions in the features
of his face; at leaft to have received pleature from them ;
for an expreffion muft have been accomp@nied witha fright-
ful grimace and diftortion of vifage, to be perceptible at fo
great a diltance from the ftage.”’ But when he fays, ** fo~
reigners find that the French underftand ime and rhythm
better than the Italians,’’?—all muft know, except his coun-
trymen of the old fchool, thatthe dire€t contrary 16 true, -
and indeed aimoft all the opinions of this writer, concerning
both ancient and modern mutic, which were refpeéted four
{core years ago, would be defended now by few, even among
the natives ot France.

DUBOVKA, in Geography, a town of Roffia, in the
government of Saratof, on the welt fide of the Volze; 60
miles S. of Kamifchin.x—Alfo, a fort of Refiian Vartaryy
in the government of Caucafus, on the Malwa; 12 miles
W. of Kiziiar.

DUBOURG, Martrtuew, in Biography, a very eminent
performer on the violin, whofe condué as well as perform-
ance, acquired him patrons and friends, which rendered his
long life happy, and honourable to himfelf and profeffion.

This éxcellent performer, born in 1703, was the natural
fon of the celebrated dancing-mafter, Ifaac, and had in-
{tructions on his inftrument by Geminiani, foon after his ar-
rivalin England, 1714. In 1715, the young Duboury;, at
twelve-years old, had a benefit concert at the great room,
afterwards the Tennis-court, in James’-ftreet ; and is faid
to have played, ftandiag on a joint ftcol, a folo, at
Briton, ‘the {mall coa!-man’s concer’, much earlier.. Frork
this time till the year 1720, when the Royal Academy was
formed at the opera-houle, Dubourg played folos and con-
certos at almoft every benefit concert befides his own,
From that period he was fufficiently fteady and powerful to
lead the band at the concerts, where he performed folos,
till the year 1728, when he had arrived at fuch feme and
patronage as procured him the appointment of compoler,
and malter of his majefty’s band in Ircland. He refided
feveral years in that kingdom afterwards. But from the
the year 1735, when he was taken into the fervice of the
late prince of Wales, he frequently vifited England. We
faw and heard him while at his belt in the fummer of 17445
at Chefter, and had the pleafure of accompanying him in
Corelli’s 5th Tolo, which he performed in a manner fo fupe-
rior to any one we had ever heard, that we were equally
attonifhed and delighted, particularly with the fulnefs of his
tone, and fpirit of his execution.

It has been erroneonfly faid, that Dubourg was no coms
pofer; he was indeed no neblifher, but the odes which he
fet for Ireland, and innumerable folos and concertos which
he compofed for his.own public performance, are now in the
poffcffion of one of his difcipies, and of {cme of them the
compofition is exccllent.

On the demife of Fefting, in 1752, he was appointed
leader of the king’s band, and upon that and the produce
of his place in Ireland, he feems to have enjoyed eafe and
tranquillity to the end of -his lite, which was terminated in
1767, atthe aze of 64. He was buried in Paddington
church-yard, and on his monumental {tone are engraved the
followin lines:

“ Though fweet as Orphens, then cou dt bring
Soft pleadings from the tremb! ng ftrirg,
Uncharm’d the k-ng of terror {tands,

Nor owns the magic ef thy hands.”

DUBRAVITZ, in Geography, a town of Evrapeaa
Turkey, in the province of Moldavia; 36 miles N.W, of
Galatz.

DUBRAW, Joun, in Biography, a German prelates
ftatefman, and hiltorian in the s6th century, was born at

Qq2 Pilea,

DUC

Pilfen, in Bohemia. He was educated in Italy, and ob-
tained the degree of doétor of laws, He was afterwards
employed in a political capacity by Stanilaus, bifhop of
Olmutz, in Moravia. By this prelate he was engaged in
various negociations of confiderable importance, and was
entrufted by him with the direction of his troops which he
fent to the relief of Vienna. He was afterwards railed to
the fee of Olmutz himfelf, which he enjoyed about fix
years. His charaéter as a divine did not prevent him from
continuing his fervices as a ftatefman, which in feveral in-
ftances were of the highelt intereft to his country. He pub-
lifhed, in the year 1552, a hiftory of Bohemia in thirty-
three books, which is highly commended for fidelity and ac-
curacy, and in the following year he died. A new edition
of his work, with additions, was publifhed in 1574, by
‘Thomas Jourdaine; and another at Frankfort in 1688, to
which is added a hittory of Bohemia, by neas Sylvius.
Moreri.

DUBROWA, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in
the palatinate of Wilna; 74 miles E.S.E. of Wilna.

DUBROWICA, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Brzefc; 46 miles S.E. of Brzefc.

DUBUDY. Sce Dunpy.

DUC, Fronton pu, in Biography, a learned French
jefuit, was born at Bourdeaux about the year 1558. He
entered into the order when he was nineteen years of age,
and was almoft immediately appointed to the tuition of the
junior members in the principles of rhetoric. As a teacher
he was employed, in different places, about twenty years,
when he began to be known as an author. His firit
produGtion of importance was a Latin tranflation of the
works of St. Chryltoftom, in fix volumes folio, with notes.
He was afterwards engaged in a theological controverfy
with the celebrated Mornay du Pleffis-Marli, on the fub-
je&t of the practice and doétrine of the ancient churches,
relative to the eucharift. This difpute lafted feveral
years, after which Du Fronton was appointed librarian to
the jefuits at Paris, and about the fame time Henry 1V.
had determined upon printing the fele& MSS. from the col-
le&tion of the-royal library, and bad engaged feveral learned
men to employ themfelves on editions of the profane writers.
The clergy of France, in one of their affemblies, affizned to
the jefuits the care of preparing for publication the writings
of the Greek fathers, and father Du Fronton was, on ac-
count of his great learning, appointed to that bufinefs, in
which he {pent the remainder of his days. The laft years
of his life were fpent in almoft inceffant pain from repeated
attacks of the ftone, to which he fell a vitim in the year
1624. His various works as an original author, tranflator,
and editor, are enumerated by Moreri. He was efteemed
one of the moft learned men and ableft critics of his day,
and was at the fame time unafluming, and pious. He en-
joyed the correfpondence and friendfhip of the moft diftin-
guithed literary characters of the age, as well of the pro-
teflant, as of his own communion, Moreri.

Duc, Joun Le,a painter of animals,. was born at the
Hague in 1636, where he was appointed director of the
academy of painting, and died in 1671.

DUCA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and province of Bari; 6 miles N.W. of Bari.

DUCA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa, in
Mauritania Cefarienfis, according to Ptolemy; but as he
places them in the vicinity of Sitifi, they feem to belong to
Mauritania Sifitenfis.

DUCAL. The letters patent granted by the fenate of
Venice, are called ducals : fo alfo are the letters wrote in the
mame of the fenate, to foreign princes,

é

DUC

The denomination of ducal is derived hence; that, o¢
the beginning of fuch patents, the name of the duke, or
doge, is wrote in capitals, thus, ‘ N Dei Gratia
Dux Venetiarum, &c.”? The date of ducals is ufually in
Latin, but the body is in Italian, A courier was difpatched
with a ducal to the emperor, returning him thanks for ree
newing the treaty of alliance (in 1716) againft the Turks,
with the republic of Venice.

DUCAREL, Anprew Correr, in Biography, was born
in Normandy, in 1713; but was brought to England by his
father during infancy. He received his grammar learning at
Eton fchool, and from that feminary he went to St. John’s
college, Oxford, where he took his degree of LL. B. In
1742, he became a member of the college of civilians in
Do€or’s Commons; and, in 1752, he made a tour in his
native country, of which he publifhed an account foon after
his return, which he reprinted in 1767, under the title of
* Anglo-Norman Antiquities.’ He had, however, fome
years previoufly to this, been elected to an office in the cha-
pel of St. Catharine near the tower, which wag peculiarly
grateful to him on account of its affording him a gocd op-
portunity of purfuing his ant:quarian fludies. In 1757, he
was appointed librarian of the palace of Lambeth, and in
the following year was made commiflary and official of the
city and diocefe of Canterbury. About this period he ad-
dreffed to the antiquarian focicty, of which he had been fome
years an active and indefatigable member, a feries of azove
two hundred Anglo- Gallic, or Norman and Aquitaine coins
of the ancient kings of England, exhibited in copper-plate
engravings, and illuftrated with Ictter-prefs. In 1762, he
was elected a member of the Royal Society, and was foon
after a contributor to its Tranfactions, in an account of the
early cultivation of botany in this country. Dr. Ducarel’s
fituation in the Jibrary at Lainbeth led him to the ftudy of
ecclefialtical antiquities, and he made large col!eCtions on the
fubject. In the year 1763, he was appointed, with fir
Jofeph Ayloffe and Mr. Attle, to methodile the records in
the {tate paper office in Whitchall, and in the augmentation
office. In 1782, he publifhed ‘* The Hiftory of the Royal
Hofpital and Collegiate Church of St. Catharine,” and in
the following year, an account of the town and palace of
Croydon. In the Bibliotheca Topographica he gave ‘‘ The
Hittory and Antiquities of the Archiepilcopal palace of
Lambeth from its foundatios to the prefent time.”? He con-
tinued an unwearied application to butinefs, and his fayourite
ftudies till his death which happened in the {pring 1785. In-
dependently of the works of which this learned man was the
fole author, he contributed to feveral others conne&ted with
antiquarian fubjeéts, and had a confiderable fhare in the
<¢ Account of Alien Priories.”? It was his cuftom for many
years, previoufly to his death, to take a fummer journey,
with a fingle friend, and as privately as poflible, for the pur-
pofe of purfuing his favourite refearches. Biog. Brit.

DUCART, Isaac, a painter of flowers, generally on
fatin, was born at Amiterdam in 1630, and died in 1697.

DUCAT, a foreign coin, either of gold or filver, ftruck
in the, dominions of a duke; being about the fame value
with the Spanifh piece of eight, ora French crown, of four
fhillings and fix-pence fterling, when of filver; and twice as
much, when of gold. Sce Coin.

The origin of, ducats is referred to one Longinus, go-
vernor of Italy; whos revolting againit the emperor Juttin
the Younger, made himfelf duke of Ravenna, and called
himfelf Zxarcha, i.e. without lord or ruler; and, to thew
his independence, {truck pieces of money of very pure gold,
in his own name, and with hisown ftamp, which were called
ducati, ducats ; aa Procopius relates the ftory.

After

puec

After him, the firft who ftruck ducats were the Vene-
tians, who called them alfo Zecchini, or fequins, from Zecca,
the place where they firft were ftruck. his was about the
year 1280, inthe time of John Danduli: but we have pretty
good evidence, that Roger, king of Sicily, had coined ducats
as early as 1240. And Du-Cange fcruples not to affirm,
that the firft ducats were {truck in the duchy of Apulia, in
Calabria, The chief gold ducats now current, are, the fingle
and double ducats of Venice, Florence, Genoa, Germany,
Hungary, Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Flanders, Holland,
aud Zurich. The heavieft of them weighs five penny-weights
feventeen grains, and the lighteft five penny-weights ten
grains; which is to be underitood of the double ducats, and
of the fingle in proportion.

The Spaniards have no ducats of gold; but, in lieu
thereof, they make ufe of the filver one; which, with
them, is no real {pecies, but only a money of account,
like our pound. It is equivalent to eleven rials. (See
Riat.) The filver ducats of Florence ferve there for

~ crowns,

DUCATOON, a filver coin, ftruck chiefly in Italy ;
particularly at Milan, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Lucca,
Mantua, and Parma: though there are alfo Dutch and
Flemith ducatoons.

They are all nearly on the fame footing ; and, being a
little both finer and heavicr than the piece of eight, are
valued at two-pence or threesnence more, viz. at about four
fhillings and eight-pence fterling.

There is alfo a gold ducatoon, ftruck and current chiefly
in Holland: it is equivalent to twenty florins, on the
footing of one fhilling and eleven-pence halfpenny the
florin.

DUCE, in Geography, afmall town of France, in the de-
partment of La Manche, chief place of a canton in the dif-
tri of Avranches; 6 miles S. E. of that place, with a po-
pulation of 1611 individuals. ‘The canton has an extent of
120 kiliometres, and comprizes 12 communes, with 8754
inhabitants.

DUCENARIUS, in Antiquity, an officer in the Roman
army, who had the command of two thoufand men.

‘Lhe emperors had alfo ducenarii among their procurators,
or intendants, called procuratores ducenarii. Some fay, that
thefe were fuch whofe falary was two hundred fefterces; as
in the games of the circus, horfes hired for two hundred
fefterees, were called ducenarii. Others hold that ducenarii
were thofe who levied the two hundredth penny, the officers
appointed to infpeét the raifing of that tribute. In the
infcription at Palmyra, the word ducenarius, in Greek
Bsxeveging, Occurs very often,

DUCENTESIMA, a tax of the two hundredth penny,
exacted, by the Roman emperors.

DUCES Tecum, in Law, a writ commanding one to ap-
p*ar at a certain day in the court of chancery, and to bring
with him fome evidences, or other things, which the court
would view.

Duces tecum licet languidus, a writ dire&ted to a fheriff,
who, having in his cuftody a prifoner, in a perfonal aétion,
returns, upon a habeas corpus, that he is adeo languidus, that,
without danger of death, he cannot have his body before the
juftices. This is ow out of ufe. Where a perfon’s life
would bein danger by removal, the law will not permit it to
be done.

DUCHAL, James, in Biography, was born at or near
Antrim in the year 1697. For the principal part of his
carly education he was indebted to the celebrated Mr. Aber-
nethy. His college ftudies he purfued at Glafgow, from

DUC

whence he removed to, and fettled among, a {mall congres
gation of diffenters at Cambridge, where he remained feves
ral years, improving the advantages which the fituation af.
forded in the beft manner poflible. About the year 1735, he
accepted an invitation to Antrim, to fucceed his friend and
preceptor Mr, Abernethy, whom he again fucceeded at
Dublin in the year 1740. In the year 1752, Mr. Duchal
publithed his work, entitled ‘* Prefumptive Arguments for
the Truth and divine Authority of the Chriftian Religion,
in ten fermons; to which is added, a fermon upon Ged’s
Moral Government.”? Almoft immediately upon the ap-
pearance of this volume, the author had the degree of doc-
tor in divinity conferred up6n him by the univerfity in which
he had been educated. He died in the year 1761, deeply
regretted by his friends. He ever maintained a high cha-
rater for piety, and every Chritian virtue. In his religious
fentiments he was liberal, and candid, and as a preacher he
maintained a high rank among his contemporaries. After
his death three volumes of his {ermons were publifhed, which
have been highly efteemed on account of their excellent
tendency. LBefides thefe, Dr. Duchal publifhed three dif-
courfes while he was at Cambridge, entitled, ** The Prac-
tice of Religion recommended;”’ and he is fuppofed to have
been the anthor of various occafional publications, both in
Fogland and Ireland, which related to the theological cons
troverfies of the period in which he flourifhed. Biog.
Brit.

DUCHESS, in Geography. See DurcueEss.

Ducuess, La, a town of Naples, in the province of
Abruzzo Ultra; 11 miles S.S.W. of Aquila.

DUCHOUTSCHINA, a town of Ruffia, in the go
vernment of Smolenflk; 24 miles N. of Smolen{k, and 300
S.S E. of Peterfburg. ;

DUCHY Courr of Lancafler. See Court:

DUCK, Sreruen, in Biography, was an Englifh poet,
more diftinguifhed by his fortune and his fate than by the
brilliancy of his genius, or the excellency of his poetry ; and
whofe labours excited more attention, and received more
patronage, than any cotemporary writings, though far fue
perior in meritorious claims. For aruftic genius was then a
novel thing, and a poet from the barn appeared as great a
prodigy as a dictator from the plough. He was born at an
ob{cure village in Wiitfhire, A.D. 1700. His early edu-
cation was fuch as was afforded by a common country
fchool ; where he learned to read and write, to which was
added a little knowledge of arithmetic. At the age of 14,
he was taken from fchool, and employed afterwards in all
the menial offices of a country life. His inclination for
learning, however, muft have been prodigioufly great ; for
he was married in fervice ; was pofleffed of no books, nor
money to purchafe them. He contrived, by working over-
hours, to obtain fufficient money to buy a few, and others
he borrowed of his friends. ‘Thefe he perufed, by frequently
ftealing a few hours from fleep. Though limited in time,
he could read but little; yet he thought more. His fcanty
library confifted chiefly of works in verfe, which probably
turned the bias of his mind in favour of poetry. And the
{cattered picces in the Spetators induced him to try, if he
could not fucceed in making verfes himfelf. A very early
poem, though not the firlt written, was that on his own
occupation, entitled, ‘* The Threfher’s Labour,’’ addrefled
to the Rev. Mr. Stanley ; and which, excepting the one on
“ Friendthip,”? is perhaps the belt in the whole collection.
Duck now became noticed as a furprifing genius, and ob=
tained fome little notice from the neighbouring gentry.
But had it not been for his friend and admirer Mr. ea

©

DU CE.

he might have written verfes, and ftill been doomed to plod
on in the fame dull round of abje& fervitude, till the clofe
of life; and continued to complain :

« Thus as the year’s revolving courfe gces round,
No refpite from our labours can be found:
Like Sifyphus, our work is never done ;
Continually rolls back the reitlefs ftone:
New-growing labours flill fucceed the paft ;
And growing always new, mutt always latt.””
The Turefher’s Labour.

Through the means of Mr. Spence, he was introduced to
queen Caroline, who took him under her patronage, and
allowed him a penfion of 30%. per annum; which he grate-
fuly acknowledged in the dedication of his poems. After
he had taken holy orders, he was prefented to the valuable
‘living of Byfft in Surrey. But it does not appear that this
preferment, though great, contributed at all to his happt-
nefs: for he was obferved ever afterwards to be melancholy.

Whether his ambition had been difappointed, in not being

exalted flill higher; or his vanity hurc at the diminution of
his early popularity; or that confcience accufed him for
having aflumed an office, for the duties of which his previous
learning by no means had qualified him, and which he had
accepted as a kind of finecure, or at Jeaft with a view to the
emoluments attached,—is not known. Perhaps ceffation
from his ufual labours might have been the caufe. Ina fit
of infanity, he threw himielf into the Thames, and was
drowned, in the month of June, in the year 1756. His
works were publifhed in 8vo. London. 1730; and in 4to.
with an account of the author, by Mr. Spence, prefixed,
London, 1736.

Duck, in Geography, a river of America, in Teneflee,
whieh rifes on the N.W. fide of the Cumberland mountains,
runsa N.W. courfe, aad difcharges itfelf into the Teneffez,
in N. lat. 36°. At 5 miles from its mouth, 57 miles weft-
erly of Nafhville, it is 200 yards wide; and it is paffable by
boats for go miles.

Duck, alake of North America.
long. 108° 3o!.

Duck Creek Crofs Roads, or Salifoury, a confiderable and
thriving poft-town of America, in the ftate of Delaware,
fituated on Duck creek, which in part divides Kent and
Neweaftle counties. It contains about 100 honfes in one
ftreet, and carries on a confiderable trade with Philadelphia ;
and is one of the largeft wheat markets in the fate. It has
an epifcopal church, and a poft-oflice ; 11 mies N.W. of
Dover, and 36 from Wilmington.

Duck JSfland, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic, near the
coaft of Main in America. N. lat. 44° 45!. W. long. 67°

N. lat. 54° 50’. W.

43.

Duck Jflands, called the real ducks, lie in lake Ontario,
Upper Canada, between Worf ifland and Point Traverfe.

Duck, in Ornithology, the name of a large tribe of birds,
fynonymous with the Linnean term Anas, and compre-
hending the whole of thofe families of the aqtatic kind,
which are known by the denomination of fwans, geefe,
ducks, and teal. The word duck may be underitood to im-
ply only that family which is commonly fo. named, but, in
a general fenfe, muft be confidered as the Englith generic
appellation of anas. The character of the genus confifts in
having the bill convex and obtufe, with the edges divided
into lamellate teeth; tongue fringed, obtufe; three fore-
teeth conne@ed, the hind-one folitary. The following
iol are defcribed by Linneus, Gmeliv, Latham, and
others.

* Anas, with the bill gibbous at the bafe.

Cyonus. Bill femi-cylindrical, blackifh and yellows
cere yellow; body white. Cygnus ferus, Linn. Cygne
fauvage, Buff. Wild fwan, Br. Zool. Whifling fwany
Lath.

This is rather fmaller than the tame fwan, and inhabits
Europe, Afia, and America. The wild fwan is gregarious,
and is fometimes feen in fevere winters in Britain, affembled
together in flocks of five, fix, or more. It has a remarixable
whiltling note, whence it derives the name of whiftling {wan.
This note, which it utters chiefly in flight, is fo loud as to
be often heard when the bird itfeif is fo high in the air as to
be imperceptible to the naked eye. Itappeers that this ability
arifes from the peculiar conftru@tion of the wind-pips, which
is extremely different from that in the commen fwan: in the
firft of thefe, the wind-pipe, after entering the chefl a little
way, is refleéted from thence in the form of a trumpet, and
again returning into it, divides into two branches, and joing
the lungs; in the other, on the contrary, the wind pipe
enters at once into the lungs, and, in confequence of this,
it is enabled only to make a hiffing noife. The wild fwan
runs {wiftly, and {wims with its neck erect. The female
lays four eggs. The ficth of this bird 1s not only eatable,
but heid in much confideration in the north of Europe, and
in America. The various ufeful purpofes to. which the
feathers of the {wan are applied are well known, ‘Their fins
are worn by the Indians, in many parts of America; and
having the downy furface turned inwards, afford an article
of warm and comfortable clothing. ‘The legs of this bird
are fometimes reddith.

Prior. Bill femi-cylindric and black; cere black; body
white. Anas olor, Gmel. Anas cygnus (manfietus), Linn,
Le cygne, Buff. Tame fwan, Albin, &c.

Found in a wild ftate in Ruffia and Siberia, from whence
they have been conveyed to various parts of Eurepe and
Afia; and being eafily tamed and domeflicated, form ‘an
elegant and appropriate ornament to parks and other
grounds, poffeffing the advantages of an ample fheet of was
ter. Nothing can indecd exceed the grace atd dignity with
which the {wan glides or {wims through the watery e!cment,

affuming the proudeft attitudes, and feeming confcious of,

deferving admiration, In England, they are protected by
law: thofe kept on the Thames are citecmed royal pros
perty, and fteating their egys is deemed felony. The tame
{wan is a ftrong, rcbult cre-ture, and is faid to live to the
age of an hundred years. They feed on fith and aquatic
plants, and build in high grafs near the water. Their eggs,
frum fix to eight in number, are Jeid one every other day.
The young {wens are called cyenets, and were formerly
confidered 2s a delicacy for the table; the flesh of the adult
birds is hard and ill-flavonred.

Nicricoxuis. Bill femt-cylindric and red; bead ard
neck biack ; body white; legs fichh-coloure?. Gmel. JZe~
lancorypha, Molin. Black-necked fwan, Bougan. Black-
necked fwan, Lath.

Except in having the neck of a veivet black, the p'umageé
agrees with the tame f{wan, and ts about the fame fize. The
{pecies inhobits the Faikland iflands, Rio del Plata, and the
ftraits of Magellan: it is tikewile met with mn Chili,

Arrata. Black; wings edged with white; bill red.
Black fwan, Phillip’s Voy. —

The biack fwan is rather {maller than the common kind; *

the upper mandible is blackifh at the tip, and marked wich
a yellow fpot; the legs black, with the feet: paler. This
kind inhabits Botany Bay, and has been introduced inte
Eogitand within the lal few years. :

BRACHYPTERAs

oe

DUCK. ;

Baacuyprera, Bill: fulvous; body cinereous; wings
fhort; vent and band oa the wing white. Lath. dnas
cinerea, Goel. Oifeau gris, Perner. Race-horfe duck, ibid.
Logger head duck, Phil. Tranf.

Length thirty-two inches; the bill orange, with black
tip; fecondary quill-feathers white on the outer edge ;_pol-
terior part of the belly blueifh-black; on the bend of the
wing a yellow knob half an inch long; legs brownith-orange,
with dufky webs and black claws. Thefe inhabit the Falk-
Jand iflands, Staaten Land, &c, and were cbferved by our
navigators with captain Cook to appear generally io pairs.
From the fhortnefs of their wings they were unable, it is
faid, to fly; but their wings are ferviceable to them on the
water, being ufed as oars, with the aid of which they
fwim along with aftonifhing velocity. In order to catch
them, our failors ufed to furround a flock with boats, and
drive them afhore, wheve, being unable to raife themfelves,
they ran very faft, but foon becoming tired, fquatted down,
and being eafily overtaken, were knocked dowa and killed
without difficulty, The flefh is rank and has a fishy fla-
your.

Hysriva. Bill femi-cylindrical; cere red; tail fome-
what pointed. Molin. Hybrid {wan.

A native of Chili. Its fize is that of a goofe, but the
neck js fhorter, and the legs and wings longer; the male is
white, with the legs and bill yellow ; the female black, with
a few feathers edg-d with white; bill and legs red. Thefe
birds are found on the fea-coafts, lay from fix to eight eggs
on the fands, and are obferved to fly in pairs. ;

CyGnoipes. Bill black and femi-cylindrical; cere gib-
- hous; ,eye-lids tumid. Linn. dnfer guineenfis, Brif. Oie
de Guinée, Baff. Spanifh goofe, or fwan goofe, Albin. Chi-
nefe goofe, Ar&. Zool,

An inbabitant of Europe, Afia, and Africa. The length
is about three feet ; the bill wrinkled near the front, gib-
bous, afcendine, aud furrounded at the bafe with a whitifh
line; the crown and longitudinal band down the neck and
nape teflaceous; back and flanks grey-brown, the plumage
edged with whitifh ; beneath white; legs tawny, with black
claws ;- protuberance on the chin blackifh.

The varicty of cygnoides, called by Linnzus Orientalis,
and by Albin the Mufcovy gander, is {mailer than the other ;

the bill is orange, the irides yellow; on the forehead is a
' large knob as in the laft, and which is the fame colour as
the bill; beneath the throat is a wattle ; the heed and neck
are brown, deepeft on the hind part ; back, wings, and tail
the fame, but deeper, and edged with paler; the quiils,
breaft, and belly white; the female is fmaller than the male.
There appear to be fome other varieties of this fpecies.
Thefe birds breed freely with the common tame gecfe, and
are rather abundant in England at this time.

Gampensis. Bill femi-cylindrical; cere gibbous; body
black, beneath white; back purplifh; bill, forehead, and
. legs red. Gambenfis, Linn. Anas chilenfis, Klein. Spur-
winged goofe, Lath.

Size of the common goofe, but taller ; the bill more than
two inches long, of a red colour, with a protuberance of the
fame colour at the bafe; the cheeks and chin white, and the
bend of the wing armed with a ftrong {pur of a horn colour,
and about an inch and a half in length. The {pecies inhabits
Gambia and other parts of Africa.

Inpica. Grey, beneath pale afh ; head and neck white ;
lunule on the hind-head and {pot bencath black; rump and
vent white. eBarred-headed goofe, Lath.

A native of India, where it occurs in flocks of an hundred
together, in the winter months, and is very deftructive to
the corn. It is fuppoled to come from Thibet, and other

parts toward the north, difappearing again as the fummer
approaches. The fkfhisgood, ‘This bird is about the fize
of the tame goofe ; the bill two inches long and bright yel-
low, with the nail black ; the head, throat, and hind part
of the neck are white ; at the back part of the head below
the eye is a crefcent of black, having the horns curved up-
wards towards the eye, below this a fecond, and the back
of the neck for the moft part under this black ; th: back
part of the belly is brown, edged with white; tail grey,
with white tip; and the legs tawny.

Goscorosa. Bill dilated and round:d at the point;
body whice. Molin. Chili.

This {pecies inhabits Chili. It is of a large fize, the bill
and legs are red, and the eyes black.

Mevanoros. White; bill and ecaruncle at the bafe
black ; head and neck {potted with black ; back, cuncated
tail, and wings brick. Gmel. Zool. Ind. &c. L’ Oie
bronzée de Coromandel, Buff. Glack-backed goofe, Lath.

A fpecies common in the ifland of Ceylon, and along the
coatt of Coromande). Its fize is that of a goofe, but of a
more flender form; the bill pale, Jarge, and curved down-"
wards at the point; and in the middie a large rounded
ficfhy knob, the fame colour as the bul; the head, and haif
the neck is white, doited with black, and the feathers are
ruffled, or reflected ; the reft of the neck and under parts
are white, tinged on the fides with grey ; the back, wings,
and tail, black, gloffed with greenifh, and inclining to blue
towards the tail; the legs dufky. The female differs from
the male in having the caruncle f{maller, and the plumage
lefs vividly glofled with green and blue. Both fexes have
the fhoulder of the wing armed with a long and dangerous
fpur. In India it is known by the name of Nuckdah.

Granpis. Body blackifh, beneath white; bill black 5
legs fearlet. Gmel. Great goofe, Lath.

A large fpecies, found in the eaft of Siberia, from the
Lena river, as far as Kamtfchatka, and is taken in great
numbers, according to Pallas, in decoys contrived for
this particular purpofe; the bill is black, with the bafe
tawny.

HypersoreA. Body {nowy ; front yeilowifh ; firft ten
quill-feathers black ; billandlegs red. Gmel. Anfer niveusy
Brifl. White brant, Lawf. Car. Snow goofe, Ar&. Zool.

Size of the common goofe; the bil] fomewhat ferrated
at the edges with the upper mandible f{carlet, the lower
whitifh. The plumage, in young birds, is of a blue co-
lour, until after the firlt year. At Hudfon’s bay they are
found in vaft numbers, and are called by the natives wav-
way, and wapa, whe whe. In the month of October they
are taken in abundance by the inhabitants, who pluck
them, and after taking out their entrails, put their bodies into
holes dug in the ground, which they cover with earth; the
furface of the ground freezing, preferves the birds, in a per-
feGily {weet ftate, throughout the winter, and thus thefe
fubterraneous receptacles furnifh an occafional fupply of
frefh food to the inhabitants, with little coft or labour, during
the feverer months of winter. ‘They are reprefented as very
ftupid birds, common in the afdic regions during the fum-
mer, but pafs the winter in more temperate climates.

Picra. Blackifh-ath, with tranfverfe black lines; head,
neck, middle of the belly, bar on the wings, and coverts
white. Gmel. Painted goofé, Lath.

The length of this bird is twenty cight inches ; the bill is
{mall, about an inch and a half long, and of a black colour.
The legs, primary quill-feathers, and tail, black; wings with
an obtufe {pur on the bend. The {pecies was firlt defcribed
by Dr. Latham, from the drawings of fr Jofeph Banks, the
bird delineated was met with at Staaten-Land in January.

2 MaceEt-

DUCK.

Macerrantca. Rafty-brown; body, on the fore part
and beneath, traniverfely varied ; bar, acrofs the wings and
coverte, white. Gmel. Li’ Gie des terres Magellaniques, Buff.
Magellanic gaofe, Vath.

Obferved in the {traits of Magellan. The length of this
bird is twenty-four inches; the bill fhort and black ; wings
and tail black, vent grey; legs yellow ; and claws black.

Antarctica. Snowy; bill black; legs yellow (:ma/-)
Variegated ; belly, vent, rump, and thighs white; legs with
a gteen {pot (fem.) Muf. Carlf. Anas antarfica, Gmcl.
Antaréic goofe, Lath.

Thefe birds ishabit the Falkland iflands, and are from
twenty-four to twenty-fix inches long. The male entirely
white ; the female, with the bill, flefh-colour ; body brown,
with tranfverfe white lines.

VarieGata. Body above brown, fpotted with white ;
beneath chefaut, {potted with white and black ; bill, tail,
and primary quill-feathers black ; fecondary green ; wing-
coverts white ; rump and vent ferruginous. Gmel. Varie-
gated goofe, Lath.

Size of a large duck ; the bill an inch and a half long,
and black at the tip and bafe; tail and legs black. ‘This
bird inhabits New Zealand, and was found by captain Cook
in Dofley bay, in April, where it is called Pooa dugghee dugg-
Aee. Dr. Latham confiders the antarGic goole as the fe-
male of this fpecies, in his Synopfis; but in the Ind. Om.
fince publifhed, it appears as a diltin& bird.

Leucoprera.. White; bill, two middle tail-feathers,
primary quill-feathers, and greater wing-coverts black ;
nape, and upper part of the body, with numerous black lines.

Gmel. ZL’ Oie des’ Malouines, Buff. White winged antaritte
goofe, Brown. Sea gooft, Phil. Tranf. Buflard goof,
Lath.

Ishabits the Falkland iflands, and is known by the name
ef the bufard goofe. It is a tall bird, and meafures nearly
forty inches in length; it walks and flies with great eafe,
and lays fix eggs; the flefh is deemed wholefome and pala-
table. he wings have a blunt fpine at the bend, anda
dufky green {pot ; the greater wing-coverts are white at the
tip; fecondary quill-feathers half black and half white; and
the legs black.

Tapvorna. Bill knobbed at the bafe, with the front
comprefled ; head greenifh-black ; body variegated with
white. Linn. Vulpanfer, Klem. Shieldrake, Brit. Zool.
Donov. Brit. Birds.

A native of Europe and Afia, about two feet long, and
fubfifts chiefly on fifh, and aquatic plants. The female is
{maller than the male, but is not materially different in
plumage; it breeds moft commonly in deferted rabbit bur-
rows, and has hence acquired the name of durrow-duck.
‘The female lays fifteen or fixteen roundifh white eggs, and
fits about thirty days; the young take to the water as foon
as hatched, and {wim extremely well. The fhieldrake is a
bird of elegant plumage, and is coramon on many of the
Britifh fea coatts.

Srecragitis. Bill compreffed at the bafe, with a black
feathery keel; head hoary. Linn. Anas freti Hudfonis,
Brifl. Le canard a tete grife, Buff. Grey-headed duck, Ar&.
Zool.

Inhabits North America, Europe, and Afia. Length
about two feet. ‘This bird builds on the fides of rivers,
and lays four or five eggs, which are white, and as large as
thofe of a goofe. The female is chiefly black and brown ;
the belly dufky.

Fusca. Blackifh; lower eye-lid, and {pot on the wings,
white. Linn. Anas nigra major, Brifl. Grande, ou double
macreufe, Bufl. Velvet duck, Brit. Zool.

Native of Europe and South America. ‘The length is
about twenty-two inches; the bill black in the middle, at .
the bale gibbous; and the legs red. ‘The female has no
gibbofity on the bill; and the body 1s brown, ‘

Nicra.~ Entirely black ; bill gibbons at the bafe. Gmel.
Lamacrenfe, Bul. Scoter, or Black diver, Brit. Zool.

Inhabits North America and Europe, and feeds.on grafs
and fhell-fifh. ‘The length is twenty-two inches, the bill
yellow in the middle; head and neck fprinkled with purple 5,
tail {ub-cuneated. The female has no gibbofity at the bafe
of the bill, and is browner than the male. Tne flefh of this
{pecies is rancid.

Recra. Caruncle compreffed ;
brown; collar white. Molin. Chili.

This is much larger than che common duck, Anas bofchas.

Nirotica. Whitifh, with hoary fpots; fides of the
breaft and beily with hoary lines; marginal callofity on the
bill and caruncle purple-red. Haflelq. Nilotic goofe, Lath.

Tnhabits the Nile, in Upper Eaypt, and is faid not to be
found in any other parts except on the borders of the Red
fea. The fpecies is cultivated, with other dometticated
poultry, inEgypt. Its fize is lefs than the common goofe ;
its tail rather long and rounded; legs red, and claws
black.

Brerinciu. White; wings black; neck blueifh; ca-
runcle, at the bafe of the bill, yellow, radiate in the middie,
with bluetfh feathers. Gmel. Bering goofe, Ar& Zool.

This is the fize of the common wild goofe, and was feen
by Steller in the month of July, in great abundance on Be-
ring ifland. The natives purfue them in boats, and kill them,
in the moulting feafon, or, at other times, hunt them on
land with dogs. —

Ausirrons. Cinereous; forehead white. Gmel. Anas
erythropus, ( fem.) Linn. Faun. Suec. Anfer fepientrionalis

body blue, beneath

Jylvefiris, Brifl. L?Oie rieufe, Buff. Laughing goofe, Phil.

Tranf, White-fronted goofe, Ar&. Zool.

Inhabits the north of Europe and Afia, and is likewife
met with in Amei:ca, Length two feet four inches.

Eryruropus. Cinereous, above waved black and white ;
neck black; face and abdomen white. nas erythropus,
Lion. Fn. Suec. (male). Bernicla, Briff. Anas helfingen,
Olaff. ner brenta, Klein. La bernache, Buff. Bernacle,
or Clakis, Ar&. Zool. Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

Common in the north of Britain, and other parts of
Europe, and is occafionally feenin America, ‘This is a large
fpecies, meafuring about two feet in length, and is the tree
poofe of Gerrard and other naturalifts about his own time 5
a bird which they gravely afferted to be generated and
hatched in the fhe!l of the bernacle, Lepas anatifera of mor
dern authors. his filly conje€ture has been long fince ex-
ploded, but the fpecies ftill retains the name given to it
under this erroneous idea.

** Bill equal at the Bafe.

Mariza. Black; fhoulders waved cinereous: belly,
and fpot on the wings white. (ma/e.) Linn. Anas fubter-
ranea, Scop. Fuligula Gefneri, Rati. Scaup duck, Arc.
2x Donov. Brit. Birds, &c. duas frenata, Linn. Mul.

arlf,

Length about 18 inches; the bill broad, blueifh-afh; head
and neck gloffed with green; the legs and primary quill-fea~
thers duiky ; fecondarics white with black tips; tail, co-
verts, and vent black. ‘The female is brown, with black
bill furrounded with a circle of white feathers; neck rutty;
belly and bar on the wings white ; legs black. Its fize ra-
ther larger than the male. This {pecies inhabits the north
of Europe, Alia, and America, and is foued during winter

in

DUCK,

In forall flocks on the coafts of England. A fuppofed va-
wiety of this {pecies has the head and neck purple green;
dack and fhoulders waved. with cinereous, and the belly and
wing-{pot white.

Losata. Blackifh with tranfverfe greyith lines, beneath
paler, under mandible lobate beneath. Nat. Mifc,

inhabits New Holland. Its fize is that of the common
duck; the bill broad at the baf- and black, the lower mandi-
Ale with a large, black, flat round wattle, placed longicudi-
mally; the body dark cinereous;” paler beneath and on the
neck, and waved with numerous tranfverfe whitifh lines , legs
black.

Montana. Head, neck, and quill-feathers red-green.
Goel. Hill or mountain goofe, Kolben.

Larger than the tame goofe, and inhabits the hilly parts
of the Cape of Good Hope, and feeds on grafs and herbs.

Cana. Reddith-ferruginous; head and neck grey; wing
fpot green; fhoulders white. Gmel. L’Oie fauvage a téte

_ de Coromandel, Sonn. Grey headed goofe, Brown.

Lefs than the brent goole, and inhabits the mountains of
athe Cape, where it is called Bergenten by the Dutch. The
female differs from the male in having no white on the
cheeks, and, in general, the colours of the plumage more
obfcure, There is a fmall knob a little below the bend of
the wing in this fpecies. 5

Ruricortis. Black, beneath white; bill fmall, conic;
neck rufous; {pot between the bill and eyes white. Pallas.
Red breafied goofe, Av&. Zool.

Native of the north of Ruffia, and has been twice fhot in
Britain: it is a very rare ard beautiful {pecies,

Casarca. Rufous; wings and tail black; wing fpot
white. Linn. nas rutila, Lepech. Collared duck, Gent.
Mag. Ruddy goofe, Lath.

Nearly as large as the Mufcovy duck. The {pecies inha-
bits Roffia and Siberia during f{ummer, and migrates into India
at the approach of winter. Like the fhieldrake it forms
burrows under grourd, and conftruéts its nelt in holes in the
«craggy banks of rivers. Their voice is fhrill and powerful,
_and at times refembling that of the peacock. The bill and
degs are black ; the head and upper part of the neck white,
and collar black. This is the male bird, from: which the
female differs chiefly in being deftitute of the black collar.

fEcyrriaca. Bill fub-cylindric; body undulated ; crown
white, wing {pot with a black collar. Linn. L’Oie d’ Egypt,
~Buff. Ganfer. Albin. Lgyptian gos/é, Lath. Donov. Brit. Birds.

Native of Egypt, the Cape of Good Hope, and other
parts of Africa, from whence they have been imported into
England, and have now become generally naturalized’; it is
a beautiful fpecies, and highly ornamental in pleafure grounds.
It is as large as the common goofe, and has the bill reddifh
with the tip black ; the body waved with brown and ferrugi-
nous; temples, orbits, and {pot on the breaft chefnut; back,
rump, wings, and tail black; belly white; legs red, with
black claws. In the female the chefnut patch round the
eye is {malier; the chin white; the chefnut fpot on the
breaft {maller, or fometimes entirely wanting; the lefler wing-
coverts white; the others pale afh with darker margins; the
lower ones fringed with white, and forming a bar on the
wing; {capulars and fecond quills inclining to chefnut. There
is a variety with the bill grey ; {pot on the breaft black, and
the back, wings, and rump chefnut.

Secerum. Cinereovs, beneath dirty white; bill com-
preffed at the bafe; tail-coverts white; legs faffron. Gmel.
_ Bean goofe, Ar&. Zool.

Length two feet feven inches; the bill black, reddifh in
the middle; head and neck inclining to ferruginous; quill-
feathers edged with black, tail with white; legs fometimes

Vor. XII.

reddith brown, with black claws, The fpec’es inhabits Eu-
rope and America; they breed in the Orkneys, ard come ta
the autumn into the more fouthern parts of Britain, and de-
part agzin in May. ‘They are in particular fond of green
wheat, and are therefore very deftruétive in corn fields,

Boreatts. Bill narrow; head green; brealt and belly
white. Gmel. Greenland duck, At&. Zool.

A fpecies of the middle fize between the duck and goofe ;
it inhabits the fens of Iceland, and is very rare.

Cxrucescens. Brown, beneath white; wing-coverts and
hind part of the back blucith. Gmel. Blue winged goo/e.

Native of North America. Rather fmaller than the com=
mon goofe; the bill and legs red; crown yellowifh; reft of
the head and neck white; fhouldersand tail waved white and
grey. Known at Hudfon’s bay by the name of Cath-catue-
qwe-we.

Bernrcia. Brown, head, neck, and breaft black ; collar
-white. Linn. Brenta, Brif. Le Cravant, Buff. Brent goo/es
or Brand Goofe, Ar&. Zool.

Lefs than the Bernacle goofe, inhabits the north of Ame-
rica, Afia, and Europe, and migrates towards the fouth in
avtumn: feeds on fea plants, berries, and marine infeGs.
The plumage of the female is more obfcure in colour than
the male, and in young birds the white on the fide of the neck
is {mall or entirely wanting. Like the Bernacle goofe, thefe
birds are frequent on our coafts during winter. On the
coafts of Holland they are often taken at that feafon in nets
placed acrofs the rivers. Buffon relates, that they are fome-
times fo abundant on the coalts of France as to become ex-
tremely troublefome; and mentions in particular, that, in the
year 1740, they were literally a peft to the inhabitants, not
only deitroying the ears of corn, but tearing up the italks
by the roots. They are ealily tamed, and, when fattened,
are elteemed delicate eating. In Shetland it is called the
Horra goofe, being found in the found of that name.

Canabensis. Cinereous; head and neck black; cheeks
and chin white, Linn. L’Oie a cravate; Buff. Canada goofey
Catefby. &c.

Length three feet and a half; the bill, tail, ramp, and
primary quiil-feathers black ; a triangular white {pot reach-
ing from the back of the head to the chin; the nape, tail-
coverts, vent, and lower part of the belly white; legs lead
colour. The fpecies inhabits North America, where it ap-
pears to be met with in vaft flocks during the fummer, when
they retire farther northward. In the vicinity of Hudfon’s
bay they conftitute a principal article of food, the Indians
killing fome thoufands annually, which are either eaten
freth or falted and barrelled. It is faid the Indians wait the
arrival of thefe birds with much expeétation, and form a row
of huts, conftrnGed of the boughs of trees, at a mufket-fhot
diftance from each other, acrofs thofe parts where the birds
are expected to pafs, where they lie fecreted, and, when the
geefe fly near, fo exaétly mimick their note as to decoy them
pear enough to killthem with their mufket fhot. Thefe birds
are very fhy, but an expert mark{man by this means has been
known to take two hundred geefe in one day. The fichh is
good and the feathers in much requeft, being equally fine ae
thofe of the common goofe.

Mocutssima. Bill cylindrical; cere on the hind part
bifid and wrinkled. Linn. Anférlanuginofus, Brif. Eidergans
Waulibaum. Oie & duvet, Buff. Eider, or Cuthbert duck,
ArG. Zool.

The Eider duck inhabits the north of Europe, Afia, and
America, extending to the highelt northern latitudes, and
becoming fearce towards the fouth. In Britain it is feldom
found more foutherly than the Farn ifles, or in America than
New York, They are numerous in the Efquimavx iflands, and

r in

DUCK

in Greenland. The male has the bill, legs, front-band qcrofs
the eyes, breaft, and lower part of the back and belly black ;
middle of the head, upper part of the back, fhoulders, and
wing-coyerts white, and beneath the hind part of the head a
blotch of pea-green. In young birds the neck and brea are
commonly {potted black and white, and the crown of the
head black; and it is faid, when they attain a great age,
which fometimes does happen, the plumage becomes entircly
grey. The female is in general of a reddifh brown, barred
with black, and the hind part of the neck marked with lon-
gitudinal dufky ftreaks ; two bars of white on the wing ; tail
duiky, and legs black.

Vhefe birds are {mailer than the common goofe, and feed
on fhell-fifh, in fearch of which they dive under water to a
great depth > their flcfh is good, and the down obtained from
their nefits in the breediag feafon fo abundant, and of fuch an
excellent quality, as to render it an article of confiderable
commercial importance in the north of Europe. The quan-
tity of down found in one neft weighs only about three
quarters of an ounce, ‘yet is fuflicient to fill the crown of a
man’s hat. Salerne relates, that three pounds of this down
may be compreffed into a {pace not larger than one’s filt,
notwithftanding it is fo dilatable as to fill a quilt five feet
fquere. That found in the nefts is called live-edown, and is
more valued than the down plucked from the skins of the
dead birds.

Awser. Bill femi-cylindrical ; body above cinereous, be-
neath paler; neck ftriated. Linn. dnfer /ylveffriss Brif.
Anas Araki, Fork. Wild goofe, Will. Grey Lag goofe,
Ar&. Zool.

_ 8. var. domefticus. Varies much in colours by domettica-
ton.

The wild goofe weighs about ten pounds; its length is
two feet nine inches, and breadth five feet. The bill is
ficfh colour, with the tip white ; the rump and vent white;
the legs flefh colour, and claws black. Thefe birds inhabit
the fensof England, and are fuppofed not to migrate from
hence, as in many other countries on the continent, being
met with throughout the fummer, and being alfo known to
breed in Lincolnfhire, and Cambridgefhire. Duriag the
winter feafon they affociate in large flocks. On the con-
tinent they migrate in flocks of five hundred together ;
their columns, when their flock is large, are fomewhat -tri-
angular, with one point foremoft, but when {mall, ap-
pear in a direét line. The goofe, in a wild ftate, feems
pretty generally diffufed over the globe: they are met
with in Iceland, and from Lapland to the Cape of Good
Hope. In Arabia, Perfia, and China they are frequent;
indigenous to Japan, and on the American continent from
Hudfon’s bay to Carolina. They are alfo met with in the
ftraits of Magellan, in the Falkland ifles, and at Terra del
Fuego. Tiey are eafily tamed, and have from feven to
eight young at a time.

In a ftate of domeftication the grey lag goofe varies from
its parent origin in the colour of the plumage, but in a much
fighter degree than either the mallard or the cock, being
more or lefs grey, and having both the vent and tail-coverts
almoft conftantly white. Tame geefe are no where feen in
greater abundance than in the fens of Lincolnfhire, many
perfons keeping no lefs than a thoufand breeders. The ufe
of the quills and feathers is well known, and for the fake
of thefe the birds are frequently flripped of their p'umage
whillt alive; about Michaelmas they are defpoiled of both
quills and feathers, and four times afterwards between that
period and the enfuing Michaelmas they are again ftripped,
but of their feathers only. Numbers die in confequence of
this.cruel treatment, if the weather prove cold, otherwife they

foon recover their ftrength,and feem to fuffer no yery material
injury. During their fitting, each bird has its allotted fpace,
in rows of wicker pens placed one above another ; and it is
faid the perfon, who takes charge of them, and is called 2
Gozzard or Goofe-herd, twice in a day drives the whole to
water, and bringing them back to their habitations, places
every bird in its refpetive neft without mifling one. In
fome countics the common price of geefe is regulated by
that of mutton, the former being {tripped of the feathers,
and both being the fame ger pound. ‘The ufual weight of
a fine goofe is about fixteen pounds, which, however, may
be greatly increafed by cramming them with bean meat and
other fattening diet. Some nail the geefe tothe floor by
the webs of their feet, during the time of fattening, a pro-
ceeding apparently cruel, but which is faid to occafion no
pain, and is intended to prevent the leaft poffibility of a€tion,
The French add to this the refinement of putting out their
eyes, an act of barbarity, we conceive, devoid of any ufeful
purpote. The geefe in England, when fully fattened, have
been known to weigh thirty pounds. The number of geefe
driven annually from diftant counties to the London market
appears incredible. They will walk from eight to ten miles
a day on the average, travelling from three in the morning
ull nine at night. In this manner they are often brought
to London in droves of many thoufands together. The
weaker ones are much fatigued, ard are fed on oats initead
of barley, their ufual food, on the journey.

Moscuara. Face naked and papillous, Linn. nas /ul-
veflris Brajfilienfis, Ray. Anas Indica Gefaert, Will. Le
canard mufqué, Buff, Anitra muta, Zinnan. Mufcovy duck,
Will.

Larger than the wild duck ; the bill two inches long, and
red, except about the noftrils, and at the tip, which are
dark brown; face red; the crown of the head black; tem-
ples, chin, and throat, white, varied with black ; breaft and
lower part of the belly brown, mixed with white; back and
rump brown, gloffed with golden green ; upper part of the
belly white; the three fir quill-feathers white, the reft
brown ; tail-feathers twenty in number and golden green,
except the outer one on each fide, which is white ; the legs
red. The plumage of the female is more obfcure in colour,
and the naked papillous fpace about the head fmaller.

The name of Mufcovy duck ufually given to this fpecies
feems to imply that the breed originated in that part of the
world ; but, according to- Ray, it is fo called from the
mufky odour, which it exhales, a fcent arifing from the
gland on the rump; and it appears alfo from Marcgrave
that they are indigenous in Brafil. In an unconfined itate,
they make their nefts on the ftumps of old trees; and perch
under the ‘hace of the foliage during the heat of the day.
The fiefh is accounted excellent.

Rura. Cinereous; head and neck rufous; breaft black 5
back lineated with brown; wings cinereous brown. Gmel.
Anas ruficollis, Scop. Rufous necked duck, Lath.

Size of the mallard; the bill black ; head and neck rufous;

-breait black; back variegated with brown lines pointing

backwards ; tail fhort; legs black. A fpecies defcribed on
the authority of Scopoli, the native place not mentioned.

LeucocerHara. Bill broad; tail-feathers rigid,
pointed, grooved; the middle ones Jongeft. Scop. -dnas
merfa, Pallas. White headed duck, Shaw. Ural duck,
Lath.

Rather larger than the common teal ; bill large, broad,
and tumid above the noltri!s, the colour blue ; head and part
of the neck white; on the crown a large patch of black ;
breaft chefnut, with black ftreaks difpofed tranfverfely ;_
belly grey with fmall black fpots; back rufous; wings

7 reddifh,

' DUCE

yeddifh, with brown dots and lines, fmall, and without any
appearance of a fpeculum; tail long and wedged, the co-
Jour black ; legs brown, on the forepart blucifh, and placed
far behind, as in the divers, ‘The female is entirely brown,
except the throat, which is white, The fpecies is not unfre-

uent in the greater lakes of the Ural mountains, and the
rivers Ob, and Jrtifch. It is feldom {een on the ground, as it
is, from the fituation of its legs, {earcely able to walk, but it
{wims very well, and what is remarkable, the tail is at that
time immerfed in the water as far as the rump, and ferves as
a kind of rudder to dire& its courfe, contrary to the manner
in which the duck tribe ufually fwim. The neft is formed
of reeds like that of the grebe, and floats in the water.

Monacua. White, varied with black; bill yellowifh with
black tip; wing-{pot violet green, Scopoli.

Larger than the wild duck; the lores grey; head, bill,
and upper part of the breaft {potted with black; firft
quill, and tail-feathers white with brown tip. Native place
unknown.

Torripa. Head white; neck above black, beneath
chefnut. Gmel. Branta torrida, Scop. Torrid duck.

Native place unknown.

Acsicans. Front and body beneath whitifh, above
brown, head and neck brown rufous. Gmel. Branta albi-
rons, Scop.

The feathers of the breaft are cinereous, edged with pale
rufty, and a rufous bar near the tip; quill-feathers within,
and at the tip white.

Georcica. Cinereous-waved’; wing-fpot greenilh, edged
with white; wings and tail dufky, Gmel. Georgia duck,
Lath.

Defcribed by Dr. Latham froma drawing in the Bankf-
aan colle¢tion; the fpecimen was found in South Georgia
in the middle of January; it was a male bird, and the flefh
was excellent. The total length of this bird was twenty
inches; the bill two inches long, turned up a little at the
tip and yellow ; irides chefnut ; wing-coverts pale-ath ; legs
greenifh-grey.

BandaAmensis. Grey; bill lead-colour, with a lateral
tawny {pot ; wing-{pot green and pale yellow. Linn. Mareca
prima Aldr, Ray. Le marec, Buff. Tlathera duck, Catelby,
Lath, &c.

- Native of Brafil and the Bahama iflands, particularly that
called Ilathera, whence its name, but it is not numerous.
It is faid to perch and rooft ontrees. Its fize is that of the
common duck; the crown is reddifh afh, neck, back, fhoul-
ders, and rump reddifh brown; cheeks and throat white ;
breaft and belly rufous-grey, {potted with black ; primary
quill-feathers and lefler wing-coverts dufky ; greater ones
green, with black tips; fecondary quill-feathers yellow ;
legs lead-colour.

Brasitrensrs. Brown, beneath cinereous; between the
bill and eyes a yellow fpot; chin white; tail wedged and
black. Gmel. Le mareca, Buff. Mareca duck, Lath.

Inhabits the famé country as the former, and with that’

{pecies is indifcriminately called by the natives Mareca.
The bill is black; upper wing-coverts brown, gloffed with
green; greater ones edged with blue green, and black at
the tip; quill-feathers white at the extremity; legs red.
ErytuHroruyncnua. Bill red; brown beneath, and tem-
ples white; tranfverfe bar on the wings white, and another
wae yellowith ; tail black. Gmel. Crim/on-billed duck,
ath.
The length of this {pecies is fifteen inches ; the bill two
inches long, and turning up at the end; legs black. It in-
habits the Cape of Good Hope.
Atzeoua. White; back and wings black ; head blucifh;

the hind head white, (male) Linn. Qwerguedula tudoviciana,
Brifl. Anas hyberna, Briff. Sarcelle blanche et noire, Buff,
Pi, Enl. Petit canard a groffe tete, Buff. Oif. Spirit duck,
Ar&. Zool. Buffel-headed duck, Catefby. (Female.) Anas
ruflica, Linn. Querguedula carolinenfis, Brifl. Sarcelle de la
Caroline, Buff. Little brown duck, Catelby.

The two fexes of this duck have been deferibed as diftin&
{pecies. They inhabit North America, and are found at
New York in the winter, returning fouthward if the fum-
mer to breed. They arrive about Jone in Hudfon’s bay,
and make their neits in trees, in the woods near ponds, The
male is rather larger than the teal, and about fixteen inches
in Jength ; the female only fourteen.

Stevrerr. White; hind-head fomewhat crefled ; tranf-
verfe fpot on the nape, and each fide of the bill. green; tail
brown ; ten firft quiil-feathers blackifh brown ; the reft black
blue. Pallas. Weflern duck, Arét. Zool.

A rare {pecies, found on the fea coafts of Kamtfchatka,
where it breeds in the molt inacceflible rocks, and flies in
flocks. Its fize is that of the common wigeon; the bill and
legs black ; orbits lunule at the bafe of the neck ; and band
from the wings to the back black. Female ferruginous.

Cryreara. Extremity of the bill dilated and rounded
with anincurved nail. Linn. nas platyrynchos alicra, Ray.
Anas virefcens, Marl. Avis latirofira, Wein. Souchet, Buff.
Shoveler, Brit. Zool.

A native of Europe, Afia, and America; in England the
fpecies is {carce, in Germany rather more common, and alfo
throughout the Ruffian dominions as far as Kamt{chatka; its
food confilts of infeéts, and fhrimps have been likewife found
in its ftomach on diffection. It breeds in the farhe places as
the fummer teal, laying its eggs on a bed of rufhes ; thefe
eggs are of a rufous colour, and from ten to twelve in
number. ‘The fize of the male is about twenty-one inches ;
the bill black; irides yellow; head and neck violet
green;’ breaft white ; back, wings, and tail brown; belly
chefnut ; vent white; firft and fecond wing-coverts pale
blue, greater, brown tipped with white, the reft edged with
white; legs tawny. ‘The female is fmaller, and in general
brown. Both fexes vary occafionally in colour. Dr.
Latham confiders the nas mufcaria of Linnaeus as a va~
riety of this {pecies, as it differs only in having the belly
white ; and another {uppofed variety inhabits Mexico ; this
is the Zempatlahoac of Ray, Le canard fauvage du Mexique
of Brifflon. It is the fize of the tame duck. The bill is
large and black ; the head and neck greenifh, gloffed with
purple; breaft white; reft of the body beneath fulvous,
with two white {pots on both fides near the tail; and the
legs red.

Mexicana. Tawny; above black and white lineated ;
wings brown; lefler coverts white; greater next the body
green gold. Lath. Anas clypeata mexicana, Brifl. Yaca-
patlahoac, Ray. Mexican fhoveler, Lath.

Smaller than the common duck. the bill browni(h-red ;
greater wing-coverts brown; and the legs reddifh. "The
{pecies inhabits New Spain.

Rusens. Brown; chin and brealt chefnut; wings tipt
with grey ; wing-fpot purple, edged with white; tail fhort
and white. Gmel. Red breafled /hoveler, Lath.

Size of the common duck; the bill is broad, and hrownifh
yellow; head large, eyes {mall, and the legs flender and bay
colour. Inhabits Europe.

JAmarcensts. Varied with brown, faffron, and rufty ;
back, wings, and tail brown ; upper part of the head black
bencath, and chin white, with black pots. Gmel. Teal of
Guiana, Bancroft. amaica fhoveler, Lath.

Length fixteen inches; the bill broad, blueifh, orange at

Rra the

DUCK. \

the fides; legs orange; back brown, fprinkled with yel-
lowifh fagittated dots, and tail cuneated. It is a native of
Jamaica, where it firft appears in O&tober or November,
and retires northward in March.

Scanpiaca. Chefnut; back, wings and tail black;
belly white, Gmel. Anas Jatirofra, Bran. Lapmark
duck, Ar&. Zool.

Inhabits Denmark, and is common about Chriftianftedt,
and alfo at Lapmark. Its fize is that of the common
duck ; the bill is broad, with the Jegs black ; the fecondary
quill-feathers white, with black tips; and the flanks ferru-
ginous. The fpecies frequents both the frefh and falt
waters,

Srrerera. Wing-fpot rufous, black, and white. Linn.
Anas platyrhynchos, Ray. Chipeau, Buff. Gadwall, Will,
&ec

Size efa wigeon ; the bill flat and black; legs tawny ;
rump black; back brown, waved with paler; breaft and
belly grey, varied with white. The female is marked ina
manner fomewhat fimilar to the male, but is more obfcure.
Tn the breeding feafon it is found throughout Sweden, Rul-
fia, and Siberia, and as far north even a3 Kamt{chatka; in the
winter it appears in France and Italy. It isfeen in England
during the latter feafon, but not commonly. This bird is
very fhy, concealing itfelf during the day time among the
rufhes, and venturing out to feed only in the morning and
evening. Its voice is hike that of the mallard, but louder ;
and the flefh is good.

Farcaria. Crefted, variegated with hoary and brown ;
breaft fcale-waved ; front, chin, collar, and bar on the wings
white. Pallas. nas falcata, Georgi. Falcated duck, Ar&.
Zool.

This is found in the eaftern part of Siberia, from the
river Jenifci to the Lena, and beyond lake Baikal, and is
fuppofed to winter in the Mongolian deferts, and in China.
Its fize is that of the common wigeon; the bill black;
crown teftaceous, and the reft of the head filky green, with
a {mall white fpot on the front ; fpeculum blue black, edged
witlr white; five inner quill-feathers long, falcated and varied
with white and violet; legs lead-colour. A variety 1s de-
{cribed by Buffon under the title of Sareelle de Fava, in
which the quill-feathers are not falcated; in this the vent
is brown and the thighs white. This is defcribed asa
mative of Java and China, and is perhaps the young or fe~
male bird.

Dominicana. Rufous; front of the head footy; wing-
fpot white; fhafts of the tail-feathers deep black. Gmel.
Canard dominicain du Cap de Bonne Efperance, Sonn. Do-
minican duck, Lath.

Inhabits St. Domingo, and meafures in length about
twelve inches. The bill is black; breaft and belly grey-
brown mixed with white, and fome of the greater wing-
coverts white; wings brown; tail cuneated, the feathers
pointed, and the lege brown.

Spinosa. Brown; crewn black; tail-feathers pointed.
Gmel. Sarcelle a queue épineuféy Buff. Spinous-tailed teal,
Lath.

A native of Cayenne and Guiana. The bill is bluecith;
band acrofs the eyes, white in the middle, and black each
fide; tail fhort; legs ficfh-coloured. Length from eleven to
twelve inches.

Arricans. Reddifh-brown; back, wings, and tail black ;
fpot on the breaft and tranfverfe bar on the wings white.
Gmel. Sarcelle d’ Egypte, Buff. African teal, Lath.

Ratherlarger than the garganey, length fixteen inches,
The colours of the female agree with thofe of the male, ex-

cepting in being more obfcure, and the white {pot on the’
breaft waved with brown. This {pecies is a native of Europe.

Manacascariensis. Dufky green, beneath white; cap,
front, and chin white; hind-head and neck greenifh-black ;
throat and breaft ferruginous, waved with brown. Gmel,
eek male de Madagafcar, Buff. Madagafcar teal,

sath,

A native of Madagalcar. This fpecies is about twelve
inches long; and has the bill yellow, tipped with black ; be-
tween the ears is a pale green patch of an oval fhape; and
the legs and wings dufky, the latter marked with a white
ftreakx.

Coromanpeniana. Above gloffy-brown, beneath white ;
crown black, the reft of the head and neck white, {potted
with black. Gmel. Sarcelle de Coromandel, Buff. Coroe
mandel teal, Lath.

Much fmaller than the common garganey; its bill is.
dufky ; the lower part of the neck marked with decuffating
black lines; vent ferruginous at the fides; and the legs
black. The female is varied beneath with white and grey.
Native of Coromandel.

Manitvensis. Head and chin white; neck, breaft, and
wing-coverts bay ; wings and tail pale greenifh. Gmel. Sars
celle de Pifle de Lugon, Sonn. Manilla teal, Lath.

Lefs than the common. teal, and inhabits the ifland of
Manilla.

Formosa. Brown; crown black, edged with white;
chin reddish, {potted with black; wing-fpot black, edged with
teftaceous, and marked on the fore part with. an oblique
green fpot. Georgireife. Baikal teal, Lath.

Size of the common teal, and inhabits Ruoffia about the
lake Baikal. ‘he bill is black; legs dufky red; from the-
eye to the chin extendsa black {pot, paler onthe hind part,
and edged with green; the nape and fides of the neck waved;
vent black, with a white band, and tawny at the fides; mids
dle tail-feathers whitifh. A variety of this bird inhabits;
China; it is of a brown colour, with the crown black ; head
yellowifh brown at the fides, and behind the eyes green with
a curved black fpot.

Hina. Region of the eyes green.
Lath.

Defcribed on the authority of Ofbeck, who does not men-
tion the fize ; the bill, he fays, is blackifh grey and foft,.
the head and chin brown; a white line paffes below the eyes,
and all the {pace above is green; the neck and upper part.
of the back are white, {potted with black; lower part of the
back and rump afh-colour; upper part of the neck white,
fpotted with black, breaft and belly white ; feathers of the
rump edged with white; feet and legs afh-coloured, The
female has the head and region of the eyes grey; chin white,
above black, and in fome parts of a reddith white, {potted
with black. In China it is called Hina-a.

SparmMAnnia. Beneath dull white, above black, varied
with ferruginous and white; fcapulars white, edged and
lineated with rufty-white on the disk. Lath. dnas alandica,
Muf. Carlf.

Length twenty-three inches. The bill and legs black;
tail ferruginous, fomewhat fafciated with black. Inhabits
the vicinity of Aboana.

Cxraneuta. Varied black and white; head tumid and
violet; at each corner of the mouth a large white fpot.
Linn. Le Garrot, Buff. Golden eye, Ar&. Zool. Donov.
Brit. Birds.

Inhabits Europe and the north of Afiaand America, It
preys on fhell-fifh, frogs, and other aquatic animals, and
forms aneit of gralsot a rounded form, lined with feathers

q . from

Olveck: | Haaaizeahn

* |

DUCK.

from the breaft, andin which it depofits-from feven to ten
eggs of a whitith colour, Inthe Linnzan Fauna Suecica,
it is faid to build inthe hollows of trees. The flefh of this
Kind of duck is much efteemed.

PerspiciruraTa. Black; crown and nape white; bill
with a black {pot behind the noftrils, Lath. | dnas per/pi-
cillata, Linn. Macreufe 2 large bec, Marchand, Buff. Black
duck, Cook’s Voy.

Size of the velvet duck, length twenty-one inches. The
bill and legs are red; crownand neck marked with a white
triangular fpot. The female is fmaller, footy and without
the {pot on the nape; on the cheeks two whitith {pots. AL
native of America, breeds along the fhores of Hudfon’s bay,
and feeds on grafs; the neft is alfo compofed of grafs, lined
with feathers, and contains from four to fix white eggs,
which hatch the end of July. It is called by. the natives
Miffe qua gw ta wow. Captain Cook met with it in Prince
William’s found.

Guavucion. Body blackifh; breaft waved; wing-fpot
white and linear. Linn. Anas peregrina, S.G.Gmel. Morillon,
Brif. Glaucium, Ar&. Zool. Smaller than the golden
eye, and inhabits northern regions.

Novz Hispanim. White, {potted with black; head
tawny, varied with. blackifh and greenifh blue; wing-coverts
and vent blue; fpot between the bill and eyes, and bar on
the wings white. Gmel. Querquedula mexicana, Brif.
Toltecolo@li, Ray. Sarcelle du Mexique, Bull. Mexican
duck, Lath,

Size of the common teal; the upper mandible of the bill
is blue, the lower black; the middle quiilsfeathers green
without, tipped with tawny; legs pale red. The female
differs in having the head, potterior part of the neck, back,
{capulars, wing-coverts and rump black, fome of the feathers
edged with fulvous, and others white; beneath black, varied
with white, and the legs afh-colovred.
of Mexico and Surinam, where it is faid to be continu-
ally dabbling in the mud with its bill for worms, frogs,
fifh, &c. ;

Maracoruyncuos. Blueifh-lead colour ; bill membra-
naceous at thetip; crown greenifh afh; wings with a tranf-
verfe white fpot. Gmel.
Cook’s Voyage. Soft billed duck, Lath.

This bird is about the fize of the wigeon, and inhabits
New Zealand. Our circumnavigators met with it in Dufky
bay in April. The billis an inchand a quarter in length,
of a pale afh-colour, withthe tip black ; the latter part is
membranaceous, and of fucha foft and flexible nature, that
the bird is fuppofed to live by fuGtion, or on worms which
it finds in the foft mud on the fea fhore when the tide is
down; itis faid to whiftle hke the whiftling duck.
inhabitants of New Zealand call it He-qeego.

AMERICANA,
front ochraceous; wing-fpot large, white; wings and
tail brown. Gmel. Canard genfer, Buff. American wigeon,
Ar&. Zool.

Rather larger than the common wigeon, and inhabits
America. The bili is lead-coloured, tipt with black; hind-
head and neck varied with white and black ; behind the eyes
a black fpot ; vent black, and leys dufky. It is found from
Carolina to Hudfon’s bay, but isno where common. They
are gregarious, andin Martinico, where they are abundant,
affociate in large flocks, and do great mifchief in the rice
plantations during the rainy feafon. They feldom appear
til after fun-fet, when they come forth from their hiding
places in queft of food; they fit in January, and in March
the young are hatched. The flesh is excellent, but that of

It inhabits the lakes .

Blue-grey duck, with a foft bill,

The.

Pale rufty, waved with black ; crown and:

the domefticated ones is preferable to thofe killed in a wild”
flate.

Carensis. Dirty white; back bay; wing-fpot, blucifk:
green edged with white. Gmel. Cape wigeon, Lath.

Length fifteen inches; the bill’ red, and black at the
bafe; head fpeckled with dufky; and the legared. Inhabite:
the Cape of Good Hope.

PeneLore. Tail rather pointed; vent black; head
brown; front white; back.cinereous waved. inn. <Anaz
Sifularis, Brif. Canard fiffleur, Buff.. Wigeon, Ar&. Zool.
Donov. Brit. Birds.

This {pecies is common in various parts of Europe, Afia,.
and Africa, migrating from Europe as far as Egypt: it is
alfo found in Aleppo during the winter in plenty, and like-
wife on the borders of the Cafpian fea. Both fexes are alike
in young birds till the following {pring after hatching, when
the male about March gains his full plumage. Thefe birde-
are common in England during the winter months.

Acura. Tail pointed, long, beneath black; a white
line on each fide on the hind-head; back cinereous and

waved. Linn. Anas caudacuta, Ray. Anas longicauda,
Brif.. Canard a longue queue, Buff. Sea pheafant, or cracker,
Will. Pintail,, Donov. Bat. Birds, &c.

Found in England, but in lefs abundance than in many”
parts of the continent. It is: very common in- Roffia. ap--
pearing in flocks of fome hundreds on the borders of the Don,
and extending as far as Kamtfchatka. In the winter feafon’
it iscommon in France,. Aufria, and Italy, and in plenty
about the lake Baikal in Afia. Upon the fea-coatts of
China it is often feen in flocks; and is not uncommon ig
America. The flesh is fine flavoured and very tender.

FereuGinea. Reddifh-brown; bill dilated and rounded
at the trp; legs blueifh. Gmel. Anas rufa, Linn. Fn.
Suec. Red. duck, Arc. Zool.. Ferruginous duck; Donov.
Brit. Birds.

A rare {pecies, found in Denmark and Sweden, and has
been once taken in Lincolefhire. .

Guraciatis. Tail pointed, long ;:body black, beneath’
white. Linn. Canard a longue queue, Buff. Sxwallow-
tailed fhieldrake, Will. Long-tatled duck, Brit. Zool. (mal-.)
Anas hyemalis,. Linn. (young. male.) Long-tailed duck,
Ar@. Zool. ( female.)

Size of the wigeon ;. the:bill an inch and a half long, and
black, except down the middle and at the tip, which parts»
are orange; the head in front and at. the fides are greyifh,
inclining to-red; the pofterior part, with the breaft and
belly, white; on each fide of the-neck, juft below the head,-.
is an oval {pot of black 5 the back, wings, and tail chocolate ;
the tail is white, except the four middle feathers, which are
black, and of thefe the two middle ones are much Icnger
than the reit, exceeding them by more than three inches ;
the legs are dull red, fometimes blackifh. and furnifhed with
black claws. ‘This is the defcription of the male bird in the *
adult ftate: when young, they vary confiderably. The va-
riety defcribed by Linnxus as a diltin& {pecies, under the
name of hyemalis, hes the tail nearly as in the preceding,
but the two middle feathers rather fhorter, the belly white,
the back of the head cinereous; the temples, with the brealt,
back, and wings black. This kind has been defcribed as
the female by fome authors; but, from recent obfervations,
it appears that the latter fex has the tail fhort, cuneated,
and deftitute of the two middle long feathers; the body
varied with rufous and-grev ; the body black, and the col.ar,
with the lower part of the belly, white. This relates to the
adult female; tor, in young birds, the crown and collar are °
biack, forinkled with white, and the black dull spettn

ere

DUCK.

There is ftill avother variety of this {pecies, called by Bieffon
Sarcelle de Ferroe, a bird found in the Ferroe iflands, where
it is known among the natives by the name of O’edel. The
colour of its plumage is blackifh-brown, beneath white ;
the head pale-grey at the tides; the orbits white; hind-
head, chin, and neck fpotted with brown; wings with a
reddifh-brown {pot. -

Thefe birds inhabit the north of Europe, Afia, and
America. In England they are confined chiefly to the
Orkneys, where they are met with from April to. O@ober.
In Sweden, Lapland, and Ruffia, it is not an uncommon
{pecies, and thence extends even to Kamtfchatka. In
America it is found from Hudfon’s bay to New York, re-
maining in Hudfon’s bay and in Greenland throughout the
year. Like the Eider duck, it forms the nelt of grafs near
the fea, and lays from ten to fifteen eggs of a white colour,
and the fize of a pullet’s.. The neft is lined with down of a
foft and valuable kind, but not in fufficient abundance to re-
ward the labour of colleGing it. They fly with fwiftnefs,
and {wim well; have a loud and fingular cry, and fubfift
principally on: fhell-fifh.

Furva, Tawny; back, fhoulders, wings, and rump
tranfverfely ftreaked with tawny and brown ; tail varied with
white and black. -Gmel. Penelope mexicana, Brif.
pachnauhth, Ray. Mextcan pochard, Lath,

The tize of this bird is uncertain; the bill and legs are
dufky, with black claws; and! the eyes are black. The
{pecies inhabits Mexico.

FerinA. Cinereous waved; head brown; band on the
breaft, vent, and rump black. Linn. Anas fera fufca,
Ray. Penelope; Brif. Poker, pochard, or red-headed wigeon,
Will. Lath.

Native of Europe, the north of Afia, and’ America,
paffing from the north to the fouth in the winter. During
the latter feafon, they are frequently in the fens of Lincoln-
fhire, where they are often caught, and fet in confiderable
numbers to the London markets; the flefh being much
efteemed. With us they are known by the name of dun
birds. They pafs farto the fouth in the winter, being met
with at that time in Egypt. Teed on aquatic infeéts. and
fhell-fifh. Their flight is ftrong and rapid ; their voice a
peculiar kind of hiffing. The fize of the pochard'is that of
the wigeon; the female is darker in colour than the male,
and has the head pale reddifh-brown, with the belly and
wing-coverts cinereous.

Luripa. Black; head chefnut; breaft tranfverfely
lineated with red. S. G. Gmel.

Rather larger than. the common teal; the belly whitilh,
fpotted with blackifh, on the fides and vent fnowy; quill-
feathers varied with cincreous and black; tail-fcathers twelve
in number and black. Native of the fouthern part of Ruffia,
and found by Gmelin in his travels on the borders of the
Cafpian fea.

Kexuscuxa. Ochrey-yellow, beneath fnowy ; back
cinsreous; rump and tail deep-black; quill-feathers from
fifteen to nineteen, the tips white. S. G. Gmelin.

Found on the borders of the Cafpian fea. Length twenty
inches. ‘he flefh reacid.

UERQUEDULA. Spot onthe wings green; above'the
eye a white line. Linn. Garganey, Brit. Zool. Donov.
Brit. Birds, &c.

Length feventeen inches; the bill lead-colour; crown
dufky and ftreaked; cheeks*and neck purple, with fhort
white lines; breaft brown, with femi-circular black bars dif-
‘poted traniverfely ; belly white, fpeckled behind; fcapular
feathers long, narrow, and ftriped with white, afh-colour,

and black ; tail dufky; Tegs lead-colour, Female brownith-
ath, and without a green fpot on the wing. Found, but not
in any plenty, during the winter feafon, in Britain and
France; retiring towards the north to breed, as the fummer
approaches. In Sweden, Rouffia, and Siberia, it is more
common; and m Kemtfchatka it breeds.

Crecca. Wing-fpot green; a white line above and bes
neath the eyes. Linn, Querquedula minor, Brif. Kri-
kenté, Bl. Common teal, Br. Zool. Ar&. Zool., &e.

This well-known bird is about fourteen inches in length,.
and weighs twelve ounces; the bill is black ; head and neck
bright-bay ; behind the eyes to the nape extends a broad
green band, which terminates beneath in a white line; the body
is whitth, with tranfverfe blackifh lines above, and the fore»
part of the neck and breaft {potted with black; the vent
black in the middle. The female bas the head and neck
varied with whitifh and brown; amd the vent totally white.
The teal is very abundant with us in winter. It breeds in
France, forming its neft of rufhes on the borders of ponds;
or fo contrived that, being placed at the water’s edge, it
may rife and fall with it. Its food confilts of {mall fifh and
aquatic plants. The fpecies is found as far north as Ice=
land, and to the fouthward as the Cafpian fea. The fum-
mer teal, anas circia of Linnsus, is fuppofed by fome to be
a variety of the common teal.

Carorinensis. Black and white waved; head and
upper part of the neck chefnut; throat and breaft {potted
with black; wing-fpot green; line beneath the eyes, and
humeralarch white. Lath. as crecca (war.), Phil. Tranf.
American teal, Ar. Zool.

Inhabits America from Carolina to Hudfon’s bay, in the
laft of which places it breeds: moft commonly found in
woody places near {mall ponds, and lays from five to fever
eggs. ‘The head is marked each fide with a green firipe;
the wing-coverts are brown, and the legs dufky. The fe
male is reddifh-brown-ath, {potted with black; the wings as
in the male bird.

Histrionica. Variegated with brown, white, and
blue; ears, double line on the temples, collar, and pectoral
bar white. Linn. Le canarda@ collier, Buff. Harlequin
duck (male), Ar&. Zool. ras minuta, Linn. Harlequin
duck (female), Lath.

Native of Europe and America, and fubfifts on the eggs»
of fifhes, fhell-fifh, and aquatic infe&ts. They delight in
fhady places, and build their nefts on the fhores of frefh
water ftreams; their eggs, about ten in number, are of a
white colour, and refemble thofe of the pigeon.

’ Fuscescens. Brownifh; head and neck paler; wings
cinereous, {pot blue, tipped with white; tail dufky. Gael.
Brown duck; Ar&. Zool.

The length of this f{pecies is fixteen inches ; the bill large,
thick at the bafe, and blueifh, with the tip black ; breaft
pale-brown, edged with rut colour; legs dufky. Native af
Newfoundland.

PorcitoruyncHa. Black; cheeks and part of the
throat cinereous; wing-{pot green, above. white, beneath
bounded with white and black; fecondary quill-feathers
white. Ind. Zool. Spotted-billed duck, Lath.

Native of Ceylon, where the f{pecies is very common.
The bill is lone and black, with a red {pot on each fide at
the bafe, and the tip white; band acrofs the eyes, and the
vent black ; legs yellow.

Damiatica. White; head, upper part of the neck,
fhoulders, and tip of the tail black ; nape with a ferruginous
lunule; wings greenifh-black. Gmel., Anas damiatica,
roftro apice plano lato rotundo, Hallelq. Damiaita duck, Lath.

Rather

D Week.

Rather larger than the mallard, and inhabits the flores of
Egypt, thofe efpecially near the Mediterranean, as the bay
near Damietta, and between Alexandria and Rofetta, It
is conjeCtured to be of the fame {pecies as the black-headed
duck of Shaw’s travels, which is found in Barbary.

Discors. Wing-coverts blue; fecondary quill-feathers
green without; band onthe front white. Gmel. Querque-
dula_ americana, Brif. Sarcelle foucrourcn, Bulk. WWhite-
faced ical, Ar&. Zool. White-faced duck, Lath,

The male is of the middle fize between the teal and wigeon,
the female rather {maller. In the &rft, the head and neck are
violet, the cap and bill black ; and before the eyes on each

_fide a white ftreak ; the body brown, waved with grey ; wing~
{pot green, edged above with white; the legs yellow. The
female has the head, neck, and body, varied with grey and
brown, and appears to be the blue-winged teal of Catefby.
Thefe birds inhabit the American continent as far to the
north as New York; they arrive in Carolina about Augutt,
and remain there till OGtober, feeding in the firft inftance on
the rice, and when that fails attack the wild oats. They
frequent ponds and frefh waters; and the ficfh is fat and
well flavoured. The {pecies is found alfo in South America,
at Guiana, and Cayenne. A fuppofed variety of this bird
appears in Hudfon’s Bay in June, and departs at the fame
time asthe former; it builds no neft, but forms a hollow in
decayed ftumps of trees, in which it depofits ten {mall wait-
ifh eggs; and is faid to feed on grais at the bottoms of
ponds. In this kind the cap and tail are black ; the greater
wing-coverts marked with a dufky fpot; fecondary quill-
feathers exteriorly, with the chin and belly white.

Vinuvata. Brown; fore-part of the head white; legs
blue. Jacq. Beytr. Canarda, face blanche, Buff. Canard
du Maragnon, Buff. Spanifb duck, Lath.

A beautiful {pecies, called by the Spaniards Vindila ; it

frequents the lakes of Carthagena in America, and has a
whiltling note.

_ Jacoquin:. Chefnut ; back blackifh; bill and legs black.
Jacquin. Facguin’s duck, Lath.

Size of the lait, and inhabits St. Domingo.

Dominicana. Greyifh-afh; face and chin white; band
acrofs the eyes, with the hind-head, neck, and breait black.
Gmel. Canard Dominiquain du Cap de Bonne Efperance, Son-
ner. Dominican duck, Lath.

Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope; its bill and legs are
black ; and the body beneath paler. Its fize that of the
wild duck.

Avutrumnatts. Grey; wings, tail, and belly black;
wing-fpot tawny and white. Jacquin Beytr. Anas fiffula-
ris. Americana, Brif, Red billed whijlling duck, Lath.

The bill of this bird in the adult {tate is red, with only
the tip black, but in the young that part is entirely black.
The {pecies, according to Jacquin and others, is very com-
moa at New Grenada, in South America, and is frequently
domefticated in farm-yards between the tropics ; it is never-
“thelefs of a quarrelfome difpofition, and will often defert
thofe places, and retire to the woody {wamps. The Spa-
niards call it Pi/ific from its voice. This is rather a. large
bird, being about twenty-one inches in length.

Lasraporia. Brown; head and neck reddifh-white ;
collar and pectoral band) black ; feapular and fecondary
\quill-feathers white. Gmel. Pied duck, Ar&. Zool.

Inhabits the coaft of Labrador, and meafures about nine-
teen inchesin length. The bill is orange at the bafe, the
lower mandible du‘ky ; from the crown to the nape marked
witha black ftreak ; head and neck. inclining to rufous ; legs
yellow. . The female has the bill like the males the plumage

on the upper parte dirty mottled brown ; on the wings 4
white {pot ; the legs black.

Surercitiosa. Grey; eye-brows white ; chin and throat
dirty white; wing-fpot green-blue, edged with black. Gmel.
Supercilious duck, Lath.

Defcribed from the drawings of fir Jofeph Banks. The
fpecies inhabits New Zealand, and was found both in Char-
lotte found and Dufky bay, where it is known by the name
of He-iurrera. Its fizeis that of the mallard. "The bill %
lead-coloured, and the legs dufky-ath.

Curvirostra. Black; middle tail feathers (of the male }
recurvate ; chin with an oval white {pot ; bill hooked. Pal-
las. Curve-billed duck, Lath.

Larger than the common wild duck, and inhabits the
Netherlands. The irides are fulvous; head, neck, and
rump greenifh-black ; five outer quill-feathers white; chin
white ; wing-{pot deep fhining blue.

Boscwas. Cinereous; middle tail feathers (of the male)
recurvate ; bill ftraight; collar white. Linn. Anas fera,
Brif. Canard fauvage, Buff. Wild duck, Wilt. Donog.
Brit. Birds.

This is the origin of our common tame duck, the varies
ties of which are extremely numerous, arifing from the va-
rious modes of domeftication adopted in different countries,
and the facility with which it intermixes with others of the
duck tribe in general. The principal varieties of nas
Bofchas, enumerated by writers, are the iix following;
8. Anas domeftica (tame duck) variable in colour of the piu-
mage by culture. y. Bofchas major, Brif. much larger than
the tame duck, and having the back footy-black. 2. Bof-
chas major grifea, Brif. Size of the laft ; body tinged grey-
ith. «. Bofchas major nevia, Brif. Same fize; the back
fpotted with yellowifh. ¢. Anas adunca, Linn. Hoob-
billed duck, Will. :

The duck in a wild ftate is an inhabitant of Europe, Afia,
and America, frequenting watery places, and fubfitting
chiefly on frogs, fnails, and every kind of offal. Its neft is
ufually built near the water, or fometimes in trees, and it has
been known to depofit its eggs in the deferted neft of the
crow or magpie. The wild duck abounds in many of our
marfhes, but no where appears in greater plenty than in Lin-
colnfhire, where prodigious numbers are annually taken in
the decoys, and fent to the markets. They pair in the
{pring, and lay from ten to fixteen eggs; and the young
take to the water as foon as hatched. They breed chiefly
in the north of Europe, and are therefore found in far
greater numbers in the winter feafon with us than during
fummer. In France they are feldom feen, except in winter,
making their firft appearance in OGtober, and departing in
the fpring. The means employed by different nations for the
capture of the wild ducks is very diffimilar ; in England
they are chiefly taken in decoys or by fhooting; in France
they are killed in vait numbers by being enticed within gun-
fhot likewife; but many are taken with hooks and lines
baited wich. offal, and left floating on the waters they fre-
quent. Upon the river Ganges, another method is adopted;
a man wades into the water up to the chin, and having his
head covered with an empty calabafh, approaches the ducks,
who being accullomed to fee the calabafhes frequently in
the {tream, remain quiet. "Fhus unperceived the man has
time to approach the flock, and pull them by the leg under
water one after the other, till he has caught whatever quan-
tity can be conveniently carried away ; with thefe he retires
unfufpeGed by the: remaining ducks, and in like manner re=
peats his vifits till he has taken as many as he may think pro-

pers. Wait numbers of ducks are hatched by the eee
rons

» U-¢

from the eggs by artificial means, the eggs being placed in
boxes of fand, and Jeft on ahearth of brick-work, to which
a proper degree of beat is communicated during the time
required for hatching them.

Gaxericutata. Creft pendent ; on each fide the pof-
terior part of the backa recurved, compreffed, elevated fea-
ther. Gmel. Querquedula finenfis, Brifl. Kinmod_fuis,
Kempf. Sarcelle de la Chine, Buff. Chinefe duck, Lath.
Rather Jefs than a wigeon, with the bill dull red ; the irides
chefnut: creft green and red, legs tawny; back brown,
gloffed with blue-green; the wing-fpot blue-green, edged
beneath with white; the wings brown, edged with pale
grey ; the web on one fide of the fecond quill-feathers much
broader than the other, and curved upwards in an elegant
manner, when the wings are clofed; this web is of a pale
brownilh red, tipped with black, and conftitutes a ftriking
-charaster of the {pecies. The female is like that of the
fummer duck, brownifh, with two white bars on the wings,
and the breaft marked with brown {pots. “This is a beauti-
ful bird, and inhabits China and Japan ; at Canton they are
frequently expofed for fale in cages, and are bought by Eu-
ropeans as objets of curiofity ; the common price is from fix
to ten dollars a pair. Attempts have been made to naturalize
them in our climate, but with little fuccefs. The Englifh
know this fpecies by the name of Mandarin duck.

Sponsa. Pendent creft double, varied with greens
blue, and white. Linn. Anas effiva, Brif. Yoxtadton Ya-
Aauhbqui, Ray. American wood-duck, Brown. Summer duck,
‘Catefby.

This beautiful fpecies inhabits Mexico, and fome of the
Wet India ifles, migrating in the fummer feafon to the
northward. It makes its neft in the hollows of rotten trees,
or between the furcated branches, whence it has received
the name of tree-duck. This bird is about nineteen inches
Jong; the bill and legs red; creft ftriated; chin white;
neck and breaft claret, the latter marked with triangular
whitifh fpots; back brown; f{capulars blue-green. The
female is rather lefs than the male; the body brown above,
-beneath dirty white, and varied with triangular whitifh

{pots.

Arsorea Brown; head fub-crefted; belly {potted
swith white and black. Gmel. Anas fifularis jamaicenfis,
Brif. Siffleur a bec noir, Buff. Black-winged whiftling duck,

Lath.

A native of Jamaica, where it is faid to build in trees, and
“make a whiftling noife. It alfo inhabits Guiana, where it
is called opano. The fize is {maller than that of the wild
duck. Its bill is black ; the crown dufky; hind head,
-back, and fhoulders brown ; temples and chin white ; throat
white, and, with the rufous breaft, {potted with black 5 wings
and tail dufky ; legs long and lead-coloured, with the claws
black.

Cristats. Crefted; cinereous; throat fpotted with
pale ftraw colour; wing-fpeculum blue, beneath edged with
zn wings and pointed tail black. Gmel. Crefled duck,

ath.

Deferibed from the drawings of fir Jofeph Banks. The
{pecies inhabits Staaten Land, and meafures in length twenty-
eight inches,

‘Osscura. Brown, edged with yellow ; wing-{pot blue,
with a tran{verfe black bar ; tai! wedged, dufky, edged with
white. Gmel. Du/ky duck, Lath.

Length two feet; the bill, crown, primary quill-feathers,
and legs, dufky. ‘The fpecies inhabits New York.

Istanpica. Crefted, black; throat, breaft, and belly,

DUC

white; legs faffron, Gmel. Hrafra-ond, Ar&t, Zool.
Iceland duck, Vath.

Native of Iceland.

Nove Seeranpim. Black, beneath afh-colour ; quill-
feathers cinereous; the fecondary with a white band ; tail
dirty-green. Gmel. New Zealand duck, Lath.

Inhabits Dufky bay, in New Zealand, where it is called
Hepateh.

Rurina. Black; head, and upper part of the neck,
teftaceous; crown reddith, (in the male crefted ;) wings be-
neath, and at the edge, white; tail brown. Gmel. Canard
Jifieur huppé, Buff. Red crefled duck, Lath.

Found on the borders of the Cafpian f-a, and in the lakes
of the deferts of Tartary. Thelength is more than two feet ;
the bill red; irides brown; creft rounded; legs brown, and
ted in front. ‘The female is brown, with reddifh bill.

Nyraca. Olive-black ; head, throat, breefts, and flanks,
chefnut ; belly white; rump black ; vent fhowy. Gulden-
ftedt. Olive-tufied duck.

Inhabits the Tanats, and meafures in length about fixteen
inches; feeds on fifh and vegetables; the flefh excellent.
The female is fmaller, and reddiih in thofe parts of the plu-
mage, which, in the male, are chefnut.

Arasica. Grey fpotted; beneath, and rump whitifh,
with cinereous {pots ; wing-fpot blackifh, before and behind
white. Forfk. Arabian duck.

Native of Arabia; the bill yellow, and black in the
middle; legs yellowifh.

Avexanprina. Bill and rump black; neck cinereous,
with white femi-circles; belly whitifh, and immaculate.
Forfk.

Inhabits the fame country as the preceding, and obferved
moft commonly about Alexandria in Egypt.

Garrair. Fufcous; wings above black, beneath white,
edged with brown; quill-feathers 4—20, white in the mide
dle. Forfk. Lgyptian duck.

Native of Alexandria. The bill is black beneath, above
brown; chin black ; belly and tail-coverts white ; legs blus-
afh.

Sirszir. Bill beneath yellow; wing-fpot divided ob-
liquely, the upper half filky-greer, the lower black before,
and behind white. Forfk.

The bill is lead-colour; chin white; crown brown;
back brown ; the feathers edged with white ; belly whitith ;
legs grey. The fpecies inhabits Arabia.

Barsur. Bill black ; wing-fpot above obliquely green,
beneath obliquely black. Forfk. .

Native of Cahira.

Furigura. Creft pendent; body black; belly and
wing-fpot white. Linn. Fn. Suec. nas cirrhata, Gefn.
Tufted duck, Donov. Brit. Birds.

Inhabits Europe, and the north of Afias ‘The length of
this bird is fixteen inches; the bill broad, livid, and black
at the tip; head greenifh; fhoulders blackifh-brown, with
pale ftraw-coloured dots ; and duiky-bluelegs. The female
brownith, and without creft.

Duckx’s Foot, or May-Apple, in Botany. See Popoe
PHYLLUM. ad

Ducx’s Meal. See Lemna.

-Ducx’s Meat, Starry. See CAvvitRicHeE.

DUCKING, or plunging in water. Olaus Magnus tell
us, this was a diverfion anciently practifed among the Goths,
by way of exercife; but among the Celte and Franks it
was a fort of punifhment. Tacitus likewife aflures us that
it was executed, among the ancient Germans, on the lazy
and infamous. At Marfeilles and Bourbon, their men and

Wwomeny

ay)

Hee

women, of fcandalous life, are condemned to the cale, as
they call it; that is, to be fhut up, naked to the fhift, :n an
iron cage, fattened to the yard of a fhallop, and ducked
feveral times in the river. The fame is done alfo at Thou-
loufe to blafphemers, ;

Duckine is alfo a puntfhment for feamen; who are
thrown into the fea from the top of the yard of the main-
matt feveral times, according to the quality of their offence.
Sométimes a cannon-ball is faftened to their feet, to make_
the fall the more rapid.

There isalfo a kind of dry-ducking, wherein the patient is
only fufpended by a rope, a few yards above the furface of
the water: this is a {pecies of ftrapada.

The punifhment is ufually made public by the difcharge
of a cannon.

DuckinG is alfo a penalty, which veteran failors pretend
to infli&t on thofe who, -for the firft time, pals the tropic of
Cancer, the equator, or the ftraits of Gibraltar, in con-
fequence of their refufal or incapacity to pay the ufual fine
levied on this occafion. '

Ducxinc-Stool, in our Cuffoms. See Cuckinc-Stool.

DUCKSTEIN, in Geography, is a celebrated fine pale ale
brewed at Konig’s Lutter, a village of Germany, in the
duchy of Brunfwick Wolfenbiittel, which now conftitutes
a part of the new kingdom of Wettphalia.

DUCTRAP. See Lincounvitre.

DUCKUP, a word ufed at fea by the fteerfman, or him
that is at the helm, when either main-fail, fore-fail. or fprit-
fail, hinder his fight, fo that he cannot fee to fteer by a land-
mark, or the like ; for then his word is duckup the clue-lines

~ of thofe fails; and as to the fprit-fail, when a fhot is to be

-#

made by a chafe-piece, and the clue of that fail hinders his
fight, they fay duckup the clew-lines of the fprit-fail; that
is, hale the fail out of the way.

DUCLER, or Ducvair, in Geography, a {mall town of
France, in the department of the Lower Seine, chief place
of a canton, in the diftri& of Rouen, fituated on-the river
Seine; 12 miles W. of Rouen. It contains 1360 inhabit-
ants; its canton has 25 communes, and a population of
14 540 individuals, upon a territorial extent of 232% kilio-
metres. a

DUCLOS, Cuarves Dineau, in Biography, was born,
in 1705, at Dinant, in Britany. He was educated at Paris for
the law ; a profeffion which he followed for a fhort time only,
when his talents and mannera introduced him, with eclat,
into the fociety of men of letters. He was foon diftinguifh-
ed as a writer, and was admitted into the academy of In-
{criptions in 1739, and into the French academy in 1747.
In the latter he iucceeded the celebrated Mirabeau as perpe-
tual fecretary. He was ennobled and penfioned by the king,
and was appointed to the office of hiftoriographer of France.
He publithed works in many of the departments of lite-
rature. His novels are faid to be ingenious and interefting,
of which the belt 1s intitled “ Confeflions du Compte ****.”?
As an hiftorian, the is known for a hiltory of Lewis XI., in
three volumes, 12mo. 1745, to which was added another
volume, by way of fupplement, inthe following year. This
is a work of. confiderable refearch, written in a concife
and elegant ftyle. Asa moral writer, he publifhed ‘ Con-
fiderations fur les Mceurs de ce Siecle,’? which is much
efteemed for the truth of its maxims, and the ingenuity of
its difcuffions. He had a confiderable fhare in the Dic-
tionary of the French academy, and wrote fome judicious
remarks on the grammar of the Port Royal. He died in
1772,and fince his death have appeared ‘Secret Memoirs of
the reigns of Lewis XIV. and XV.” in 2 vols. 8vo., which
have been imputed to the pen of Duclos, and which contain

Vou. XI.

DU. C

many free end curious particulars ofiehe periods treated on,
Duclos was a man of great integrity, a faithful triend, and
a patron of merit. He was firmly attached to found morals,
and abhorred the relaxation of principle which prevailed in
the modern fehool. Gen. Biog.

DUCT, or Ducrus, in Anatomy, a name given to vari-
ous tubes in the bedy, and chiefly to, thofe which convey
fluids fecreted in glands to their ultimate deftination ; thefe
are called Lxcretory ducts.

Ducrus Adipofi, tubes deferibed by fome anatomifts, as
conveying the adipous fubftance, which they fuppofed to
be fecreted in glands. See Cerruvar /ubflance.

Ducrus ad Nafum, or Na/alis, the tube which conveys
the tears from the lacrymal bag to the nofe. See Eve, and
Nose.

Ducrus Alimentarius, or Alimentalis, a name fometimes
given to the whole alimentary tube, from its commencement
at the mouth to theanus. See Sromacu and InresTINeE.

Ducrus Chyliferus, the thoracic du&. See ApsorBenrs.

Ducrus Communis choledochus, is that part of the hepa~
tic duét between the junction of the cy ftic and the duodenum.
It derives its name from the circumftance of its conveying
into the duodenum both the hepatic and cyftic bile. The
pancreatic du alfo opens into it juft before it penetrates
the inteftine. See Liver.

Ductus Cyflicus, the canal by which the bile pafles to
and from the gall-biadder. See Liver.

Ducrus Lweretorii. See Duct.

Ducrus Galadophori, the excretory tubes of the mam-
mary gland. See Breasr.

Ducrus LHepaticus, the excretory du& of the liver. See
Liver.

Docrus Hepato-cyflict, tubes conveying the bile from
the liver direétly into the gall bladder. Thefe do not exilt
in the human fubje&, but are found in birds.

Ductus Lacrymales, the tubes which convey the fluid
fecreted in the lacrymal glands. See Eve.

Ducrus Ladiferi; the excretory tubes of the Breaft,
whieh fee. ,

Ductus Pancreaticus, the excretory tube of the Pancreas, -
which fee.

Ducrus Pecqueti, the thoracic du&, fo,called froma
Frenchman, who difcovered it. See ABSORBENTS.

Ducrus Salivales, the excretory duéts which convey the
faliva into the mouth. See DeGuurirTion.

Ducrus Stenonis, or Stenonianus, the dud of the parotid
gland, fo named in honour of Steno, its difcoverer. See
DEGLUTITION.

Ductus Warthorei, the du& of the fubmaxillary gland,
named after Warthore, its difcoverer.

Ducrus Wirt/ungi, the pancreatic du&, which was found
out by a German anatomilt, Wirtfung. Sce Pancreas.

Ducrus Pueumaticus, io Ichihyology, the name of a certain
du& or canal, found in all thofe hf which have an air-blad-
der, reaching from that bladder to the orifice of the ftomach,
or fome other part of it. This dué is varioufly fituated in the
different kinds. Artedi Ichthyolog. Sce Air-Brapper.

DUCTILITY, (from the Latin dudile,) means the pro-
perty, or the capability, of becoming extended. ‘The word
expan/fibility has been more commonly applied to denote the
enlargement of fuch bodies as confilt, or feem to confift, of fe-
parate parts, like the efluvia of odoriferous fubftances, colour-
ing pigments, cotton, wool, &c. But the word dudility,
denotes the enlargement of the dimentions of folids, without
lofing their continuity and confiftence. This property al-
moft exclufively belongs to metallic bodies; for it can
hardly be cifcerned in a few other bodies,

Sf The

DUC Gl Liax.

The methods of extending metallic bodies may be re-
duced to three: viz. by the ftrokes of a hammer, by the
more equable preflure of flatting or rolling mills, and by
drawing the metal through {mall holes in a fteel plate, as is
praQifed in wire-drawing. And fince the firft of thofe
methods has been more generally and more ufually prac-
tifed ; therefore the words malleability and dutility have
been indifcriminately ufed to exprefs the fame thing.

To thefe impreffions certain metaliic bodies yield much
more readily than others, and fome there are which will not
yield at all; fo that, when preffed or hammered, they will
eather break into fragments than expand.

Previous to the ftatement of the various degrees of. duc-
tility, it will be neceflary to fay a few words with refpect to
the nature of dilatability itfelf, in order to prevent a wrong
notion which unexperienced perfons are liable to. adopt.
When a piece of metal, in confequence of its duétility, is
faid to be extended; the meaning is not that the bulk of
the metal is enlarged ; but that one or two of its dimenfions,
(viz. the length, the breadth, or the thickneis, ) is enlarged,
whilft one or both the others are diminifhed. For inftance,
acubic inch of gold is one inch long, one inch bread, and
one inch thick; and the product of thefe three dimenfions,
which gives the folidity, isone inch. Now ff, by hammer-
ing, you extend the length of it, fo as to make it two inches
Jong, the breadth remaining. the- fame, the thicknefs will be
reduced to half an inch; and the produ& of thele three di-
menfions ; viz. two inches, one inch, and half an inch, is
equal so one inch, as before ; which fhews that the folid con-
tents remain the fame.

It muft, however, be obferved, that, ftri@ly {peaking, the
bulk of a piece of metalis a little contracted by the hammer
ing or prefling ; fo that a fort of concentration andvhardeén-
ing take place atthe fametime. In fad, the {pecific gravity
of a piece of dudiile metal is grenter after the hammering or
prefling than before. Both: this additional: hardnefs and
increafed {pecific gravity are removed by heating the piece
of ‘metal toa certain degree.

Though we have mentioned the drawing through holes
as one of the methods of extending metallic bodies; yet a
neceflary diftinétion muft be pointed out with refpe& to this
operation.—In the prefent {tate of philofophy, dudility is
diftinguifhed from tenacity. ‘The meaning of the former has
already been explained; but the tenacity is meafared by the
refiftance which a wire of the metal oppofes, without break-
ing, to the action of a certain foree which draws it at one
extremity, while the other extremity'ts fixed. Now it ts
upon this tenacity that the drawing of metals throvgh
holes depends. And, in faét, certain metals-which fhew un-
der the hammer, or under the flatting mill, a much greater
degree of ductility than others, are, at the fame time, lefs
eapable of being drawn into fine wire, and vice verfa; as
will appear from the following hits:

OF all the metallic bodies fome are ductile, whil& others
are not, and this difference caufed them to be diftinguifhed
into two claffes ; calling the former metals, and the latter
femi-meials, or imperfect metals; but the. limits of thefe
clafles being very indefinite, little regard is now paid to this
nominal diftin@ion.

Duéile Metallic Bodies arranged in the Order of their

Duéiility.
Gold, Tron,
Platina, vkcins
Silver, Lead,
Copper, d

Metallic. Bodies arranged in the Order ef their Tenacity.

Gold, Silver,
fron, Tiny
Coppers . Lead.
Platina, a ;

For farther particulars refpe@ing the tenacity of metals;
fee the articles Tenacity, and Wire Drawing.

The duGility ‘of gold exceeds that of every other metallic
body, and fince its value and its beauty have at all times en-
couraged the indu&ry of workmen, no pains have been {pared
in endeavouring to expand the furface of it to the utmoft limit
of pradticability ; anda fingle grain weight of gold is nowcom-
monly extended into a furface equal to 50 {quare inches and
upwards. Mr. Magellan fays, that the fireft gold leaf is ex=
tended by hammering between new flcins, and that-each troy
ounce of pure gold mufl be alloyed with three grains of
copper, ocherwife it would be too foft to pafs over the irre-
gularities of the fkins. When extended to the utmoft,
2000 leaves of {uch gold, each containing a furface of 10.8g
f{quare inches, weigh lefs than 384 grains; fo that each grain
weight of the metal will produce about 57 fquare inches of
gold Jeaf; and it is eafily determined by calculation, that
the thicknefs of fuch gold leaf is about >755:th of aut
inch. However, this is a confiderable thicknefs, in compa-
rifon of that of gold {pun on filk in our gold thread.

To conceive this prodigious duétility, it is neceflary to
have fome idea of the manner, wherein the wire-drawerd
proceed, The wire and thread we commonly. call gold
thread, é&c. which i3 only filver wire gilt, or covered. over
with gold, is drawn from a large ingot of filver, ufually
about thirty pounds weight. This they round into a-cyline
der, or roll, aboutan inch and a half in diameter, and twenty
two inches long, and cover it with the leaves prepared by
the gold-beater, laying one over another, till the-cover is'a

good deal thicker than that in our ordinary gilding ; and

yet, even then, it is very,thin; as. will be eafily conceived
from the quantity of gold that goes to gild the. thirty
pounds of filver: two ounces ordinarily do the bufinefs:
and, frequently, little more than o n effet, the full
thicknefs of the gold on the ingot rly ees zsoth, or
<doth part: and fometimes not-5%,,th part of an inch.

But this thin coat of gold mult be yet vaftly thinner: the
ingot is fucceflively drawn through the holes of feveral irons,
each fmaller than the other, till it be as fine, or-finer, than a
hair. Every new hole leffens its diameter; but it gains im
length what it lofes in thicknefs ; and, of confequence, in-
creafes in furface: yet the gold {till covers-it; it follows
the filver in all its extenfion, and never leaves the minutett
part bare, not even to the microfcope. Yet, how incon~
ceivably mutt it be attenuated while the ingot-is drawn into
a thread, whofe diameter is gooo times lefs.than-that of the
ingot!

M. Reaumur, by exact weighing, and rigorous calculation
found, that-one ounce of the thread was 3232 feet long; and
the whole ingot 116,3529 feet, Paris meafure, or 96 I'rench
leagues; equal to 126,4400 Englith feet, or 240 miles
Englifh; an extent-which far: furpafles what Fa, Merfenne,»
Furetiere,, Dr. Halley, &c. ever dreamt'of.

Merfenne fays, that half an ounce of the'thread is 100°
toifes, or fathoms long ; on-which footing, an ounce would
only; be 1200 feet; whereas, M. Reaumur finds it: 3232.
Dr. Halley makes fix feet of the wire one grain in weighty:
and one-grain of the gold ninety-eight yards; and, confe=
quently, the’ten thoufandth part of a grain, above one third
of aninch.. The. diameter of the wire he found'one 186th:
partofan inch; and the thicknels of the gold.one 154;500th

4 part

DUCTREIT Y.

part of an inch. But this, too, comes Mort of M. Reau-
mur; for, on this principle, the ounce of wire would only
‘be 2680 feet.

But the ingot is not yet extended to its full length. The
greatelt part of our gold thread is fpun, or wound on filk,
and, before they {pin it, they flat it by paffing it between
two rolls, or wheels of exceedingly well polifhed fteel;
which wheels, in flatting it, lengthen it by above one feventh.
So that our 240 miles are now got to 274, The breadth,
now, of thefe laminz, or plates, M. Reaumur finds, is only
one Sth of aline, or one 96th of an inch ; and their thick-
nefs, one 3072d. The ounce of gold, then, is here extended
to a furface of 1190 {quare feet; whereas, the utmott the
go'd beaters can do, we have obferved, is to extend it to 146
fquare feet. But the gold, thus exceedingly extended, how
thin muft it be! From M. Reaumur’s calculus, it is found to
be one 175,000th of a line, or one 2,100,000th of an inch:
which is fcarce one 13th of the thicknefs of Dr. Halley’s
gold. But he adds, that this fuppofes the thicknefs of the
gold every where equal, which is no-ways probable; for in
beating the gold-leaves, whatever care they can beftow, it
is impoffible to extend them equally. This we eafily find,
by the greater opacity of fome parts than others ; for where
the leaf is thickeft, it will gild the wire the thickeft.

M. Reaumur, computing what the thicknefs of the
gold muft be where thinneft, finds it only the 3,150,o00th
part ofaninch. But what is the one 3,150,0c0oth part
of aninch? Yet thisis not the utmoft du@ility of gold:
for inftead of two ounces of gold to the ingot, which we
have here computed upon, afingle one might have been ufed;
and, then, the thicknefs of the gold, in the thinneft places,
would oniy be the 6 309,cceth part of an inch.

And yet, as thin asthe plates are, they might be made
twice as thin, yet ftill be gilt; by only preffing them more
between the flatter’s wheels, they are extended to double
‘the breadth, and proportionably in length. So that their
thicknefs, at lait, will be reduced to one thirteenth, or four-
teenth millionth part of an inch.

Yet, with this amazing thinnefs of the gold, it is ftill a
perfect cover for the filver: the beft eye, or even the belt
microfcope, cannot difcover the leaft chafm, or difcontinu-
ity. There is not an aperture to admit alcohol of wine, the
fubtileft fluid in nature, or even light itfelf, unlefs it be owing
to cracks occafioned by repeated flrokes of the hammer.
Add, that if a piece of this gold-thread, or gold-plate, be
Yaid to difiolve in aquafortis, the filver will be all excavated,
or eat out, and the gold left entire, in little tubules.

It fhould be obferved, that gold, when it has been ftruck
for fome time by a hammer, or violently compreffed, as by

old wire-drawers, becomes more hard, elaftic, and ftiff, and
Jefs ductile, fo that it is apt to be cracked or torn: the fame
thing alfo happens to the other metals by percuffion and
comprffion, But duility and tra@tability may be reftored
to metals in that ftate, by annealing them, or making them
red-hot. Gold feems to be more affeGted by percuffion and
annealing, than other metais.

Platina, filver, and copper, may, likewife, be expanded
into leaves, but not nearly fo thin as thofe of gold.

With refpe& to the arrangement of iron and tin in the
firlt of the above-{tated lifts, we are nat quite determined as
to which of them the preference may be due.

Zinc has the remarkable property of being malleable, or
ductile, not in the ufual temperature of the atmofphere, but
an ahigher temperature. When heated to between 210°
and 300° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, zinc is perfectly mal-
leable, and may be ftretched into wires, or into, pretty thin
plates. And when fo treated, it will afterwards remain mal-

leable, Some metallic fubfatices do not fuffer the frokes
of a hammer nearly fo well as the more uniferm preflure of
the flatting mill; and this is peculiarly the cafe with zinc.

It is not with zinc alone, but with all other du@tile me-
tals, that their dudtility is greater in a certain temperature,
whica generally exceeds that of the atmofphere ; thus iron
in a red heat is incomparably more duétile than at a lower
temperature. Heat, in fhort, tends to foften the metal ; or,
which amounts to the fame thing, to increafe its dudtility ;
and as hammering or rolling hardens the metal at the fame
time that it extends it, the workmen, in the courfe of their
operation, find it neceflary to foften the metal by the appli-
cation of heat, in over to render it capable of farther exten-
fion. This heating or foftening is, in fome cafes, repeated
feveral times before the work is quite finifhed.

The alloys of two or more metallic bodies are lefs ductile,
than the pure metals themfelves ; yet fuch alloys are highly
ufeful in a variety of cafes, and the pure metals are often al-
loyed for no other purpofe than for diminifhing their foft-
nefs and dudtility. In the coinage of moft countries the
noble metals are generally alloyed with a little copper,
which iocreafes their hardnefy and elafticity. h

The moft extenfively ufeful alloy is that of copper and
zinc, which forms ra/s.—Its colour, its dudtility, and its
not being eafily oxydated, have rendered it peculiarly ufeful
for a variety of purpofes, and efpecially in watch-work,
where no other metallic fubftance hes been found nearly fo
ufeful.

Brafs, when properly made, is duGtile and tenacious toa
confiderable degree. It will extend pretty well under the
hammer, and it may be eafily drawn into very fine wire. A
flight degree of heat will, in fome meafure, increafe its duc«
tility ; but when heated to about 300°, or upwards, then
the ftrokes of the hammer will reduce it to powder. It is
a fort of brafs (but the precife proportion of the ingredi-
ents is kept fecret,) that is expanded into leaves like gold;
and is commonly fold under the name of Dutch gold.

Though tin is more du@tile than zinc; yet the alloy of
copper and tin is, upon the whole, lefs duéti'e than that of
copperand zinc. Paerner fays, that much copper and little
tin form a malleable compound, as well as much tinand little
copper; but that when the two metals are alloyed from
eight to ten parts of copper to one of tin, then the alioys
are brittle and untraétable.

The alloy of lead and antimony forms the metal which is
ufed for printer’s types, and its duétility may be varied by
varying the proportion of antimony. According to Gmelin,
one part of antimony and 12 parts of lead, forma hard alloy,
but capable of being beat into fheets. One part of antimony
and eight parts of lead, form a compound harder and more
fufible than lead, but malleable; and fuch js alfo the cale
with one part of antimony and three of lead; but with a
{maller proportion of lead the compound is too hard to bear
the ftrokes of the hammer.

An alloy of zinc and iead has, on account of its brilliancy
and hardnefs, been recommended for the con{trution of eco-
nomical and other articles. When a great deal of zinc is
alloyed with lead, the compound is harder than lead, but
very malleable. See Meraxs, Gorn, &c.

Duoriiry of Glafs, Weall know, that, when well pe-
netrated with the heat of the fire, the workman can figure
and manage glafs like foft wax ; but what is molt remarkable,
it might be drawn, or {pun out into threads, exceedingly fine
and long.

Our ordinary fpinners do not form their threads of filk,
flax, or the like, with half the eafe and expedition, as the
giafs {fpinners do threads of this brittle matter, We have

Sf{f2 fome

DUD

fome of them ufed in plumes for children’s heads, and divers
other works, much finer than any hair, and which bend and
wave like it with every wind.

Nothing is more fimple and eafy than the method of
making them: there are two workmen employed: the firft
holds one end of & piece of glafs over the flame of a lamp;
and, when the heat has foftened it, a fecond operator appli¢s
a glafs hook to the metal thus in fufion; and, withdrawing
the hook again, it brings with it a thread of glafs, which
ftill adheres to the mafs: then, fitting his hook on the cir-
cumference of a wheel about two feet and a half in diameter,
he turns the wheel as falt as he pleafes ; which, drawing out
the thread, winds it on its rim; till, after a certain number
of revolutions, it ts covered with a fkain of glafs-thread.

The mafs in fufion over the lamp diminifhes infenfibly ;
being wound, asit were, like a pelatoon, or clue of filk, upon
the wheel; and the parts, as they recede from the fame cool-
ing, become more coherent to thofe next to them; and this
by degrees: the parts neareft the fire are always the beft
coherent, and, of confequence, muft give way to the effort
the reft make to draw them towards the wheel.

The circumference of thefe threads is ufually a flat oval,
being three or four times as broad as thick: fome of them
feem {carce bigger than the thread of a filk-worm, and are
furprifingly flexible. If the two ends of fuch thread be
knotted together, they may be drawn and bent, till the aper-
ture, or {pace in the middle of the knot, doth not exceed
one 4th of a line, or one 48th of aninch diameter.

Hence M. Reaumur advances, that the flexibility of glafs
increafes in proportion to the finenefs of the threads; and
that, probably, had we but the art of drawing threads as
fineas a {pider’s web, we might weave ftuffs and cloths hereof
for wear. Accordingly, he made fome experiments this
way 3 and found he could make threads fine enough, as fine
in his judgment, as any f{p'der’s web: but he could never
make them long enough to do any thing with them.

Dveriiry of Spider’s Webs. See WEB.

DUD, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Mofambique,
where the king refides.

DUDA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wilna;
28 miles E.N_E. of Lida.

, _ DUDAIM, in Botany, (Hebr. £59879}7), plants men-

tioned in Genefis, chap. xxx.v. 14, 15, 16, and in Solomon’s
Song, chap. vii. v. 14, concerning which there have been
great difputes among the learned. The Septuagint, the
Latin vulgate, and our tranflation, underftand the above
word to mean the fruit or apples of the Mandrake, tropa
Mandragora of Linneus, which is unqueftionably the Ma-
decyoexs of Diofcorides, and otherancient writers. All that
caff be gathered from the above chapter in Genefis is, that
the Duddim were found ia the fields during the wheat harvelt,
and, cither for their rarity, flavour, or fome other quality,
were greatly elleemed by women. The fame word in
Solomon’s Song expreffes fome fruit or flowers, that ‘ give
a {weet fmell,’? and are acceptable alfo to the male fex.
No wonder that with fo powerful a {timulus to their curi-
ofity, and fuch light materials to guide it, critics fhould
have taken a very wide range in their inquiries. Some have
taken Lilies, Rofes, Violets, Daffodils, Snowdrops, or Jaf-
mine for the Dudaim; others Melons, Plantain-fruits,
Whortle-berries, Dwarf-brambles, the berries of Phy/alis,
or Winter Cherry; Grapes of fome peculiar kind, or even
the fubterraneous Fungi called ‘Truffles. Some have fup-
pofed the word to mean the ingredients, whatever they might
be, of a charm or philter, and hence have again recurred to
the Mandrake, celebrated through | all antiquity for fuch ima-
ginary virtues, and whole neh is tricked out with all the

DUD

traditionary nonfenfe that might confirm the report of thefe
qualities. Perhaps the molt judicions writer on the Dudaim
is Liebentank, who, in 1660, after reviewing all that had
previoufly been afferted or imagined, gave it as his opinion
that nothing certain could be decided on the fubject. His
differtation bas gone through numerous editisns. Sucha
decifion, however, feems only to have flimulated the inge-
nious to frefh inquiry. The younger Rudbeck publifhed
a profound differtation at Upfal in 1733, intended to refute
all the foregoing opinions, and to propofe Rafpberries as
the Dudaim. His learned fellow-countryman, Olaus Celfius,
in his Hierobotanicon, publifhed in 1745, flightly mention-
ing this fuggeftion, contends that the object of their come
mon inquiry could be no other than the fruit of Oenoplia or
Napeca, Rhamnus (or rather Zizyphus) Spina Chrifli ot Lin-
nzan writers. The controverly, in fhort, feemed to be ar-
rived at this point, that as nothing could plaufibly be de-
termined, diftinGtion was to be obtained by fome new fug-
geftion only.

If we may offer an opinion, as we prefer truth to fingu-
larity or novelty, it will bei in favour of the Mandrake, whofe
hiftory is perfeGily in union with the flight mention of the
Dudaim in Genclis, and whofe reputed properties of exciting
love and promoting conception, account equally well for
the defire of Rachel for this fruit, and for Leah’s relu@tance
to let her partake of it. From the great ftrefs laid on the
perfon who gathered it, ** my fon’s Mandrakes,” it may be
conjeCtured that fome additional virtue was imparted to a
plant, otherwife common enough, by its being gathered by
a youthful or innocent perfon. Such notions frequently oc=
cur in the hiftory of amorous incantations; for it is the policy
of fuperftition gratuitoufly to enhance the value of ordinary
or worthlefs things. Finally, the etymology of the Dudaim
from [5!°3)7} Dodim, loves, confirms the idea of a philter,
and accords with the Mandrake. But it does not follow
that the Dudaim of Solomon’s Song muft be the very fame
plant. Superitition or tafte has fixed in every country,
upon fome flower or other with which to affociate ideas of
affeGtion ; and the Mandrakes that ‘ gave a {weet fmell”
might literally mean any © fragrant flowers of love.” S..

DUDDEN, in Geography, a river of England, which
runs into the ‘irfh fea; about three miles S. from Dalton,
in Qancafhire.

DUDELDORFF, a fmall town of France, in the de-
partment of Foréts, chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of
Bittbourg, with a population of 467 individuals only: but
the canton contains 7263 canabente difperfed 1 in 16 com-=
munes, on a territorial extent of 3 17% kilometres.

DUDEN, a town of Aftatic Turkey, in the province af
Caramania; 10 miles N. of Satalia —Ajifo, a river of Afiatic-

Turkey, which runs into the fea near Satalia.
DUDENHOFEN, a {mall town of Germany, in the
county of Hanau Munzenberg, which is now in the con{crip-
tion of the new kingdom of Weltphalia.
DUDERSTADT, a fmall town of Germany, in the.
lower Eichsfeld, which by the peace of Luneville was tranf-
ferred from the ele€tor of Mayence to the king of Pruffia,.
but which the latter loft again at the peace of Tillit, in 1S07.
It is at prefent in the new kirgdom of Weltphalia..
DUDITH, ANDREW, I in Biography, was born at or very
near oe in Hungary, in Feb. 1533. His father wasa
native of Hungary, and his mother, a noble Venetian, was
named Sbardellat, an appellation often applied to her fon
Andrew. Scarcely had the fubje& of this article paffed
the boundary of aANey! before he exhibited a livelinefs of
imagination and a brilliancy of parts, that prefaged the fu-

ture great man. At an early period of life his father was
killed.

DUD

killed in battle with the Turks, and the youth was, by the
advice of his uncle, the bifhop of Watzeu, fent to Breflau
for his education, At the age of eighteen he was removed
to Verona for the completion of his {tudies. Here he’ ac-
+quired a high reputation for diligence and uncommon talents.
‘He is mentioned in a letter of Paul Manutius as one of
the greateft geniufes of the age. In 1554, he attached
himfelf to the train of cardinal Pole, who was nominated
papal legate to the court of England, and Dudith recom-
mended himfelf by his manners and affiduity to the notice
and efteem of queen Mary and her fifter Elizabeth. Leaving
Pole in England, he went to Paris, where he made himfelf
‘acquainted with the philofophy of the times, and ftudied
more critically the ancient languages. After this, he fpent
fome years at Padua, and obtained the friendthip of many of
the firlt literati of the age. While he was in Italy, he
tranflated into Latin ** The Judgment of Dionyfius Haili-
carnaflenfis on the Hiftory of Thucydides,” and laid the
foundation of other literary works. From Italy he went to
France, on a'miffion from the grand duke of Tufdany to
the celebrated Catherine de Medicis, whom he addreff-d in
ther native language with fo much fluency and purity of dic-
‘tion, as to excite her admiration and applaufe. In the year
1560, he repaired to the court of Vienna, where he was
fhortly after appointed one of the privy councillors to the
emperor Ferdinand If., and afterwards nominated to the
bifhopric of Tina, in Dalmatia. Two years after this he
was deputed by the clergy of Hungary to be one of their
reprefentatives in the council of Trent. In this capacity,
by his eloquence and judicious advice, he acquired much re-
putation. His talents, however, foon excited the jealoufy
of the papal legates, and the more fo when they perceived
that the powers of Dudith were likely to be employed in
expoling their fyftem. ‘The freedom with which he dif-
~ cuffed topics of high intereft and importance was the means
of getting him recalled: but when the king knew from
himfelf what had paffcd, and how nobly he had acted Lis
part, fo far from cenfuring Dudith, he rewarded him with
the bifhopric of Chonat, in Hungary. The emperor next
fent him as his ambaflador to Poland, and on his return
gave him itill higher church preferment. He was a fecoud
time, under Maximilian II., fent ambaffador into Poland;
here he feems to have abandoned his religious opinions, and
to have determined to refizn all his preferment in the
church of Rome. Having formed the refolution, he with-
out hefitation made a facrifice of his wealth, and married
rivately one of the maids of honour to the queen of Poland.
his conduct highly exafperated the clergy with whom he
had been conneéted, but he ftill retained the good-will and
confidence of the emperor, who appointed him his refident
in Poland, where he made an open and undifguifed profeffion
of the proteftant religion. In Poland he became acquainted
with the Unitarian brethren, anda convert to their faith,
~ for which he was to the end of life a zealous advocate. In
1575 he returned, after much and indetatigable fervice per-
formed for the emperor, to the court of Vienna. But on
the death of his fovereign, three years after, he retired into
Moravia, and from thence to Breflau, where he remained ia
great privacy until the death of Stephen Batori, in 1579,
which gave rife toa contelt for the crown of Poland: in
this ftruggle Dudith was employed by the emperor Ru-

dolphus II., to fecure the ele€tion for his brother Maxi-.

milian. He was, however, unfuccefsful, and returned to
Breflau, where he died in 1589, in the fixtieth year of his
age. Dudith was unqueftionably one of the molt confider-
able men of the age in which he flourifhed. Moreri fays,
‘that he had been a catholic, proteftaut, and Socinian;. and

DUD

that he died without any fixed principles of religion.”
This is probably a calumny invented by the catholics, whofe
caufe he not only deferted, but whofe condu& he fometimes
expofed. His works are many, and on various fubje¢ts of
phyfics, poetry, and theology ; in Moreri’s account they are
enumerated at length. His life was regular and virtuous ;
his manners polite and conciliating, and his, benevolence
warm and unconfined. As a politician he was a man of
honour and integrity; and in his diplomatic character he
pvas ardent and ftrenuous for the interefts of the princes by
whom he was employed. He was an excellent {cholar, and
eminently fkilled in the languages; and fo much an admirer
of the writings of Cicero, that he is faid to have copied all
the works of that author thrice with his own hand. Moreri.

DUDLEY, Epmunp, in Biography, was an eminent
lawyer and ftatefman in the reign of Henry VII. who made
himfelf extremely unpopular by the abufe of his legal know-
ledge, and oppreflive meafures.. He, with fir Richard Emp-
fon, another great law officer of a fimilar charaéteriltic com-
picxion, contrived to obtain the monarch’s favours by flats
tering his weaknefs, and promoting his avaricious views.
Through the latter part of that reign, they became the in-
{truments of regal rapacity ; and affifted in filling the coffers
of the treafury, by arbitrary and vexatious profecutions of
the people, upon obfolete penal ftatutes. On the acceffion
of Henry VIII. they both fell into difgrace; and met- with
their juttly deferved fate. The voice of the people for jultice
became extremely clamorous, andthe king, to appeafe the
menacing ftorm of popular difcontent, now rifing into tur=
bulent rage, gave up Dudiey and Empfonas vittims; and
they were both attainted, and beheaded.

Dupvey, Joun, duke of Northumberland, fon of Ed-
mund Dudley already mentioned, was born in 1502, and
was about eight years of age at the time of his father’s exe-
cution. He was very foonafter this event reftored in blood
by act of parliament ; and when able to ferve his countrys
attended the duke of Suffolk in an efpedition to France,
where, on account of his gallantry, he obtained the honour
of knighthood. He was afterwards patronized by cardinal
Wolfey, and lord Cromwell. In 1542, he was raifedto the
dignity of vifcount Lifle, a title which belonged to his
mother in her own right, and foon after created knight of the
garter. In the next year, he failed, as lord high admiral of
England, with a fleet of 200 fail to the firth of Forth,
where he lahded a body of troops and took pofleffion of
Edinburgh. From Scotland he proceeded to affift the
king at Boulogne, and very much contributed to the capture
of that place, of which, as a reward for his fervices, he was
appointed governor. In 1546, he was appointed licutenant-
general, and commander by fea, and with a very inferior
torce, not only fruftrated an intended invafion by the French,
but carried an alarm to their coafts. He was one of the
commiffioners who received the oath of Francis on the peace,
and who made a fettlement of the army accounts; for thefe
fervices he was amply rewarded by grants of church lands,
which relieved him from the embarraflments which his ex-
travagance had occafioned. By the laft will of Henry VIIT.
he was nominated one of the fixteen to whom the govern~
ment of the country was committed, during the minority of
Edward VI. In the year 1547, he was created earl of
Warwick, with the grant of Warwick caltle and manor..
He continued to afcend in the fcale of preferment, and was
fucceflively created lord fteward of the houfchold, earli
marfhal of England, and finally, in O@ober 1551, he ob-
tained the high title of duke of Northumberland. The
duke of Somerfet had long been Dudley’s rival, and the

jealoufies fomented between thefe powerful noblemen, ae
ated:

DUDLEY.

ated much anxiety in the breafl ofthe young king, who, if
poflible, hoped to unite them, by propofing a. marriage be-
tween Warwick’s eldett fon and Somerfet’s.daughter, which
took place. The conciliation was of fhort duration ; the
duke.of Northumberland felt. that/he could rife-no higher
but by the fall of hisrival. The latter was aware of hia de-
fign, and urged by fears for hia own fafety, entered the
honfe of Northumberland one morning, with an intent to
killhim: but being received with apparent kindnefs, ,he was
unequal.to the execution of the bloody deed. The inten-
tion being known, Somerfet was committed to the Tower,
brought to trial. and convicted of compaffing the death ofa
privy counfellor. othe difgrace cf the age and of his
enemy the duke of Northumberland, who fat as one of his
judges, he.was.executed Jan. 1552. He now had the full
a{cendancy over the mind of Edward, procured a marriage
between his;fourth fon Guilford Dudley, and lady Jane
Grey, abranch of the royal family, and then forced the
young: king to fet afide from the fucceffion his filters Mary
and Elizabeth, andto bequeath the crown to his daughter-
in-law. This, which he boped would raife,him to the
higheft point of honour, caufed his downfall and death.
The king diedin July 1553, and the duke immediately

. proclaimed his daughter lady Jane; but the people little ap-
proved of the fucceffion, and -an infurreétion in Suffolk
puta {peedy end to his ambitious projects. He headed the
army and fet out to crufh the rebellion, but during his:ab-
{ence from.the metropolis, Mary was proclaimed queen, and
at Cambridge he was glad to join in the acclamations of
“ long live queen Mary.”? ‘This, however, didnot fatisfy
the new government ; he-was almoft immediately arrefted,
broughtto London, and committed. to the Tower. Inthe
hope of -pardon, or witha view of .averting the wrath of
the qneen from, his family, -he conformed to the Roman -ca-
tholic religicn. “ Mercy was not among the -attributes of
Mary: the duke had -refifted her power and infaltcd her
authority, and fhe determined he fhould pay the penalty of
his life. Hefubmitted to his fate witheempofure. On his
trial he requefted permiffion to afk, ifa man.could be guilty
of treafon that obeyed orders given him by the council under
the great feal ; and if thofe involved in the fame guilt with
himlelf could fic as his judges? Being anfwered that the
great fealof an ufurper wasof no authority, and that perfons
not lying under any fentence of -attainder, were {till inno
cent in the eye of the law, and might be admitted on-any
jury; he acqui¢fced, and pleaded guilty. He 1uffered,
Aug. 22, 1553, in the fifty-fecond yearof sis age, leaving
feveral children, of whom Guilford Dudley and the amiable
lady Jane iuffered for his guilty ambition, Biog. Brit.
Hume’s Hitt.

Dupuey, Roserr, earl of Leicefer, fifth fon of the
duke of Northumberland, was;bora in 1532. He was
knighted at an early age, end was a gentl-manof the bed
chamber in the reign of Edward VI. He was-of courfe in-
volved in the difgrace of -his gather, but was inva very fhort
time reftored in blood; he even rofe jn favour under the
reign of Mary, and was appointed to the head of the ord-
mance. When Ehzabeth afcended the throne, bonours were
fhowered upon him with an un{paring hand; he was created
matter of the horfe, knight of the garter, and privy cou»-
feilor ; and to enable him to maintain the fplendour of iis
flation, the queen bellowed upon him grants of feveralsma-
nors and large eftates. His known favour at court obtaied
for him rank and honour with the corporations and public
bodies throughout the kingdom, In the year 1560 Heloft
his wife, and asit was known he was ambitious of «being
@hought the fuitor of the queen, he Jaboured wnder the

fofpicion of having been the canfe of his lady's death. In
1564, he was created baron Denbigh, and earl of Leicefter,
and in the fame year was elected chancellor of the univerfity
of Oxford. He is fufpeéted of having infidionfly urged
the duke of Norfolk to that courtfhip of the Scottifh queen,

which ended in his ruin, Leicefter himfelf being one of the.

peers who «pronounced his condemnation in 1572. He is
charged alfo with having married lady Douglas Howard,
and refufing to acknowledge it, compelled her to-marry fir
Edward Stafford. ‘With all thefe ftains on his character,
he affe€ted extraordinary piety, -and puthimfelf at the head
of the puritan party.. Heere&edan hofpital at Warwick,
witha liberal endowment, and gave the matterfhip of it-to
the celebrated puritan Thomas. Cartwright. In 1575, he
had the honour of , entertaining his fovereign at Kenelworth
cafile; andthe fumptuous feltivitics on this eccafion, sare
mentioned among:the {plendours of that magnificent reign.
In 1578, he married the widow .ef “Walter Devereux, earl
of Effex, having been fufpeéted of too clofe an intimacy
with her during ber late hufband’s life ; fo/ ill, indeed, did the
public conceive of him, that it was currently reported
Effex was taken off by the contrivance of the earl of Leicefter.
About the year 1584, the revolted ftates of the Low
Countries cffered to throw themfelves on the protection and
under the. government of queen Elizabeth: to this fhe did
not agree, but fent them, over afiiftance, viz. 5000-footiand
1000 horfe, under the command of the earl of Leeicefter.
He was attended by, many-of the nobility and gentry, and
failed in December 1555 to Fluthing, whcre he was received
with the mot profound refpe&, andiby the States themfelves,
he wasiraifed:to the fupreme executive authority, aswell
civil 2s-military throughoutthe:r domisions. ‘This rinereafe
of hisspower gave offence to the queen, who conceived that
fhe fhould have, been confulted before it nad been granted: by
the States, or accepted by her fubje&. Invbattle, she was
not remarkably fuccefs‘ul, and in one of the flirmithes, had
the mistortune to lofe his nephew, the excellent fir Philip
Sidney. Ow hisreturn tothe Hague, he was received with
cooine{s by the States, and he thenceforth, by his affeGed
zeal for the Proteftant caufe,and bis pretended piety, made
a party with the people, and efpecialy with the clergy,
who from their pulpits inveighedagaintt the magiltrates;and
extolled the earl as the champion of true religion. Onvhis
return to England, he was favourably received: by Elizabeth,
who was atthat time in great perplexity how to a& refpe&-
ing the queen of Scots. When it wasdebated in council,
whether fhe fhould be brought to public trial, Leicetter
gave his opinion for private afleilination, and thus ftrength-

ened the fufpigions of his own crimmal praétices agatnit bis ~

enemies, which will for ever adhere to his memory. Jn
1587, he refumed his command anthe Low Countries, bat
wich as little fuccefs as before ; he was accordingly recalled,
and accufed of mifmanagement. Being, however, fupported
by the queen, he wamappomted by her to the office of lieutes
nant-general of the army,when the nation was threatened with
2 Spanilhinvafion. -dledied in the fame year, 1588, atthe
ageof fifty-fix, deaviag behind him one natural fon by lady
Shefficld, and was interred in-a :chapel of ithe collegiate
church of Warwick, whereia noble-monument «wes creceed
tohis memory. Biog. But. Hume.

Dupuey, Sir Ropprr, was the natural fon of the eark
of Leicetter aircady noticed in the preceding article. -He
was borin 1573, and educated iat Chritt-echurch college,
Oxford, svhere be obtained. great evediv for his induftry apd
talents. By theideath of his!father, she wae left, after the
deceafe-of his unele, the cattle of Kenelworth, andthe bulk
ot his eltate. Rabertavas, however, of anenterpriling dif:

pobticn,

mse ts
"4 Se°

DUD

pofition, and, having married the fier of Thomas Cavens
difh the great navigator, he undertook a voyaze of adven-
ture and difcovery. He wifhed to have made an expedition,
at his own expence, to the fouth-feas, which was prevented
by government; but he was allowed to fail with a fquadron,
under his command, in 1594, ‘to the river Oronoque; in
which expedition he took and deftroyed feveral Spanifh
fhips. In 1596, he diftinguifhed himfelf at the taking of
Cadiz, and was on that occafion honoured with knighthood.
After this he made an attempt to eftablifh the legitimacy of
his birth ; but failing, he refolved to take up his refidence
abroad, and fixed upon Florence, where he affumed the ti-
tle of carl of Warwick. Some time after this he received
letters of recal from bis fovereign, which he refufed to obey,
and on that account was deprived of his eflate for life, by
the ftatute of fugitives. Kenelworth caftle was now velted
in the crown, but as it would return to the heirs of fir
Robert at his death, propofitions were made to him by the
prince for the purchafe of it: to this he agreed, but it is
probable, that he received very little, if any, of the money
which was to be paid for it. Sir Robert was now anxious
to return home, and to ingratiate himfelf with the king, he
drew up an extraordinary {cheme to enable him to raife mo-
ney without the intervention of parliament. Jamies did not
venture upon the project, which, however, was made known,
and fome perfons fufpeted to be the authors of it, were
imprifoned on the fafpicton. Dudley remained'at Florence,
and was created a duke of the holy Roman empire, upon
which he affumed his grandfather’s title of Northuiberland:
_ Finding’ no means of retutning to his native country, he
applied himfelf to various projeGs that might be ufeful to
the ftate in which he found prott@ion. He laid the foun-
dation of many improvements in navigation and commerce,
and particularly in pointing out a method of draining the
miorafs between Pifa and the fea. He is faid’ alfo to have
heen chicfly inftrumental in making the port of Leghorn a
free poit. Between the years 1630 and 1646, he publifhed
a‘ larpe work, entitled, ** Del Arcano del Mare,” &c. in
two volumes folio. This work is full of charts, plans, &c.
and is’ replete with projcéts relative to maritime affairs, which
are faid to difplay much genius, and an extenfive knowledge.
«“Itis,” fays the writer of the article in the Biograpbia
Britannica, «a fingular treafury of curious and important
{chemes, which manifeftly prove'the author’s high capacity
for the advancement of ufeful knowledge, no man having
ever had a {troniger propenfity to reduce {peculation to prac-
-tice than he’; and the fuccefs that attended his labours in
thts refpe& ought to derive an extraordinary degree of credit,
to whatever he {uggelts as praGticable: though, beyond all
doubt, fomething of the hke genius matt be required, in
fuich as attempt to make ufe of any of his projecis, which
are delivered in a manner not very intellipible to vulgar un-
dérftandings.’”’ Sir Robert was attached to fcience in genes
ral, had fome knowledge of chemiliry, as it was thén'itu-
died, and profeffed himfelf verfed in phyfic. He gave his
name to a medicine, which he either purchafed or invented,
which was long in great reputation under the nate of lord
Warwick’s powder. When he went abroad, he took with
him the daughter of fir Robert Southwell, to the preiudice
of his wife, whom, with four daughters, he left at home.
At Florence he lived in great ftate, and by the pope’s dif-
paar he married the lady who went out with him,though

is wife was {till living in England. He died at his feat near
Florence. in 1649, leaving a numerous foreign’ pofterity.
~ Biog, Britan,

Duprey, in Geography, a market-town in the hundred
of Halfthire, in tht county of Worcelter, is fituated on the

-

DUE

northern borders of that fhire, where it joins Staffordthire,
and is nearly furrounded by the latter. It confills of two
parifhes, and comprehends 1922 houfes, and 10,107 inha-
bitants. The adjacent country «bounds with collieries, and
mo't of the popuiation are engaged in the coal bufinefs, and
in the’ making of nails, and hard-ware, At the northern
extremity of the town are fome contiderable remains of a
cafe, which, according to fome writers, is faid to have been
built’ by Dodo, or Duddo, a Saxon prince, whofe name ia
perpetuated, and incorporatcdin that of thetown. Leland
{lates, that the caftle is within the confines of Staffardthire.
It ftands on an elevated rock of lime-(tone ; and, according
to Gough, commands ‘ an extenfive profpect into five fhires,
and part of Wales.”? In the reign of king Stephen it bee
longed to the Pagenels, from whom it cefcended to the fa-
mily of Somerys, in the time of Henry 111. and from them
to the Suttons’ temp. Edward II. It now belongs to vil-
couat Dudley and Ward, who derives bis title from this
place. The caftle fuftained ‘a fieze of three weeks in the
time ef the civil ware, when it was much battered, and has
ever fince continued aruin.

Inthe town are two churches, three charity fchools, and
feveral chapels for diffenters. Here are a market on Satur-
days, and three annual fairs. Ata fhort diftance from the
town are the ruins of a monaltic buiiding, called Dudley
priory.

Duprey and Owen Canal, in Worcefterfhire, Shrophhire,,
and Staffordfhire, is about 13 miles in length ; it commences
in the Worcefter and Birmingham canal, at Selby cut, and
terminates in the old Birmingham canal at Tipton Green ; it
has a branch two miles in length; communicating with the
Stourbridge canal at Black Dolphy. fee Canav. It has been
faid, that at’ Wind-mill-hill colliery, to which a branch of this
canal extends, a feam of coal, of the amazing’ thicknefs of
45 feet, is worked; this thicknefs, if correét, may probably
be owing’ to feveral feams of coal; approaching fo near to-
gether, as to be ail'worked together, <although they may
in reality be feparated, by thin beds of fhale. See Cou
LTERY.

Duprey; a‘*cwn of America, in the ftate of Maflachu--
fetts, and county of Worcetter, containing 1140 inhabit=
ants; 18 miles fouthward of Worcefter, and'60 S. W. of
Bofton,

DUDSWELL, a townhhip in Lower Canada; about 2e
miles N. E. of Afcot, having about 50 inhabitants. The
river St. Francis paffes through’ the fouthern part of this
town in a weftern courfe, and foon after turns N.W. which
courfe it purfues till it falls into St. Lawrence.

DUDUA, or Dunusa, in Ancient Geography;
of Afia, in Galatia. Ptolemy.

DUDUM, a’town of Africa, in Interior Libya, fouth
of the river. Niger. Ptoleniy,

DUE Cort, /tal. Muf. two chorufles or choirs, placed
at a diftance from each other, fomctimcs performing ‘in four
parts alternately, orantipkonally ; and fometimes uniting’in
eight real’parts, We Hear of compofitions in the fifteenth.
and fixteenth centuries, not only for cight, but 46 parts;
fuch was'a motet by Ockenheim, the matter of Jorguin, as
all the mufical writers of the fixteenth century triumphantly
tell ue.

Zarlino fays; that’ fo great was the rage in his time for
miltiplying parts in mufical compofitions, that fome maltersy.
not coutent with three or four, which {ufliced to their pre-
deceffors, had increafed them to fifty; from which, he truly
obferves, nothing but noife and contufion could/arifle. How-
ever, in another part of his book, he tells us, that Adriano
Willaert had invebted matles @ Duc Cori, over @ tre, z as-

ome

a town

® (UE

fome call them, a Cori Spexzati, whieh had an admirable
effect. We know not how Ockenheim difpofed his parts ;
but they would have furnifhed nine choira of four voices each.
Tn the large churches of Ita y» where the performers are
divided into two bands, placed in oppofite galleries, ail the
Amitations and folo parts are diftin&ly heard, and when united
in at lealt eight real parts, completely fill the ears of the au-
dience with all the charms of congregated found. We have
never heard this {pecies of compofition attempted in our ca-
thedra!s, when a powerful band of inftruments and additional
voices are joined to the ufual choral performers. Indeed, all
our chanting and common choir fervice, derived from the
ancient antiphonal finging, is of this kind: the performers
being equally divided, and placed on each fide the choir,
form two bands, one of which is called the dean’s fide, ard
the other the chanters’?: Decani, Gantoris ; but the number
of voices in our cathedral eftablifhments is not fufficient to
produce the great effects which might be obtained from the
united force of all the vocal aird inftrumental performers that
are aflembled upon particular occafions, fuch as the Featt of
the Sons of the Clergy at St. Paul’s; the Triennial Meet-
ings of the three Choirs of Worcefter, Hereford, and Glou-
celter ; the Feaft of St. Cecilia, at Salifbury ; and occati-
onal performance of oratorios in ether cathedrals and churches
ef the kingdom ; but above all from fuch a {tupendous con-
grefs of muficians as has been affembled at Weftminfter
Abbey. 3

We are in poffeffion of a mafs compofed by Orario Bene-
voli, in 24 real parts for fix choirs, and a fong of 40 real
parts, or ten choirs, by our venerable countryman Tallis.
Ynefe are curiofities, harmonical phenomena. But there
can be little melody in any of thefe multiplicd parts; bunt to
make them move at all without violation of rule, requires
great meditation and experience.

Many of the movements in Corelli’s concertos, when the
Ripicnos differ effentially from the principal parts, and mary
of Handel’s choruffes, ere written a Due Cori; but their
effet is loft by the band being all crowded together in one
orcheftra. It is only in the two oppoiite galleries of a
church, or other large building, that hes two galleries
fronting each other, fuch as, before the fire, our beautiful
Pantheon contained, that {uch grand effes can be produced,
as we have heard in the churches of Italy.

Due Terre, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Bari; 6 miles S. S.W. of Bari.

DUEGNAS, or Duennas, a town of Spain, in the
province of Leon, or the Pifuerga, on the frontiers cf Old
Cattile ; 3 leagues S. of Palencia.

DUEL, a fingle combat, at a time and place appointed,
in confequence of a cartel, or challenge.

The word is ufually derived from duellum, ufed by the
barbarous Latin writers, gua/i duorum bellum.

Duels were anciently allowed by common law, in cafes
where proof could not be had. In which view, Fieta de-
fines duel, ‘‘ fingularis pugna inter duces ad probandam ve-
ritatem litis; & qui vwicit, prabaffle intelligitur.’’ Stat. de
Finib. Levat. 27 Edw. I.

This duelling was fo general a method of terminating dif-
ferences among the nobility, that even ecclefiaitics, prietts,
and monks, were not excufed from the fame; only to pre-
vent their being flained with blood, they obliged thefe
to procure champions to fight in their ftead ; as is fhewo
at large by father Dacheri, in his Spicilegium, tom. viii.

None were excepted from thefe legal duels but women,
fick people, and cripples, and fuch as were under twenty-
gene years of age, or above fixty.

The cuftom was, for the two champions to enter a lift,

DUE

or {mall inclofure, appointed by the authority of the ordinary
judge, not only on.criminal occzfions, but on fome civil
ones, for the maintenance of their right.

The monk Sigebert even relates, that a qus{tion on a
point of law being prefented to the emperor Otho I. viz.
whether reprefentation had place in direct fucceffion? and
the do€tors findiog themfelves embarraffed in the refolution
thereof, the emperor remitted the decifion of fo critical a
point to the judgment of arms, end pitched on two,bold
fellowsto maintain the pro and the-contra.. The victory fell
to him who contended for reprefentation; in favour of
whom a law was immediately made, which is in force to
this day.

This cuftom came originally from the northern nations ;
among whom it was ulfual to erd all their diflerences by
arms, as we areaflured by Paterculus. It afterwards pafled
as a law among the Germans, Danes, and Franks; efpeci-
ally after Gondebaud, king of the Burgundians, admitted
it in lieu of fwearing. Towards the conclufion of the fifth

century, M. Godeau, in his Hiftor: of the Church, VII.

cent. fays, that the Lombards firft introduced into
Italy the barbarity of fingle combats, whence the cuftom.
{pread throughout the reft of Europe. This mode of trial

was introduced into England, among other Norman cuftoms,

by William the Conqueror ; but was only ufed in three cafes,
viz. one military, in the coprt-martial, or, court of chivalry
and honour; the fecond, criminal, in appeals of felony;
and the third, civil, upon Mfue joined in a writ of right,

which was the only. decifion of tuch writ of right after the

conquett, till Henry Il. with confent of parliament intro-

duced the alternative of the grand affize, or a peculiar {pecies

of trial by jury. Sec Barrce.

The preparation for the combat, and the procefs of it,
We fhall only

are def{cribed under the article CHAMPION.
farther obferve, that when the day of combat was come,
they made eboice of four cavalicrs to guard the field; and
performed divers ceremonies, prayers, oaths, &c. defcribed

by Pafquier, and other authors, and quoted-by Du-Cange,

who mentions an ordonnance of king Philip the Fair in

Pri Se, %
1306, prefcribing the feveral rules, conditions, and eere-

monies to be obferved herein.

The method of trial by duel was inlituted as a method of |

confulting Providence, to learn who was the criminal; and
it was imagined, that God, thus interrogated, would not
fail to declare himfelf in favour of the innocent. But it
happened fo often, that the unjult accufer came off viéto-

rious, that they at length began to be convinced, they mutt ”

not prefcribe to his wifdom the neccflity of interrupting the
courfe of fecond caufes.
and difguifing affaflinations under method and meafure.

Saxo Grammaticus obferves, that as early as the year 981,

the kings of Denmark had abrogated the proof by duel ;

and in lieu thereof, appointed the proof by red-hot iron, ©

which was alfo annulled in its turn. -

But duels were condemged before by a council held at
Valentia, in 855, where the perfon who killed his enemy ©

was excommunicated ; and the perfon killed was pronounced

unworthy of burial.
Ceieftine IIT. and Alexander III. likewife interpofed; and

Frederic I. and II. prohibited them in Germany; Louis VII. -

began to reftrain them in France, in the year 1168; and St.
Louis proceeded to abolifh them; but his ordonnance, A.D.

“1260, only took’place in his own territories, and not in thofe

of his vaflals. After his example, the counts d’Auvergne
and Poictou, and feveral other lords, forbad them likewife.
Philip the Fair, following the footlteps of his grandfather,
St. Louis, at one time forbad all gages, or pledges of battle ;

and ©

This was giving rules to murder, ©

Afterwards, the popes, Nicholas I.

DUE

and yet he permitted them in four cafes, in the ordonnance
~ above mentioned of the year 1306. The laft duel of note
was in the year 1547, before king Henry II. between Jar-
nac and Chaltaignerie, mentioned by Thuanus, and de
Serres. i

In England, the trial by duel is difufed; though the law
on which it is founded be ftill in force. It appears from
Madox’s Hiftory of the Exchequer, that trials of this kind
were fo frequent in Engiand, that fines, paid on thefe oc-
cafions, made no incontiderable branch of the king’s revenue,
voli. p. 349. Whe laft trial of this kind was appointed in
the year 1631, between Donald lord Rey, or Rhee, appel-
lant, and David Ramfey, efq. defendant, in the painted
chamber at Weftminfter.. But that quarrel terminated with-
gut bloodfhed, being accommodated by Charles I.; as was
alfo another of the fame kind in 1571, by the interpofition
of queen Elizabeth. Another initance occurs feven years
after that in 1631. Rwufhworth’s Obfervations on the
Statutes, &c. p. 260. Sce Barrie and Comprar.

Dover is alfo ufed for a fingle combat on fome private
quarrel or occafion. Ste CHaLLence.

The duel muft’ be premeditated; otherwife it is only a
rencounter, ;

The folly, or rather madnefs, of duelling reigned for fome
ages in France; where the flower of the noblefle perifhed
thereby. [tis one of the glories of Louis XIV. to have
uled all his power and authority for abolifhing duels. The
fevere ed'¢ts and laws he made againft dueliifts have, in a
great meafure, put a ftop to the cultom.

Deliberate duelling is by the law of England a fpecies of
murder; and accordingly, it charges both the crime and

unifhment of murder on the principals, and on their feconds
alfo. (Blackit. Com. vol.iv. p.tg9. 1 Hawk. P.C. 82.)
It requires, however, {uch a degree of paflive valour to com-
bat the dread of even undeferved. contempt, arifing from the
falfe notions of honour too generally received in Exrope,
that the ftrongeft prohibitions and penalties of the law will
never be entirely effe€tual to eradicate this unhappy cuftom,
till a method be devited of compelling the original aggreflor
to make fome other fatisfaGtion to the affronted party, which
the world fhall efteem equally repztable, a3 that which is
now given at the hazard of the life and fertune, as well of
the perfon infulted, as of him who hath given the infult.
To this purpofe Dr. Robertfon obferves, that the dominion
of fafhion is fo powerful, that neither the terror of penal
laws, nor reverence for religion, has been able entirely to
abolifth a practice unknowa& among the ancients, and not
juttifiable by any principle of reafon; though at the fame
time, it mult be admitted, that to this abfurd cuflom we
mult afcribe, in fayme degree, the extraordinary gentlerefs
and complaifance of modern manners, and that refpeétful
attention of one man to another, which, at prefent, render
the focial intercourfes of life far more azteeable and decent
than among the molt civilized nations of antiquity. Hitt.
Ch. V. vol. iii. p. 16, &c. Svo.

DUEREN; in Geography. . See Duren.

DUERO, Dovero, or Douro, a river, which rifes near
Agreda in Spain, and purfuing a wetfterly courfe, paffes
Ofma, Aranda-de-Duero, Toro, Zamora, &c. in Spain;
and reaching the borders of Portugal, it pafles by Miranda,
where, taking a fouth-wefterly direétion, it feparates the
province of ‘T’ra-los-Montes from Spair, till, a little below
Efpadacenta, it again takes a welterly courfe acrofs the
kingdom of Portugal, having the provinces of ‘T'ra-los-
Montes and Entre-Duero-e-Minho on the north, and Beira

on the fouth, and difcharges itfelf into the Atlantic, a little
_ below Oporto.

Vou. XII.

DUE

DUEROZHOF, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Carniola; 4 miles E. of Gurck field.

DUESME, a {mali town of France, in the department
of the Céte d’or, on the river Seine; 12 miles S. of Cha-
tillon.

DUET, Duo, /fa/., a mvfical compofition in two parts,
whether vocal or inltrumental. _ This title 1s general for all
mufic in two perts; but in {peaking of a dramatic duet, in
an opera, the term requires a more extended’ explanation.

Though many admirable theatrical duets had been com-
poled by the Italians, before Rouffeau wrote the mufical ar-
ticles for the Encyclopédie, or coileéted them into a dic-
tionary ; yet he was the firlt-to analyfe that {pecies of cem-
polition, to point out its ferms, and account for its eff. Gs,
And this he has done fo judicioufly, and with fuch enlarged
views, that, though long, we fhall tranflate the chief part
of his article, forthe take of its ingenuity, and the author’s
reafoning on the fubject.

He obferves, that ‘the rules for vocal duets, ard, in
general, for all mufic in two parts, are the molt rigorous,
with refpeét to harmony, of any mufical produétions.
Many paflages are prohibited, and many movements, which
would be admitted to a greater number of parts; for there
are paflages and combinations, which pleafe when accom-
panied by a third or fourth part, without which they would
fhock the ear. Befides, as only two founds are wanted, it
would be unpardonable not to choofe the beft. Thefe rules
were formerly more fevere ia chamber duets, fuch as, thofe
of Steffani and Clari; but im later times, they have been

‘relaxed, fince every one fets up for a compofer.””

The citizen of Geneva might have affigned other reafons
for this relaxation, by allowiag dramatic duets, where
not only the harmony of two parts was to be feleét and po-
lifhed, but generally two diftinét charaCters to be fupported ;
where perpetual fugue or imitation to the fame words was
abfurd, and where a dialogue was to be preferved almoft en-
tire, and where the union of the two voices was referved for
moments of paffion, expreffive of joy, forrow, or anger.

** A duet may be regarded in two lights: as a melody in
two parts, fuch, for example, as the firft movement of Per-
goleli’s Stabat Mater,’’ the moft perfe&t and touching duo
(in 1768) which ever dropt from the pen of a mufician ; or,
as imitative and theatrical mufic, fuch asthe duos in opera
feenes. In both fpecies, the duet is of all kinds of mufic,
that which requires the moft tafte and {cleétion of paflages,
and is the moft difficult to treat without negieéting the unity
of melody. Let me be allowed here to make a few remarks
on dramatic duets, the particular difficulties of which are
fuperadded to thofe of all other duets in general.

‘© Tt has been well remarked, that duets are out of nature
in imitative mufic, where paffion is to be painted :, for nothing
is lefs natural than.to hear two perfons talking at once dur-
ing a certain time, either to fay the fame thing, repeat the
fame fentiment, or to contradiét it, without ever liftening or
waiting for an anfwer; and though this may be admiited in
particular cafes, it certainly ought not to be fuffered in a
tragedy, where fuch indecency is neither fuitable to the
dignity of the perfonages, the interlocutors, or to the edu-
cation which we may fuppofe them to have received. It is
only, therefore, in great tranfports of paffion that the heroic
interlocutors can be fuppofed to interrupt each other, and
{peak at the fametime; and even then, it is extremely ridi-
culous that fuch fimultancous difcourfe fhould be prolonged
in a regular manner.

“ The firlt means, therefore, of avoiding this abfurdity,
is to place thofe duets in lively and touching fituations, where
the agitation of the charaéters throws them into a kind of

THe delirium,

DUE

delirium, capable of making the audience and themfelves
forget thofe theatrical decorums, which enforce illufion in
cold fcenes, and deftroy it in the heat of paflion. The fe-
cond means is, to compofe duets as much as poflible in dia-
logue. This dialogue fhould not be formally phrafed and
divided into long periods, like recitative, but formed of in-
terrogations, replies, and exclamations, fhort and fpirited,
which give an opportunity for the melody to pafs rapidiy
from one to the other by turns, without ceafing, to form
fuch a melody as the ear can feize. Another neceffary at-
tention is, not to take indifferently for fubje<ts all the violent
paffions; but only fuch as are fufceptible of a pleafing me-
lody, and area little contrafted; fo as to.require a melodious
accent and an agreeable harmony, in two parts. Rage and
fury march too faft to take a likenefs: we diftinguifh no-
thing ; we only hear a confufed roar and barking, and the
duo bas no effe@. Befides, that perpetual repetition of
abufe and infult belongs more to watermen and drovers than
to heroes: it more refembles the threats of bullies, who wifh
to make themfelves feared more thanto hurt. But ftill more
mult be avoided that excefs of tendernefs and feeling, which
only talks of charms, chains, and darts; a flat and frigid
jargon, with which true paffion is totally unacquainted, and
which are no more wanted for good mufic than geod poetry.
The initant of feparation, when one of the two lovers is
dragged away to death, or flying to the arms of another ;—
the fincere return of a-rover ;~the affeéting confli& of a
mother and a fon, who wih to die for cach other ;—all thefe
moments of afflilion, which draw delicious tears from the
{pectators: thefe are the fubjets for duets, when treated by
the poet with that fimplicity of language which penetrates
the heart. Whoever has frequented the Lyric theatres muft
know what tendernefs and emotion can be excited in a
whole audience, by the fingle word addio. But the moment
the poet aims at wit, or lets any affected phrafe efcape him,
that inftant the charm is broken, and we muit laugh, or die
with fatigue.

“ Thefe obfervations regard the poet. With refpedt to
the compofer, it is his bufinefs to find a fuitable melody to
the fubjeét, and diftribute it in fuch a manner, that each of
the interlocutors, {peaking by turns, fhall fo conneé& the
mufical phrafes, without changing the fubje@t, or at leait
the movement, that paffing in its progrefs from one part to
the other, without a junétton, it (hall feem as uniform as if
fung by a fingle voice. The duets that produce the beft
effets are thofe of voices of equal pitch, becaufe the har-
mony is more comprefled. And among voices of the fame
kind, the beit effects are produced by /opranos, or treble
voices, whofe diapafon being moft acute renders the accents
moft diftin@, and their tones more touching. And thefe
are the only duets ufed by the Italians in their ferious operas :
and I have no doubt but that the employing ca/rati in male
parts was originally owing to this obfervation. But though
there fhould be an equality between the two voices in a duo,
and a unity of melody, it does not follow that the two parts
fhould be exactly alike in the caft of melody; fer, befides
the neceflary diverfity of ftyle, it feldom happens that the
fituation of the two charaéters is fo perfeGtly fimilar, that
they fhould exprefs their fentiments in the fame manner: fo
that the compofer ought to vary their accents, and give to
each the character which beft {hall paint the ftate of their
minds, efpecially in their alternate recitative.

*« When the two parts unite and fing together, which
ought to be feldom ufed for a fhort period, a melody fhould
be found that admits of moving in 3ds or 6ths, in which the
fecond part has its effet without difturbing the firlt. (See
Unery of Melody.) Care muft be taken to avoid harfh dif

DUF

cords, high and piercing founds, referving the forti/fimo of
the orchefira for moments of tranfport and diforder, iu which
the performers feem “to forget themfelves,”’ infufe their fof-
ferings into the fouls of fpectators of fenfibility, and make
them experience the power of harmony foberly conducted :
but thefe moments ought to be rare, fhort, and artfully in-
troduced, The ear and the heart muft be prepared by a
{weet and affeéting mufic for a crifis of this kind; that both
may aflilt the compofer and performer in raifing fuch emo-
tions, which muft be tranfient and conformable to human
weaknefs; for when the agitation 1s too ftrong, it cannot
be durable ; 2nd whatever is out of nature never touches the
heart.”

He then illuftrates his reflections by the exquifite duet in
Metaltafio’s ‘* Olimptade,”’ fet by Pergolefi, which has been
the model of almoft all dramatic duets ever fince: recom-
mending to the reader the feeking in the works of that firfe
mufician of his time, and of our own, how fuch a duet
fhould be treated ; which, he truly fays, is but a recapitula-
tion of the preceding feene:

ss Mia vita addio.
Ne’ giorni tuoi feiici
Ricordati di me,” &c.

atiahie allele)

The art, however, has not ftood {till fince the time when
the {weet and admirable Pergolefi was prematurely fnatched
from the mufical world. Jomelli, Penz, Piccini, Sacchin#,
Anfoffi, Traetta, Sarti, Mozart, Cimarofa, and Paefiello,
though they have adhered to his model, have extended, re-
fined, and polifhed melody, invented ingenious and pice
ture{que accompaniments, without forgetting the poct, the
actor, or dramatic effects.

Duets introduced in intermezzi and comic operas, tur
on fuch whimlical circumftances, and are fung by fuch gro-
tefque charaéters, that there is no reducing them to rule ;
yet the Italidns, with all their good tafte in ferious mufic,
have fo natural a tendency to buffoonery, that, in their bur=
lettas, there is no kind of imitation which they have not
tried to tune, or {quabble which they have not painted by
variety of meafures and charatteriftic melodies. Comic
duets are hardly ever fung by two fimilar voices, but gene-
rally by a foprano and tenor or bafe: ‘ and (fays Rouffeau)
if they have not the pathos of tragic duets, tn revenge, they
are fufceptible of the moft piquant variety. All the
fubtilties of coquetry, all the peculiarities of the advocati,
Dottori, of Pantaloon, Harlequin, Columbine, and the
contraft of all the follies of our fex, and the artifice of the
other; in fhort, all the acceflory ideas of which the fubjec&
is fufceptible, all concur to render thefe duos interefting and
amufing.”’? As a model of perfection among comic duets,
he inftances ‘* Lo Conorco a quig l’Occhietti,” in Pergo-
lefi’s ** Serva Padrona;’’? which, however admirable in its
day, has been often far furpaffed in agreeable air, unity of
melody, fimple, pure, and brilliant harmony, accent, dia-
logue, and tafte, by Cimarofa, Paefiello, and Mozart.

DUETTI pa Camera, fuch as thofe of the elder Bo=
noncini, Steffani, Clari, Haffe, and Handel, are almoft all
fugati. They ufed to be regarded, particularly thofe of
Steffani, as excellent /a/fegg?, by the great opera fingers, a
century ago.

DUETTINI, Jal., a little duet, fuch as thofe of
Aprili, Moftellari, Millico, and others.

DUFF’S Group, in Geography. See DisarrointTMENT
Lfland.
ante, a {mall town of France, in the department of
the two Nethes, chief place of a canton in the diftri€t of
Malines, on the river Nethe; 3 miles N.. of Malines, and:

3 miles

DUF

3 miles S.W. of Lierre. It has a population of 2831 in-

‘dividuals. The canton contains 8 communes and $579 in-
habitants, upon a territorial extent of go kiliometres.

DU-FRESNE, Cuarves Du-Canece, in Biography, a
learned Frenchman, was defcended from a refpe€table family,
and born at Amiens, in the year 1610. After having ac-
quired the elements of polite literature in the Jefuits’ college,
at bis native place, he ftudied the Jaw at Orleans, and, in
1631, was {worn-advocate to the parliament of Paris.
Having pratifed at the bar for fome time, he declined the
exercife of this profeflion, and returning to Amiens, devoted
himfelf to the general ftudy of languages and philofophy,
Jaw, phyfic, divinity, and hiftory. In 1668 he again fettled
at Paris, and in purfuance of a propofal laid before Colbert,
and approved by him, he was employed in colleSting me-
mairs and manufcripts for compiling a hiftory of France.
His plan for the execution of this proje@, to which he had
devoted confiderable time and attention, not being approved
by the minilter, he relinquifhed this tedious and laborious
undertaking ; and direGed his views to the completion of
his gloffary of low Latin, entitled, ‘* Glofforium Mediz et
infme Latinitatis,’’ which was received by the public with
general commendation ; and though Valefius difcovered in it
{cveral miftakes, it is Ccemed by the learned an excellent and
ufeful work, It wag afterwards confiderably enlarged ; and
the editiom of Paris by Carpentier, in 1733, comprifed 6
folio volumes, to which Carpentier has fince added 4 vo-
lumes, by way of fupplement. The whole has been
abridged, confolidated, and improved in an edition, com-
prehending 6 volumes, Svo., and publifhed at Halle from
4772 to 1784. The next performance of Du-Frefne was a
"© Greek Gloflary of the Middle Age,”? compiied moftly
from MSS., little known, and comprifed in 2 volumes,
folio. This learsed writer was the author or editor of feve-
ral other works; among which we may reckon his Genea-
jogical Chart of the Kings of Vrence, Kis Hiftory of Con-
flavtivople under the Kinge of Trance, and his editions of
Cinnamus, Nicepherus, Anna Comnena, Zonaras, and the
Chronicon Alexandrinom, with differtatiens and notes.
Du-Frefne, or as he is commonly called Du-Cange, died in
1088, leaving four children, penfioned by Louis XIV., in
confideration of the father’s merit.

‘hough the general merits and abilities of this pro-
found and accurate etymologift have already been record-
ed, we here with gratitude pay tribute to his memory,
for the affiftance which he has frequently afforded us as
mufical hiftorians, when all other refources failed. In the
flow progrefs of the art of mufic from the time of Guido,
whofe labours were wholly devoted to the facilitating the
ftudy of canto fermo by the monks and chorifters ; in the
gloffary “De la Baffe Latinité,” (6 vols. folio), we find the
derivation and early ufe of mufical terms and phrafes, parti-
cularly in-France and neighbouring ftates; and there is
fearcely a term conneéted with the mufic of the church, of
which an early ufe may not be found, either in this Glof-
fary, or in its continuation by Carpentier, 4 vols. folio.

For the hiftory of the mufic of the Greek church, great
information may be obtained from “ Gloffaire de la Langue
Grec,’’ of the middle ages, privted at Lyons, 2 vols. folio,
Gr. et Lat.

DU-FRESNOY. See Freswnoy.

DUFRESNY, Cuarces Riviere, was born at Paris
in the year 1648. He paffed for the grandfon of Henry IV.,
aud was thought to have borne fome refemblance to that
prince. Of the place and manner of his education, little
worthy of notice has come down to us. In mature life, he
manifeited a general tafte for the arts, without having made

DUG

any of them his particular ftudy. He wasa felf-taught poet
and painter; but efpecially excelled in the art of laying out
gardens, a talent which gained him great credit with his
fovereizn Louis XiV., to whom he was a fervant of the
bed-chamber, and who made him alfo comptroller of the
royal gardens. In a fhort time after, he applied for, and
obtained a patent for the manufacture of looking-glaffes.
With thefe modes of obtaining an ample competence, he
was always poor, and his circumttances fo embarraffed, that
he was at length obliged to fell the places and privileges
which he eajoyed, to extricate himfelf from debt. When
he quitted court, he wrote with fuccefs for the ftage ; and
his reputation was fo confiderable, that he was compered by
D’Alembert with Detouches, with regard to their comic
talents, and declared to be the more original, free, and in-
ventive, of the two. In 1710, he obtained the fole right
of printing the ‘* Mercure Galant,’? of which he profited
only a fhort time, being obliged to fell his privilege. About
the time of Law’s projeG&s under the regency, he was in a
deplorable fituation; but the readinefs of his invention did
not fail him in his exizencies: he drew up and prefented a
humorous petition to the regent, and obtained the extrava-
gant fupply of 200,c09 livres. He was twice married, and
in both inftances he fought the conueétion to relieve his
wants. He died poor, in the year 1724; and ina few years
after his deceale, his works were colleéted, and publifhed in
6 vols. 12mo. They chiefly confift of dramatic pieces,
poetry fet to mufic, ferious and comic amufements, hiftorical
anecdotes, &c. Whatever he wrote is chara€terized by a
happy mixture of fire and delicacy, by a fpecies of gaiety
entirely his own and unftudied, and by a ftyle which always
keeps alive the attention, though no one could fuccefsfully
take the author asa model. Moreri.

DUGDALE, Sir Wirutam, a learned antiquarian, was
born at Shuftoke, near Colefhill, Warwickfhire, in the year
1605. His father w2s a country gentleman, who, after his
fon had received the ufual elementary inftruGtions in gram-
mar learning, inftruted him in the laws of his country, and
in the principles of general hiftory. After the death of
his father he was introduced to the {cciety of fome perfons
converfant in antiquities, and began to mzke colle€tions for
a hiftory of his nattve country. In 1635 he vifited London,
when he became acquainted with the celebrated fir Henry
Spelman, by whofe means, and the interelt of other learned
antiquaries, by whom Mr. Dugdale’s: talents were highly
appreciated, he obtained a purfuivant’s place in the Herald’s
office, where he came to refide in 16408 Here, and from the
records in the ower, he enjoyed ample opportunities to en-
large his colle€tions. During the civil war he attended the
king officially, and was with bim at the battle of Edge Hill,
and at Oxford, where he was created matter of arts. In 1644
he fucceeded to the place of Chefter herald, and, by the
king’s exprefs command, he continued at Oxford till it fur-
rendered to the parliament’s forces in 1646. He did not
{pend this time in vain, but employed himfelf moft diligently
in inveftigating all the fources of learning which the univer-
fity libraries afforded. Here he chiefly collected the materials
for the “ Monafticon,” in which he was engaged with Mr.
Roger Dod{worth. ‘To complete this great work he after-
wards vifited Paris, where, by the indulgence of Andrew
du Chefne, and other learned men, he obtained many records
relative to the priors alien in England. The firft volume of
the ‘ Monafticon Anglicanum” was publifhed in 1655. This
work contains an account of all the religious houfes in Eng-
land from their foundation to their diffolution. The re-
maining volumes were publifhed in 1664 and1673. Two
volumes of additions were printed by John Stephens in 1722

ts aad

DUG

and 1723, and the whole is regarded as a-valuable colletion
of national matter, and is now become very rare. ‘The pub-
lication of Dugdale’s part gave offence to the puritans, who
imagined the author’s main defign was to bring back popery;
it was the caufe, likewife, of many law-fuits, by bringing to

“Tight old deeds and other writings, or at leaft of pointing
out where they might be found. In the year 1656, Dugdale
publifhed his ‘* Antiquities of Warwickhhire illuftrated,’”? of
which a fecond edition was printed by Dr. Thomas in 1739.
While this work was printing, Dugdale employed his lei-
fure time in colleéting materials for a hiftory of St. Paul’s
cathedral in. London, which he publifhed in 1658. Upon
the reftoration he was advanced to the office of Norroy
King at Arms. His next work was ‘*The Hiftory of
Embanking and Draining of divers Fens and Marthes, both
in foreign Parts and in this Kingdom, and of the Improve-
ments thereby.’ In 1677 he was advanced to the office of
Garter King at Arms, to which was annexed the honour of
knighthood. After this he publifhed various other works,
chiefly relating to heraldry. Belides the volumes of which
he was chiefly or folely the author, he edited the fecond vo-
lume of « Sir Henry Spelman’s Councils,” and the fecond
volume of his ‘‘ Gloflary.”” He compiled alfo a work, en-
titled ‘* Origines Judiciales,”’ which relates to the forms and
rules of English courts of juftice and the principal law offices;
a work that has been recommended by bifhop Nicholfon as
an ufeful introduétion to the iegal hiftory of England; nor
muk we omit his ‘ Baronage of England,” in three volumes
folio. He died at his houfe in Warwickhhire in 1686, being
in the 8ift year of his age, leaving one fon and a daughter;
the former was inthe Herald’s office and was knighted; the
latter married Elias Afhmole. Biog. Brit.

DUGGA, or Tucca, in Geography, a town of Afiica,
in the kingdom of Tunis; 70 miles S.W. of Tunis.

DUGHET, Gaspar, in Biography, a land{cape painter,
celebrated under the name of Gaspar Poussin.

He was born in France, A.D. 1600, and at a very early
age difcovered an apt genius for painting. Finding in him-
felf a {trong love for that art, he refolved to devote himfelf
to it, and, with a view to the attainment of excellence in his
profeffion, fet forward towards Rome, where he was confident
of meeting with affiftance from Nicolo Pouffin, who had then
rifen to eminence, and who had married Gafpar’s fifter.

On his arrival at Rome, he was at firft employed merely
in preparing Pouffin’s palette, pencils, and colvurs ; but gra-
dually improving himfelf by the inftructions he derived from
that great mafter of his art, by the fight of his works during
their progrefs, and the opportunity of obferving his method
in painting them; and ftill more, finally, by the example of
his great powers, he grew into confiderable reputation as a
landfcape painter, and, at length, effeCtually eftablithed his
claim to Celebrity.

Whether he found himfelf unequal to the higher paths of
art, in which Nicolo moved, or whether his good fenfe dic-
tated to him the impolicy of attempting eminence in the
fame province with his matter, he adopted a ftyle, which
though manifeftly formed under the fuperintending genius
of Pouffin, neither aimed at the fame fpecies of compolition,
nor bore an exaét refemblance in manner. The landfcape of
Nicolo is fele&, poetic, and afpires to the fublime: Galfpar,
although not deficient in poetical compofition, chofe the
taf of more humble and minute attention to natural effects
and natural fcenes. The quiet valley, the flumbering lake,
and the rich autumnal foliage of the grove; or the bleak
hill, the driving fhower, or eddying whirlwind, came from his
hand, ftamped with a charaéteriftic impreffion of reality.
His pencil was rich, free, and flowing. In this branch of

DUG

painting, therefore, though he did not furpafs, he might
fland in competition with his preceptor; but here his {kill
terminated ; in figures he was fo totally incompetent, that
he was frequently fain to folicit his mater to paint -tnofe
which he introduced into his landfcapes. Whether their
places were marked out by him, cr cholen,by Nicola, they
are always introduced with admirabie tafte and propriety.
His fcenery alfo is excellently chofen in peint of natural
beauty, as are the fites of his buildings; and thofe buildings
are produétive of the moft pleafing effect by a mixture of
elegance and fimplicity. His grounds are agreeably broken;
and the force of his figures, tress, and other obj-&s, is fo
judicioufly proportioned to their refpective diftance, as fome-
times even to caufe the mot pleafing deception. He was
exceedingly expeditious in his work; his imagination was
fcarcely more ready to invent than is hand was to execute;
and it is confidently reported by authentic writers, that he
finifhed a large landfcape, and inferted all the requifite fi-
gures, within the compals of one cay!

Gafpar bad three manners in his painting, which are dif-
tinguifhable without any great-nicety. The firit was rather
dry, and the laft, though agreeable, was feeble, and unequal
to that of his middie time 3 his fecond « ainer was, by many
degrees, his belt, as it was at once more fimple and more
learned ; and his colouring appears fo frefh, fo full of truth
and nature, that no eye can behold his landicapes of that pe-
riod without admiration. The works of Galpar are deferv-
edly efleemed in every nation where the art of painting is
either cultiyated or underftood.

During his abode in Rome he adopted the family name of
his brother-in-law and benefa¢tor, and is commonly {poken
of by that only. He died in the year 1663. Partly
Pilkington’s Di@ionary of Painters.

DUGINSKOI, in Geography, acape of Ruffian Siberia,
in the fea of Oehotfkoi. N. lat. 59° 15’. E. long. 149° 14’.

DUGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Meufe and diftrié&t of Verdun; three miles S. of Verdun.

DUGUET, Jamss Josgru, in Biography, was born at
Montbrifon, near Lyons, about the year 1649. Ata very
early age he difcovered a {trong memory, and a certain quick-
nefs for imbibing inftru€tion, which his father took great
pains in cultivating. Ata proper age he turned his thoughts
to the ftudy of theology, which he purfued at Saumur. Th
1671, he was appointed profeffor of philofophy at the col-
lege of Troyes, and at the fame time was requetted to deliver
a feries of catechetical inftru@ions to the poor; fuch, how-
ever, was his popularity, that perfons in the higher ranks
of life crowded to hear his le&tures, almoft to the exclufien
of thofe for whom they were originally defigned. In the
year 1677 he was ordained prieft, and.at the fame time dif-
charged the duties of profeffor of theology. At this period
he eftablithed his celebrated ecclefiaftical conferences, which
were attended by the moft numerous audiences, and pro-
cured for him a high reputation for extenfive knowledge,
judgment, and piety. He laboured fo affiiuoufly in the vari-
ous duties in which he was engaged, that his health was eon-
fiderably injured, and he was obliged to apply fora relaxation
from his employments. In 1685 he retired to Bruffels, but
finding the air of that city not congenial to his conftitution,
he returned to Paris, where he lived in a ftudious retirement,
concealed from the greater part of his acquaintance. In
the latter years of his life he was involved in much trouble,
by the decided part which he took in the controverfy be-
tween the Jefuits and Janfenifts, and was obliged frequently
to change his refidence. He died at Paris in 1733, being in
the 84th year of his age. As an author, he publifhed com-
mentaries or expofitions on the greater part of the books of

é the

DUI

the Old Teftament, befides many pratical pieces in theo-
logy and morals: alfo, “ A Colle&tion of Letters on Piety,
&c.,” in nine volumes 12mo. Ofthefe and other pieces Mo.
reri has given an ample account. Duguet was very highly
efteemed by his contemporaries, as well for his piety as for
the excellence of his temper and the gentlenefs of his man-
ners. What he had been in the younger part of life he
continued to be in the extreme of old age: fo excellent is the
advice, ‘ Train up a child in the way he fhould go, and he
will not depart from it when he is old.’”? His writings,
which are little known here, are by his countrymen highly
applauded for perfpicuity, purity, and elegance. -Morert.

DUHAM, in Geography, atown of Bohemia, in the circle
of Boleflaw; 20 milks W. N.W. from Jung Buutzlau.

DUHOKUNDA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Jemarrow.

DU JARDIN, in Biography. See Jarviy.

DUIDA, in Geography, a mountain of South America,
in the range of Parima, in which 1s a volcano. N. Jat. 3° 13’.

DUILLIUS, C., in Biography, the frit Roman who

obtained a confiderable naval viétory, was conful in the year
260 B.C. After his colleague, Cn. Corn. Scipio, had been
taken at fea by the Carthaginians in the firft Punic war, he
proceeded, with a newly-built Roman fleet, to Sicily in qurft
of the enemy, and, by means of a corvus, was enabled to
grapple with the enemy’s veffels as they approached, and
thus to convert the combat intoa fort of land ight. By this
unexpected manceuvre he took 80, and deftroyed 13 {hips of
the Punic fleet, and obtained, as a reward, atriumph. A
naval column was erected in the forum to perpetuate the
event, which was itanding in Pliny’s time, and was found
again, with its infcription, in the year 1560. The fenate
likewife rewarded his valour by permitting him to have mu&c
playing and torches lighted, to attend him when he returned
from any evening entertainment. Medals were flruck in
commemoration of the victory. Cic. De Sene&ute.

DVINA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, called “ Sie-
vernaia Dvina,” the Northern Dvina, which name it aflumes
on its junction with the two rivers, the Sookhona and the
Youga, that arife in the government of Vologda. ‘This junc-
tion is formed at the city of Uftiug, whence the Dvina takes a
north-weftward courfe, and at Archangel falls into the White
fea, after having divided itfelf into two confiderable arms.
In its courfe it receives fome pretty large rivers, and feveral
leffer flreams ; fuch as, on the right, the Lufa, the Vichegda,
and the Pinega ; and, to the left, the Vaga, the Yemza, &c.
Tbe merchant veffels run into the eaftern arm of the Dvina,
on which the fort Novaia Dvinka is built; but, at firft, the
weftern, where {tands the monaftery Korelfkoi Monaltir, was
the moitt frequented ; but this is no longer paffable. In ge-
neral the fhoals increafe from year to year in both, and fuch
large fhips cannot now run in as formerly. The Dvina has
the honour of having given reception, in 1553, to the firlt
Englith fhip that ever came to Ruffia. ‘This river flows
mottly through a fwampy and woody region; it is navigable
from Ultiug, and tolerably abounds with fifh.

Dyina. See Duna.

DUINGEN, Duin, or Dudingen, in Geography, a town
of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and princi-
pality of Calenberg; 15 miles S.E. of Hamein.

DUINO, Doino, or Tybein, a fea-port town of Ger-
many, in the duchy of Carniola ; 8 miles N.W. of Triette,
and 174 S.S.W. of Vienna. N. lat. 45° 55/. E. long.
14° 46/,

« DUISBURG, or Dutssoura, in Latin Duifburgum,
Duicziburgum, and Tuifcoburgum, a town of Germany, in the
grand duchy of Berg, which, fince the acceflion of the grand

DUK

duke, Joachim Murat, to the throne of Naples, has beer
annexed to the French empire. It is fuppofed to derive its
name from the Tuifcones, and to be the Difpargum, or
Duifparcum, in which the Frankifh king Clodio, furnamed
Long-haired, refided.

Duifburg is fituated on the eaftern fhore of the Rhine.
It was formerly a free imperial and Hanfeatic city, under
the proteCtion of the dukes of Limburg and counts of Berg.
In 1290, it was mortgaged to Theodore VIIL., count of
Cleves, and in 1347 to John, duke of Cleves. In 1805, it
was ceded, along with the duchy of Cleves, by the king of
Proffia, to the grand duke of Berg.

An univerfity was founded at Duifburg for Proteftants
in the year 1655, but it was never very flourifhing under
the Proffian dominion, Halle and Francfort on the Oder
being generally preferred. In 1800, Diifburg had but 12
profeffors and 39 ftudents. Murat, as grand duke of Berg,
attempted to rettore the univerfity of Duifburg to its ancient
importance. He increafed the number of profeflors to 18,
viz. 6 profeflors of philofophy, 3 of Calvinift, 2 of Roman
Catholic, and 1 of Lutheran theology ; 3 of plyfic, and
3 of law. Count Bork of Hiith was its curator. Its re-
venue was 20,000 dollars.

Duifburg has two very fine churches, and three monaf-
teries. Its principal manufatures are thofe of hardware and
woollen cloth,

Gerard Mercator, one of the moft illuftrious geographers
of the 16th century, is buried at Dunfburg.

Duissurc, Perer ve, in Biography, a native of the
duchy of Cleves, and a prieft of the Teutonic order in Proffia,
flouri‘thed in the early part of the 14th century. He wrote
a chroni¢le of Pruffia in Latin, from the year 1226 to 1325,
which was continued, by an anonymous writer, to 1426.
It was tranflated into German verfe by N. Jerofchinus and
Wigandus, brothers of the fame order to which Dv fbure
belonged. ‘The original was edited, in 1679, by the learned
Hartknock, who fubjoined to it ninetcen differtations,
which throw great light upon the hiltory of Prufliae Mo-
reri.

DUITZ, or Duyrz, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the kingdom of Weftphalia, and duchy of Berg, on the
ealt fide of the Rhine, oppofite to Cologn, chiefly inhabited
by Jews, who are not permitted to dweil in Cologn, or even
toenter that city, without permiflion.

DUIVEN, or Duv’n, Joun, in Biography, a portrait
painter, born at Goude, in Holland ; a ditciple of Walter
Crabeth ; died in 1640.

DUKANA, in Geography, a river of Ruffian Siberia,
which, united with the Ancha, forms the Juna.

DUKE, Dux, a fovereign prince, without the title, or
quality of king. Such are the duke of Lorraine, duke of
Holftein, &c. .

The word is borrowed from the modern Greeks, who eall
doucas what the Latins call dux.

There are alfo two fovereigns, who bear the title of grand-
duke ; as, the grand-duke of Tufcany, and the grand duke
of Mufcovy, now called the czar, or emperor of Ruffia; the
heir of the throne of Ruffia is now called grand-duke of
Ruffia. The emperor of Germany is arch-duke of Auttria.
The king of Poland affumes the title of grand-duke of Li-
thuania.

Duke, Dux, is alfo a title of honour, or nobility, the
next below princes.

The dukedom, or dignity of duke, is a Roman dignity,
denominated a ducendo, leading or commanding. Accord=
ingly, the firlt dukes, duces, were the du@ores excercituum,
commanders of armies. Under the late emperors, the go-

vernors

D. Uk

wetnors of provinces, in war-time, were intitled duces. In
after-times, the fame denomination was alfo given to the
governors of provinces, in time of peace. The fir go-
vernor under the name of duke, was a duke of the Marchia
Rhetica, or Grifons, whereof mention is made in Caffio-
dorus; and there were afterwards thirteen dukes in the
eallern empire, and twelve in the weftern.. The Goths and
Vandals, upon their over-running the provinces of the
weltern empire, abolifhed the Roman dignities wherever they
fettled. But the Franks, &c. to pleafe the Gauls, who had
long been ufed to that form of government, made it a point
of politics, not to change anything therein; and, accordingly,
they divided all Gaul into duchies and counties; and gave
the names fometimes of dukes, and fometimes of counts,
comites, to the governors thereof.

In England, during the Saxons’ time, Camden obferves,
the officers and commanders of armies were cal!ed dukes,
duces, after the ancient Roman manner, withcut any addi-
tion. After the Conqueror came in, the title lay dormant,
till the reign of Edward ILL, who created his fon Edward,
firft called the Black Prince, duke of Cornwall, which hath
ever fince been the peculiar inheritance of the king’s eldett
fon during the life of his father, fo that he ts dux nalus, non
creaius. - After whom, there were more made, in fuch
manner a3 that their titles defcended to their potterity.
They were created with much folemnity, ‘* per cincturam
gladii, cappeque, circuli aurei in capite impofitionem.”
However, in the reign of queen Evizabeth, A. D. 1572,
the whole order became utterly extingt ; bnt it was revived
about fifty years afterwards, by her fucceflor, in the perfon
of Gcorge Villiers, duke of Buckingham.

Though the French retained the names and form of the
ducal government, yet, under their fecond race of kings,
there were fearcely any fuch things as dukes; but all the
great lords were called counts, peers, or barons ; excepting,
however, the dukes of Burgundy and Aquitain 3 and the
duke of France, which was a dignity Hugh Capet himfelf
held, correfponding to the modern dignity of maitre de palais,
or the king’s lieutenant.

By the weaknefs of the kings, the dukes, or governors,
fometimes made themfelves fovereigns of the provinces trufted
to their adminiltration. This change happened chiefly
about the time of Hugh Capet; when the great lords be-
gan to difmember the kingdom, fo that the prince found
more comnctitors among them than fubjeds. It was even
with a great deal of difficulty they could be brought toown
him their fuperior, or to hold of him by faith and homage.

By degrees, partly by force, and partly by marnages,
thofe provinces, both duchies and counties, which had been
rent from the crown, were again united to it. But the title
duke was no longer given to the governors of provinces.
From that time duke became a mere title of dignity, annexed
to a perfon, and his heirs male, without giving him any
domain, territory, or jurifdi@ion over the place whereof he
is duke. All the advantages thereof new confift in the
name, and the precedence it gives.

The dukes of our days retain nothing of their ancient
{plendour, but the coronet on their efcutcheon; which is
the only mark of their departed fovereignty. They are
created by patent, cin¢ture of the fword, mantle of ftate,
impofition of a cap, and coronet of gold on the head, and a
werge of gold in their hand.

The eldeft fons of dukes are, -by the courtefy of Eng-
land, flyled marguiffis, though they are ufually diftinguithed
by their fathers’ {econd title, whether it be that of marquis,
or earl; and the younger fons, Jords, with the addition of
their Chriftian name, as lord James, lord Thomas, &c. and

D U L

they take place of vifcounts, though not fo privileged by the
laws of the land. The title of duke is the next dignity to
the prince of Wales.

A duke has the title of grace; and being writ to, he is
ftyled, in the herald’s language, moj? high, potent, and noble
prince. Dukes of the blood royal are ftyled mo/? high, mot
mighty, and illuflrious princes.

Duke, among Hebrew grammarians, is an appellation
given to a fpecies of accents, an{wering to cur comma.
See Accent.

Duxe-Duxe, a quality given in Spain to a grandee of
the houfe of Sylva, on account of his having feveral duchies,
from the uniting of two confiderable houfes in his perlon.
Don Roderigo de Sy!va, eldett fon of Don Ruy Gomez de
Sylva, and heir of his duchies and principalities, married the
eldeft daughter of the duke del’ Infantado; in virtue of which
marriage, the prefent duke de Paftrana, who is defcended
therefrom, and is grand-fon of Don Roderigo de Sylva, has
added tovhis other great titles, that of duke-duke, to diftins
guifh himfelf from the other dukes, fome whereof may enjoy
feveral ductiies, but none fo confiderable ones, nor the titles
of fuch eminent families. :

Duxe’s County, in Geography, a county in the ftate of
Maffachufetts, N. America, comprehending the iflands of
Martha’s Vineyard, Chabaquiddick, Noman’s and Ebza-
beth’s, and fituated in the. S.E. coait of the ftate. The
number of inhabitants is 3118, who fend three reprefentatives,
and, in conjunétion with the ifland of Nantucket, one {nator
to the general court. The chief town is Edgarton.

Duxe of Gloucefler [fland, an iflaud in the South Pacific
ocean. 5S. lat. 19° 11. W. long. 140° 11’.

DUKEE, or Duks, a town of Afia, in the country of
Gandahar, in the road from Candahar to Moultan; 180
miles S.E. of Candahar.

DUKLA,a town of Poland, inthe palatinate of Sando- .

mirz; 60 miles S.S.W. of Sandomirz. -

DUKORTCHINA, a town of Ruffia, and one of the
12 diltri@s of the government of Smolenfko, feated on the
Dnieper.

DUKOVA, a town of Lithuania, in the province of
Minfk ; 16 miles S.E. of Minfk.

DULAS, a river of Wales, in the county of Carmarthen,
partly feparating this county from that of Glamorgan,
which runs into the fea, about four miles S,E. of Kidwelly.
—Alfo, a river of Wales, in the county of Carmarthen,
which runs into the Towy, about 1} mile S.S.W. of Llan-
gattock.—Allfo, a river of Wales, in the county of Brecon,
which runs into the Wye, near Hay.—Alfo, a river of

Wales, in the county ef Radnor, which runs into the Ithon, .

near Llanbeder.—Alfo, a river of Wales, in the county of
Montgomery, which runs into the Severn, near Llanidlos.
—Alfo, a river of Wales, in the ifle of Anglefea, which
runs into the Irifh fea, forming a bay and harbour at its
mouth, with a village of the fame name; 10 miles N.W. of
Beaumaris.

DULCIANA, in AZufc, a very pleafing folo ftop in the
organ, brought hither by Snetzler. It has fince been very
fuccefsfully imitated by Green, Grey, and others. It isa
very long and narrow pipe, in unifon with the open dia-
pafon; is as {weet as a reed-ftop, and {feldom wants tuns
ing. ,

DULCIFICATION, in Chemifiry, is an old term not
very accurately defined, but is generally meant to fignify the
rendering miid, or leflening the corrofive quality of acids or
alkalies, by any combination which is not fuppofed actually
to neutralize them. he term, however, is incorrect, and

fhou'd be difufed. .
DULCIGNO,

DUL

DULCIGNO, in Geography, a town of European Ture
key, in the province of Albania, on the coaft of the Adri-
atic, containing about 7000 or 8coo inhabitants. The har-
bour ferves asa retreat for corfairs; 15 miles S.W. of Scutari.
N. lat. 42° 23’. FE. long. 18° 56’.

DULCIMER, a mufical inftrument in a triangular form,
flrung with about 50 wire ftrimgs, refting on a bridge at
each end ; the acute gradually ‘hortening to about 18 inches,
and the grave lengthening to about 36; it is ftruck with a
{mall iron rod in each hand. The bafe ftrings are doubled
in unifon, and its tone is not difagreeable. When played on,
it islaid ona table before the performer, who with the {mall
iron rods ftrikes it with more or lefs force, as light and fhade
may be wanting. The in{trument has not the honour to be
admitted into concerts, and is feldom ufed, except at pup-
pet-fhews, and by itinerant muficians.

DULCINISTS, in L£eclefiaftical Hiflory. See Arosto-
LICI.

DULCINO, in the /talian Mufic, a wind inftrument,
otherwife called quart fagotto. lt ferves for tenor to the
hautboy, and is no more thana litle bafloon. Broff. Di&.
Muf. in voc.

DULCINUS, in Bicgraphy, a leader of a religions fet,
was a native of Novara, in the duchy of Milan. The fe&,
fometimes denominated Dulcinilts, and fometimes the * fe&
of the apoltles,” was founded by Gerard Sagarelli, who
was burnt alive, for his herefy, as it is called by Moreri, at
Parma, in the year 1300. According to the learned Mofheim,
the Dulcimits aimed at introducing among Chriftians the
fimplicity of the primitive times, efpecially the manner of
life that was oblerved by the apoftles, as nearly as could
be colieéted from their writings. On the death of the

- founder, Dulcinus boldly beaded the fe€t, and avowed his
faith in the predictions of Sagarelli, viz. that the church of
Rome would fpeedily be dettroyed, and that a pure fy ftem of
religion would be built on its ruins. That he believed what
he afferted is evident from the means which he took of de-
fending himfelf and followers againit their enemies and
perfecutors. For two years the Dulcinifts, by force of
arms, maintained their ground again{t the {upporters of the
papal interefts; which terminated, however, in the overthrow
and capture of their leader, after he had fignalized himfelf
in feveral ob{tinate and well contefted battles. His life was

. the forfeit of his heroifm and honelty. Moreri. Mofheim.

DULCIS Assa, or dja. See Asa.

DULEDGE, in Gunnery, a peg of wood which joins
the ends of the fix fellows, which form the round of the
wheel of a gun carriage; and the joint is ftrengthened on
the outfide of the wheel by a {trong plate of iron, called
the duledge plate.

DULEEK, in Geography, a {mall town inthe county of
Meath, province of Leinfter, Ireland, fituated on the Nanny
Water. It is of little importance, but is a thoroughfare to
the northern parts. According to a MS. at Cambiidge, the
firft church in Ireland chat was built of ftones, was ere&ed
there. It is twenty-one miles north from Dublin, and four
fouth from Drogheda.

DULGIBINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger-
many, fo called by Tacitus, and fuppoled to be a colony of
Cherufci, whofe chief habitation was the town of Afcalin-
gium, now Lingen, upon the Ems. Ptolemy derominates
them Dulgumini.

DULIA, Aorakia, Service.
and Hyperputia.

DULICHIUM, in Geography, one of the iflands called
Echinades, fituated W. of Greece in the Ionian fea. It
u

See Worsuip, Larria,

DUL
was alfo called Dolicha, and fo diftinguifhed by M. D’An-

ville, who fuppofed it to have been near Cephallenia, and
called it Ithaca. Its name is now Theaki, or Little Cefa-
lenia.

DULKAK, among Arabian writers, a fabulous fea-
moniter in form of a man, riding on an oftrich, which is
faid to attack fhips, and fight with the men on board.
Hofm. Lex. in voc.

DULKEN, or Durcxen, in Geography, a town of
Germany, in the kingdom of Weltphalia, and duchy of
Juliers: 20 miles N.N.W. of Juliers.

DULLAERT, Heyman, or Herman, in Biography,
painter of hiftory and portraits, born at Rotterdam in 1636,
He was a difciple of Rembrandt, whom he imitated fo fuc-
cefsfully, that one of his pi€tures, reprefenting Mars in are
mour, was fold at Amfterdam at a public fale, in 1696, for
a work of that great mafter. He is praifed by Houbraken
for the beauty of his colouring, and freedom of pencil. He
is faid to have been alfo well filled in mufic. . He died in
1684. Vie des Peintres Flamands, &c.

DULMA, a Turkith dif, made of any vegetable, as
cucumbers, onions, cabbage leaves, &c. ftuffed with farced:
meat —Pococke’s Egypt, p. 183.

DULMAN, or Dutmen, in Geography, a {mall town of
Germany, formerly in the bifhopric of Munfter, in Weft-
phalia, but at prefent in the "kingdom of Weftphalia; 22
miles S,W. of Muntter.

DULNESS of Hearinc. See Heaainc.

DULOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of flavery
a town of Africa, in Libya.

DULVERTON, in Geography, a market town and
parifh in the hundred of Williton Freemannon, in the county
of Somerfet. It ttands in a narrow valley, near the banks
of the river Ex, which divides the parifh, and alfo feparates
the counties of Devon and Somerfet, at this place. The
town confilts of two ftreets, both of which are paved, and
in the principal one is the market-houfe, a commodious.
building, and the butchers’ fhamble. Here is a weekly
market on Saturday, and, what is rather unufual, the poor
have the rents and tolls of the market diftributed among
them annually. The town confifts of 195 houfes and 104.
inhabitants: moft of thefe are occupied in the manufaéture
of coarfe woollen cloths and blanketings.

It appears from fome records that the town was occupied
by the Weft Saxon kings, and was poflefled by the crowa
when the Domefday book was cempofed.

Abort one mile fouth of the town is Combe, an ancient
feat of the Sydenham family, who purchafed it in the time
of queen Elizabeth. Haifa mile fouth-cait of Dulvertom
ts Pixton, a pleafant feat of lady Acland. Collinfon’s Hif-
tory of Somerfetfhire, vol. iii.

DULWICH, a hamlet in the parifh of Camberwell, ia
the county of Surry, is noted for a large college which was
founded here in 1614, by Edward Alleyn, an aétor of fome
profeffional reputation in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
The building was ere&ted after a defign by Inigo Jones,
and contains achapel, matters’ apartments, and chambers for
the poor men, women, and children belonging to the founda~
tion. This provided fora matter, who mult always be of
the name of Alleyn or Allen, and who is lord of the manor
wherein the building is fituateds for fix poor men, fix wo-
men, and twelve boys. The latter, at proper age, are either
fent to the univerfity, or put out apprentices. “Lhe originah
revenues have been enlarged by fubfequent donations, par-
ticularly in 1686, by Mr. Cartwright, a comedian and book-
feller, who bequeathed all his library aad pictures, with
400/. in cathyto the college. In 1750 lady Falkland left a

bequelt

DUM

bequelt of g00/, Dulwich was formerly celebrated for its
mineral waters, but thefe have either fubfided or loft their
medicinal qualities. ‘* Lyfon’s Environs of London.”

DUM non fuit compos mentis, in Law, a writ that lies
for one, who aliens any lands or tenements while not of
found memory or judgment, in order to recover the fame
from the alienee, againft whom the writ istaken. See Lu-
NATIC.

Dum fuit infra etatem, a writ which lies for him, who,
before he came to full age, made a feofiment of his land,
to recover itagain of the vendee. T'itz. Nat. Br. fol. 102.
See Inranr.

DUMA, in Ancient Geography, a large village of ‘Paleftine,
in the fouthern part of the tribe of Juda, upon the confines
of the territory of the town of Eleutheropolis, according to
Evnfebius and Jerome.

Duma, in Geography, atown of Arabia, in Neged, ina
hilly country called Jot al Siran, between mount Schamer
and Sham, or Syria.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the king-
dom of Wettphalia, on a river of the fame name, which foon
after runs into the Wipper; 14 miles S.S.E. of Dufleldorp.

DUMANDRE, Axruony, ia Biography, {culptor. He
was born of a good family in Lorrain, and {erved as a cadet
in the army of Louis XIV.in the regimens of Picardy, to-
gether with his brother Hubert, with whom he alfo went
afterwards to Paria, to ftudy feulpture, and thence into Spain,
by the invitation of Philip V. His principal works are in
the royal gardens of St. Udefonfo, at Madrid, and at Aran-
juez. On the eflabhthment of the academy of fine arts
of San Fernasdo, at Madrid, in 1752, he was appointed
director. Hedied in 1761. Diccionario Hiftorico de las
Bellas Artes en Efpana.

Dumanpvre, Husert, feulptor and architeét; the
brother of Anthony Dumandre, Jett mentioned, whom he
accompanied into Spain. Many works in the gardens of St.
lidefonfo are by him, as is allo the fepulchre of Philip V.
in the collegiate church of the fame place. He died at
Madrid in 1781, at the age of 80. Diccionario Hiftorico
de las Bellas Artes en Efpana.

DUMARING, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Borneo, on the eaft coaft. N.lat. 2° ro’, E.long. 117° jo’.

DUMATHA. in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia,
called by Ptolemy Dumetha, and placed in Arabia Petra.

DUMB Cane, in Botany. See Anum Seguinum, n. 26.

DUMBARTON, in Geography, the county town of
Dumbartonfhire, or as it was anciently called; the Sheriff-
dom of Lenox, in the weft of Scotland. The town of
Dombarton is fituated at the confluence of the Leven with
the Clyde, in N. lat 56°. W. long. 4° 32’.

When Britain was under the Roman government, this
town formed the extreme poft regularly occupied by the
Roman legions to the weltward: and the remains of the ce-
lebrated wall, built to prevent the inroads of the northern
inhabitants, and ftretching from Dumbarton acrofs the coun-
try towards Aberdeen, upon the ealt coaft, are ftill to be
feen on the chain of mountains near Dumbarton. The
town is not of great extent, but well built of free-fone, and
the principal ftreet is in the form of a crefcent, extending
nearly from eaft to welt, along the north bank of the river
Leven, which ferves as a harbour to the town, and where
veffels of upwards of 200 tons burthen can difcharge and re-
ceive their cargoes. The caftle of Dumbarton is built upon
an infulated rock, about three quarters of a mile from the
town, and is ftili kept as a fortrefs, although in the modern
art of war, it is not probable that it could refift a fiege of
even twenty-four hours. Informer times, however, 1t was con-
fidered a place of confiderable importance, ang before the

2

DUM

improvements which have taken place within the laf two
centuries, would probably be deemed impregnable. A fin-
gular ftory of its being taken by furprife is recorded; when
the officer who commanded the party, which confitted
only of one hundred men, after fixing the fcaling ladders,
which were placed in the middle of che night to the feepeft
part of the rock, afcended laft, one of his foldiers being
feized with a giddinefs, either from terror or fatigue, be-
came unable to proceed when far up the ledders. With en
altonifhing prefence of mind he was lathed to the ladder, until
his comrades had effe€ted their enterprife, when he was re-
lieved without fuftaining any injury after the fort had fur-
rendered. Inthe prefent ftate of this country it is ufeful
as a depot of arms, and is generally garrifoned cither by de-
tachments from the veteran battalions, or by fkeleton regi-
ments fent home to recruit. It is well fupphed.with water,
and the barracks are pleafantly fituated and commodious.

The town of Dumbarton is governed by a provoft, ma-
giftrates, und common council confilting of fifteen members.
It returns a member to parliament in conjunction with the
city of Glafgow, and borough towns of Renfrew and
Rutherglen. The prefent member is Archibald Campbell,
of Blythfwood, efq. Formerly the noble family of Argyle
was fuppofed to poffefs confiderable influence in direéting
the affairs of this borough; and the prefent duke, when
marquis of Lorne, end afterwards his brother, lori John
Campbell, filled the office of provolt or chicf magiltrate.
This inflaence is now {uppofed fo be upon the decline, and
the direction of the borough 1s placed in other hands.

The trade of Dumbarton is not very extenfiye ; there are,
however, very large manufaétories of glafs in the town, and
very extenfive print fields upon both fides of the Leven in
the vicinity, which muft circulate a large fum of money
annualiy in wages. A great deal of grain alfo is. frequently
imported from the north of Ireland, for the fupply of the
weltern counties of Scotlard.

The river Leven, although only about fix miles in length
from Lochlomond to its confluence with the Clyde, is deep
and rapid. The water emptied from the lake is very pure
and foft, and is uncommonly well calculated for bleaching,
dycing, printing, and other chemical operations. The
Leven abounds with very fine falmons, the fifhery of which
is the property of the corporation of Dumbarton, and of fir
James Colquhown of Lufs, bart. and yields to the proprie=
tors a confiderable annual revenue. The trout alfo are un-
commonly fineand large. .

The county of Dumbarton is bounded on the fouth by
the river Clyde, which divides it from Renfrewthire, on the
welt by Loch Long, an arm of the frith of Clyde, which
extends about twenty-four miles, and forms the divifion
between Dumbartonfhire and Argylefhire, and on the ealt
and north, by the counties of Renfrew, Lanark, Sterling,
and Perth,

This county is neither very extenfive nor populcus. By:
the account taken under the authority of the aét of parla.
ment, 1801, it is eftimated to contain 1346 fquare miles, and.
20,710 inhabitants. The valued Scotch rental of the county,
as fixed at the union, is 158,627 pounds Scots, of the value
of twenty-pence fterling each; and the real annual rent in
fterling money is computed at 109,70c/. "The lalt is pro-
bably too low at the prefent day, as the arable lands in this,
as in mott other countics, have rifen amazingly at the ex-
piration of the refpeCtive leafes, and even the moor and
pafture grounds being much higher now than formerly,
The population of the town of Dumbarton is eltimared at
1850.

AA great part of the lands of Dumbartonfhire are ae

ma

DUM

fh and mountainous, but it alfo contains'much good arable
land, particularly inthe eaftern part, near Kilfyth ,alonz the
bank of the Clyde, andon the banks of Lochlomond. In

thefe places, when the feafon is favourable, the crops, if not ,

fo luxuriant as in fome other parts of the ifland, are gene-
yally good and carly; the agriculture has moft rapidly im-

roved of late years, and is now almoft univerfally condu&ted
‘in a judicious and induftrious manner. The potatoes of mott
parts of Dumbartonfhire are particularly admired for their
fuperior quality. The eaftern part of the county is plenti-
fully {upplied with coal and lime, but in the weltern part,
the exertions made to procure thele valuable minerals have
not hitherto been fo fuccefsful. The navigation of the
Clyde, however, by affordinz water carriage at an ealy rate,
in a great meafure counteracts this inconveniency.

The chief natural curiofity of Dumbartonfhire is Loch-
lomond, the beauty of which has been fo univerfally admired,
and made fo often the fubjeG& of defcriptive writing, that it
feems unneceflary to fay much of it. Its length is about 24
miles, its greareft breadth about 7 er 8 miles, and befides
the pureneis and tranfparency of the water, the richly
wooded iflands with which it abounds, the romantic gran-
deur of the furrounding fcenery, and the delightful feats and
villas with which its banks are covered, form an aflemblage
of pifturefque beauty rarely equalled.

The county of Dumbarton returns one member to parli-
ament; the prefent member is Henry Glafsford, efq. of
Dugaldfton. The cleétors are, as in the other counties of
Scotland, freeholders ; holding from the crown Jands of the
value of 400. pounds Scotch of valued rent or upwards. The

“number of thofe qualified feldom much exceeds 30.

The chief landed proprietors are, the dukes of Montrofe
and Argyle, lords Elphinftone (lieutenant for the county, )
Blantyre, and John Campbell. firs James Colquhoun of Lufs,
and Charles Edmonflone of Duntreath, Mefirs. Fergufon of
Raith, Denniftown of Colgrain, Buchanan of Ardencon-
nell, Buchanan of Auchintorlie, Hamilton of Barns, Bu-
chanan of Ardoch, Glafstord of Dugalditon, Smollet of
Bonhill, Graham of Gartmore, Crofs of Auchistothan, the
Right Hon. Hay Campbell of Succoth, late lord prefident
of the Court of Seffion, and Archibald Colquhoun of Killer-
mont, lord advocate of Scotland, general Giles of Gilefton,
Alfton of Wefterton, Ewing of Keppoch, Colquhoun of
Camftradden, Colquhoun of Garfeadden, and fome others.

DUMBLANE, or Dunerane, a parifh and town
of Perthfhire in Scotland. The town appears to have
originated from a cell of Culdees, which was eftablifhed here
at an early period: fubfequently a bifhop’s fee and cathedral
were fixed and ereGed in this place. Of the latter, fome
remains ftill ftand to thew the fite and ftyle of the building.
It ftood on an eminence, clofe tothe river Allan, and was
founded by king David in 1142, It is now uvroofed and
verging to decay; yet is venerably grand in its ruins. The
choir is ftill kept in repair, and ufed as the parochial church.
‘The town contained, by the late population return, 493
houfes, and 2619 inhabitants. The parifh extends about
nine miles in length and fix in breadth. Near Kippencrofs
in this vicinity is a plane tree, one of the largeft in Scotland ;
its girth being 72 feet. A few miles frem Dumblane is
Sheriff Muir, a place rendered famous by the battle fought
in November 1715, between the royal forces under the duke
= Argyle, and the rebel army, commanded by the earl of

arr.
~ DUMBNESS, in Pathology, mutitas of the nofologifts,
an inability of {peech, or of uttering articulate founds.

aa ot fpeech may be lott, in confequence of a
pally of the tongue and other organs connected with the

» Vox. X11,

DUM

modulation of the voice; or of a lofs of the tongue from
cancerous ulteration, or from a wound. But in the condi-
tion, which is generally underftood by the appellation of
dumbnefs, the organs of the voice are not imperfeét ; the
phyfical defeét being altogether. confined to the organs of
hearing. Perfons in this condition, therefore, are dumb, enly
becaufe they are deaf; or, in other words, they are incapa-
ble of nfing language, the founds of which they have never
been able to hear, and confequently never could attempt to
imitate. Thofe whoare born deaf, or become fo {rom dif-
eafe in early infancy, are, therefore, the only fubjeGs of
this unfortunate privation. Sce Dearness.

Of the two molt important channels of knowledge, the
fenfes of fight and hearing; a deprivation of the latter would
feem, perhaps on a flight view, to be a lefs fatal impediment
to the acquifition of information, than the former; but
when it is conlidered, that a want of the fenfe of hearing in-
volves with it the lofs of the principal medium of mental in-
tercourfe, language, it becomes evident that the bar to
intellectual improvement is by fuch a deprivation doubly
augmented. Hencea general opinion has prevailed, in all
ages, that the deafand dumb were cut off by nature from
the acquifition of knowledge, and they have therefore gene~
rally been abandoned to a ftate of mental deftitution, for
which no remedy was helieved to be difcoverable.

“ Nec ratione ull docere, fuadcreque furdis
Quid fa&to effet opus.”
Lucret.
« 'T’ inftru& the deaf no art could eyer reach,
No care improve them, and no wifdom teach.””

It has been proved, however, by the attempts of feveral
individuals, at different periods, in modern times, that this
opinion is erroneous ; and that it has either arifen from a
{uperficial or miftaken view of the means by which the mind
acquires the knowledge of language, and of abltraét or ge-
neral ideas, when the fenfes are perfect; or from a conviction
of the difficulties attending any attempt to imitate the fame
procefs, when one fenfe is fhut up. It was from the latter
contideration probably, that Dr. Johnfon was induced to call
the education of the deaf and dumb * a philofophical curi-
ofity.”?

The carlieft eflay at the education of thefe unfortunate
beings appears to have been made in Spain, by Peter Ponce,
a Benedictine monk, towards the end of the fixteenth century,
which was attended with fuccefs, according to the authority
of Valletius (de facra philofophia) and Antonio Perez. A
countryman of his, Bonnet, fecretary to the conftible of
Caftile, whofe younger brother had loft the fenfe of hearing
when two years old, undertook a fimilar task, and publifhed
a fyftem, which he formed on the occafon, in 1620, and
which he dedicated to Philip III. under the title of «* Re-
duction de las letras, y arte para enfenar a trablar los mudos.??
The tuition of the deaf was fubfequently treated of by Hel-
mont, a German, in avery ingenious publication, entitled
** A lphabeti vere naturalis Hebraici breviflima Delineatio,”’
printed at Salfburgh, in 1657; in which the author men-
tions the trial of his {kill upon one pupil only, who became
matter of his vernacular tongue very expeditioufly, and ac-
quired the Hebrew of himfelf. But a more general reputa-
tion for this fort of infruétion was obtained by Amman, a
Swifs phyfician, fettled in Holland, about.1690, in confe-
quence of his f{uccefs with the only daughter of Peter-Ko-
lard, a beautiful girl, born deaf. He publithed a {mall trea-
tife upon the fubjeCt in Latin, under the title of Surdue
loquens,’’.in 1692); an enlarged edition of .whieh appeared
in 1700, with the title ef ** Differtatio de loquela,”’

Uu About

Abdout the fame time our countryman Dr. Wallis, a man
of extenfive feience and great acutenefs, was led to pro-
nounce, on fpeculation, the praCticability of teaching the
deaf to fpeak,and was prevailed upon, fome years afterwards,
to verify his theory in the tuition af Mr, Whalley, a young
gentleman of Northampten. He fully fuccceded in this
eflay, and alfo witha fon ofadmiral Popham, and was after-
wards employed in the ‘inftru€tion of other deaf and dumb
pupils, but without teaching them to fpeak. He publithed
an account of his “ method of inftru@ting perfons Deaf and
Dumb,” in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for the year
“1698. Dr. Holder engaged in the fame fort of tuition
about the fame period, but with lefs extenfive practice and
revutation than Walls; and printed his ‘* Elements of
Speech,” relating to this {ubje&, in 1669.

Delgarno, one of the {chemers of an univerfal language,
employed his pen next upon the tuition of the deaf and dumb,
Jed to the fubje& not by practical infruéion but philofophi-
cal difquifition: he examined the topic in an acute and
Jearned performance, entitled ‘* Didafcalocophus, or the
Deaf and Dumb Man’s Tutor.’”? The fubjeé&t was alfo
treated in a more general manner, as a fpeculative inquiry in
a volume, with the title of ** Philocophus, or the Deaf and
Dumb Man’s Friend,” by a phyfician of the name of Bul-
wer, in 1648; and in * A Treatife concerning thofe that are
born Deaf and Dumb,” by George Sib{cote, in 1670.

In more recent times this art has been fuccefsfully and ex-
tenfively exercifed by Father Vannin and Monf. Perreize,
in Paris; by Mr. Heinich, ia Leipfic; by Mr. Baker,
in London; by Mr. Braidwood, in Edinburgh; by the
Abbé de lEpée; and at prefent by the Abbé Sicard, his
fucceffor, in Paris; and by Mr. Watfon, formerly the af-
fiftant to Mr. Braidwood, now teacher in the afylum, for the
Support and education of the deaf and dumb children of the
poor, inftituted in London in 1792, as before mentioned.
See DEarness.

Although the attempts to lay down fyftems, and to in-
éulcate the facility of educating the deaf and dumb have
been numerous; yet fo limited has been the eirculation of
thefe writings, (owing, perhaps, in a great degree tothe ge-
neral incredulity as to the praéticability of the {chemes, ) that
cach of the earlier writers confiders himfelf as original on the
fubje€&t, being ignorant that his work had been preceded by
others of a fimilar nature. Mr. Braidwood never publifhed
any account of his method of inftru&tion; but the benevolent
Abbé de ?Epée, and his fucceffor, the Abbé Sicard, have
given the world an ample account of their fyftems. The work
of the former was tranflated into Englifh in 1801, under the
title of, ‘The Method of educating the Deaf and Dumb,
confirmed by long experience, by the Abbé de|’Epé: ;”? the
volume of the latter, entitled, ‘* Cours d’Inftruction d’un
fourd-muet de natflance, pour fervir a 1’ Education des fourds-
muets, &c., avec Figures et Tableaux, par Rochambroife
Sicard,”’ was printed at Paris in the year 1800.

The different teachers of the deaf and dumb have had twe
ends in view: the one was to teach the ufe of written lan-
guage, and, through that medium, to enlighten the mind
with various fpecies of knowledge, and alfo to enable their
pupils to converfe by means of writing, or other fymbols ;
and the other was to inftru& them in the atual cxercife of
the organs of articulation, or to converfe by fpeaking.
Dr. Wallis, it would feem, fucceeded in teaching the latter
to his two fieft pupils; but, probably, for the fame reafon
which has induced the Abbé Sicard to relinqnith the tafk ;
viz. that the benefit to the deaf is by no means proportion-
ate to the labour of acquiring wuiterance, he feems to have
eqnfined himfelt afterwards to the inftru@tion of the mind,

DUMBNESS.

Mr, Braidwood, of Edinburgh, however, appears to have

carried the difficult and leborious acquirement of /peech in

his pupils toa confiderable degree of perfeGiton, and to have

enabled them to aafwer orally the oral propolitione of others,

which they difcerned with furprifing readinefs, by watching

the motions of the organs of fpeech of thofe with whom

they converfed. But as they were unable, from the want,
of hearing, to modulate the voice, or correé& the articulation
nicely, their utterance is faid to have been indiltin€t and dif-
cordant, and not always intelligible, hike the firlt words of
the infant, to thofe unaccaftomed to hear it; and, in like
manner, their underftanding of the language of others, not
habituated to their {trongly marked moticns of the tongue,
lips, &c. was neceffartly imperfe&,

Mr. Braidwood is faid to have been very defirous of tranf-
mitting his art to potterity, but alleged, that he could not
communicate it fo fully in writing as to enable any other
perfon to teach it. The following imperfeé outline of his
method has been given by 2n eye witnefs of his inttru€tions ;
His firft {tep was.to teach the pupil to pronounce the fimple
founds of the vowels and confonants, He pronounced the
found of a flowly, pointing out the figure of the letter at
the fame time, and making his pupil obferve the motion of
his mouth and throat: he then put his &nger into the pupil’s
mouth, depreffed or elevated the tongue, and made him keep
the parts in that pofition: then he took hold of the outfide
of the wind-pipe, and gave it fome kind of fqueeze, which it
is impoflible to defcribe: all the while he was pranouncing
a the pupil was anxioufly imitating him, but at firft feemed
not to underftand what he would have him to do. In this
manner he proceeded till the pupil had learned to pronounce
the founds of the letters. He then went on in the fame
manner to join a vowel and a eonfonast, till at length the
pupil was enabled both to {peak and to read. We have the
authority of Mr. Pennant for ftating, that Mr. Braidwood’s
pupils were not only taught the pronunciation, but perfectly
to underftand the meaning of what they read. Of this he
mentions a ftriking example, in a young lady of about 13
years of age, who had been fome t'me under the care of
Mr Braidwood. ‘ She readily apprehended all I faid,” he
obferves, ‘“‘and returned me anfwers with the utmoit facility.
She read, fhe wrote well: her reading was not by rote; fhe
could clothe the fame thoughts in a new fet of words, and
never vary from the original fenfe.?? But we are not informed
of the method or the nature of the figns by which the figni-
fication and conftruction of language were rendered intelligi«
ble to Mr. Braidwood’s pupils.

The abbé de l’Epée, defpifing the fecrecy and quackery
of Heinich and Perreize, and not feeing the difficulty of ex~
pofition which occurred to Mr. Braidwood, publifhed a mi-
nute aceount of his principles and praétice in the tuition of
the deaf and dumb; of which we fhall endeavour to fketeh
the outline. The purport of fuch inftruGtion, he obferves,
is to introduce into the minds of the pupils by the eye, what
has been introduced into our own by ¢he car; that is, to
teach by the ufe of vifible figns or fymbols, inftcad of audible
ones. It is obvious that there isno natural conne@tion bes
tween articulate founds, and the ideas which they are em-
ployed to exprefs ; nor between the fame ideas, and the
written charaéters that are ufed to reprefent them. The
variety of languages, as well as of alphabetical, cypheral, and
fymbolical writing, inconteftibly proves the truth of this po-
fition. Both words and written charaers are, therefore,
arbitrary reprefentatives of the objects of our fenfes, and
of the ideas of the mind, agreed upon by national compact;
and they convey no idea to thofe in whofe mind they have
not been aflociated, by habit, with the objeéts which they —

cca

DUMBNESS.

been affumed to reprefent. Hence, toa perfon unacquainted
with any language, or fet of reprefentative figns of idea, it is
as eafy to teach one language, cr one mode of writing, as an-

‘other; and a written language may be taught, independently
of an oral one, and vice ver{d, by either of which the facul-

‘ties of the mind may be fully exercifed, and the ftores of
human knowledge laidvopen to its acquifition.

Now all language is taught, in the firft inftance, by fen-
fible figns, with which the oral found of the word is accom-
panied by the teacher. Thus a chiid learns to connect the
idea of a well-known fruit, with the found of the word afp/e,
becaufe he hears that word repeated when the fruit is fhewn
to him: and in the fame manner he learns to aflociate par-
ticular words with every other object of the fenfes, by the
babitual conjunGion of the audible with the vifible fign.
Afterwards in learning to read or write, he acquires a fimilar
habit of affociating the appearance of certain vifible figs or
letters, with the fame objets, or their oral reprefentative
figns; fo that when the objects themfelves are abfent, the
ideas of them may be recalled to his mind either by the wi/ible
figns, in written language, or their audible figns, in oral
langnage.

It is clear, then, that although the deaf are excluded from
receiving ideas by audible figns, yet it is as poffible to in-
ftrué& them by written characters, always accompanied by
fame fenfible figns, as to inftruét thofe who can hear, by

_ words delivered orally, along with figns or geftures indicative
of their fignification. This, it is true, is a taflc of infinitely
more labour than oral inftru@tion, in which two fenfes com-
bine to ftrengthen the aflociation of words with things.
But when it is recolle&ted, how the acutenefs of any one fenfe
is increafed, when the privation of another caufes it to be

greatly exercifed, part of the difficulty will difappear: and
experience has now amply demonftrated the praCticability of
the f{cheme. ‘I foon faw,”’ fays the abbé de l’Epée,
“that a deaf and dumb perfon, under the guidance of a
good matter, is an attentive /pectator who acquaints himfelf

‘ with the number and arrangement of the letters of a word
prefented to him, and that he retains them better than other
children, to whom they are not yet become familiar by daily
reiterated ufe.’’

The firft part of the abbé’s plan of tuition, then, confilted
in inftru&ting the deaf and dumb, by writing and the inter-
vention of methodical fizns, in various departments of know-
ledge. It was fome time before he thought of attempting,
what Amman had effe&ted in Holland, Bonnet in Spain, and
Wallis in England ; namely, to make his pupils /peak. This
was firft fuggelted to him by the work of Bonnet, before
mentioned ; and it is an enterprize, he fays, that does not
require great talents, but much patience. We fhall firft
briefly fhew his method of teaching written language, with
a knowledge of its fignification and grammatical conftruction ;
and afterwards his mode of teaching articulation, or {peech.

In learning our native language, as we have already ftated,
a fign of the hand or the eye was the fole means by which
we were taught to unite the idea of the objects with the
founds (their names) that ftruck our ear. Whenever we
heard thofe founds, the fame ideas arofe in our minds, be-
caufe we recolleéted the figas made to us when they were
pronounced. Exaétly fimilar are the meafures adopted with
the deaf and dumb by the abbé del’ Epée. He commences
with teaching them a manual alphabet, {uch as boys at {chool
make ufe of to hold converfation at one end of a form with
their companions at the other. Here the vifible figure of
the fingers, in different pofitions, is fubftituted for the audi-
ble founds, which we conne& with written letters in ordi«
nary tuition: and the various figures of thefe letters {trike

forcibly the eyes of the deaf and-dumb perfons, who no
more confound them, than we confound the various founds
that ftrike our ears.

He next writes in large charaéters, with a white crayon
upon a black table, thefe two words, the door, and fhews
them the door. They immediately apply their manual al-
phabet five or fix times to each of the letters compofing the
word door, (i.e. they fpell it with their fingers,) and im-
prefs on their memory the number of Ictters,,and the ar-
rangement of them: this done, they eflace the word, and
taking the crayon themfelves, write it down in charaGters,
no matter whether well or ill formed; afterwards they will
write it as often as you fhew them the fame objec.

The fame courfe is purfued with refpe@t to every objcé&
pointed out to them, the name being previoufly written down.
And experience has demonftrated, that a deaf and dumb
perfon, poflefling any mental powers, will acquire by this
method upwards of eighty words in lefs than three days: in
a very fhort time, therefore, the pupil will obtain a kuow-
ledge of all the words which exprefs the different parts of
our frame, from head to foot, as well aa of thofe that exprefs
the various objeéts that furround us, if properly pointed out
to him, as we write their names on the table, or on cards
put into his hands.

The abbé begins early with verbs and little phrafes, and
Rot, as is ufual, with the declenfion of nouns and pronouns,
becaufe it is more amufing to the pupils, and furnifhes better
means of developing their faculties. ‘I'he firft or fecond day
he guides their hands, or writes for them the prefent tenfe
of the indicative of the verb, fo carry.

“ Several deaf and dumb perfons being round a table,”
he fays, “ I place my new fcholar on my right hand; I put
the fore-finger of my left hand on the word /, and explain it
by figns in this manner: fhewing myfelf with the fore-fnger
of my right, I give two or three gentle taps on my breaft. .
I then lay my left fore-finger on the word carry, and taking
up a large quarto volume, | carry it under my arm, on my
fhoulder, on my head, and on my back, walking all the
while with the mien of a perfon bearimg a load. None of
thefe motions efcape his ob{ervations.

“ I return to the table ; and in order to explain the fecond
perfon, I lay my fore-finger on the word ¢hou, and carrying
my right hand to my pupil’s breaft, I give him a few gentle
taps, making him notice that I look at him, and that he is
likewife to look at me. I next lay my finger on the word
carrieft, the fecond perfon, and having delivered him the
quarto volume, I make figns for him to perform what he has
juft feen me perform: he laughs, takes the volume, and
executes his commiffion very well.’?

In this ingenious and patient manner the tutor goes
through the various perfons, fingular and plural, both to
the inftru€ion and amufement of his pupils. Neverthelef,
a {mall difficulty occurs in the outfet. “ The pupil, having
his left fore-finger upon J, carries his right to my breatt,
thinking that my name was J, as he had feen me feveral
times defignate myfelf by that word.”? This the abbé in-
genioufly explains, by letting him fee that every individual
of the group denominates himlelf 7. By following ot the
fame plan with different words, the pupil will underftand in
a day or two every phrafe compofed of only one of the fix
perfons of the prefent of a verb tranfitive with its objective,
fuch as thefe: ‘*] draw the table; thon draggeft the chair ;
he offers an arm chair; you puth the doors they fhut the
window :’? becaufe al) thefe words exprefs actions, of which
the figns are caught in an inflant, and becaufe the eyes of
the {pectators tetlify that thefe operations are performed.

The abbé then proceeds with the articles, cafes, numbers,

U2 and

DUMBNESS,

and genders of nouns, furnifhing the pupil with figns which
diftinguifh each of thefe properties that apply to nouns.
Thus he is informed, by writing.op the table, that the, of,
of the, conne&t words as our joints do our bones: after this,
the right fore-finger two or three times bent in the form ofa
hook becomes the fyftematical fign for an article ; and other
figns are ufed forthe cafes, genders, &c.

“‘ Names of qualities, as good, great, wife, learned,” fays
the abbé, ‘infer neceflarily fome noun fubftantive, exprefled
or underltood, to which they are applied; but if we confider
the qualities only which are exprefled, without reference to
any noun fubftantive, then thefe qualities being fubject to
have other qualities applied to them, become themfelves
nouns fubftantive, as goodne/s, greatne/s, wifdom, learning.
Our mode of expreffirg this fort of adjective is the follow-
ing: if we would diétate the word greatnefs, for in{tance,
we make the fign for great, which is an adjective; then we
fubjoin the fion for a tubftantive, which announces that this
adjective is /ubfantified, or made a fubftantive, and can itfelf
receive other adjeflives. I give feveral examples, after which

my pupil will commit no miltake, either in reading a book, ©

or in writing as we diétate to him.”

In this manner the pupil is inftru€ted in the various parts
of grammar, in the ‘t whole metaphyfic of verbs,” their
numbers, tenfes, and modes, in conjun@tions, prepofitions,
&c. by a feries of vifible figns, not more arbitrary than the

“articulate and audible figns of fpeech. And the abbé has
convinced many academicians and learned men, that the
deaf and dumb are by thefe means rendered capable of un-
derftanding the grammatical difference of every word in the
conftru@tion of language. He then proceeds to fhew,
i, the fecundity of methodical figns arifing out of the fign
for the infinitive of the verb; and, 2, that there is no metde
phyfical idea, of which a very clear explanation may not be
given by means of analyfis, and the help of methodical
figns. _

In illuftration of the firit of thefe propofitions, he obferves
that “ the fame operation or difpofition of the mind, of the
heart, of the body, &c. can be exprefled by a verb, by a
noun fubftantive, by a noun adjective, and fometimes by an
adverb. Since the operation or difpofition is the fame, there
muft neceffarily be the fame radical fign, to which are jomed
other figns, to indicate, in verbs, the difference of their

erfons, their numbers, tenfes, and modes; in nouns,
whether fubftantive or adjective, their cafes, numbers, and
genders ; and to characterize nouns adjective made fubftantive
or adverbial.

« This radical fign is the fign for the infinitive of the verb.
I take, for example, the verb fo /ove, in all its parts, whether
ative or paffive, with all the words derived from or related
to it, fuch as friend/bip, - love, loved, lowely, loveline/s, friend,
lovelily, friendly, frigndlily, lover, amateur, &c. All thefe
words have the fame radical fign, that of the infinitive zo love.
It is executed by looking at the objet in queltion, ‘and
prefling the right hand ttrongly upon the mouth, while the
left is laid upon the heart; then carrying the right with frefh
vivacity to the heart, conjointly with the left, and conclud-
ing with the fign for the infinitive... The pupil to whom I
am dictating a leffor or a letter, mult not miftake in the
choice of any one of thefe words, which are upwards of two
hundred and forty in number, comprifing all perfons, num-
bers, tenfes, and modes of the verb aétive and paffive; the
cafes, numbers, and genders of the nouns fubltantive and
adje@tive, and the adverbs.

‘‘ If a part of a verb is to be dictated, T firft make the
fign for the perfonal pronoun, which carries along with it

~figns, which illuftrate what was obfcure.

that for number; then the radical fign; and according to
what is requifite, the figns for tenfe and made.

«Tf I want to dictate friend/hip, I make the radical figny.
accompanied by the fgn for iubftantive, which will be
enough to make it underflood that fuch is the noun fube
ftantive I require.

‘ If Jove is the noun I want, I make the fame figns as for
friendfhip, only giving a greater degree of vivacity to my
ation en the mouth and on the heart, becaufe love is more
ardent than friendfhip.

“Phe word beloved is an adje€tive, agreeing both to maf-
culine and feminine: the fign for adjective fubjoined to the
radical fign will fuffice.

“ 1s amiable the word? I make the radical fign, then the
fign for an adjective, but of one terminating in ab/e formed
from a verb: to this I muft fubjoin the fign for poffible, or
for neceflary, as before laid down.”

This exemplification is equally applicable to the infinitives
cl all verbs, and to the words derived from or related to
them. = ‘

In illuflration of the other propofition, the abbé remarks,
that there is nothing which cannot be clearly fignified by
words ; and that there is no word inany language, of which
the fiznification may not become intelligible, by analyfis, in
ufing other words to a neceffary extent: that is, every word
fignifies fomething, and is capable of beimg explained.
«The procedure is the fame with the deafand dumb. We
continue writing till we “attain words, comprehended by
Inftances of being
forced to have recourfe to a fecond operation are rare; if
they were frequent, it would prove that my ideas were not
very clear, and that my expreffions were ill chofen.” In
order to illuftrate this point, he gives the following ex-

“ample.

There is perhaps no word more difficult to explain by figns
than this, / believe. I effet the explanation of it in the
following manner: having written upon the table J believe,
J draw four lines in different direGions, thus:

{ fay yes with the mind.
1 fay yes with the heart.

think yes,

I fay yes with the mouth.

I do not fee with my eyes.

Which fignifies, my mind confents, my heart adheres, my
mouth profeffes, but Ido not fee with my eyes. I then
take up what is written upon thefe four lines, and carry it
to the word I believe, to make it underftood that the whole
is there comprifed.

«Tf, after this explication, I have occafion to diftate the
word, J believe, by methodical &gns, I firft make the fign
for the fing ular of the perfonal pronoun, as I have fhewn in
its place: I next put my right forelfinger to my forehead,
the concave part of it being deemed the feat of the mind,
that is, the faculty of thinking, and I make the fign for
yes: after that, I make the fame fign for yes, putting my
finger to that part, which is commonly confidered as the feat
of the heart, ia the mental economy, thatis, our faculty of |
loving, (we have feveral times explained that thefe two fa-
culties are {piritual, and occupy no {pace inreality :) I pro-
ceed to make the fame fign for yes upon my mouth, moving
my lips: laftly, I put my hand upon my eyes, and, making
the fign for no, fhew I do not fee. here only remains the
fign for the prefent to be made, and then I write dowa, J
believe ; but when written, it is better underltood by my
pupils than by the generality of thofe who hear. It is
perhaps fuperfluous to repeat, that all thefe figns are exe-

In

I think yes.
T love to
I believe

~ cuted in the twinkling of an eye.”

DUMBNESS,

Tn three feparate chapters, the Abbé explains; how {pi-
yitual operations, which are the objects of logic, may be
explained to the deaf and dumb, how they are inflructed in
the frft truths of religion ; and how they may be initiated
even into the myfterics of our religion, by the ufe of thefe
methodical figns. Ina word, by thefe means he enables
the mind to develope its powers, and to enter into even the
more abfirufe operations of intelle€t, into grammatical, lo-
gical, and metaphyfical tefearch.

To a perfon unaccew{tomed to reflect on the fources and
means of improving the underftanding, and not aware, that
there is no actual conneGtion in nature, between articulate
founds aud the ideas which they reprefent, or that vilible as
well as audible figns, being alike arbitrary, may be equally
affociated with ideas, by habit, this method of tuition may
appear altogether fanciful and impraéticable. But experi-
ence has demonttrated its practical utility. M. Linguet, a
member of the Royal Academy, having afferted that per-
fons thus inftru&ed could be confidered as little more than
automata, was invited by the Abbé del’Epée to be prefent
at his leffons. M. Linguet complied with the invitation,
and the Abbé having detlired him to fix upon fome abttract
term, which he would by figns communicate to his pu-
pils, he chofe the word, unintelligibility; which, to his
a{tonifhment, was almoft inftantly written by one of them.
The Abbé informed him, that to communicate this word,
he had ufed five figns, which, though fearcely perceivable
by him, were immediately and ditinétly apprehended by his
{cholar. The firft of thefe figns indicated an internal ac-

_ tion; the fecond reprefented the aét of a mind that reads
internally, or, in other words, compreheods what is pro-
poled to it; athird fignified that fuch a difpofition is pof-
fible; thefe, taken together, form the word intelligible: a
fourth fign transforms the adje€tive into a fubftantive ; and
a fifth, expreffing negation, completes the word required.
M. Linguet afterwards propofed this queftion, ‘* What do
you comprehend by metaphyfical ideas?’ which being
committed to writing, a young lady immediately anfwered
on paper in the following terms: ‘ I underftand the ideas
of things which are independent of our fenfes, which make
ho impreffion on our fenfes, which cannot be perceived by
our fenfes.””

On reading this account of a human being, raifed froma
flate of mental vacuity, little elevated above the brute, to a
condition of high intelle€tual cultivation, and to the enjoy-
ment of the beft faculties and feelings of our nature, we
cannot refufe our aflent to the fplendid eulogy of the
dramatic poet (M. Bouilly) in his ‘‘ Comparative Eftimate
of Worth.”

“© Science would decide for D’Alembert, and nature fay
Buflon ; witand tafe prefent Voltaire, and /entiment plead
for Rouffeau ; but genius and humanity cry out for De
VEpée, and him I call the def and greatef of all”? Dram.
of “ Deaf and Dumb.”

It remains that we fay a few words refpeGiing the me-
thod employed by the Abbé de l’Epée, in teaching articu-
Jation and utterance to his deaf and dumb pupils. The
principle on which this inftru@tion is condu@ted, is, the ob-
dervation on the part of the pupils of the different pofitions
and motions of the tongue, lips, &c. in the fpeaker, which
are conaeted in his mind with the words uttered, by feeing
them writren down at the fame time’on the table: the Abbé
began his attempts to make a deaf and dumb perfon pro-
nounce, by cauling him to wafh his hands thoroughly clean.
This done, the Abbé traced an a upon the table, and taking
“his pupil's hand, introduced it into his mouth, as far as the

fecond pees he then pronounced ftrongly a, making

o

the {cholar obferve, that his tongue lay. ftill, without rifing
to touch his finger; he next foliows the fame courfe, pro-
nouncing e. After thefe two operations, he put his finger
into the pupil’s mouth, making him underftand thet he is to
do with his tongue, what the Abbé had done with his. The
pronunciation of a is commonly efiz@ed without difficulty:
that of ¢ alfo fucceeds for the moft part ; but the me-
chanifm of it fometimes requires two or three explanations.
He proceeds in a fimilar wey with the remaining vowels ;

_and then to the fimple combinations of a confonant with

each, as pa, pe, pi, &c. firft writing each fyllable, and then
teaching the pupil to obferve and to imitate the movement
and mechanifm of the organs of articul,-ion.

It is unneceflary to detail the varieties of this procefs
through the different combinations of vowels and confonants.

The principle is obvious. It fometimes happens, however,
in the firft leffons, that the pupils, having difpofed their
organs tor the pronunciation of a particular letter, remain,
neverthelefs, without utterance, becaufe they make no in-
ternal motion to expel air from the lungs. The Abbé
pointed cut the difference in the ftate of his organs, when he
did and did not utter found, by placing the pupil’s hand
upon his throat, by making him feel the concuffion of air on
the back of his hand, &c. ; and if all this proved unfuccefs-
ful, a pretty fharp fqueeze of the little finger would draw
found from him by way of lamentation.

In the commencement of this kind of inftru@ion, it is
neceilary, 1ft, for the deaf and dumb f{cholar to be dire@ly
facing his teacher, in order that he may lofe none of the
impreflions given by the different modifications of the organs
of {peech in the labial alphabet; 2dly, for the teacher to
render thefe modifications as ftrong as poffible, that they
may be the more perceptible ; 3dly, for his mouth to be
fufficiently open, to leave the different movements of the
tongue vifible; 4thly, fora flight paufe to be made between
the fyllables of each word that the pupil is to write or pre-
nouncee There is no neceflity for the leaft emiffion of
voice.

The deaf and dumb acquire very early a facility in com-
prehending the words uttered, from obferving the motions
of ‘the fpeaker’s mouth, lips, and tongue; and “ being,
moreover, to the full as curious as other folks to know
what is faid,”” the Abbé obferves, “ efpccially if they fup-
pofe themfelves, or any thing interetting to them, the fub-
je&t, they devour us with their eyes, (an expreflion hardly
metaphorical here,) and, if not prevented by the precaution
of turning from them to fpeak, eafily difcover all we fay.
This is a pofitive fact, evidenced every day in the three
houfes which are receptacles for thefe children, infomuch
that I always think it expedient to hint to perfons honour-
ing us with vifits, to be cautious of uttering any thing be-
fore them not proper for them to underltand. TI confefs,
indeed, that they conjeéture more than they diftin@ly per-
ceive, when pains have not been taken to teach them the
art of writing, folely by infpection of the movement of the
lips, without the help of any fign.

“¢ Betore I had to initrué&t the multitude of deaf and
dumb that have been fucceflively preffed upon me,”? the Abbé
adds, ** my ownapplication to the rules here laid down proved
fo effeCtive, as to enable Lewis Francis Gabriel de Clement de
la Prejade te pronounce, in public, a Latin -difcourfe of five
pages and a half; and, in the enfuing year, to lay downa
definition ot philofophy, detail proofs of its accuracy, and
defend it in regular difputation, anfwering, in ail fcholattic
forms, the objections offered againft it by Francis Elizabeth
John de Didier, one of his fellow ftudents: (the arguments
were communicated.) I -alfo enabled another iar mad

um

DUM

“dumb fcholar to repeat aloud to his miftrefs the twenty-
eight chapters of the gofpel according to St. Matthew, and
to recite the morning fervice along with her every Sunday.
Thefe two examples muft be fufficient.”?

But this ts impraGticable, he fays, where there is a num-
ber of fchelars to inftru€& : and the Abbé Sicard, his fuc-
eeffor, for the reafon already ftated, has ceaféd to teach arti-
cu'ation, contenting himfelf with the inftruétion by writing
and figns.

DUMDAH,, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Ruttunpour country ; 66 miles W. of Ruttunpour, and 112
E. of Nagpour.

DUMEE, Guitvraume, in Biography, a French painter,
who was one of thofe who affifted in executing the works in
the Louvre, in the latter part of the 16th century.

DUMEIDSJ, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
eountry of Yemen; 36 miles N.N.E. of Chamir.

DUMFRIES, a town in the fouth of Scotland, fitu-
ated on the river Nith, not far from where that river falls
into the Solway frith. The town of Dumfries is airy and
well built, and the country round it fertile and well culti-
vated. Upon the Nith are many beautiful and piéturefque
views, and many elegant manfions, the chief of which,
perhaps, is the caftle of Drumlanrig, the feat of the duke
of Queenfbury. Dumfries, although not properly a com-
mercial or manufaéturing town, pofleffes fome coafting trade
with the weftern ports of Scotland, and thofe fituated in
the north-weft part of England. In general, its principal
traffic confifts in articles of prov'fion, and thofe of common
ufe, with which the inhabitants of the town and cultivators
of the foil, reciprocally fupply each other for mutual ac-
commodation. Many woods in the neighbourhood of Dum-
fries have been felled of late, (chiefly thofe of his grace of
Queenfbury,) and this has occafioned aconfiderable trade in
timber. But this feems rather atranfient thana permanent
traffic.

Dumfries is governed like the other royal boroughs of
Scotland, and along with the boroughs of Sanquhar, An-
nan, Lochmaben, and Kircudbright, returns a member to
parliament. The prefentis fir J. S. H. Maxwell, bart. For
Dumfriesfhire, the member is the Hon. W. J. Hope.

Dunnfriesthi-e is fertile in, the fouth, and towards its nor-
thern extremity, which is barren and mountainous, abounds
in ircn {tone and lead ore.

Doumrriés, a port of entry, and poft town of America,
in Virginia, and chief town of Prince William ‘county. It
lies on the north fide of Quamtico creek, 4 miles above its
entrance into the Petowmack, and 10 miles from Colchetter.
{ta public edifices are an epifcopal church, a court-houfe,
anda gaol; diftant 23 miles N. by E. from Trederick{burg,
and 185 S.W from Philadelphia.

DUMFRIESHIRE, a county of Scotland, fituated on
the fouthern border of that province, where it unites with
England: and is environed with the fhires of Kircudbright,
and Ayr to the weft, Lanark, Peebles, and Se!kirk to the
north; Roxborough tothe eat, and Cumberland and Sol-
way-trith tothe f.uth. This area of land meafures about
60 miles from N.W. to S.E., and 30 in atranverfe diretion.
It comprehends three diftriGts, or ftewartries, viz. Annandale,
Efhdale, or Wauchopedale, and Nithfdale, which divifions
derive their re{pective names from the principal rivers in each.
_ The chief part of this county is mountainous, particularly
near the middle, and on its ealtern borders, where the emi-
nenccs are lofty, and aflume a barren, fterile appearance.
They are moltly covered with wild heath, and abound with
game. Numerous flocks of theep and black cattle feed on

4

DUM

them. The vallies are, however, fertile and pleafant, and in
thefe the chief towns, villages, and feats are fituated. ;

In ancient times, this diltri@ is faid to have been inha-
bited by a tribe of the Cimbri, called Se/gove, who were found
here by the Romans when they eftablifhed the province of
Valentia, which extended from Adrian’s wall, between the
rivers Tyne and Solway, tothe wall of Antoninus, between
the rivers Clyde and Forth. Afterthe departure of the Ro-
mans, a new kingdom was eftablifhed by Ida, and the
Anglesin 547, and extended its government over the fourhern
and weftern parts of Valentia. About the beginning of the
Rinth century, this was fubjugated by the Pidts and Scots,
who eftablifhed themfelves here for a confiderable length of
time. Hence they made frequent irruptions into England.
The fituation of this county, on the immediate borders of
each, rendered it a {cene of perpetual hoftility in the wars
between the two kingdoms, and in the ‘ Border Hiitory,”? we
find, that the inhabitants of this county and of Cumberland
were fubjeGed to repeated depredations, maffacres, and all
the horrors of favage cruelty, by their neighbouring ene-
mies. See ‘* Beauties of England,” vol. iii. in the General
Hiftory of Cumberland, and more fully in Ridpath’s ‘ Bor-
der Hiitory.”” In the notes to Walter Scott’s poems are
many particulars relating to thefe deplorable confli@s.

This county contains four royal boroughs, Dumfries,
Annan, Sanquhar, and Lochmaben, feveral {mall towns and
villages, and is divided into 42 parochial diftriéts, contaiaing
in all 52,329 inhabitants. Dumtriesfhire contains many
elegant feats, of which Drumlanrig, the feat of the duke of
Queenfbury, 1s the chief: Comlongan-caftle, the feat of
the earl of Mansfield; Barjarg, the refidence of Mr. Hunter;
and Amisfield, the featof the carl of Wemyfs; are alfo fine
manfions. Few counties in Scotland poflefs more valuable,
or more numerous minerals than Dumfriesfhire. The hills,
which border on Clydefdale, contain valuable lead mines,
fome of which are very rich in filver; and many other parts
of thecounty poffefs mines of the fame metal. Coal and
lime-fone are found in feveral parifhes: excellent frees
ftone is alfoabundant. In the parifhes of Penpont, Kirk-
michael, and Canoby, are indications of iron; in Langholm
copper is wrought ; andin Welterkirk, on the eftate of fir
James Johnitone, a valuable mine of antymony has been
lately difcovered. Much of the lime-ftone receivesa polifh
equal to the fineft marble, and many of the fprings contaia
aimall quantity of lime, giving thema petrifying quality,
Befides the mineral f{prings of Moffat and Hartfell Spaw,
there are many wells, which contain metallic or mineral im-
pregnatien. The rivers abound with trout and falmon, aud
on the fhores of the Solway Frith the polype or animal
flower is frequently found. In addition to the animals com-
mon to other parts of Scotland, it may be mentioned,
that at Drumlanrig are {till to be feen a few of the wild
cattle which anciently inhabited the woods of Scotland.
Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland.

DUMME, a river of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and marquifate of Brandenburg, which runs inte
the Jetze at Wuttro.

“‘DUMMER, a townfhip of America uninhabited, in
Grafton county, New Hampfhire, incorporated in 1773,
S.W. of lake Umbagog, on the waters of Upper Amo-
noofuck.

Dummer See, the, or Dummer Lake, is a lake of
Germany, in the former bifhopric of Muntter, which at
prefent conftitutes a part of the new kingdom of Weft.
phalia, It is five miles in length, and two miles and a half
in breadth, and adjoins the county of Dipholtz, and the
former bifhopric of Ofnabruck.

DUMMERS€s

DUN

DUMMERSTOWN.a townhhip of America, in Wind-
ham county, Vermont, N. of Brattleborough, containing
1692 inhabitants.

DUMMOODA, ariver of Hindooftan, which runs into
the Hoogly; 28 miles below Calcutta.

DUMNA, in Ancient Geograpiy, an iland placed by
Prolemy and Pliny inthe northern ocean, Ortelius con-
jeClures, that it is either the prefent ifle of Hoy, or hat of

Ways.
DUMNII. See Damnit.
DUMNONIIL. See Damnontt.

DUMONT, Joun, in Biography, baron Carlefcroon, an

hitlorical and political writer, flourifhed at the end of the
.x7th and begioning of the 18th centuries, After various
ehanges-in life, in France and in Holland, he became hif-
toriographer to his imperial majetty. He died about the
year 1729. His principal works are, ‘* Memoires Politiques
pour fervir a l’Inteiligence de la Paix de Ry{witk,”’ 4 tom.
12mo. ‘ Voyagesen France,” &c. 4 tom. 12mo. ‘ Corps
univerfal diplomatiqu> du Droit des Gens,’ § tom. folie.
This contains all the treaties of alliance, peace, and commerce,
from the peaceof Munflerto 1709. * Lettres Hiftorique
depuis 1652,” jufqu’en 1710.

Dumont, N., a French painter of fome merit ; furnamed
the Roman, He died at Paris, in a very advanced age, in
1751.

DUMOSA, in Botany, the nineteenth natural order in
the Philofophia Botanica of Linnzus, and the forty-third of
the PreleGtions. In the Philofophia Botanica it confilts of
the following genera, Viburnum, Tinus, Opulus, Sambu-
cus, Rondeletia, Bellouia, Maurocenia, Caffine, Rhus, Co-
tinus, Celaftrus, Euonymus, Ilex, Tomex, Prinos, Calli-
carpa, Lawfonia. In the fynoptic table of the Prelections,
p- 499, the genera ftand thus. Sideroxylon, * Bumelia
Swartz, Rhamnus, Phylica, Ceanothus, Butteria, Chry-
fophyllum, Achras, Prinos, [lex, Callicarpa, Euonymus,
* Rechefortia Swartz, Celaftrus, Caffine, Viburnum? 8.
Sambucus? y. Rhus, Schinus, Fagara. Thofe marked
with an afterifk are inferted by the editor Dr. Gifeke. The
reltagree with Gen. Plant. except that Buttneria is added
and Tomex omitted. By comparing thefe two liits we find
a {trong confirmation of Linnzus’s own declarationin Gen,
Plant. that he was not fatisfied with this order, and that
it required further examination. The name was taken from
dumus, athicket, becaufe the plants are chiefly fhrubs, or low
bufhy trees, fuchas form thickets. They are generally of a
Lela dangerous, or highly virulent nature, particu-
arly fome fpecies of Rhus. The order having been cons
fefledly left in fo uncertain a ftate by its author, it isin vain
to feek forany technical chara&ers by which to define it,
end unneceflary to fhew how ill, in fome points, it is af-
forted.

DUN, in Geography, a {mall town or France, in the de-
partment of the Creufe, chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Guéret, with a population of 1057 individuals; its
canton has a territorial extent of 295 kiliometres, 13 com-
munes, and 13,176 inhabitants,x—Alfo, a {mall town of
France, in the department of the Meufe, chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of Montmedy, fituated on the river
Mevfe, 9 miles S. of Stenay. It has only 988 inhabitants ;
but its canton contains 18 communes, and a population of
8388 individuals upon a territorial extent of 1924 kilio-
metres.

Dun fur duron, a {mall town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Cher, called, till the year 1792, Dun le Roi,
Dunum Regis. It is the chief place of a canton, in the
diftriG& of St. Amand, on the river Auron, 21 miles S.E.

DUN

of Bourges, 30 miles S.W. of Nevers, and 192 miles S, of
Paris. ‘The number of its inhabitants amounts to 2710;
its canton has an extent of 305kihometres, and 13 communes,
with a population of 7868 individuals.

Dun, inthe Manege, a colour partaking of brown and.
black.

DUNA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, named “ Sa-
padnaia Dvina,”’ and by the Lithuanians Daugava, derives
its origin from a lake in the government of Tver, at Biala,
not far from the fources of the Volga, purfues its courfe
through this and the government of Pfeove, conftitutes the
boundary between the government ‘of Polotzk and Riga,
the republic of Poland, and the duchy of Courland, and
falls not far from Riga, at Dunamunde, into the Baltic.
Tn its courfe, it receives feveral {maller rivers, as the Torop-
tza, the Evelt, the Oger, and the Yagel, and from Cour-
land the Bulder-Aa. The Duna is navigable through its
whole courfe from the uppermoft regions, facilitating the
commerce from feveral governments, and from Poland and
Courland, to an uncommon degree. It has, however, one
inconvenience, that near Dunamunde, it has many {hoals,
which increafe every year, and vary their pofitions, and thofe
occafion much difficulty in the navigation. Befides, in the
Dunaburg circle there are feveral falls, the fhooting of which
is attended with great difficulty and danger. Of thefe falls
fome reckon as many as fourteen. The conftant defection
of the water in fummer renders the voyage {till more difficult
and dangerous, and on the early accefs of autumnal frofts-
utterly impoffible. At Riga, the Duna is goo paces
broad. Here annually, in April, a bridge of pontoons is
thrown acrofs it, and faftened by poles, except the part that-
opens to let the fhips go through, which is fixed to anchors.
In November the river is generally covered with ice, which,
in March or April, again breaks up. The froft not unfre-
quently makes the river paffable on foot in the {pace of 48
hours. The bridge is then taken away, and fafely laid by in
a {mall arm of the river, called the ** Socdgraben.””? Through
the whole fummer, the great number of fhips of all nations,
that lie clofe to the bridge on both fides, exhibits a fine:
fight. The Duna is the port of Riga. In the fpring feafon
the ice; which drives hicher from Lithuania, ftops the cur-
rent about the town and towards the fea; and ihe outlet
being thus ftopped, and the accumulation continually aug-
menting, the moft deftructive inundations occur. The tal-
mon of the Duna are the beft and deareft in Livonia. This
river has, in general, a fandy and clayey hore, and a dif-
coloured water.

DUNABURG, or Dunesure, a {mall town of that
part of Poland which fell to the fhare of Ruffia, at the
final partition of Poland in 1795. 1t was one of the prin-
cipal places in the Livonian palatinate, called, in the Polith
language, Woiewodztwo Inflanthkie. The provincial diets
ufed to be held in tinis town.

DUNAMASE, in the Queen’s county, Ireland, about
four miles from Maryborough, forms a very conipicvons
objet from a great diftance. Its name, which imports
the fort of. the plain, evinces it to have been confidered and.
ufed as a place of {trength in the earlieft ages: the plain is
what is called the great heath, nearly furrounding, it.. This
rock is an elliptical conoid, and inacceffible on all fides, ex-
cept to the eaft, which, in its improved ftate, was defended
by the Barbican. D. Ledwich gives two plates, and a mi-
nute defcription of this place, ia his ‘* Antiquities of Ire-
land,” for the purpofe of illuftrating the fortification of that
day. It was fora long time a great check on the Infh, but
from the time of Edward II. when lord Mortimer refided
there, to the final fabjugation of Ireland, it was often di{-

maantied

DUN

mantled and rebuilt. It was effeCtually deftroyed by colo-
nels Hewfon and Reynolds in 1650, and has continued in
ruinsfince thattime. Ledwich.

DUNAMUNDE, a fmall town of Roffia, in the go-
vernment of Riga, about 10 miles from that place, at the
mouth of the river Duna, with a ftrong caftle, where the
fhips, which come from the Baltic into the river, pay a toll.
It was taken by the Ruffians from the Swedes in 1710.

DUNAN Porsr, a cape oa the S.W. coaft of the ifland
of Skye. N. lat. 57° 3/. Long. 3° 5’. W. of Edinburgh.

DUNANE, in the Queen’s county, province of Lein-
fter, Ireland, a place where there is an extenfive colliery, the
coals of which are preferred to thofe of Caftle-comer. The
coal is of the kind called Kilkenny coal, the coal-glance of
Jamefon. Dunane is amongit the Sliebh-margy mountains,
about 6 miles weit from Carlow, and about 40 miles S. W.
from Dublin. Beaufort.

DUNAVEZ, or Dunavitz, Dunavetz, Dunajetz, a
{mall town of Autftria, on the limits of Gallicia and Hun-
gary, fituated on the river Dunavetz, which flows from the
Carpathian mountains into the Viitula. It is on the road
from Prefburg to.the famous falt mines of Wieliczka in
Gallicia, and tt is the largeft town in that part of the coun-
try. Articles of every kind are expofed in the ftreet for
fale on Sundays, and give it the appearance of a fair.

DUNAX, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Thrace,
according to Strabo; called Donuea by Livy; it is the
moft elevated part of mount Rhodope.

DUNBAR, Wiruiam, in Biography, an eminent Scot-
tifh poet, was born, according to Mr. Warton, in 1470,
‘but according to Mr. Pinkerton, in 1465, at Salton, a vil-
lage on the coait of the Forth in Eatt Lothian. He entered
asa travelling noviciate of the Francifean order ; but he after-
wards became diffatisfcd with this condition, and relinquifh-
ing it, fettled in Scotland about the year 1490. Here he
acquired celebrity as a poet ; but he does not appear to have
gained any benefice, though he feems to have defired it.
Te courfe of his life, which is unknown, was terminated
in the year 1530. His poetical pieces were numerous;
they were partly ferious and partly comic, and manifeft
readinefs of invention, great energy, and richnefs of defcrip-
-tion. One of his chief poems is the “ Tniftle and Rofe,’?
which is a kind of vifion, abounding in imagery, and writ-
ten on occafion of the marriage of James IV. of Scotland
with Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. of England. His
“* Golden Terge,”’ isa moral allegory, exhibiting the fhield
of reafon refifting the attacks of the amorous paffion. One
of his large pieces is the ** Daunce,” which is a vifion of
heaven and he'l in a comic ftyie. Many more of his pieces
are printed in the coileétion of ancient Scottifh poems, by
fir David Dalrymple, in 1770. Dunbar is faid to have de-
rived his poetic tafte from the works of Chaucer, Gower,
and Lydgate, but to have improved upon their manner,
His language is the Scots diale¢ét of thofe times, much re-
fembling the Englith. Biog. Brit.

Duwnsar, in Geography, a parifh and royal borough in the
county of Haddington or Eaft- Lothian, Scotland. The for-
mer comprehends an area of about nine milesin length from E,
to W. by two miles from N. to S. The ground rifes gra-
dually from the fea coaft, and the land is efteemed {ome of
the moft fertile is Scotland, which induced Mr. Pennant to
call this diftri& the Northamptonfhire of Norch-Britain. It
is well cultivated, and produces large crops of wheat, barley.
end beans; with fmaller crops of oats, clover, rye-gra{s,
turnips, and potatoes. ‘Two large roperies are eftablifhed

An the coaft. This parifh is famous from containing the

DUN

encampment which was occupied by genéra! Leflie and the
Scots army, who were defeated by Cromwell.

The borough is feated on a rock near the fea, which
here forms a {mall bay or harbour. The eat pier of this
was begun during the prete&torthip of Oliver Cromwell,
who gave 300/. towards defraying the expesce. Since that
time it has been much improved ; itis fafe but fmall, and its
entrance.narrow. It is defended by a battery of 12 guns.
The chief trade of this place is the exportation of corn, of
which there are on ap average about 10,900 quarters annually
fhipped off. Here is a fmali dry-dock ; and feveral fifhing
boats are annually fitted out from this town. Attached
to the port are 18 veflels of 2180 tons burthen employed
in the coafting trade, belides 12 fifhing boats.

The ruins of the caftle are {till confiderable. It ftands on
an clevated rock impending over the fea. It has been afort
of great ftrength, and the feene of many important tranfac-
tions. ‘ In 1567-it was in the pofftflion,” fays Pennant,
‘¢ of the infamous earl Bothwell, who here committed the
fimulated outrage on the perfon of the fair Mary Stuart.
Here alfo the earl retreated after being given up by his mil-
trefs at the capitulation ef Carberry-hill?? Edward IL.
took fhelter within its wails in his fligat from Bannockburn.
In 1336, it was moft courageoufly defended by Agnes, coun-
tefs of March; who in the abfence of her hufband was be-
fieged by lord Monteagle and his troops, but they were
obliged to raife the fiege and leave the country. Here are
fill preferved fome of the famous Scotch pikes, fix ells long.

Between the harbour and cattle, is a furprifing ftratum of
ftone, which, in fome refpedts, refembles that called the
Giant’s-cauieway in Ireland. It confiits of great columns
of red grit, either.trianyuler, quadranguiar, pentangu!ar, or
hexangular : their diameter from one to two feet, their length,
at low water, thirty feet, and they dip, or incline alittle to the
fouth. They are jointed, but not fo regularly, or fo piainly,
as thofe of the Giant’s caufeway. This range of cvlumns
faces the north and extends about two hundred yards in
front. The breadth is inconfiderable ; the reft of the rock
confifts of fhapelefs maifes of the fame fort of itone irregu-
larly divided by thick fepta. :

Beneath the caftle is a vat cavern, “partly natural and
partly artificial ; and near it are two “ natural arches through
which the tide flowed.” —

Dunbar is now a refpeGable, well built town, and is fupplied
with good water conveyed in pipes from fprings about two
miles diftant. The borough is governed by a provolt, three
bailiffs, a dean of guild, treafurer, and 15 counfellors, It
joins with Haddington, North- Berwick, Lauder, and Jed-
burg, in fending one member to parliament. It is nearly
equidiftant from Edinburgh and Berwick; being 27
miles from each. In the town are two convents; one for
Mathurines, and the other for Carmelites. In the church is
a magnificent monument, to the memory of fir George
Hume, earl of Dunbar, ‘* the worthiet and belt Scotch
miniiter of James VI.’? He died Jan. 29, 1610. Sinclair’s
Statiltical account of Scotland, and Pennant’s Tour in
Scotland, vol. i.

DUNBARTON, a townfhip of America, in Hillfbo-
rough county, New Hampfhire, incorporated in 1765, and
containing 1222 inhabitauts; nine miles S. of Concord, and
36 W. of Portfmouth. .

DUNBEATH, a river of Scotland, in the county of
Caithnels, which runs into the German ocean, eight miles
N.E. from the end of Caithnefs. f

DUNCAN, Daniez, in Biggradhy, an eminent phyfician,
born at Montauban, in Languedoc, in 1649, was the fon of

Dr. Peter Duncan, profeflor of phyfic in that city, a
grandfon

DUNCAN.

grandfon to William Dunean, an Englifh gentleman, of
Scottifh or'ginal, who removed from London to the fouth
of France about the beginning of the 17th century. Hav-
ing loft both his parents in his early infancy, he was taken
under the proteétion of his mother’s brother, Mr. Daniel
Paul, a counfellor of the parliament of Thovloufe, though
a firm and profeffed Proteftant. In{truéted in the firft ele-
ments of grammar, polite literature, and philofophy at Pay
Lauren, where the univerfity of Montauban then fubfilted,
he was removed by his unc!e to Montpellier, and placed un-
der the immediate inftru@tion of Dr. Charles Barbeyrac,
whofe phyfical le€tures and practice were in high reputation.
Under this excellent mafter, who diftinguifhed him by his
efteem and friencthip, he purfued his ftudies for eight years,
and at the age of 24 he was admitted to the degree of
M. D. in that univerfity. He afterwards refided feven years
at Paris; and here he publifhed his firft work, upon the
principle of motion in the conftituent parts of animal bodies,
entitled, ** Explication Nouvelle et Mechanique des Actions
Animales,” Paris 1678. Inthe following year he vifited
London, for the purpofe of tranfaGting fome family concerns,
and of obtaining information concerning the effeéts of the
plague in London, in 1665. . He alfo availed himfelf of this
opportunity for colle&ting vouchers to the refpedtable rank
which his family had borne*in Scotland and in England ;
with a view of juftifying his claim to the letters of nobleffe,
which had been conceded to him in France, at a time, viz.
in 1677, when, by favour of the great Colbert, he was ap-
pointed phyfician general to the army before St. Omer’s,
commanded by the duke of Orleans. During his flay of
two years in London, he printed a Latin edition of his
“ Theory of the Principle of Motion in Animal Bodies.’’
His inclination to fettle in London was diverted by a fum-
‘mons which he received from Paris in 1681, to attend his
Fant Colbert, whofe health was then beginning to decline.
[e does not feem, however, to have entertained a very high
opinion of the mode in which the praétice of medicine was
then conducted in London; as we may conclude from a
MS. upon “ the prevailing abufes in the eftablifhed practice
of Phyficians and Apothecaries in different parts of the
World.’? Soon after his return to France, he publifhed in
_three parts a popular work, entitled ““ Chymie Naturelle, ou
Explication Chymique et Mechanique de la Nourriture de
P Animal,” a fecond edition of which appeared at Paris in
1687. In this year he publifhed alfo his “ Hiftoire de
VY Animal, ou la Connoiffance du Corps; animé par la Me-
chanique et par la Chymie.’’? Upon the death of Colbert,
in 1683, he left Paris, and went to Montauban, in order to
fettle his affairs, and to prepare for taking up his final abode
io England. His friends, however, prevailed upon him to
continue in his native city. But the perfecution which
raged againft the Proteltants. with great violence in
1690, obliged him to retire firft to Geneva, and afterwards
to fettle for about eight or nine years at Berne, where his
medical praétice was confiderable, and where he had the
charge of a profefforfhip of anatomy and chemiftry. In
1699 he was fent for to Caffel by Philip, landgrave of Hefle,
and remained as his domeftic phyfician for three years.
Under the hofpitable roof of this prince, he wrote his trea-
tife upon the |* Abufe of hot Liquor,” with a particular
view to the cafe of the princefs of Heffe, who had indulged
in the exceffive ufe of tea, coffee, and chocolate, and who
was then in fo feeble a ftate as to incline to a confumption.
Although he condemned excefs, he allowed the prudent ule
of them, particularly to perfons of a phlegmatic conftitution,
This work, which-was at firft circulated in MS., was after-
-wards, by the perfuafion of his friend Dr. Boerhaave, printed
* Vou. XII.

firfk in Freneh, under the title of “ Avis falutaire 2 tout Je
Monde, contre Abus dee Liqueurs chaudes, et particuliere-
ment du Caffé, du Chocolat, et du Tré,”’ Rotterd. 1705.
In the following year it was printed in Enghfh, at London.
During his abode at Caffel he contributed to the relief of
thofe Proteftants, who were obliged to abandon Trance on
account of the perfecution they fuffered, and te feek an
afylum in Brandenburgh. The fame of his liberality reached
the court, of Berlin, and he wes invited thither by the
reigning prince ; but though he met with great enceurage-
ment as profeffor of phyfic and phyfrcian to the royal houfe-
hold, a regard to his health and to economy obliged him to
remove, in 1703, tothe Hagne. He continued here about
12 years, during which period ke was induced by Dr.
Boerhaave, to publifh a Latin improved edition of his Natu-
ral Chemittry, entitled “ Chym'z Naturalis Specimen, quo
plané patet nullum in Chymicis officinis proceflum fieri,” cut
fimilis, aut analogus in Animalis Corpore non fat.” Amitel.
1707. At this time he commenced a correfpondence with
Dr. Mead, on a variety of fubje€is immediately connected
with his profeffion. In 1714 he accomplifhed the purpofe
which he had always in contemplation, of fettling in Lon-
don: but juft before ke left the Hague, he fuftained a ftroke
of the paify, which alarmed his friends, though it was at-
tended with no permanent injury to himfelf. As it had
been his declared intention, if providence extended his life to
the age of 70, to devote the remainder of his days to the
gratuitous fervice of thofe who fought his advice, he at-
tained that age in 1719, and fulfilled bis intention during
the lalt 16 years of his life. To the rich who confulted him,
from whom he peremptor'ly refufed to take a fee, he ufed
to fay with a {mile, ‘* The poor are my only paymattérs
now ; they are the beft I ever had; their payments are
placed in a government fund that can never fail; my fecu-
rity is the only Kine that can do no wrong ;”’ alluding to.
the lofs he fuftained in 1721, of a third part of his property
by the South-fea fcheme. He left behind him a great
number of MSS., moftly phyfical, fome upon religious fub-
je&ts, and one containing many curious anecdotes of ithe
hiftory of his own times. Among his phyfical MSS. the
moft confiderable is a Latin treatife upon contagious dif-
tempers, to which is prefixed a very ample diflertation upon
the plague, &c. which appears to have been written in the
year 1679. Dr: Duncan was in his converfation eafy,
cheerful, and interefting; in his difpofition ingenuous and
benevolent ; and in his religious profeffion, a fincere Chrif-
tian and a zealous proteftant. He died at London, April
30, 1735, aged 86. His only fon, the Rev. Dr. Danicl
Duncan, was the author of fome religious traét«, and died in
June, 1761, leaving behind him two tons, both clergymen 5
one of whom, viz. Dr. John Duncan, has * fuftained the
honour of his family, in the refpe@ability of his charaéter,
in the liberality of his mind, and in his ingenious and valuable

publications, both as a poet and divine.”? Biog. Brit.
Duncan, Wirtiam, was born at Aberdeen in the
year 1717, where he received the greater part of his
education. When he had finifhed the ordinary courfe of
philofophy and mathematics, he was admitted to the de-
gree of M.A. He now fludied very diligently theology
under the profeffors at Aberdeen, with a view, probably, of
engaging in the Chriftian miniftry, which, upon more ma-
ture deliberation, he afterward thought proper to abandon.
He then removed to London, and was employed in many
literary undertakings, particularly in tranflations from the
French language. He is fuppofed likewife to have had a
large fhare in the tranflation of Horace, which was publifhed
under the name of Watfon. His talents as a tranflator were
Xx highly

DUN

highly appreciated; and the expeGation of the public
was fully anfwered in his verfion of the Scle& Orations of
Cicero accompanied with notes. He next publifhed * The
- Elements of Logic,’? which have obtained a high reputation,
and which were originally written for Dodfley’s Preceptor,
publifhed in 1748. In the year 1752 he publifhed a tranf-
lation of Czfar’s Commentaries, which was at firft given to
the public in the folio fize, but has fince appeared in Svo.
This work is at once faithful and elegant, and is rendered
more valuable by an introdu@ory treatife on the Roman art
of war. About the fame time Mr. Duncan was appointed
by the king profeffor of philofophy in the Marifchal college
of Aberdeen..'The duties of this office were confined chiefly
to the illuftration of the principles of natural and experi-
mental philofophy. In this department, though not the fa-
vourite purfuit of his life, he highly diftinguifhed himfelf.
The labour was, however, more than adequate to his
firength, and he began rapidly to decline in health. He
died in 1760, in the forty-third year of his age; leaving be-
hind him an excellent charater as a man of learning, and
exemplary in all the duties of life. Biog. Brit.

Dunxcan’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N. coalt of
the ifland of Jamaica. N. lat. 18° 31/. W. long. 77° 31!.

DUNCANNON, a fort in the county of Wexford, near
the entrance of Waterford harbour, and 20 miles fouth from
New Rofs. It is at prefent ufed-as a barrack.

DUNCANSBOROUGH, a townfhip of America, in
Orleans county, Vermont, on the weft fide of lake Mem-

hremagog, containing 50 inhabitants.

DUNCANSBY Heap,a cape of Scotland, at the N.E.
extremity of Great Britain, in the county of Caithnefs,
N- lat. 58° 33!. E. long. o° 19/.

DUNCARD?’s Borrtom, atra& of fine lands in America,

- -on the E. fide of Cheat river, in Virginia, about 22 miles
. from its mouth, and 49 W.S.W. from fort Cumberland.
DUNCHURCH. See Dimcuurcn.
DUNCOMBE, Witttam, in Biography, was born in
- London in the year 1690. After the uiual {chool educa-
tion, he was entered at the age of fixteen as a clerk in the
navy office. His taite for polite literature was firft known
- to the public by the appearance of a tranflation of en Ode
of Horace. He next publifhed a verfion of the ‘* Carmen
Seculare,’”? which was foon followed by one of * Racine’s
sthaliah.” In 1725, he quitted the navy-office, and de-
voted himfelf wholiy toa lite of literary leifure. In the fol-
‘lowing year, he married the fifter of Mr. Hughes, the poet,
and {pent the remainder of a long life in virtuous and inno-
cent purfuits, and in friendly intercourfe with fome of the
moit refpeStable chara€ters, among whom were the earl cf
Cork and archbifhop Herring. He died in 1769. His
principal works were the tragedy of ** Brutus” altered from
Voltaire: and with the affiftance of his fon, an entire ver-
fion of Horace, with notes, in two volumes, but which came
out in 1764 in four volumes, 12mo. Biog. Brit.

Duncomse, Joun, fon of the preceding, was born in
1729; end at the age of fixteen entered himfelf at Corpus
Chritti Coilege, Cambridge, where he was diftinguifhed by
the regularity of his condu@, and by his great proficiency in
polite literature. He became fellow of bis college, and af-
terwards took orders, and obtained valuable preferments in
the church. He was a good poet, and was the author of
many pieces which have appeared in the collections of Dod-
fley, Pearch, and Nichols, and feme in a feparate form. OF
thefe the beft known is “* The Feminead,” a commemoration
of feminine excellence. ‘He furnifhed papers and effays, in
a variety of periodical publications. He publifhed three
Sermons, and fome antiquarian papers in the Bibliotheca

I

DUN

Topographiea, and was editor of ‘ Sir Hugh’s Corre-
f{pondence ;” ‘¢ The earl of Cork’s Letters from Italy ;”
and * Archbifhop Herring’s Letters.” He died in 1788.
Biog. Brit.

DUNDALK, in Geography, a market and poft town
of the county of Louth, in Ireland. It is a large ancient
and thriving town, with a wide ftréet, nearly a mile long,
and a good market houfe. It isalfo the county town. In
the reign of Edward II. it was, for a fhort time, the refi-
dence of Edward Bruce, who was there crowned king of
Ireland. Itis advantageoufly fituated for an extenfive in-
Jand trade ; and the port is very fafe for fhipping. The only
cambrick manufaGture in Ireland is carried on in this town.
It returns one member to the Imperial parliament. Dun-
dalk is on the great northern road, 40% miles N. of Dublin.
Long.. 6° 23/ W. Lat. 53° 59'N.

DUNDAS, a county of Upper Canada, bounded on the
E. by the county ef Stormont, on the S. by the river St.
Lawrence, and on the W. by the eafternmolt boundary line
of the late townfhip of Edwardfburgh, running N. 24° until
it interfeG@ts the Ottawa, or Grand river; thence defcend-
ing that river till it meets the north-wefternmoft boundary
of the county of Stormont. This county comprehends all
the iflands near it in the river St. Lawrence. The bousd-
aries were fettled by proclamation July the 26th, 1792. It
fends one reprefentative to the provincial parliament. Morfe.

DUNDEE, a town in the county of Forfar or Angus,
fituated on the north bank of the Tay, not far from its con-
fluence with the German ocean. The town of Dundee is
well built, and, like moft other Scotch towrs, chiefly of free-
itone ; it alfo contains fome handfome publie buildings. The
etymology of its name has been faid to be taken from the
Latin words donum Dei, an appellation faid to have been given
by a brother of William I. of Scotland to a church which
he ereted here upon his return from a crufade. But this
feems at leaft very doubtful, for the Roman names of many
towns in Britain, occupied by their legions, while in pofle{-
fion of the ifland, terminate in dunzwm, and to this day, whe-
ther derived from this fource or not, the fyllable dun, with
which fo many of the names of the Scottifh towns com-
mence, means in the Gaelic a fort, caltle, or town. The
diftin@ion between thefe, in rude times, was probably nat
much attended to, as ail the towns, during the prevalence of
the feudal fyftem, were more or lefs fortified. The caltle of
Dunglafs in Dumbartonfhire, which is generally fuppofed to
have formed the lalt Roman poft at the weftern extremity
of the wall of Adrian, fignifies the grey caffe, and from ana-
logy it is not unreafonable to. fuppofe that the fort, town,
or caltle of the Tay, may have been the original meaning of
the word Dundee, more efpecially as the letter D is generally
founded by the Highlanders, as well as the Germans, hke
that which the Englih give to the letter T. Indeed one
of the Roman names of this town is faid to have been Taw-
dunum.

The harbour of Dundee is very good, and capable of
containing a great number of veffels, and a confiderable
tonnage belongs to the town. But Dundee cannot pro-
perly be confidered, either at prefent, or likely to become, an
extenfive commercial place. Although the fituation of the
Tay is favourable for the trade of the Baltic and northern

art of Europe, itis by no means fo for that of America, or
the Welt Indies. Befiies this, it has few articles of manufac-
ture to export, excepting fail-cloth and the coarfe linens,
known by the name of Ofnaburghs, and thefe articles are
manufactured ia the very countries to which it is molt
contiguous. Many of the Ofsaburghs manufa€tured in Dun-
dee are indeed exported to the Welt Indies for the cae

°

DUN

of cloathing the negroes; but thefe, inftead of being dire&tly
fent, are generally fold to the merchants of London, Liver-
pool, and Glafgow, who are more immediately interefted in
fupplying thefe colonies.

Hence the fhips which have traded from Dundee to the
Baltic, have been generally fent for the purpofe of import-
ing flax and hemp for the ule of their manufacture, and as
the country produces nothing which fhe can export in ex-
change for thofe articles, the fhips have moft commonly been
cleared out in ballaft, and the returning cargoes paid for by
bills on London. A conliderable number of velfels, however,
are employed in the coafting trade, and five or fix fhips are
annually difpatched to the Greenland whale fifhery. The
falmon nfhery in the river Tay forms a confiderable trade to
Dundee. Thefe fith were formerly caught by the hauling
net, or /eine, confiderably farther up the river, and nearer to
the town of Perth than Dundee, but they are now inter-
cepted in their paflage up by large nets fixed to ftakes in
convenient fituations, and fent to London packed in ice,
excepting in very hot weather, when they are pickled to
preferve them.

It has been already fated, that the chief manufaQure of
Dundee confilts of coarfe linen goods, as fail-cloth, Ofna-
burghs, and pack fheet for cotton wool, and other purpofes.
The fail cloth made at Dundee is chiefly fold by governmert
contracts for the fupply of the navy, thofe for the merchant
fervice being moftly made in England. Hence this branch
of their trade has flourifhed chiefly in time of war, and during
long intervals of peace has frequently experienced a total
flagnation. The Ofnaburgzhs are a {pecies of coarfe hen
manufactured in imitation of thofe made in Germany, and
this trade is encouraged, and indeed fupported by govern-
ment, partly by heavy duties on the German linens imported
into the Britith colonics, but chiefly by a bounty of three
halfpence per yard. As the cloth, which is about 25 inches
broad, does not exceed fixpence fer yard, average value, the
bounty may be eftimated from 25 to 30 fer cent. ad valorem.

How far fuch a premium may be right, or wrong, cannot
be difcuffed in this article, and, indeed, it cannot be decided
by any power, except the legiflature of the united kingdom.

The foil between Dundee and Perth, known by the name
ef the Carfe, or Kerfe, of Gowrie, has always been efteemed
the moft fertile in Scotland. The remarks of an intelligent
eorrefpondent will convey an idea of that recent improve-
ment, which fortunately prevails every where in this ifland.
« Agriculture has improved, in a prodigious degree, within
thefe few years, in this neighbourhood. Heavy wheat-crops
are now raifed upon foils, and in fituations which our fore-
fathers thought fcarcely fit for any thing. Confiderable
quantities of wheat and barley are now fent, coatt-ways, to
England. Rents, as the leafes expire, are doub!ed, or tre-
bled.”

The town of Dundee is governed by a provoft, baillies,
and council, like the other royal boroughs in Scotland, and,
in conjuntion with Forfar, St. Andrew’s, Cupar (of Fife),
and Perth, returns a member to parliament. Tne prefent
member for the boroughs is fir David Wedderburn, and for
the county of Forfar is the Hon. William Maule of Paumu,
brother to the earl of Dalhoutie.

The population of Dundee, taken under the authority of
the act of 1801, is eftimated at 22,500.

Dundee formerly gave the title of vifcount to the unfor-
tunate and accomplifhed nobleman who fell at the battle of
Killecrankie, in 1689. Since his death the title has not
been revived,

» DUNDIVER, in Ornithology, the name of a water-fow!,
efteemed. a diltin& {pecies of bird, not only by the vulgar,

DIN

but by the generality of authors; but fuppofed by others
to be the female merganfer, or goofander, a {pecics of the
Mergus ; which fee. :

DUNDRUM, in Geography, a village of the county of
Down, province of Ultter, Ireland, that gives name to a
very extenfive bay, which is, however, thaliow and acceffible
only to fmall veffels. The outer bay abousds with fea»
trouts and lobfters, and other {fpecies of white and fhell fith,
which afford employment to a number of boats. Dundrum
is a {mall pleafant village, profpering by this fihery. Above
the village are the ruins of an old caftle. once a {trong hold
of confiderable importance. It is 68 miles north from
Dublin.

DUNDUKOVA, a fettlement of Ruffian Siberia, in the
government of Tobolfk ; 300 miles N.N.E. of Turuchanfk.
N. lat. 70° 16/. » E. long. 95° 14°.

DUNES, a {mall town of France, in the department of
Loz and Garonne; three miles from the Gironne, between
the rivers Giers and Baife.

DUNFANAGHY, a {mall poft-town in the county of
Donegal, province of Ulfter, Ireland. It is not far from
the promontory of Hornhead; 133 miles N.W. from
Dublin.

DUNFERMLINE, a town in the weftern part of Fife.
fhire, and formerly a place where the parliament of Scotland
occafionally met, previous tothe union. ‘The town of Dune
fermline is pleafantly fituated on the ridge of a hill, and many
parts of it command an extenfive view of the frith of Forth.
The paflage from Edinburgh, and the eaftern diftri& of
Scotlond, is the Queen’s-Ferry, from which it is about fix
miles diftant. The town of Queen’s-Ferry is fituated on
the fouthern bank of the Forth, and on the Fifefhire fide is
a {mall village, called the North Queen’s-Verry, chiefly in-
habited by ferry-men, who ply between the two fhores,
which are much frequented, being the moft ready accefs
between the northern and fouthern diftridts of Scotland
upon the eaftern coaft. The fhores of the Forth prefent the
appearance of two bold promontories, at the Queen’s-Ferry,
and tne paflage is about two miles, although the Forth is
much broader farther up, oppofite to the fea-port town of
Borrowttonefs, and even at Grange-mouth, where the great
canal connecting the Yorth and Clyde begins, and terminates
at Bowling bay, in the county of Dumbarton. "Phe narrow
paflage at the Queen’s-Ferry occafions a confiderable curs
rent, by the flux and reflux of the tide, which is increafed
by a {mall ifland, called Inch-Garvie, fituated in the middle
of the channcl. Upon this ifland are the ruins of am ancient
cattle, and it has been lately fortified, and batteries of cannon
have heen placed upon it, as a defence for the upper part of
the Forth. The fares for the paflage at the Qneen’s-Ferry
are regulated by the magiftrates, like thofe of the watermen
upon the Thames.

Dunfermline was anciently a refidence of the kings of
Scotland. Theabbey church is ftill preferved in fuch order,
as to ferve for a place of public worfhip. The palace has
been long in ruins; and a few years ago a part of it fell, by
which feveral borfes, {talled in a lable built contiguous to the
wall of the palace, were killed, but fortunately, ast occurred
during the night, no other accident happened.

The church and palace are faid to have been built, by
Malcon Canmore. ~ >

The county of Fife, contiguous to Dunfermline, is gene-
rally fertile, the foil being a rich clay; and the agriculture
has rapidly improved of late. Coals are found in great
abundance in the immediate vicinity. Of thefe, the works
of fir John Henderfonm, of Fordell, bart. are, perhaps, the
molt extenfive, A very curious colliery hae lately beew

Xx2 execugsd

DUN
executed by fir Robert Prefton, of Valley-field, bart. The

mine is fituated on a {mall ifland in the Forth, near the vil-
lage of Torryburn, about four miles weft from Dunfermline.
The ifland was frequently covered by the tide at high water ;
but fir Robert, having formed an embankment, at an im-
menfe expence, and erefed a fteam-engine to draw the
water, aétuaily fucceeded in finking a pit and procuring coal.
The fituation of the ifland certainly affords every conve-
niency for loading coal, but the quality is faid not to be equal
to that of many of the neighbouring proprietors. The coal
trade here is a matter of confiderable importance, as many of
the northern parts of Scotland, where coal has not been
found, are {upplied either from hence, or from Newcattle-
upon-T'yne. : Fas

The country is alfo plentifully fuoplicd with lime, from
the works of the earl of Elgin, at Charleftown, and other
lime-works, A confiderable quantity of lime is alfo carried
coait-ways, to fupply the north-ealt coalt of Scotland, from
Charl-f'o vn.

The chief manufa@ure at Dunfermline is that of table-
linen, although many weavers are alfo employed im the cotton-
manufacture. The latter are chiefly employed by the
manufa@turers of Glafzow; though that city, by the way
of Sterling, is about 50 miles diftant from Dunfermline.

The damafk and diaper manufaétures have proved very
productive fources of wealth to this town, and the numerous
villas, with which its environs are edorned, afford a pleafing
proof of the flcill of its artizans, and the fuccefs of their em-
ployers. . 2 i

Dunfermline, like the other royal burghs of Scotland, is
governed by a provolt, magiltrates, and town-council, and
returns a member to parliament, in conjunction with Ster-
ling, Culrofs, Inverkeithing, and the Queen’s.Ferry. The
ele@tion for thefe boroughs has of late been frequently very
hotly conatefted. The prefent member is major-general
Campbell, of Mouzie. ‘The member forthe county of Fife
is licutenant-general Wemyfs, of Wemyfs.cattle.

. Nor far from Dunfermline are the extenfive diftilleries of
Kennet-Pans and Kilbagie, which are faid to pay an annual
excife duty of not lefs than half a million fterling.

The population, under the a& of 1801, is taken at 5192.

The title of earl of Dunfermline perifhed in the attainder,
fubfequent to the rebellion in 1715, and has fince been ex-

in.

: DUNG, in Agriculture, &c. All kinds of dung contain
fome matter, which, when mixed with the foil, ferments
therein, and, by that fermectation, diffolves the texture of
the earth, and divides and crumbles its particles very much.

This is the real ufe of dung in agriculture; for, as to the:

pure earthy part of it, the quantity is fo very {mall, that after
a perfe& putrefaGtion, it bears an extremely inconfiderable
proportion to that of the earth it is intended to manure.

The fermenting quality of dung has been fuppofed to be
principally owing to the {alt it contains; and yet thofe, orany
other falts, applicd immediately to the roots of plants, always
deftroy them. This proves that the bufinefs of the dung is
not to nourifh, but to divide and feparate the terreftrial mat-
ter, which is to afford the nourifhment to vegetables through
the mouths of their roots. And theacrimony of the falts of
dung is fo great, thatthe niceft managers of vegetableswe have,
the florifts, have wholly banifhed the ufe of it fromtheir gardens.
The ufe of dung fhould be alfo forbid in kitchen-gardens;
for it is poffible to fucceed full as well without it; and it gives
an ill tafte to all the roots and plants that are to ftand in
the earth, in which it isan ingredient. ‘The water of a cab-
bage raifed in a garden manured with dung, if boiled, is of
an intolerable ftink; but this is not {o much owing to the
; 2

DUN

nature of the plant, as of the manure uled to it; fora field
cabbage being boiled, the water has fearce any fmell, and
what it has, is not difagreeable.

It is alfo a well-known fact in the country, that a carrot
raifed in a garden has nothing of that {weet flavour, that fuch
as grow in the fields have; but inftead of this natural relifh,
the garden one has a compound talte, in which the matter of
the manure bas no {mall fhare. And there is the fame fort of
difference in the tafte of all roots nourifhed with fuch dif-
ferent diet. Dung not only fpoils the flavour of the efcus
lent vegetables, but it fpoils the drinkables into the original
compofition of which it emters: they are obliged to ufe
dung to the poor vineyards of Languedoc; and the confe-
quence is, that the wine is naufeous. The poor, who only
raife a few vines for the wine they drink themfelves. and cans
not be at the expence of this manure, have the lefs of it, but
then it is better, by many degrees, than the other; and it is
a general obfervation, which the French exprefs in thefe
words, that the poor people’s wine in Languedoc is the bett,
becaufe they carry no dung into their vineyards. (Tull’s
Horfehoeing Hufbandry, p. 20.) Another difadvantage at-
tending the ufe of dung is, that it gives rileto worms. It
is for this reafon, that garden: carrots are generally worm-
eaten, and field carrots found ; and the fame obfervation will
hold good in other vegetables, in the ficld and in the garden.
Vegetable and animal dung are, in fact, only the putrefaction
of earth, after it has been altered, by paffiag through vege-
table or-animal veflels: Vegetable dung, unlefs the vege-
table be buried alive in the foil, makes a much lefs ferment in
it than animal dung does: but the dung, or putrid matter
of vegetables, is much more eligible and wholefome for the
efculent roots and plants than that of animals is. Venomons
animals are found to be very fond of dung, and are brought
into gardens by the {mell of the dung ufed in them as manure.
The f{nakes ufually frequent dung-huls, and lay their eggs in
them; and gardens, where dung is much ufed, are always
frequented by toads; whereas the fields where roots are
planted, are much lefs infefted by them.

However unneceflary and prejudicial dung is in gardens,
it. is, however, very neceflary in the corn-fields; and little
can be done without it in the old method of hufbandry.
Dung is not fo injurious in ficlds as in gardens, becaufe it is
ufed in much fmaller quantities in proportion to the quantity
of foil; and cabbages, turnips, potatoes, and other things
growing in ficlds, and intended only for the food of cattle,
will not be injured by dung, tillage, and hoeing all togethers
for the crops will by this means be the greater, and the cat-
tle will like the food never the worfe. Dung is very bene-
ficial in giving very large crops of wheat; anditis found by
expertence, that the country farmer, at a diftance froma
large town, can never have fo good crops by all his tillage,
as thofe who live in the neighbourhood of cities, where dung
is produced in great plenty, and eafily had. The dung ufed
in fields, befides its diflolving and dividing virtue, is of great
ufe in the warmth its fermenting gives to the young plants of
the corn in their weakeft ftate, and in the moft fevere fea-
fons; the lafting of this ferment is not eafily determined, be-
caufe the degrees of heat are very difficult to be judged of
when they become f{mall.

The farmers ufually underftand by the term dung, not
only the excrements of animals, with the litter, but every
thing that will ferment with the earth; fuch as the green
ftaiks and leaves of plants buried under ground, and the
like, and every thing they add to it, except fire.

The ufes of the dungs of feveral animals are fufficiently
proved every day. ‘They are ufed to repair the decays of
exhaulted and worn-out land, and to cure the ais 2a

ects

DUN G.

fe&is in different natural bad foils; the faults of which are
as different as the nature of the different dungs ufed to im-
prove them. Some land is too cold, moift, and heavy; and
the other too light, and dry; and to improve and meliorate
thefe, we have fome dung hot, and light, as fheep’s, horfe’s,
pigeon’s, &c. and other fat and cooling, as that of oxen,
hogs, &c. There are two remarkable qualities in dung; the
one is to produce a fenfible heat, capable of bringing about
great efforts; the other is to fatten the foil, and render it
more fertile. ~The firft of thefe is feldom found in any but
the dung of horfes or mules; the great effets of which,
when newly made, and a little moift, are feen in the kitchen-
garden, where it invigorates, and gives a new life to every
thing, fupplying the place of the fun; and to this, in a great
degree, we owe all the vegetable delicacies of the fpring.
Bejides, horfe dung is the richett of all improvements that
can be had in any quantity for poor hungry lands; yet,
when either too new, or when ufed alone, it is very preju-
dicial to fome lands; and if fpread too thin on dry lands in
fummer, it becomes of very little fervice ; the {un foon ex-
haling all its riches, and leaving it little more than a heap of
ftubble or dry thatch. Hlorfe dung is always beft for cold
lands, and cow dung for hot ones; but being mixed toge-
ther, they make a very good manure for molt forts of foils,
and for fome they are very properly mixed with mud.

Sheen’s dung, and deer’s dung, differ very little in their
quality, and are efteemed by fome the belt of all dung for
cold clays; for this purpofe fome recommend the beating
them to powder, and {preading them thin over the autuma
or {pring crops, at about four or five loads to an acre, after
the fame manner as afhes, malt-du%, &c are ftrewed. And
in Fianders, and fome other places, they houfe their fheep
at night in places fpread with clean fand, laid about five or fix
inches thick, which being laid on frefh every night, is cleared
Out once a week, and with the dung and urine of the fheep,
is a very rich manure, and fells at a very confiderable price.
It is principally ufed for tubborn lands; but Mr. Saaat,
is of opinion, that it is the beft of all manure for land in
general.

Hog’s dung is by many recommended as the fatteft and
richeft of all dung; and is found, by experience, to be bet-
ter than any other kind for fruit trees, apples, pears, and the
like. Itis alfova very rich dung for grafs, and is faid to do
as much good in one load, as any other dung whatever
in two.

The dung of pigeons, hens, and geefe, are great improvers
of meadow andcorn land. ‘That of pigeonsis ungueftionably
the richeft that can be laid on coro land; but before it is
ufed, it ought to be expofed for fome time out of the dove-
hovfe to the open air, to take off its fiery heat. It isin ge-
neral very proper for cold clay lands; but then it always
fhould be well dried before it is laid on, becaufe it is apt to
clod in thewet. It is beftalfoto mix it with fome dry earth,
to break its parts that it may be {pread the more regularly ;
and it is in itfelf fo very rich and hot, as to bear fuch an ad-
mixture without greatly impoverifhing it. -This dung is
alfo by fome recommended as better than any other for afpa-
ragus and ftrawberries, and for the propagation and culture
of the tender garden-flowers. The dung of pigeons is alfo
particularly recommended by M. Gentil for thofe trees whofe
leaves are apt to turn yellow, if they grow in cold foils; but
for this ufe, it fhould firft lie three years ina dung-hill, and
then be applied fparingly in autumn, laying about an inch
thicknefs of it at the root of the tree, and fuffering it to
remain there till the March following.

“The dung of poultry being hot, and full of falts, tends
much to facilitate vegetation, and is abundantly quicker in

its operation than the dung of animals which feed on the
leaves of plants, Ft is an obfervation of fir Hugh Plat, that
one load of grains will enrich ground more than ten loads
of common dung; and it is eafy to infer from hence, that
the fame grain muft needs be of greatly more virtue, when
it has paffed through an animal body. Human dung is a fo
a great improver of all cold and four lands, but fucceeds
beft when mixt with other dungs or earths, to give it a fer-
mentation.

But for all ftubborn clayey foils, there is no manure fo
good as the cleanfing of London ftreets; the parts of tough
land will be more expeditioufly feparated by this than by
any other compoft; and where it is to be had, it is of the
greateft value both for field and garden land. Miller’s
Gard, Di&. :

Done Drag, is a fort of crooked fork with only two lines
or teeth, which is often employed in fetting out dung in
heaps, upon land for drawing out of the cart.

Dune, Goof. This is a very valuable manure, and as
ufeful to the farmer aa pigeon’s\ dung, or that of any
other fowl. The ancients thought otherwife, and condemned
it as prejudicial both to corn and grafs; and many are of
the fame opinion ftill, but without any foundation in fu&.
Indeed, where corn is high, and when grafs 1s ready to be
mown, thefe birds, if they get among it, wil do great da-
mage, by treading it down with their broad fect; but their
dung, inftead of being hurtful to the land, does it great fers
vice. Near Sutton, in Nottinzhamfhire, there is a barren
piece of land given by the town for a goofe-patture; the
geefe have been kept in it many years, and their dung has
fo enriched it, that it is one of the moft fruitful pieces of
ground in the whole county. There has been an opinion
alfo, that cattle feeding on grafs, where thele creatures had
much dunged the ground, would fuffer by it ; but it-appears
from trial, that cattle are moft fond of ail of thofe parts of
paftures where the geefe have dunged moft, and that they fuf- °
ter no alteration by it, except the growing fat upon it. The
dung of fowls in general is very enriching to land; and
Fowley I[fland, in Lancafhire, a place fo called trom the
abundance of wild towl continually found on it, is fo en-
ricbed with their dung, that it fattens fheep ina furprifing
manner. See Compost and Manurinec.

Doune-meers, or dung-hills, in Hufbandry, places where foils
and dungs are mixed and digefted together. For this pur-
pofe, it 13 ufual to dig a pit {ufficient to hold the ftock of foil’
the hufbandman fs capable of making, and to prepare it at
the bottom with ftone and clay, that it may hold the water
and moifture of the dung; and it fhould be fo fituated that
the drips of houfes or barns may run into it. Into this pit
they caft refufe fodder, litter, dung, weeds, &c., where they
lic and rot together till the farmer has occafion for it.
Where fuch a pitis wanting, it is neceflary to cover the dung
with turf, or other ftuff, to, prevent the fun and wind from
drawing off its virtues. Compott dung-hills, which arc formed
by a mixture of carth with dung, lime, and other manure, are
made with leaft expence on the field for which they are in-
tended.

Dune-worms, a fpecies of fly-worms, of a fhort and
fomewhat flat body, found in great plenty among the cow-
dung in the months of September and OGober. Thefe have
all their metamorphofes into the fly ftate performed within a
fhell af their own flan.

The fly produced from this worm is one of Reaumur’s
firft clafs of the two-winged flies ; it has a trunk with lips,
and has no teeth; it is of the clafs of thofe with the ellipfoid
bodies; but its body.is remarkable long for one of thofe,
and is compofed of fix rings:. its head is very round, a

nearly

DUN

nearly of a {pherical form, and is large in proportion to its
body; it has antennz of the lenticular or battledore form 3
its reticular eyes are of a deep chefnut brown, and its three
{mall eyes are placed inthe common manner. Its corfelet is
of a fine gilded green; and its back is not eafily to be de-
{cribed as to colour, for itis changeable, and feems compofed
of a violet colour, and of a deeper aud a paler copper colour.
The under part, or belly, is of a pale yellow, and the legs
abd balancers of a yet paler yellow. Reaumur’s H ft In-
{eGts, vol. iv. p. 350.

DUNGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, afligned
by Ptolemy to the Ariaces Sadmorum.

DUNGALA. Sze Donco ra.

DUNGANNON, a market and po&-town of the county
of Tyrone, province of Uliter, Ireland. It is an ancient bo-
rough, and has a barrack for a troop of horfe. It was for-
merly the chief feat of the O’Neils, kings of Ulfter, and was
accordingly the feene of many warlike tranfactions, being
repeatedly difmantled and repaired. At-a later period, it
was made remarkable by the aflembly of the Ulfter delegates
from the volunteers in 1782, his body correfponded with
the duke of Richmond, lord Effingham, Dr. Price, and other
friends of parliamentary reform, and in confequence of the
refolutions they entered into, aud the difcuffion thus occa-
fioned, a meeting of delegates, from every part of Ireland,
met in Dublin, and brought the meafure before parliament,
but without fuccefs. Dungannon has a good linen market,
and in its neighbourhood are good collieries, from which 18
2 canal to the Blackwatere Dungannon is-73 miles N. by
W. from Dublin, and 10 weft from Armagh. Beaufort
Wilfon’s Direétory.

DUNGARVAN, a market, poft, and fea-port town of
the county of Waterford, in the province of Munfter, Ire-
land. ‘This is an old town, the flreets of which are narrow
and dirty, but it is pleafantly fituated, the fea flowing up to
the old walls. On the north fide isa quay, fufficiently capaci-
ous for the loading and difcharging of {mall veffels. Forty or
fifty coafling boats belong to this place, which are princi-
pally employed in the fifhery, which 1s one of the moft ex-
‘tenfive in the kingdom. The inhabitants are celebrated as
excellent curers of hake. The duke of Devonfhire, who,
as heir of the oldeft branch of the Boyle family, is the chief
proprietor, is taking meafures to improve it, by building fe-
veral new houfes; and a bridge is alfo to be built over the arm
of the fea, which feparates it from the part of the country to-
wards the city of Waterford, and which has hitherto been
croffed by a ferry, or, at low water, by a ford. Here area
good market and feffion-houfe, and a barrack for two com-
panies, fituated within the walls of an ancient caftle, now in
ruins, which was built by king John, and afterwards repaired
and poffeffed by the Defmond family. There are ruins of an
Auguttinian priory on the other fide of the water, oppofite to
the town. Dungarvan is much frequented in the fummer
feafon for the purpofe of fea bathing. It is a borough
which returns a member to the imperial parliament, and is
300 miles S. by W. from Dublin. ‘Long. 7° 39’ W. Lat.

225 N.
3 DUNGENESS Paint, a capeia the eaftern entrance of
the‘ftraitsof Magellan. S. lat. 52°28’. W. long. 68° 28’.
_Duncenegss, a cape of England, on the eoalt of Kent, in
the Englifh channel. N. lat. 50° 52'20”. E. long. 0° 50! 45”.

DUNGEON, Donyon, in Fortification, the highelt ram«
part of a caftle built after the ancient mode, ferving as a
watch-tower, or place of obfervation; and alfo for the re-
treat of a garrifon, in cafe of neceflity, fo that they may ca-
pitulate with greater advantage. .

The word comes from the French donjon, which fignifies

DUN

the fame, and which Faucet derives from domicilium, becaufe
the dungeon, being the ftrongeft part of the cattle, was ufu-
ally the lord’s apartment. Menage derives it from dominione,
or dominionus, which in fome ancient writings we find ufed in
the fame fenfe. Du Cange derives the appellation from
duno aut colle edifcatum, dun in Celtic denoting bill, which
the barbarous writers have altered mto dunjo, dungeo, donyids
dangio,-domgio, and domnio.

In fome caftles, as that of Vincennes, &c. the donjon
ferves as a prifon for perfons they would have the moft fe-
curely kept; whence the general ufe of our word dungeon
for « dark clofe prifon under ground.

DUNGING, in Dyeing. See Rinsine.

DUNGIVEN, in Geography, is a market and poft town
in the county of Londonderry, province of Ulfter, Ireland,
on the road trom Armagh to Londonderry, at the foot of the
Cairntogher mountains; 99 miles N. by W. from Dublin,
and 16 from Lendorderry.

DUNGLO, in the county of Donegal, province of Ul-
fter, Ireland, is a {mall village on the wettern coalt oppofite
to the ifle of Arran, which is of no fmall relative importance
on account of its fituation. It is onan arm of the fea, and
is the place from which the inhabitants of the iflands are
fupplied with all neceffaries. It has a parifh church, a mill,
&e. Itis 135 miles N.W. from Dublir, and 36 W. from
Lifford. ~

DUNI, Ecip1o Rimustpo, in Biography, a natural,
graceful, and facile Italtan compofer, long fettled in France.
He was one of the Grit whoa little reconciled the French
to Italian melody at the comic opera, by applying it to
French words, previous to the arrival and fubfequent feuds
concerning the merit of Gluck and Piccini.

Duni was born near Ottranto, in the kingdom of Naples,
1709: his father was a maeftro dt cappella, and had fix fons
and three daughters. At nine years old he was fent, much
again({t his will, to a confervatrio at Naples, where he f{tudied
under the celebrated Durante.

It will appear, in the article PErcoxest, that Duni engaged
at Rome to compofe the opera of Nero, had great fuccefs,
while the Olimpiade of Pergolefi was almoft hiffed. This
fuccefs by no means flattered the vanity of the young Duni,
who, afhamed of his viGtory, faid to Pergolefi: **O my
friend! nefciunt qui faciunt !?

Intrufted with an interefting negociation at Vienna, by
cardinal C...., Duni availed himfelf.of this opportunity of
difplaying his talents, and acquired fome reputation there.
On his return to Naples, he was nominated by the king
maeftro di cappella to the church of St. Nicolo di Bari.
Some years after his return to Naples he compofed an opera
for S. Carlo, which had great fuccefs. He compofed one
likewife for Venice, and went again to Paris in 1733 to feek
relief for perpetual palpitation, with which he was tor-
mented ; when he became fo pkeafed with France, that he
refolved to fpend there the reft of his days; he however
went into England to compofe fome operas requefted of him,
(rather fongs, we never heard of his operas in England, ) but
he was in fo bad a flate of health, that the Englifh phyti-
cians advifed him to go to Holland, in order to con{ult
Boerhaave.

The new regimen which he preferibed to him was to ride
every day, and ina few years he found himfelf quite recovered;
but, foon after, he was in fo perilous a fituation that he lott
his health for ever.

Having returned to Italy to vilit his mother, whom he ten-
derly loved, he was attacked by robbers near Milan, and
upon the point of being murdered. The revolution in his
health, oceafioned by this fright, renewed the hemorrhage

te

NIN

to which he was fubje&t, and the conftant fuffering with
which he was affli&ed to the end of his days.

While marfhal Richelereu commanded at Genoa, Duni, in
{pite of his fufferings, compofed an opera, which was fo for-
tunate as to pleafe the French, Italians, and Spaniards, who
engaged him to compofe another, which was equally fuc-
cefsful. This good fortune occafioned his being noticed by
the infant, Don Philip, who carried him to Parma, and ap-

ointed him mufic-mafter to princefs Elizabeth, his daughter,
firft wife of the emperor Jofeph. It was at Parma that he
firt compofed to French words, and he fucceeded fo well
there that they fent him, from Paris, the comic opera ‘* Le
Peintre Amoureux” to fet.

The education of the princefs being finifhed, he obtained
leave to go to Paris, and retired thither ona penfion, where
he was prefent at the fuccefsful performance of his drama,
‘The Amorous Painter,” in 1757, which finally determined
him to remain in France.

He refided at Paris till 1775, when a malignant fever bee
reaved his wife and fon of a kind hufband and affectionate
father.

Duni compofed for the theatre Italian at Paris, befides
s* The Amorous Painter,” in 1757; “© The Irrefolute Wi-
dow,” in 1758; ‘ La Fille Malgardéc,” in 1759; ‘ Nina &
Lindor,” in 1761, and “ L? [fle des Foux ;”? n 1762, * Le
Milicien ;” in 1763, ‘* Les Chaffeurs & La Laitiere,” ‘Le
Rendezvous ;”” in 1765, ‘* L’ Ecoli dela Jeuniffe,” “ La Fée
Urgelle ;”? in 1766, “ La Clochette ;” in 1768, ‘ Les
Moifonnuers, les Sabots ;” in 1770, ‘* Thémize ;” and, the
fame year, ‘* L’Heureufe Efpiézlerie.”? Ail thefe had a
certain degree of fuccefs, and many of them remained feveral
years in favour. Laborde.

DUNIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Britain,

belonging to the Durotriges, fuppof-d by Camden to have .

flood where Dorcuester now flands. Mr. Baxter places
it on the fummit of an adjacent hill, where are a ditch and
bulwarks, now called Maiden caftle; while Mr. Horfley
thinks it was fituated at Eggerton hill.

DUNK, in Geography, an ifland on the N.E, coaft of
New Holland, which forms a boundary of Rockingham bay,
and lies fo near the fhore as not to be eafily diltinguifhed
fromit. S. lat. 17° 2c’. E. long. 145° 30’.

DUNKARD’S Town. See Erneara.

DUNKELD, a fmall town in the county of Perth,
Scotland, has been a place of great note in the annals of
Scottifh hiftory, and is now noted for the falubrity of its
climate, and the piéturefque features of the neighbourhood,
The latter have been greatly improved by the numerous
plantations raifed by the duke of Athol, who has a feat in
the town. This town is faid to have been the capital of
ancient Caledonia; and about the dawn of Chriltianity, a
Pictith king made it the feat of religion, by eftablifhing a
monaftery of Culdees. This was converted by king David I.,
A.D. 1130, into a bifhopric, and was then ranked the firft
in Scotland. The cathedral, though formerly a large hand-
fome building, is much dilapidated ; but its choir is ufed as
the parifh church. It was ereéted in 1350 by bifhop
Sinclair, whofe corpfe was interred within its walls. On
the north fide of the choir is the chapter-houfe, built by
bifhop Lauder in 1469; the vault of which is now ufed for
interment of the Athol family. At the weft end of the north
aifle is a very elegant tower, which has a crack from top to
bottom, nearly two inches wide.

The poet Gray vifited this place in 1766, and has given
an interefting defcription of the fcenery, &c. in a letter to
the earl of Oxford, (See his works. publifhed by Mafon.)

DUN

In the tows. ««s two tan-yards, two diftilleries, and four linen
manufaGtories. Dunkeld is 15 miles N.W. of Perth, and
contains 1016 inhabitants. It is feated on the north fide of
the river Tay, the banks of which are bold, rocky, and
romantic. Near the duke’s feat is a fine cafcade, called the
Rumbling brigg, which falls about 150 feet. Sinclair’s
Statiical Account of Scotland.

DUNKELSPUHL. See Dinxetszsunt.

DUNKERS, or Tunxers, in Lcclefiaffical Hiflory, a
religious fect at Ephrata or Dunker-town, near Lancatter,
in Pennfylvania, which took their rife about the year 1719,
and confifting moftly of Germans. They fprung from about
20 families, who in that year landed in Philadelphia, and
difperfed themfelves throuzh various parts of Pennfylvania,
They are of the denomination, called General Baptilts, and
maintain the doétrine of general redemption. Befides the
congregation at Ephrata, there were, in 1770, 14 others in
various parts of Pennfylvania, and fome in Maryland. The
whole number, exclufively of the latter, amountid to up-
wards of 2000 perfons, Their name is faid to be derived
from their mode of baptizing new converts, which is by dip-
ping, after the manner of the Baptifts. Others fay, the
appellation of Tuskers is derived from tunken, to put a mor-
fel in fauce, and was firlt applied to this feét by way of
derifion. Their habit is a kind of long coat or tunic, made
of linen, for the fummer, and woollen for the winter, reach-
ing down to the heels, witha fahh or girdle round the wailt ;
and a cap, or hood, hanging from the fhoulders, refembling
the drefs of the Dominican friars. ‘The men fhave neither
the head nor beard. The men and women have diftinét ha-
bitations and governments: they have for this purpofe
erected two wooden buildings; in each of which there is a
banqu: tting-room, and an apartment for public worfhip ; fo
that they never meet together even at their devotions.
They live chiefly on roots and vegetables, and eat no fleth,
except on occafion of their love-feafts, when the brethren
and fitters dine together. The Dunkers allow of no inter-
courfe between the brethren and filters, not even by mar-
riage ; a regulation not very favourable to their fubfiftence
and increafe: and if any break through this reftraint, and
marry, they are removed from communion with the unmar-
ried, to a place about a mile diftant, called Mount Sion.
The principal tenet is faid to be, that future happinefs is
only to be obtained by penance and mortification in this life ;
and that, as Jefus Chrilt, by his meritorious fufferings, be-
came the Redeemer of mankind in general, fo each indi-
vidual of the human race, by a life of abilinence and rettraint,
may work out his own falvation.

DUNKESFIELD, in Geography, a {mall town of the
kingdom of Wirtemberg, on the river Wernitz; 45 miles
S.W. of Nuremberg; with a thriving manufacture of
woollen cloth and hardware.

DUNKIRK, or Dunauergue, in Flemifh and Englifh
Dunkirk, in Latin Dunikerka, Dunkerka, Dunekerca, in
German Dunkirch, a confiderable maritime town of Trance,
in the department of the North, chief place of a canton, in
the diftri€t of Bergues; 18 miles N.E. of Gravelines, 30
miles N.E. of Calais, 27 miles S.W. of Oltend, and 22
miles, or 316 kiliometres, N. of Paris. TE. long. 2° 7’.
N. lat. 51° 2! 4". The temperature of Dunkirk, on a mean
of 50 years, as given by Pere la Cotte (Meteorol. p. 360.),
was 54°, It was originally a hamlet of a few filhermen’s
huts: but a church having been built, as it is faid, by St.
Eloi, who firft preached Chriftianity among the inhabitants
of Flanders, on the Sand-hills, Dunes, Downs, in its neigh-
bourhood, the place increafed and derived its name from the

fituation

DUNKIRK.

fituation of its church, Dunkirk, the’ chne-h ~« the
Downs. .

In the tenth century, Baldwin earl of Flanders furrounded
Dunkirk with a wall. Being commodionfly fituated for
trade, it engaged in a profitable commerce, which foon
enabled it to build even fhips of war. In the twelfth cen-
tury, Dunkirk fitted out a fmall fleet azainft the Norman
pirates, who infefted the Channel and the North fea: the
fervices which this fleet rendered were confidered fo import-
ant, that Philip earl of Flanders granted the town feveral
privileges.

In the thirteenth century, Dunkirk was fold to Godfrey
of Condé, bifhop of Cambray, who enlarged the town end
improved the harbour. His heirs reftored Dunkirk, in the
year 1283, to Guy earl of Flanders; whofe fon, Robert de
Béthune, difmembered it from the earldom of ¥ landers,
and in the year 1320, conferr ed it as a perticular Jordfhip on
his fon Robert de Caffel. The latter built, in 1322, a
caltle for the defence of the town; but this caftle was after-
wards demolifhed, during a rebellion of the Flemifh people.
In the year 1343, Jolanda, daughter of Robert de Caffel,
byought Dunkirk as her marriage portion to her hufband,
Aicory IV. count of Bar. It devolved, in 1395, to her

/eoulin, Robert of Bar, earl of Marle, who, in the year

1450, raifcd round the town a firong wail; the remains of
which are reported to be flill traced on the fide next the
harbour.

Tn 1435, Dunkirk came by marriage from the houfe of
Bar to that of Luxembourg; and in 1487, from the latter
to the houfe of Bourbon, on the marriage of Mary of Lux-
embourg with Francis of Bourbon, count of Venddme. But
Dunkirk being only a fief, the fovereignty of which be-
longed to the houfe of Auftria, the emperor Charies V.
erected a ftrong caftle, in the year 1538, for the defence of
the harbour.

The French, under marfhal de Thermes, took Dunkirk
by ftormin 1558; but it was foon retaken by the Spaniards.
At the peace of Cateau-Cambréfis, Anthony of Bourbon,
king of Navarre, coufin and heir to Mary of Luxembourg,
obtained Dunkirk, and fome other places,-as a fief, of
Philip IL. king of Spain and earl of Tlanders. The town
was rebuilt, and improved in wealth, chiefly by fitting out
privateers againft the Dutch. ‘he fortifications of the har-
bour were ftrengthened, 15 fhips of war built, and a canal
of communication opened with the town of Bergues.

This ftate of profperity fuffered, however, fome interrup-
tion, from frequent dilturbances in the Netherlands. In
1646, Dunkirk was befieged and taken by the French,
under the prince of Condé. In 1652, it was retaken by
the archduke Leopold, governor of the Netherlands.

In 1655, the alliance of England and France induced the
inhabitants of Dunkirk to fit out privateers again{ft both
thefe powers: but the French, affilted by Cromwell, ate
tacked and took Dunkirk, which was put into the hands of
the Englifh, to recompenfe them for the lofs of 250 thips,
that had been carried into Dunkirk by its privateers during
the war.

The Englifh immediately improved the fortifications of
Dunkirk, and ftrengthened it by the addition of a citadel ;
but they did not keep poffeffion of it above four years.

In 1662, Charlies Il. of England, two years after his un-
expeCted reftoration to the throne of his father, not con-
fidering the value of fuch an acquifition to his country, or
unable to judge of its importauce, fold Dunkirk to France
for the paltry fum of five millions of French livres, or about
209,000). fterling. On the 29th of November, 1662, the

comte d’Eftrades, in the name of Louis XIV., took poffefe -

fion of the town, and of the villages in its diftrr&, viz.
Mardyk, Great and Little Saintes, Arenbovt’s Chapel,
Coudckerk, Teteghem, Uxem, Ghyveid, Lefferinchoukes
and Zuytcote. :

Under the fuperintendance of the celebrated Vaubany
Dunkirk was rendered an almoft impregnable fortrefs. The
harbour was improved with two jetties, and defended by two
cafties, le Chateau Verd and le Chateau de bonne Etpérance.
Other fortifications were fucceflively added. In 1689, the
fort called Cornichon, or Batterie de Revers, and fome other
works, wer2 finifhed; and in 1701, the whole was com-
pleted by the ereétion of fort Blanc. Every thip that en-
tered the harbour had to pafs between thefe forts; and at
the entrance of the bafon was a flutce of 45 feet in width;
that the fhips within might conftantly be afloat. :

Thus prote&ed and ftrengthened, Dunkirk enjoyed agan
a moft flourifhing trade. In 1706, it contained 1639 houfes,
and 14,274 inhabitants. During the war which terminated
in the peace of Utrecht, its, privateers took 1614 Englifh
prizes, valued at 1,334-375/. fterling. ‘This lofs was of
fuch a magnitude, that England would not confent to enter
into. any treaty with France, unlefs it fhouid contain, as ore
of its principal ftipulations, that the fortifications, harbonr,
bafon, fluices, and canal of Dunkirk were to be immediately
deftroyed, demolifhed, and filled up, at the expence of
France ; ard that the latter power fhou!d folemnly engage
never to attempt the repairing of thofe works. In conie-
quence of this declaration. a claufe to this effc&t was inferted
in one of the articles of the treaty of Utrecht, which was
figned on the 28th of April, 1713.

But the demolition of the forts and harbour of. Dunkirk
did not take place before the month of September, 1713s
when two Englifh commiflaries, colonels Armftrong and
Clayton, were ient from Englaad to Dunkirk, to watch
over the execution of the treaty. They witneffcd the de-
ftruGtion of the fortifications, the levelling of the jetties with
the ftrand, the filling up of the harbour and canai, and the
building of a large dam or bar acrois the entrance of the
bafon. Yet all this was no fooner accomplifhed, than
Louis XLV. conftrufied a new canal at Mardyk, by which
the harbour was rendered nearly as commodious as it had
been before,

However, in the year 1717, France was once more com-
pelledy by a treaty concluded at the Hague between Eng-
land, Holland, and France, to render the new canal of
Mardyk unferviceable ; and it was exprefsly ftipulated, that
no harbour, fluice, or bafon, fhould ever be made either at
Mardyk or Dunkirk, or within two French leagues round
the town. But in 1720, a violent ftorm, during which the
fea broke up the bar built acrofs the old harbour, reflored
its ufe in fome degree. This advantage was improved upon.
by Louis XV. in the year 1740, whilft England was en-
gaged ina war with Spain. ‘Lhe jetties were rebuilt, and
new forts ereéied in the place of thofe which had been de=
flroyed in 1713.

In the mean time, Louis XV. joined the Spaniards; and
at the conclufion of the war with England, it was for the
third time agreed upon, in the treaty of Aix la Chapelle,
figned in 1748, that all the works near Dunkirk towards
the fea fhould be deftroyed. France, however, not only
never completed this demolition, but even commenced fome
new works under-hand, notwithiending the repeated re-
monftrances of the Englifh court. At the beginning of the
feven years’ war, Dunkirk was in as good a-ttate of defence
towards the fea as it had been at any time during the war,
which was concluded by the treaty ef Aix la Chapelle.

The fame ftipulations were renewed at the peace of Paris,

in

DUN

in £562, but with no better effet. -The trade of Dunkirk
continued to flourifh: its principal commerce, during the
interval of peace from 1762 till the beginning of the Ame-
yican war, was with England, Ireland, and Scot!and, Spain,
Portugal, Sweden, Holland, and Denmark. In 1766,
Dunkirk had 46 fhips, or a tonnage of 2300 tons in the
herring fifhery. In’ 1767, it had in all 170 merchant veffels,
manned by 23485 failors; and befides its own veilels, there
entered the harbour of Dunkirk,
: 228 French fhips

176 Englifh

115 Dutch

34 Swedifh and Danifh

21 Spanifh

8 Hambro’ veflels, and
300 Smugglers

In all S882 Veffels.

And during the American war, it fitted out feveral priva-
teers. Before the French revolution of 1789, Dunkirk had
alfo five fhips in the flave trade. It is the native city of the
famous Jean Bart.

In the year 1801, or rather during the fhort fufpenfion
of hoftilities which took place between England and France,
in confequence of the peace of Amiens, Dunkirk had 20
fhips in the trade with America and the French colonies.
In ancient times, it had been in alliance with the Hanfeatic
towns, and its commerce in French wines and brandies
was always confiderable. It has been rated at 12,325
hoghheads of wine, and 8580 pipes of brandy annually.
From the year 1170 till 1794, or, more exactly, till the
feventh Ventofe ot the third year of the French republic,
Dunkirk had been a free port.

The road of Dunkirk lies at the diftance of 13 mile north-

wards of the town, within the Brak, a fand-bank which

N.N.E. from the jetty
ground, mixed with fand.
72 feet. on Salk oe

Dunkirk is one of the fix maritime diftri@s into which all
France is divided. It fuperintends all the ports and coafts
of the Channel and North fea, from the lait Dutch port to
Dunkirk included. As chief place of this maritime diftni@,
Dunkirk has a maritime prefe&, who fuverintends the mari-
time quarters of Antwerp, Malines, Bruffels, Gand, I’ Eclufe,
Je Sas de Gand, Ottend, Bruges, and Nieuport; each of
avhich has its fubdivifions, called fyndicates.

With refocé to the temperature of Dunkirk, its greateft
heat commonly is 23° 2’, che lealt 6° 6’; medium 8° 7’.
‘The highett elevation of the mercury in the barometer is
28 inches 8.3 lines, the loweft 27 inches 1.4 lines; medium
28 inches 1.1 line.’ There are annually 126 rainy days, and
the prevailing wind is the fouth-eeft wind.

The whole population of Dunkirk amounts to 21,158 in-
dividuals : but the town is divided into two parts, Eatt and
Welt, each of which is a feparate canton; the former having
9792 inhabitants, and comprifing 6 communes, with a po-
puiation of 13,761 individuals; the latter having 11,366
inhabitants, and containing 5 communes, with a population
of 13,742 individuals. The two cantons together have a
territorial extent of 155 kiliometres.

Contidered as a town, there is nothing particularly re-
markable at Dunkirk, excepting the quay, the -principal
treet, the roperies, and the failors’ barra¢ks. The houfes
> - Vou. Th:

The tide at Dunkirk rifes

attended with much terror to perfons of weak nerves.

DUN

have only one or two forics; the lower claffes live in cellara,
which opening into the ftreet, are rather a nuifance: how-
ever, it is aflerted, that thefe vaults are not unhealthy, being
dug in a very dry fand.

The principal manufa&tures of Dunkirk are thofe of to-
bacco, ftarch, glafs, and leather, befides feveral rope-walks,
diftilleries, and fugar-houfes. Herbin. Statiitique de la
France. ;

Dunkiex, a poft-town of America, in King and Queen
county, Virginia; 116 miles from Wathington.

DUNLAVIN, 2 market town of the county of Wicklow,
Ireland, on the road from Bleafington to Timolin, in which
are a good inn, a handfome market-houfe, &c. It is 10
miles S. from Naas, and about 22 S. by W. from Dublin.

DUNLEER, a market and poft-town of the county of
Louth, Ireland, on the great northern road’ from Dublio.
Iris 30 miles N. from Dublin, and 7 from Drogheda.

DUNLIN, in Ornithology, the Englifh name of the
Scoropax pujilla; which fee.

DUNLOPE, in Geography, a fort of America, on the
weft bank of little Miama river, about 12 miles above Co-
lumbia, intthe flate of Ohio. ;

DUNLUCE, on the northern coaft of Ireland, in the
county of Antrim, is the ruins of an old caftle, formerly be-
longing to the Antrim family, near Bufhmills. The only
paflage into the cafile lies along the top of a narrow wall,
built in the form of a rude arch, from the main land to the
rock on which the caftle ftands; an approach to which is
( Un-
derneath is a curious cave inthe rock. Itis 120 miles N.W.
from Dublin.

DUNMANUS-Bay, a bay of the Atlantic, on the
fouth-weft coaft of Ireland, in the county of Cork. It is
about 14 miles in length, and from one to three broad, and
is feparated from Bantry bay by a narrow mouatainous dii-
tri which terminates in the promontory of Sheep’s head.
This is a fafe harbour, but is one of the many on the weftern
coaft which have yet been applied to fo ufe. At prefent
there does not appear to be even a fifhing village on its
fhores. W. long. 9° 40’. N. lat. 51° 30’, at its mouth.

DUNMANWAY, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Cork. It is a cheerful thriving town, where fir Richard
Cox, formerly lord chancellor of Ireland, eftablifhed the
linen manufacture. It is on the Bandon river; and the
country from it to Bandon is a fine well-improvéd vale, con-
fifting of a light gravelly foil. The country on every other
fide is rocky. Dunmanway is 151 miles S.W. from Dublin,
and 27 miles W. from Cork, on the road to Bantry,

DUNMORE, a {mall poft-town in the northera part of
the county of Galway, Ireland, which contains 86 houles,
a market-houfe, and a parifh church, built on the fite of ax
old abbey. Near it is Dunmore caftle, a large venerable
ruin, pleafantly fituated on the banks of the river Dunmore.
It is gr miles W. from’ Dublin, and 7 miles frem Tuam.
Wilfon’s Directory.

Dunmore-Zay, a bay of the Atlantic, on the weft coaft
of Ireland, in the county of Clare. It is not a good har-
bour, but is frequented for fea-bathing. W. long.g° 35’
N. lat. §2° 44’.

Dunmore-Head, a cape on the welt coaft of Ireland, in
the county of Kerry. W. long. 10° 20’. N, lat. 52° 6’.

DUNMOW, Great, a market-town and parifh in the
hundred of Dunmow, in the county of Effex, England, is
fituated on an eminence near the river Chelmer, and confifts
principally of two. ftreets. The town is of great antiquity,
and is fuppofed to have been rhe fite of the Roman tiation
Cefaromagus ; which opinion has originated from the dif-

Yy cavery

DUN

covery of yarious Roman coins in the town and its vicinity,
and alfo by its fituation on a Roman road to Colchefler.
The parith is very extenfive, comprehending feven manors.
Thechurch, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, is a large an-
cient ftruéture, confifting of a nave, chancel, and aifles,
with an embattled tower at the weit end. Overthe entrance
into the latter are various fhields of arms, carved in ftone;
among which are thofe of the noble families of Mortimer,
Bohun, Bourchier, and Braybrocke, who are fuppofed to
have contributed towards the ereétion or repairs of the edi-
fice. Dunmow was incorporated under a charter granted in
the reign of Philip and Mary, and afterwards contrmed by
Elizabeth. The government is vefted in a bailiff and twelve
burgeffes. The number of houfes, in the return of 18or,
was 392; of inhabitants, 1828. The poorer claffes derive
their chief employmert from the manuta€ture of baize and
blankets. Dunmow is 37 miles N.E. from London; has a
weekiy market on Saturdays (by grant from Henry III.
A.D. 1253); and two annual fairs.

Duxmow, Little, a village about two miles diftant from
Great Dunmow, in the fame hundred, is noted for ap ancient
priory of Augultine canons, and aifo for a fingular cuftom
or tenure annexed to the manor. The priory was founded
in the year 1104, by lady Juga, fifter of Ralph Baynard,
who held the manor at the time of the Domefday furvey ;
and from whofe family Baynard’s caftle in London obtained
its name. On the fuppreffion, Henry VIII. granted the
fite of the priory, and the manor to Robert earl of Suffex.
The monattic buildings were fituated on a rifing ground,
fouth-weit of the church, but are now entirely razed; and
fome part of the fite is occupied by the prefent manor houfe.
Under an arch in the fouth wall of the prefent church is an
ancient tomb, fuppofed to contain the body of the foundrefs,
lady Juga. Near this fpot are fome well executed monu-
ments of the Fitz-Walters, by whom this lordfhip was pof-
feffed for eleven generations. To one of this family is attri-
buted the well-known cultom of giving a flitch of bacon to
any married couple, who had not repented of their marriage
fora year andaday. The earlieft delivery of the bacon on
record was in the 23d of Henry VI.; two other inftances
occurred previous to the fuppreflion of religious houfes ; and

three times it hasbeen delivered fince that period. The laft
erfons who received it were John Shakefhanks, woolcomber
of Wethersfield, and Anne his wife, who eltablifhed their
right on the 2oth of June, 1751. Morant’s Hiltory of
Effex, 2 vols. folio.

DUNNAGE, in Sea Language, a quantity of faggots,
boughs of trees, or other loofe wood, laid in the bottom of
a fhip, either to raile the heavy goods which might make
her too ftiff, or to keep the cargo {ufficiently above the bot-
tom, that it may receive no damage from the water, if the
fhip fhould prove leaky.

DUNNET, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Caithnefs, fituated om the eaft fide of a bay to
which it gives name. The number of inhabitants, ia 1791,
was about 1400. he bay affords excellent founders and
haddocks, and is fometimes frequented by shoals of herrings
in July and Auguft; 5 miles E. of Thurfo, N, lat. 58°
32'. Long. 0° 1’ W. of Edinburgh.

Dunnet Head, a cape on the north coaft of Scotland,
and county of Caithnefs. It confilts of feyeral hills, with
fome bold rocks towards the fea, from 100 to 400 feet in
height ; 34 miles N. of Dunnet.

DUNNOSE, acape or promontory ou the S.E. coaft of
the Ifle of Wight, in the Englifh channel ; about 17 leagues
W. from Beachy-head. N. lat. 50° 33’. W. long. 1° 14’.

DUNOIS, Joun D’Orveans, Count of, in Biography,

DUN

the natural foo of Louis duke of Orleans, was born in 14032
His father being affaflinated by the duke of Burgundy, his
duchefs Ceclared that he alone of the fons of the duke was
capable of avenging his death. He was from an early age
a youth of high martial fpirit, and of great fervice to his
countrys When France was almott reduced to the ftate of
cenquelt by England, he began to change its fortune by a
victory in 1427, of which the confequence was raifing the
fiege of Montargis. He afterwards threw himfelf into the
city of Orleans, which he defended with fo much valour and
intrepidity, when it was befieged by the duke of Bedford,
that he even refolved, rather than furrender, to fet fire to
the city, and make his way through the enemy. At this
critical moment appeared the celebrated Joan of Arc, by
whofe means the flege was raifed. Dunois dire&ted with
prudence the enthufiafa: which fhe infpired; and after her
unhappy death, rendered the handfomeft teftimony to her
memory. After this he atchieved many glorious deeds for
his country; and from the title of * Battard of Orleans,’?
by which he had been known, he was permitted to take the
title of count de Dunois. In addition to this, the king,
fenfible of the obligations he was under to him, caufed him
to be legitimated, and to be entitled ** The Reftorer of his
Country ;”’ and, to maintain bis rank, lands were prefented
him, and the office of great chamberlain was beltowed. In
the following reign, Dunois joined the infurre€tion called
the ‘‘ League for the public Good; and was afterwards
placed at the head of thirty-fix notables, appointed to reform
the ftate. He died in 1468. Moreri, Hitt. of France.

DUNRODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town
fituated in the northern part of the ifle of Albion, and bes
longing to the Carnovaces.

DUNROSSNESS, in Geography, a town of Scotland,
fituated in the fouthern part of the ifle of Shetland; 28 miles
S. of Lerwick. ;

DUNS, in Antiquities, are the remains of a peculiar kind
of buildings, which abound in the northern parts of Scot-
land, and in the Orkney and Shetland ifles; though not ex-
clufively fo, as it has been generally ftated. They are of
two kinds: the firft, which are maft prominent in their ap-
pearance, are circular caflles, fuch as the caftles of Moura
and Glenbeg, in the fhire of Invernefs; or circular pyra-
mids, like the f{pires of Brechin and Abernethy. Thefe
towers, which generally ftand upon fome eminence, vary as
to their internal ftru@ure, but beara great fimilarity in their
external appearance; though fome of them have additional
works of defence. Thus the burg of Moura was fur-
rounded by a wall, which now forms round it an heap of
ftones. Others are guarded by fof, both wet and dry
ditches of confiderable magnitude. ‘The fecond kind con-
fifts of numerous fubterraneous buildings, either entirely
under ground, or nearly fo: in the latter cafe, they ex-
hibit the external appearance of numerous tumuli, or what
in the highlands are called Here cairns, i.e. long burrows.
Some of them are much larger than others; aud a dun of
this kind confitts of ftrong circular walls without cement,
f{urrounding. a large oval area, which appears to have been
divided into feveral divifions, leaving a large internal {pace
in the centre, round which the other apartments ranged,
The incumbent roof of earth appears to have been fupported
by one or more wooden columns, with crofs beams, refting
upon the walls. The interior {pace was probably the dwell-
ing, while the furrounding rooms ferved for the purpofe of
laying up provifions, and other neceflary ftores. The hillock
over the upper flooring was raifed to keep the habitation
dry; and with the fame view, many of them were fur
rounded with a deep ditch, over which the entrance was

) made

DUNS.

made by a ridge of eatth, left unexcayated; and in fome
inftances, flanked by two dry walls.

They are not confined to one particular part, but are
found in the lowlands, as well as the highlands; in the in-
terior parts of the country, es well as in the ifles. Nor are

“they peculiar to Scotland. Specimens of both kinds exift in
Treland, Wales, and Cornwall; a faét which certainly goes
far towards demontftrating their Celtic origin. Although it
has been confidently afferted, that “they are confined to
the countries once fubje& to the crown of Norway,” and
out of our own kingdom, obferves a Scottifh writer, no
buildings fimilar to thefe are to be found, except in Scan-
dinavia. On the mountain Swalburg in Norway 1s one, the
Stirbifkop at Upfal in Sweden is another, and Umefborg in
the fame kingdom is another.

The names, fabricators, and defignation of thefe fingular
buildings have equally claimed the attention of antiquaries.
They are called in the Orkneys durgs, cr brughs, evidently
a Saxon term for a fortification. nthe main land, they
have divers epp-llations, as cafle'l, bowie, Celtic terms for
cavernous fortreffes 3 and Pids houfes, 2s the fuppofed habi-
tations of that ancient people. The general term, duns, is
from dun or din, 2 Celtic word, fimply fignifyirg {mall hills,
or fortified mound» of earth; and here apphed to defignate
the fhape of the fmaller, and fituation of the larger kind.
When the highlanders in the fhire of Invernefs are afked
to whom they belonged? the conftast anfwer is, that they

~ were the houfes of the Drinnich cr Trinaich. the Gaelic name
for labourers; a term which they invariably apply to the
Pids. :

_ By fome writers they have had a Danifh or Norwegian
origin afligned to them. Ware and Ledwich, in treating of
Infh antiquities, contend for their Damfh origin ; and Dr.
Borlafe, in treating of Ca/lell Chun. in the parish of Morvah,
is of opinion, that fuch kind of buildings mutt be attributed
to the Danes. But this mode of denomination is dire&ly
contrary to the analogy of tradition: for not only.in Scot-
land, but in England, it is almoft univerfally found, that
the works of an early age are not ufually attributed to the
people to whom of right they belong, but fucceflively to the
different bodies of victorious armies, who have occafionally
figured on the page of hiftory. Thus it has been common
for tradition, and thofe hiftorians who implicitly believe,
without having made previous inquiry, to defcribe camps as
Tanifh or Saxon, which originally were the fortified heights

* of Britons; and fubfequently, the ftrong holds occupied by
the Roman legions. But fetting afide the fabulous {tory of

> Kenneth Maczlpin, which has been the foundation of much
unprofitable controverfy, it would be very difficult to coun-
tera&t the force of arguments, adduced by the learned and
profound adept in the {chool of antiquarian refearch, whofe
name alone is itfelf an holt, the late erudite Mr. King; one
of which is, ‘* They are to be feen in parts of the kingdom,
where the Danes never penetrated.” And that he might
not make an affertion without advancing proof, which has
been haplefs too common a cafe in this national contention,
he refers to what is called Black cafile, in the Parifh of
Mouline, Perthfhire; to one of thefe buildings in the hill of
Drummin; and to feveral others in different parts of the
Glen Lion; which thew how numerous thefe ftruCtures were
in what was denominated the country of the Pi@ts. Mr.
Chalmers, in his hiflory of Caledonia, obferves, that many
of thefe edifices ‘* in the Orkney and Shetland iflands, and
in Caithnefs, have been erroneoufly called PiGith caftles,
Pictith towers, and Piés houfes, from a fabulous ftory
which attributes to Kenneth Macalpin the impolicy of driv-
ing many of the Picts into the northern extremity of our

ifland ; whence they fled to the Orkney and Shetland ifles.”?
But the learned author himfelf does'away the force of this
reafon for the denomination, by ftating in another part of
his work, that * it was afferted by ignorance, and believed
by credulity, that Kenneth made fo bad an ufe of the power
which he had adroitly acquired, as to deftroy the whole
PiGtifh people in the wantonnefs of his cruelty.’? Caled.
p-333- And he is confident enough to infer, from confi-
milarity in the appearance of many of thefe buildings with
others, which have generally been attributed to the northern
nations, that their origin mult be acknowledged Scandi-
navian. And in addition, he urges, that “not one of thefe
Srrengths bears any appellation from the Pi&ith or Britifh
language; and that they have no fimilarity to any of the
Jirengths of the genuine Pi&s, or Britith tribes of North
Britain.” Ibid. p. 343, 344.

For their Scandinavian origin, there is a degree of feafi-
bility ; becaufe, from the accounts given by travellers of
undoubted intelligence and veracity, it appears that, even
at the prefent period, the houfes of the Icelanders, allowed
to be the leaft unmingled Gothic colony, exhibit a ftriking
refemblance to thefe buildings. But the ground on which
Mr. King refts his judgment, and with a much greater de-”
gree of probability, is, that ‘the Pi@ith buildings, or
thofe fo called, refemble the Britifh remains in Cornwall and
South Wales.” And the writer of this article bas feen a
variety of remains of circular buildings, of a fimilar defcrip-
tion, in different parts of North Wales, particularly in
Caernarvonfhire, of the origin of which the inhabitants are
almoft traditionally unacquainted. They are in fome places
called ** round-abouts,” axd in others ‘¢ Arthur’s round
tables;”? Buarth caedeu, Buarth Arthur, &e.

Tt ts a curious circumftance attached to thefe monuments
of antiquity, that they have been made the criterion of fyf-
tematic inquiries diametrically oppofite. While Mr. King
and Mr. Chalmers lay down the fame general principle, as a
powerful argument of the Celtic derivation of the Pi@s; it
13 fingular that the one fhould attempt to prove they are of
Celtic, and the other as ftrenuoufly contend that they are of
Scandinavian origin. Upon a review of the arguments ad-
duced by both, the hypothefis of Mr. King appears to ftand
the beit fupported, from fimilar ftraGtures acknowledged the
retreats of the ancient inhabitants of the ifland, from the
etymons of their names, and from the traditions and come
parative hiltory of the country. :

OF their defignation and ufe equally different opinions have
been advanced. Of the firft kind, or circular buildings,
which appear above ground, no doubt can be entertained.
They were evidently qwatch towers, and occafional fortrefles
for defenfive warfare. Of the fecond fort, a latitude is af-
forded for variance in judgment. Thefe have been con-
fidered: as fortified veceffes. But reafoning from analogy,
they are evidently the remains of the Aydernacula, or winter
habitations of the aboriginal inhabitants ; who, principally
employed with their flocks on the hills, or cultivating the
open fields in the plains, during the {ummer months, there
ercGted their zltival tabernacles ; and when the ungenial
feafon arrived, they retired with their ingatherings to their
brumal habitations. Thus, like the other Britith tribes,
they had their Auc/odlys and gafen, their f{ummer and winter
refidences ; and fimilarity of cuttoms is a powerful argument
for affinity of origin. See Pennamt’s Tour in Scotland.
Statiftical Account of the Highlands. King’s Munimenta
Antiqua. Chalmers’s Hiftory of Caledonia.

Duns, Joxn, commonly called Duns Scotus, in Biogra-
phy, one of the fcholaftics who flaurifhed about the clofe of
the 13th and commencement of the i4th*centuries. * He

Dok ake wae

DUN

was born, probably, at Dunftance, near Alnwick in Nor-
thumberland. In his youth he was admitted to an inftitu-
tion belonging to the Francifcan friars at Newcaftle, and
fent by them to complete his education at Merton college in
the univerfity of Oxford, where he became a fellow, and dif-
ftinguifhed himfelf by his proficiency in f{cholaftic theology,
civiland canon law, logic, metaphyfics, mathematics, and altro-
nomy. About the year 1301, he occupied: the chair of theo-
logy in this univerfity ; and his fame drew together a great
number of fcholars to-attend upon his le@ures. Aboutthe
year 1304, he was admitted to the higheft honours in the

univerfity of Paris, wbither he was fent by his fuperiors ;

and appointed profeffor and regent in the theological {chool.
Having in this fituation acquired fingular reputation by his
fubtlety in difputation, he was denominated ¢ the moft fubtle

doétor ;?? but his ingenuity was principally difplayed in em- '

barraffing, with chimerical abftraGtion and puzzling diftine-
tions, fubj<ts already fufficiently perplexed, Thuss inftead
of promoting the knowledge of important and_ufeful
truth, he applied his talents and learning to purpofes that
were injurious to rational inveftigation and inquiry. In
the commencement of his literary career, he was a follower
of Thomas Aquinas; but differing from this *‘angelical
doGor,”? in his opinion concerning the efficacy of divine
grace, he formed a diftin@ fet; and hence proceeded the
two denominations of Thomiffs and Scotifis, which fee.
Duns Scotus was a zealous advocate for the immacu-
late conception of the Virgin Mary; a notion which
fome fay was firft propounded by him; and which, how-
ever, was itrenuoufly maintained by him and his fe&, in
conjunétion with the Francifcans, and as vehemently op-
pofed by the Thomifts and the Dominicans. In the year
1308, Duns Scotus was deputed by the fraternity of Minors,
of which. he was a member, to teach theology at Cologne ;
where he was received with great pomp and fanguine expec-
tations; but a fudden death, probably by an apoplexy, dif-
appointed the views:and hopes of his adherents. ‘This event
took place, as fome fay, in the 434, but according to others,
in the 34th year of hisage. But the precife time both of
his birth and death has not been afcertained. His works in
Gialeétics and fcholaflic theology are numerous; moft of them
were printed feparately, and the moft complete collection of
the whole, together with the lifeof the author, was pub-
Lifted by Lucas Waddingus, at Lyons, in 1639, in 12 vols.
folio. Cave’s Hiit. Lit. vol. ii. fub. fc. Wicklev. Mohh.
Eccl. Hit. fec. 14. Brucker’s Hift. Phil. Enfeid, vol. u.

.379. See Scuovastics and Scotists.

DUNSE, in Geography, a confiderable town and parifh
in the county of Berwick, Scotland ; is encompafled on the
welt, north, and eaft by the Lammermuir hills, a_ plain of
twenty-five miles extent lying towards the fouth. ‘The an-
cient ite of the town was onthe fummit of a hill called

Ipfum regem Anglorum

The words and {yllables in this manner fall on the right
notes. ‘

Danftable feems tohave acquired a great reputation on
the continent ; forheis-not only cited by Franchinus, but
John Tin&or, a writer fomewhat more ancient, who gives
to the Englifh the invention of the new art of counterpoint,
and places John Dunitable at their head. Speaking ot
counterpoint he fays, Cujus ut ita dicam move artis fous et

kt
An-ge-lo-rum

DUN

Dunfe-Law, which rifes, from a bafe of about two miles.
and ahalfin circumference, toan elevation of 630 feet above
the level of the fea. The town was afterwards rebuilt at the
foot of the hill. Abcut half a mile diftant is Dunfe-caftle,
alarge, venerable building, commanding an extenfive pro-
{pe@ fouthward as far as the Cheviot hills, and furrounded
by feveral hundred acres of thriving plantations; it is now
the family refidence of Hay of Drummelzier. In the year
1747 thecelebrated mineral well, called Dunfe-fpa, was dif~
covered ; it affords-a flrong chalybeate water, fimilarto that
of Tunbridge in England, Jn the vicinity is an extenfive
bleach-field, a tan-yard, and a very confiderable woollen
manufactory. ‘The population of the town is about 2400 ;
it has a weekly market; and four annual fairs, chiefly for
horfes, fheep, and biack cattle. ‘he parifh extends eight
miles in length and five in width: improvements in agricul-
ture proceed here with great rapidity. he river Whittader,
which rifesin Lammermuir, runs through the parifh, and
contains excellent falmon. Cockburn Law is a ufeful land
mark for fhips navigating the German ocean, as it rifes goo
feet above the fea. On this hill are the ruins of a very an=
cient ftru€ture called Woden’s or Eden’s Hall. ‘The cele-
brated theologift and metaphyfician Johannes Duns Scotus,
as fome fay, was bornin Dunfe A.D. 1274. The houfe in
which he was born is faid ftill to remain. Sinclair’s Statif-
tical account of Scotland.

DUNSKERKY, a fmall ifland near the north coaft of
Scotland ; 4 miles E.S.E. of Farout Head.

DUNSTABLE, Joun, in Biography, an Englifh mu-
fician, who at an early ftage of counterpoint, acquired o
the continent the reputation of being itsinventor. He was
the mufician whom: the Germans, from a fimilarity of name, ,
have mittaken for faint Dunftan, and to whom, as errone-
oufly, they have joined iilue with others in afcribing to him
the invention of counterpoint in four parts. “He was author
of the mufical treatife ‘** De Menfurabili Mufica,”? which is
cited by Franchinus, Morley, and Ravenfcroft. But though
this work is loft, there is ftiil extant in the Bodleian library,
a Geographical Tra by this author ; and, if we may believe
his epitaph, which is preferved by Weaver, he was not only
a mufician, but a mathematician, and an eminent aftrologer. ,
Of his mufical compofitions nothing remains but two or
three fragments in Franchinus, and Morley. He is very

_ unjuftly aecufed by this laf writer of feparating the fyllables

of the fame word by refs. But I belicve mafter Morley

was fo eager to make a wretched pun on the name of Dunf-
table, that he cid not fufficiently confider~the paflages
which he cenfwred; the errors in which feem to be only
thofe of the tran{criber or printer: for the laft fyllable of
Angelorum belongs to the laft note of the firt mufical
phrafe, defure the refts, and not to the fir note of the
fecond group. se

Sola Virgo

Virgo lactabat.

origo, apud Anglos, quorum Caput Dunftable exiitit fuiffe
perhibetur.”? It was ina MS. Latin tra@, in the poffeffion »
of Padre Martini, that I faw this curious paflage, which pro=,

-bably has done us fomecredit with thofe who have believed and
_tranfcribed it; but he could not have been the inventor of that

art concerning which feveral treatifes were written before he
was born. However thisis but one proof more of what has,
beenalready remarked, that whena miftake or a falfchood has

once

.
}

DUN

ence had admiffion into a book, it is not eafily eradicated ; and
this affertion concerning John of Dunftable’s invention of
counterpoint, asif it were not fufliciently falfe in itfelf, has been
aggravated by the additional blunder of miftaking his name
for that of St. Dunflan, Not only M. Marpurg, but the
editors of the Supplement tothe Encyclopedie, art. Contre-
point, have lately copied this error unexamined.

Dunflable, whom Stow calls «a mafter of altronomie and
mufic,’? was buried in the church of St. Stephen, Wal-
brook, 1458.

DunsvaB_e, in Geography, a poft town of America, in the
ftate of New Hampfhire and county of Hillfborough, on the
welt fite of Merrimack river, below the town of Merrimack,
and feparated by the {tate,line from Pepperel and Duntftable
in Middlefex county, Maffachufetts: incorporated in 1746,
containing 862 inhabitants, and lying about 40 miles N.W.
of Boiton.—Alfo, a townthip of Maflachufetts, in the
northern part of Middlefex county, on the fouthern bank of
Merrimack river; containing 485 inhabitants, and fituated
37 miles north wefterly of Botton.

Dunsranre. See Dunstapve.

DUNSTAN, Sv. in Biograply, was bora of noble parents
at Glattonbury in Somerfetfhire in the year 925. Under
the patronage of his uncle Aldhelm, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, he was well inflru&ted in the literature and accom-
plifhments of thofe times, and in confequence of his recom-
mendation invited by king Athelftan to court. By his own
addrefs and the intereft of his uncle the king prefented him
with fome lands near Giaftonbury, where he is faid to have
fpent fome years in retirement. Edmund, the fucceflor of
Athelltan, appointed him abbct of a monaftery, which he
founded in that place. ‘To this prince, however, he was repre-
dented as a man of licentious manners; and dreading the ruin
of his fortune, by fulpicions of this nature, he determined
to repair paft indifcretions by exchanging the extreme of
fuperitition for that of licentioufoefs. Accordingly he fe-
cluded himtelf altogether from the world; and he framed a
cell fo fmall, that he could neither ftand ere& in it nor ftretch
out his limbs during his repofe ; and here he employed him-
{elf perpetually in devotion or manual labour. In this re-
treat his mind was probably fomewhat deranged, and he
indulged chimeras, which, believed by himfelf and announced
to the credulous multitude, efablifhed a charater of fanctity
among the people. He is faid to have fancied that the
devil, amony the frequent vifits which he paid him, was one
day more earneft than ufual in his temptations ; till Dunftan,
provoked by his importunity, feized him by the nofe with a
pair of red-hot pincers as he put his head into the cell ; and
he held him there, till the malignant {pirit made the whole
neighbourhood refound with his bellowings. The people
credited and extolled this notable exploit ; and it enfured to
Dunftan a degree of reputation, which no real piety, much
lefs virtue, could, even in the moft enlightened period, have
ever procured for him, Supported by the charaGter gained
in his retreat, Dunftan appeared again in the world; and
gained fuch an afcendant over Edred, who had fucceeded to
the crown, as made him notonly the dire¢tor of that prince’s
confcience, but his counfellor in the moft important affairs of
government. The prince, deluded by an appearance of
fanétity, which covered the mott violent and moft infolent
‘ambition, gratified him by re-building Glaftonbury church

and monattery in avery {umptuous and magnificent ftyle.
He was pleced at the head of the treafury ; and being pof-
feffed.of power at court, and of credit with the populace, he
was enabled to attempt with fuccefs the moft arduous enter-
prizes. Taking advantage of the implicit confidence re-

poled in him by the king, Dunfan importedigto England

DUN

a new order of monks, who, by changing the ftate of eccle->
fiaftical affairs, excited, on their firft eftablifiment, the mott
violent cormmotions, Finding alfo that his advancement
had been owing to the opinion of his aufterity, he profeffed
himfelf a partizan of the rigid monaftic rules; and after in--
troducing that reformation into the convents of Glaftonbury
and Abingdon, he endeavoured to render it univerfal in the
kingdom. (Sze Cexisacy.) ‘This conduét, however, in-
curred the refentment of the fecular clergy; and thefe ex-
afperated the indignation of many courtiers, which had been
already exsited by the haughty and over-bearing de-
meanour which Dunftan aflumed. Upon the death of Edred,
who had fupported his prime minifter and favourite in all
his meafures, and the fubfequent fucceffion of Edwy,
Donitan was accufed of malverfation in his office and ba-
nifhed the kingdom. But his cabal had obtained an influ-
ence over the minds of the populace which it was not eafy to
fupplant, and during his abfence his fan@tity was extolled and
ferved toexcite infurreGtions againft the government of Edwy.
The moral and religious charaéter of the king and queen was
attacked, chiefly on the ground of their mutual attachment
and endearment, and pretences of various kinds were dire&ted
for colieéting together a great number of malcontents, who
placed Edgar at their head and determined to exclude the
reigning family. Edgar foon made himfelf matter of the
kingdom, and the death of Edwy made way for his accef-
fion to the throne. Asfoon as Edgar’s power \was elta-
blifhed, Dunftan was recalled and promoted firft to the
fee of Worcefter, then to that of London; and about the
year 959 to the archiepifcopal fee of Canterbury. For this -
laft advancement it was requifite to obtain the fan&tion of the
pope; and for this purpofe Dunftan was fent to Rome,
where he foon obtained the obje& of his wifhes and the ap-
pointment of legatein England, with very extenfive authos -
rity. Upon his return to England, fo abfolute was his influ-
ence over the king, he was enabled to give to the Romifh fee
an authority and jurifdi¢tion, of which the Englith clergy had
been before ina confiderab!e degree independent, In order the
more effeciually and completely to accomplifh this objec,
the fecular clergy were excluded from their livings and dif-
graced; and the monks were appvinted to fupply their places.
The {candalous lives of the fecular clergy furnifhed one plea
for this meafure, and it was not altogether groundlefs; but
the principal motive was that of rendering the papal power
abfolute in the Englifh church, for, at this period, the Eng-
lifh clergy had not yielded implicit fubmiffion to the pre-
tended fucceflors of St. Peter, as they refufed to comply
with the decrees of the popes, which enjoined celibacy on
the clergy. . Dunftan was aGtive ard perfevering, and fup-
ported by the authority of the crown, he conquered the
itruggles which the country had long maintained againit
papal dominion, and gave tothe monks an influence, the
baneful effects of which were experienced in England until
the era of the reformation. Hence Dunitan has been highly
extolled by the monks and partizans of the Romifh church;
and his character has been celebrated in a variety of ways,
and particularly by the miracles, which have been wrought
either by bimfelfor by others in his favour. During the
whole reign of Edgar, Dunftan maintained his intereit at
court; and upon his death, in 975, his influence ferved
to raife his fon Edward to the throne, in oppolition
to Ethelred. Whilft Edward was in his minority, Dunftan
tuled with abfolute {way both in the chureb and ftate, but
on the murder of the king in 979, and after the acceflion of
Ethelred, his credit and influence declined; and the con-
tempt with which his threatenings of divine vengeance were °
regarded by the king are faid tg have mortified him to fuch .
4 a degree,

DUN

a degree, that he returned to his archbifhopric, and died of
grief and vexation 1m the year 9S8. Cave’s Hift. Lit. vol. ii.
p: to2z. Rapin’s Hi. Engl. vol. i. Hume’s Hitt. vol. i.

Dunftan is mentioned by feveral German writers not only
as a great mufician, but as the inventor of mufic in four
parts: a miftake that has afifen from the fimilarity of his
name with that of Dunftible, one of the earlieft writers on
counterpoint in this enti 3 at leaft it is certain, that mu-
fic in four parts was not ouly unknown here, but throughout
Europe, in the tenth century, during which Dunftan flou-
rifhed. Dunftan died 988, aged G4. Indeed, almoft all
the Monkifh writers thought it neceflary to make a conjurer
of this turbulent prelate. Fuller, (Church Hittory,-1666, )
who has confulted them all, tells us, that he was an excel-
lent mufician, which, according to this writer, was a quali-
fication very requifite to ecclefiaftical preferment ; for, he
informs us, that, ‘* preaching, in thofe days, could not be
heard for finging in churches.” However, the fuperior
knowledge of Dunftan in mufic was numbered among his
crimes; for being accufed of magic to the king, it was
urged againft him, that he had conftru€ted, by the help of
the devil, (probably before he had taken him by the nofe,)
a harp, that not only moved of itfelf, but played without
any human afliftance. With all his violence and ambition,
it may be fuppofed, that he was a man of -genius and ta-
lents; fince it is allowed, by the Jeaft monkifh among his
hiftorians, that he was not only anexcellent mufician, but a
notable painter and ftatuary, which, fays Fuller, * were
two very ufeful accomplifhments for the furtherance of
faint-worfhip either in pictures or in ftatues.””

Indeed, it is exprefsly faid, in a MS. life of this prelate,
(Vit. St. Dunftas. MSS. Cott. Brit. Muf. Fauftin. b. xiii.)
that among his facred ftudies, he cultivated the arts of
writing, harping, and painting. It is likewife upon record,
that he calt two of the bells of Abingdon abbcy with his
own bands. (Monaft. Anglic. tom. i. p. 104.) And ac-
cording to William of Malmefbury, who wrote about the
year 1120, the Saxons had organs in their churches before
the conqueft. He fays, that Dunitan, in the reign of king
Edgar, gave an organ to the abbey of Malmefbury ; which,
by his defcription, very much refembled that in prefent ufe,
** Organa, ubi per zreas fiftulas muficis menfuris elaboratas,
dudum conceptas follis vomit anxius auras.” William, who
was a monk of this abbey, adds, that this benefaétion of
Dunftan was infcribed in a Latin diftich, which he quotes,
en the organ-pipes. Vit. Aldhem. Whart. Ang. Saer. ii.
P- 33- Otb. Vit. S. Duntt.
DUNSTANG, in Geography, atown of Lithuania, in
the palatinate of Wilna; 28 miles N. E. of Wilkomierz.

DUNSTAPLE, a market town and parifh in the
hundred of Manfhead and county of Bedford, England,
is fituated on a chalky foil at the entrance of the Chil-
tern hills, where the Roman Watling ftreet is croffed by the
Ickneild-ftreet. It was conttituted a borough and market
town by king Henry I. who, to defeat the depredations of
robbers who infefted that part of the country, encouraged a
fettlement here, and built a royal manfion for himfelf. The
name of the town is by fome fuppofed to be derived from
Dun, a chief of the robbers, but is with greater probability

attributed to the market or ftaple on the downs. In-

the year 1131, the king beftowed the town with all its rights
and privileges on a priory of Black Canons which he had
founded near his palace. The town and priory were the
fcenes of many royal vifits and folemnitics in that and fe-
veral fucceeding reigns. In 1290 the corpfe of Eleanor,
Edward L.’s queen, was depofited here one night, which was
commemorated by the ere&tien of a crofs in the market

DUN

place. This remained till 1643, when it was deftroyed by
the parliamentary forces. The priors of Dunftaple enjoyed
very confiderable rights and liberties; having the power of
life and death vefted in them. At the diffolution in 1554
the fite of the priory was granted to Dr. Leonard Chamber-
layne; it is now the property of Col. Maddifon. Theonly
remains of the conventual buildings, except what is now
the parifh church, area few rooms roofed with vaulted and
groined ftone, In the prefent par:fh church, which contains
only the nave of that of the old priory, different ftyles of
architeGture are difplayed. The infide is part of the origi-
nal flruGure. At the weft end is a ftone gallery, which has
pointed arches; the windows are more modern. The deco-
rations of the weft front externally are of the early pointed
ftyle. The great weftern door hasa femicircular arch, richly
ornamented, but is now ina mutilated ftate. The town con-
filts of four principal ftreets, anfwering to the cardinal points.
At the fouth end are a refpeGtable charity fchool endowed in
1712, and feveral alms-houfes. But few of the privileges
conferred by Henry I. are now retained by the town{men ;
the government is velted in four conftables. The chief ma-
nufa@tureis that of various articles, ufeful and ornamental,
in ttraw, particularly hats, which are known throughout the
kingdom by the name of Dun/laples, the making of which
affords fubfiftence to a great number of women and girls.
King Henry I. granted two'markcts, held on Sundays (no
unufual thing in ancient tintes) and Wednefdays ; the latter
only is now inufe, with four annual fairs. Dunftaple is 33
miles N.W. from London; and contains, according to the
returns under the late population at, 243 houfes and 1296
inhabitants. Among the natives of this town, was Elkanah
Settle, well known for his dramatic and political writings,
which were publifhed towards the clofe of the 17th century.
The firft attempt at theatrical reprefentations in this kingdom
is fuppofed to have been made in this town.

Aboutamile weft of Dunftaple are the remains of an an-
cient fortification, called AJaiden Bower. It is a circular
earth-work, about 2500 feet in circumference, confifting of
a fingle vallum and ditch,

Two miles north-weft of the town, on the brow of a hill,
is fituated Totternhoe-caftle, a work of great ftrength, con-
fifting of a lofty circular mount, with a flight vallum rouad
its bafe, and a larger one of an irregular form at fome
diftance. On the fouth-eait fide is an encampment about
500 feet long and 250 wide ; of which three fides are guarded
by a vallum and ditch; the fourthbeing on the edgeof a
precipice hasno vallum. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. i
Britton’s Archite@tural Antiquities, vol. i.

DUNSTER, a town of England, in the county of Sos
merfet, having a weekly market on Friday; 202 miles W.
of Bridgewater, and 15383 W. of London.

DUNTER Goose, a fpecies of the wild goofe, found
in Zeatland. Phil. Tranf. N° 473. § 8. See Cuth‘ert Duce.

DUNUM, Bay of, in Ancient Geography, is fuppofed te

have been the mouth of the river Tees.

DUNWICH, in Geography, now a {mall borough and ©

market town, in the hundred of Blything, in the county of
Suffolk, England, was, during part of the Anglo-Saxon
dynaity, a bifhop’s fee, in which eleven prelates prefided.
In the year 955, this bifhopric was united with that of Elm-
hem in Norfolk, and both were foon afterwards transferred
to Thetford, and thence, in 1088, to Norwich. Spelman
ftates, that the town at one time contained 52 churches ;
but he muft certainly mean the fee. Dunwich, at prefent,
confifts of 42 houfes, and 184 inhabitants. It fends two

members to parliament; who are elected by a few free-

men refiding within the borough, and who do not bea
alms,

pr* ve

DUP

alms. The corporation confifts of two bailiffe and 12 capi-
€al burgeffes. In the town are the remains of an old church,
which fome antiquarics endeavour to prove was the Saxon
‘cathedral. Here are alfo fome remains of an ancient cha-
pel, and a building called the palace. Here is a {mall mar-
ket on Monday, and one annual fair. See Gardner’s
Hitlory of Dunwich,

Dunwicu, a townthfp of America, in the county of
Suffolk, in Upper Canada, W. of Southwold, having the
river I'names for its north, and lake Erie for its fouth
boundary. |
_ DUNZ, or Duns, Joun, in Biography, painter of
portraits and flowers. He was born at Berne, in Switzer-
land. Pofleffing an affluent fortune, he never painted for
money ; but was, neverthelefs, indefatigable in bis art. He
Was a great encourager of the arts and artifts of his own
time, and was much refpedted for his virtues. Died 1736.
Vie des Peintres Flamands, &c.

DUO, in Mufic, a fong, or compofition, to be performed
in two parts only; the one fung, and the other played on an
inltrument ; or by two voices alone. See Duer.

Dvo.is alfo when two voices fing different parts, accom-
panied with athird, which is a thorough bafe. Unifons
and oétaves are rarely to be ufed in duos, except at the be-

inning and end.
DUOBUS, Pilule ex, in Medicine. See Pitts.
Duosus, Sal de. ' See Surpuar of Pota/h.
DUODENALIS, in Anatomy, a term applied to fuch
parts as belong to the duodenum ; as the arteries, veins, &c.
DUODENUM, the firft portion of the {mall inte(tine
which communicates at its origin with the ftomach, through
~ the pylorus, and is continuous, at its termination with the
jejunum, or fecond divifion. See InrEsTINE.
DUPAGE, in Geography, a circular lake on the S. E.
fide of Plein river in America, or rather an enlargement of
that river; 5 miles from its mouth. Flein and ‘Theakiki
there form the Illinois.
DUPATY, in Biography, a diftinguifhed magiftrate,
and man of letters, was born at Rochelle, and became ad-
vocate-general to the parliament at Bourdeaux, and after-
‘wards prefident @ mortier. We acquired great honour by
his firmnefs and eloquence at the revolution in the magiftracy
which took place in 1771, and fuccefsfully defended three
ea of Chaumont, who had been condemned to be bro-

en on the wheel. He publifhed * Hiftorical RefleGions
upon the Criminal Laws,” which difplay an humane and en-
lightened mind, and was long occupied in promoting a re-
form on this fubje&, contending with a zeal worthy the
- caufe againft the obftacles, which prejudice and powerful
influence threw in his way. He {pent the latter part of his
life at Paris, and made himfelf known, as a man of letters,
by * Academical Difcourfes,” and ‘ Letters on Italy.”
He was thought too clofe an imitator of the manner of
Diderot, by which his ttyle did not appear to advantage.
He died in 1788. Gen. Biog.

DUPHLY, a mufical proteffor on the harpfichord, who
compofed fome agreeable pieces in the French ftyle of the
time, (30 or 40 yearsago,) which were printed in England
by Walfh, and which, as well as their author at Paris, were
in high favour here, and thought well calculated to form the
hand. Duphly was employed by Ronffeau in drawing up
the article Doigier, fingering ; but his method is not what
would be called good now, nor did it agree with the method
of Couperin, good at the beginning of the Jaft century, and
in many particulars ftill excellent.

DUPIN, Louis Exuis, a celebrated ecclefiaftical hif-
torian, was born at Paris in 1657, where he was educated.

DUP

In the year 1672, he was admitted to his degree, on which
occafion he particularly recommended himfelf to notice, by
the able manner in which he performed the cuftomary exer
cifes. Having fixed upon theology as a profeffion, he ftu-
died at the Sorbonne, and then applied himfclf with the
utmoft diligence to the hiflory of the councils, and the
works of the fathers. In the year 1680, he was licenfed
to officiate as a prieft, and, in 1684, he received the bon-
net of doétor of the Sorbonne, and then employed his time

‘and talents on his great work, entitled ** Bibliothéque uni-

verfelle des Auteurs Ecclefiattiques,’? &c. or, * Hiltory of
Ecclefiaftical Writers, containing aa Account of the Aus
thors of the feveral Books of the Old and New Teftament ;
and the Lives and Writings of the primitive Fathers,’ &c.
&c. This work was well received, and has maintained a
high reputation to the prefent time, as well for the infor-
mation which it conveys, as for its impartiatity. [t has gone
through many editions in France, Holland, and this coun-
try. He next publifhed, “An Account of the Writers of
the firft Three Centuries.?? This work appeared in 1686,
and was followed by a fucceffion of volumes, publifhed at
different periods, from that time to 1719. Before M.
Dupin had completed his * Account of the Writers of the
firft Eight Centuries,” the freedom of his opinions called
forth the remarks of fome monks, which obliged him to
juftify what he had written. hele were not the only ene-
mies with whom he had to ftruggle; the celebrated Boffuet,
in his zeal for the catholic faith, colleéted a number of pro-
pofitions from the volumes of Dupin, which he afferted
were of a highly dangerous tendency. he hiftorian re-
trafted, and was allowed to proceed without farther inter-
ruption. Notwith{tanding the labour of refearch which this
work required, the author, during the time of publifhing
it, prefented to the world many other volumes on different
fubje&ts, and he fuftained at the fame time the office of
commiffary in the concerns of the faculty of the Sorbonne
difcharged the duties of profeffor of philofophy in the
colleze royal; furnifhed important contributions to the
Journal des Scavans ;” fupplied numerous applicants with
Memoirs, prefaces, advice on literary and other fubjects 5
and yet, by his induftry, and a methodical diltribution of
his time, found leifure to indulge in the fociety, and con-
verfation of his friends. In the difpute concerning the
opinions of Janfenius, he took that fide which expofed him
to the refentment of the pope, and of the court of France,
and was, accordingly, deprived of his profefforfhip in the
year 1703, and likewife banifhed: nor was he permitted to
return to Paris before he retraéted the meafures which he-
had taken ; and even then he was not rein{tated in his pro-
fefforfhip. This was not his only trouble ; he was harraffed
under the regency, on account of the correfpondence which
he held with Dr. Wake, archbifhop of Canterbury, relative
toa proje& for uniting the churches of England and France.
In the beginning of the year 1719, his papers were feized,
by order of government, aod innumerable calumnies propa
gated to his prejudice ; butas no charge could be made out
againft him, he was permitted to {pend his few remaining
days in peace. He died in a very fhort time after at Paris,
in the 62d year of his age, regretted by his friends, and by
his enemies, who were now alhamed of their conduct to-
wards him. His works were very numerous, of which an
account will be found in Moreri, and alfo in the Gen.
Biography.
DUPINO, or Durnin, in Geography, atown of Poland,
in the palatinate of Pofnania; 44 miles fouth of Pofen.
DUPLA, Durte Ratio, is where the antecedent term
is double the confequent; or, where the exponent =
the

DUTP

the ratio is 2:—thus 6: 3 is in a duple ratio, Sce
Rario. 2

Durte, Sub, Ralio, is where the confequent term 1s
double the antecedent; or, the exponent of the ratio is 5:
Thus, 3: Gis ina fub-duple ratio.

Durva Se/quiakera } Roiieeeee Rati.

Durpxa Superbipartiens tertias :

Dueve Time. See Tims.

DUPLEIX,-Scrpro0, in Biography, a French hiftorian,
was born at Condom in 1569. Queen Margaret of Na-
varre brought him to Paris in 1605, and made him her
matter of requefts. After this he was appointed hiltorio-
grapher of France, and laudably employed many years in re-
fearches into the ancient records of his country. Hence he
publifhed * Memoirs of the Gauls,”? 1619, 4to., which, on
account of the fe Ys contained in them, were highly efteemed.
It might alfo be regarded as the firlt part of his «* Hiftory
of France,’? which is brought down to the vear 1545.
The laft two reigns were revifed by cardinal Richlieu, which
will account for the adulation paid to that minifter. He
intended to have re-written a part of the work after the
death of the cardinal, but did not live to efiet it. He
was author of a “ Roman Hiftory,’’ and a ** Courfe of Phi-
lofophy,”’ and other pieces of no great note. In the decline
of life he compofed a work on the liberties of the Gallican
church, which he prefented in MS. to the chancellor Seguier,
requefting permiffion to print it, but the chancellor unfeel-
ingly threw it in the fire before his face. The poor old
man was fo affeéted with this circumftance that he never again
looked up, and died foon after, in 1661, at the age of 92.
Moreri.

Dupceix, Josern, acelebrated F-ench naval commander
in the Eatt Indies, was brought up to a mercantile life, and
fent out inthe year 1730 to dire& and fupport the declining
fettlement of Chandernagore, which, by his activity and great
addrefs, he reftored to a moft profperous condition. He
‘extended his country’s commerce through the great mognl’s
territories as far as Tibet, and eftablifhed a maritime trade
with the Red fea, the Perfian gulf, the Maldives, and Manilla.
And in 1742 his great fervices were recompenfed with the
government of Pondicherry. In 1746 La Bourdonnais af-
ferted the honour of the French flag, by difpoffefling the
Englith of Madras: this excited the jealoufy of Dupleix,
who broke the capitulation, and fent charges againit Bour-
donnais to the French court, which caufed him to be confined
in the Bafile. In 1748 the Engliffi attacked Pondicherry,
but Dupleix was fuccefsful in its defence, and exhibited fo
much {ki and heroifm on the occafion, that he was rewarded
with the title of marquis, and the red ribbon. From this
time his ambition was almoft boundlefs, and to him is to be
afcribed the fyftem of entering into the quarrels of the na-
tive powers, and effiting them alternately againft each other,
fo as to render them at length tributaries and fubjets, and
almoft the flaves of European fettlers. He was at firft very
fuccefsful in his projects, and procured for himfelf the nabob-
fhip of the Carnatic, of which he was extremely proud, and
indulged his vanity in afluming the ftate of a fovereign
prince. But fortune foon turned againft him: the Englith
under Lawrence and Clive became triumphant, and expelled
the French from their ufurpations. Dupleix was recalled in
1754, and the mortifications which he experienced at home
preyed fo much upon his mind, that he died foon after his
return. Hilt. of France. Modern Univ. Hift.

DUPLICATE, a fecond initrument, or a& in writing;
or atranfcript, or copy of another. '

The word is formed from the Latin duploma, or duplum,
double.

DvP
Tt is ufual.to fend a duplicate, when it is apprehend the
fir't difpatch, &c. is loft. ie
Dupticats, in Chancery, is particularly ufed foratond

letter patent granted by the lord chancellor, ina cafehere
he had formerly done the fame. See Parent. —

Dupuicare Ratio, the ratio between the {quares + two
quantities. Thus the duplicate ratio of ato dis the rio of
aato bb, or of the fquare of a to the [quare of d.

In a feries of geometrical proportions, the firft tm to
the third is faid to be in a duplicate ratio of the firlks the
fecond; or as its fquare is to the fquare of the feond thus
in 2, 4, 8, 16, the ratio of 2 to 8, is duplicate of theof 2
to 4, or as the {quare of 2 to the fquare of 4: whefore,
duplicate ratio is the propoftion of fquares; as trtplite is
of cubes, &c. and the ratio of 2 to 8, is faid to beom.
pounded of that of 2 to 4, and of 4 to 8.

Durvicare Root, among Batanifls, one compoled two
coats. See Roor.

DUPLICATION, Dovusttne, in Arithmetic, ar Geo
metry, the multiplying of a quantity, either diferete, ocon-
tinued, by two.

Durxication of a Cube, is the finding of the fidof a
cube that fhall be double in folidity to a given cube; hich
is a famous problem cultivated by the geometriciantwo
thoufand years ago.

It was firft propofed by the oracle of Apollo at Dehos;
which, being confulted about the manner of flopper a
plague then raging at Athens, returned for anfwerthat
the plague fhould ceafe when Apoilo’s altar, whiclwas
cubical, fhould be doubled. Upon this, they applied em-
felves in good earneft, to feck the duplicature of the ube,
which henceforward was called the Delian problem. The
problem is only to be folved by finding two mean ppor-
tionals between the fide of the cube, and double that de;
the firft whereof will be the fide of the cube doubled, cwas
firft obferved by Hippocrates Chius.

Thus let x and = be two mean proportionals betwa a

a 2 2

sw
and 2a: thena:x::x:2 = —; and x: —t:—24;

a Cie:
therefore x} = 243. Suppofing the fide of the given tar
a to be io, then the cube root of 2 a3, or 2000, founby
approximation, will be the fide of the altar required, nely.

Eutochius, in his comments on Archimedes, gives Ve-
ral ways of performing this by the mefolabe. Paus
Alexandrinus, aad his commentator, Commandine, ive
three ways: the firlt, according to Archimedes; the fecid,
according to Hero; and the third, by an inftrument invacd
by Pappus, which gives all the proportions required.

The fieur de Comiers has likewi‘e publifhed an cleint
demonftration of the fame problem, by means of a commis
with three legs; but thefe methods are all onlyit
chanical.

Re-Durrication. See REDUPLICATION.

Duptication, aterm in the French plain-chant. 40 _
intonation by duplication is made by a kind of pericl’s
or leading notes, doubling the penultima note of the wd
which terminates the intonation ; and which can only ip-
pen when this penultima is below the terminating note. ©
duplication then ferves to prepare and mark the clufe inte
manner of a xote fenfible, ov fharp 7th of the key. <€
PERICLEsIs. :

DUPLICATUM Arcanum. See Arcanum.

DUPLICATURE, in Anatomy, a térm applied to1e
folds of membranes or other foft parts, in which other
gans are contained. Hence all duplicatures confift of 19
Jayers. ‘Phas the hips and eyclids confit of duplicaturset

‘

DIU?

Yhe ‘kin the cartilage of the ear is enclofed in a duplicature
of the fme part; the inteftines, with the mefenteric vef-
fels, &care inclofed ina duplicature of the peritoneum, &c.

DULIN, in Geography, a county of America, in the
ftlate of Yorth Carolina and diftri&@ of Wilmington, bounded
E. by Gflow, and S.W. by Sampfon. The number of in-
habitantis 6790, of whom 1364 are flaves. The farmers
general! cultivate wheat and rice, but more commonly eat
bread mde of Indian corn Cotton and {weet potatoes are
railed i confiderable quantities. The court-houfe is 55
miles Nof Wilmington, and 566 from Philadelphia.

DULODES. See Gamsezon.

DUDNDIUS, in Antiquity, a weight of two pounds;
‘or a moey of the valne of two affes. See As.

As te as, at firft, weighed a jult pondo, or libra, the du-
pondiuthen weighed two. «And hence the name.

Andhough the weight of the as was afterwards dimi-

“nifned, ad of confequence that of the dupondius alfo, yet they
ilill retmed the denomination. See Pounp and Liszra.

Dupedii, or double affes, were coined both in the former
and lat period of the commonwealth. The dupondius
was halthe Sefertius (which fee), and worth one penny
fterling Prior to Auguitus, and before the Orichalcus, or
yellow tals, appeared in the Roman coinage fo generally as
it did aerwards, this coin was ftruck in copper juft double
the fizof the as. There are indeed dupondii of Julius in
yellow rafs, weighing half an ounce, with ahead of Venus
Vicrrx on one fide, and Casar Dict. Ter. reverlea
female gure, with ferpents at her feet, C. Crovi. Prar.;
others save a victory on the reverfe, with Q. Oppius Pr.
From te time of Augutius the dupondius was ftruck in
yellow>rafs; as Pliny informs us it was in his time: and it
is know that no change took place between that and the
Augulin age. When this mode firlt began, the dupondi-
arius, ted by Pliny, feems to have been adopted, expreffing
that theoin was not dupondiua, or double the weight of the
‘as, butof a dupondiary value. The word dupondius,
howeve was uever confined, in its literal acceptation, to
double eight, for Vitruvius and Varro ufe it as double length
‘or meajrc, in the inftance of dupondius pes, that is two feet,
‘andthdike. Hence, in the imperial times, it did not mean
acoin’ double the weight of the as, but of double the
value. ‘lhe feltertius weiehed an ounce, and the dupondius
was th half of it; the as being of copper, as Pliny informs
us; anit is inferred from him and from the whole coins
thet reain, that it ftood at half an ounce, till the gradual
declin@f the feftertius, hardly perceivable before the time
of Alcander Severus, brought the as along with it. The
duponae, being the half of the {eftertius, kept pace with it
throng all its tages. (See Sesterrius.) It was one of
the m& common coins in the Roman empire, and it was
alfo camon in the Byzantine empire. Altbough the du-
pondiv was of the fame fize with the as, it was commonly
of mua finer workmanship, as its metal was efteemed fupe-
rior inyalue. The feftertius and the dupondius continued
to be f yellow brafs to the termination of the feftertius
under allienus; and the as was always of coppcr. Pink-
erton’éiflay on Medals, vol. i.

DUORT, in Biography, a powerful performer on the
violondlo. Till our Cro/dil, ftimulated, perhaps, by his
examp, had vanquifhed all the difficulties of finger-board
and be, incident to the inftrument, we fhould readily have
joinedvith M. Laborde, in calling him the moft admirable
perforer on the violoncello that has ever beenheard. When
in Enjand with his younger brother, it was thought that
he cou! only be excelled by the elder.

© ses Brian, a refpeGtable Englith prelate, who

WL. XII,

DUUrP

flourifhed in the t7th century, was born at Lewifham, i:
Kent, inthe year 1588. The firft part of his education he
had at Weltminfter fchool, from whence he was removed
to Chrift-church, Oxford, in the year 1605. Here he took
his firft degree ; and in 1612, he was cholen fellow of All-
Souls college. Two years after, he took his degree of
M.A.; and having entered into orders, he travelled on the
contirent for fartherimprovement. In 1619, he was made
a proctor to the univerfity of Oxford ; and in 1625, he took
the degree of doGor in divinity. Ac this time he was chap-
lain to the prince Palatine, and hkewife to the earl of
Dorfet ; by the intereft of the latter, he was appointed to
the deanery of Chrift-church, in the year 1629. He was,
in the year 1632, chofen to the office of vice-chancellor of
the univerfity of Oxford; and in 1634, he was appointed chan-
cellor of the church of Sarum, and chaplain to king Charles I.,
who, in 1638, gave him the office of tutor to Charles,
prince of Wales, and his brother, the duke of York : in the
fame year he was nominated to the bifhopric of Chichetter,
and in 1640 tranflated to the fee of Salifbury, though, owing
to the confufion of the times, be drew no emolument from
it. He was a great favourite with the king, attended him
clofely in the fcenes of his affliGtion, and is faid to have
affitted him in the compofition of the “ Eikon Bafilike.”
After the death of his royal mafter, bifhop Duppa retired to
Richmond, in Surrey, where he {pent the greater part of
his time in folitude, until the reftoration opened to him
brighter profpeéts. On the accomplifhment of that event,
the loyalty of the bifhop was rewarded by a tranflation to
the rich bifhopric of Winchefter, to which he was nominated
in 1660 ; he was alfo made lord almoner, and received other
marks of royal diftinction, In the following year, he began
to build, at his own expence, an hofpital for the poor of
Richmond, and projeéted other works of piety and benevo-
lence ; but death, in 1662, {topped his hand. Charles II.
fo much refpeéted his faithful tutor and fteady friend, that
he paid him a vifit only a few hours before his deceafe, and,
it is faid, knelt down by his bed-fide, and fought the bleffing
of the dying prelate, which he, no doubt, bettowed with
true zeal and devotion. ‘he bifhop died, as he had ever
lived, honoured and beloved by all who knew him, and
leaving behind him a character exemplary for piety, candour,
humility, mecknefs, gererofity, and every ufcful virtue.
He was author only of a few occafional fermons. Burnet,
in his hiftory, affumes, that bifhop Duppa was unequal to
the taf of educating the young princes; but the biogra~
phers of the prelate have given good reafon to believe he
was admirably qualified for the office, as well by his talents
as his ftrict integrity. Biog. Britan.

DUPRE, De Sr. Maur, Nicuovas, was born ac Paris
about the clofe of the 17th century ; by his education, he
was intended for the law, and obtained a place of matter of
the accounts. He acquired great reputation as a man of
letters, and was one of the firft of his countrymen who pof-
fefled a tafte for Englifh literature, and who endeavoured to
promote it among his countrymen. He tranflated Milton’s
Paradife Loft, which, perhaps, was as well done as the
nature of the thing would allow, and on account of it, he
was admitted into the French academy, in 1733. He wrote
alfo an ‘¢ Effay on the Monies of France,”? 1746, 4to.; ‘ In-
quiries into the Value of Monies, and the Price of Corn,”
1761, 12mo. And he communicated to Buffon ‘“ Tables
on the Duration of Human Life,’”? which are to be found in
his Natural Hiftory of Man. M. Dupré died in 1775, at a
very advanced age, leaving behind him a number ot MSS.
on the iame kind of topics as thofe which he had difeuffed
during his bfe, Gen. Biog.

Zz DUPUIS,

D UCP

the ratio is 2:—thus 6: 3 is in a duple ratio.
Ratio.

_ Dupre, Sub, Ratio, is where the confequent term is
double the antecedent; or, the exponent of the ratio is 4:
Thus, 3: 61s ina fub-duple ratio.

Dupta Se/quialera :

Durpra Sper bisarici tertias } Ratio. See Ratio.

Durce Time. See Tims.

DUPLEIX,-Scrrio, in Biography, a French hiftorian,
was born at Condom in 1569. Queen Margaret of Na-
varre brought him to Paris in 1605, and made him her
matter of requefts. After this he was appointed hiltoric-
grapher of France, and laudably employed many years in re-
fearches into the ancient records of his country. Hence he
publifhed * Memoirs of the Gauls,’? 1619, 4to., which, on
account of the fe %s contained in them, were highly efteemed.
It might alfo be regarded as the firlt part of his «* Hiftory
of France,’? which is brought down to the vear 1545.
The laft two reigns were revifed by cardinal Richlieu, which
will account for the adulation paid to that minifter. He
intended to have re-written a part of the work after the
death of the cardinal, but did not live to effet it. He
was author of a “ Roman Hittory,”’ and a ‘* Courfe of Phi-
lofophy,” and other pieces of no great note. In the decline
of life he compofed a work on the liberties of the Gallican
church, which he prefented in MS. to the chancellor Seguter,
requefting permiffion to print it, but the chancellor unfeel-
ingly threw it in the fire before his face. The poor old
man was fo affeted with this circumftance that he never again
looked up, and died foon after, in 1661, at the age of 92.
Moreri.

Dupveix, Josern, acelebrated F-ench naval commander
in the Eatt Indies, was brought up to a mercantile life, and
fent out inthe year 1730 to dire& and fupport the declining
fettlement of Chandernagore, which, by his activity and great
addrefs, he reftored to a moft profperous condition. He
‘extended his country’s commerce through the great mognl’s
territories as far as Tibet, and eftablifhed a maritime trade
with the Red fea, the Perfian gulf, the Maldives, and Manilla.
And in 1742 his great fervices were recompenfed with tle
government of Pondicherry. In 1746 La Bourdonnais af-
ferted the honour of the French flag, by difpoffefling the
Englifh of Madras: this excited the jealoufy of Dupleix,
who broke the capitulation, and fent charges againft Bour-
donnais to the French court, which caufed him to be confined
in the Bafile. In 1748 the Englifi attacked Pondicherry,
but Dupleix was fuccefsful in its defence, and exhibited fo
much fi] and heroifm on the occafion, that he was rewarded
with the title of marquis, and the red ribbon. From this
time his ambition was almoft boundlefs, and to him is to be
afcribed the fyftem of entering into the quarrels of the na-
tive powers, and eflifting them alternately againft each other,
fo as to render them at length tributaries and fubjeéts, and
almoft the flaves of European fettlers. He was at firlt very
fuccefsful in his projets, and procured for himfelf the nabob-
fhip of the Carnatic, of which he was extremely proud, and
indulged his vanity in afluming the ftate of a fovereign

rince. But fortune foon turned againft:- him: the Englifh
under Lawrence and Clive became triumphant, and expelled
the French from their ufurpations. Dupleix was recalled in

754, and the mortifications which he experienced at home
preyed fo mueh upon his mind, that he died foon after his
return. Hil. of France. Modern Univ. Hitt.

DUPLICATE, a fecond initrument, or a& in writing;
or atranfcript, or copy of another.

The word is formed from the Latin duploma, or duplum,
double.

See

DUP

a duplicate, when it is apprehended the

Te is i

firt difp loft.

Dur hancery, is particularly ufed fora fecond
letter 5 A by the lord chancellor, in a cafe where
he had ethe fame. See Patent.

Du Jo, the ratio between the {quares of two |
quanti he duplicate ratio of ato 3 is the ratio of
aato e {quare of a to the fquare of bB. 7

In eometrical proportions, the firlt term to
the » be in a duplicate ratio of the firft to the
fecc juare is to the fquare of the fe
in ¥ —_ ratio of 2 to 8, is du :

“ - Be of 2 to ere o!
u e propoftion of fqua

of a the ne of 2 aaa

pot f 2to 4, and of 4toé

j oot, among Batanifts,
cor : ‘.

ON, Dousttine, in drithme
me ying of a quansl
ti

aG

D ’ DiuUcer

the fin; the cartilage of mnclofed in a duplicature flourifhed in the t7th century, was born at Lewifham, m
of the fame part; the i th the mefenteric vef- Kent, inthe year 1588. The firft part of his education he
fels, &c. are inclofed ina of the peritoneum, &c. had at Weltminfter fchool, from whence be was removed

DUPLIN, in Geogra
flate of North Carolina ai
E. by Onflow, and S.W
habitants is 6799, of wh
generally cultivate whea
bread made of Indian co
railed in confiderable ¢

m of Wlmingto
ODES. Se
NDIUS, in

y of America, in the to Chrift-church, Oxford, inthe year 1605. Here he took
* Wilmington, bounded his firlt degree; and in 1612, he was chofen fellow of All-
n. [he number of in- Souls college. Two years after, he took his degree of
2 flaves. The farmers M.A.; and having entered into orders, he travelled on the
at more commonly eat contirent for fartherimprovement. In 1619, he was made
and {weet potatoes are a proctor tothe univerfity of Oxford ; and in 1625, he took
‘he court-houfe is 55 the degree of doctor in divinity. Ac this time he was chap-
mn Philadelphia. lain to the prince Palatine, and likewife to the earl of
Dorfet ; by the intereft of the latter, he was appointed to

ight of two pounds; the deanery of Chrift-church, in the year 1629. He was,

of the valu See As. in the year 1632, chofen to the office of vice-chancellor of
3, at fir{t, we do, or libra, the du. the univerfity of Oxford; and in 1634, he was appointed chan-
e the name. cellor of the church of Sarum, and chaplain to king Charles I.,

as afterwards dimi- who, in 1638, gave him the office of tutor to Charles,
ondiusalfo, yetthey prince of Wales, and his brother, the duke of York: in the
unv and Lisra. fame year he was nominated to the bifhopric of Chichetter,
both in the former and in 1640 tranflated to the fee of Salifbury, though, owing
The dupondius to the confufion of the times, be drew no emolument from
rth one penny it. Iie wasa great favourite with the king, attended him
ichalcus, or clofely in the {cenes of his affliGion, and is faid to have
wily as affilted him in the compofition of the “ Eikon Bafilike’
je After the death of his royal matter, bifhop Duppa retired to
Wiighmond, in Surrey, where he {pent the greater part of

je in folitude, until the reftoration opened to him

profpeéts. On the accomplifhment of that event,

lty of the bifhop was rewarded by a tranflation to

ifhopric of Winchefter, to which he was nominated

he was alfo made lord almoner, and received other

jal diftinétion, In the following year, he began

jp own expence, an hofpital for the poor of

projected other works of piety and benevo-

in 1662, {topped his hand. Charles II.

his faithful tutor and fteady friend, that

nly a few hours before his deceafe, and,

by his bed-fide, and fought the bleffing

) which he, no doubt, beftowed with

The bifhop died, as he had ever

eloved by all who knew him, and

acter exemplary for piety, candour,

Derofity, and every ufeful virtue.

few occafional fermons. Burnet,

t bithop Duppa was unequal to

young princes ; but the biogra-

Niven good reafon to believe he

e office, as well by his talents

Sritan.

\CHOLAS, was born at Paris
sy ; by his education, he
d a place of matter of
tation as a man of
ntrymen who pof-
» endeavoured to
pflated Milton’s
done as the
nt of it, he
He wrote
o.; * In-

3 confequenc
| the denomini
dii, or double a

his younger b r
be excelled by the elder.
Brian, - Pg g

; Wou. >t Y

DAveP

the ratio is 2:—-thus 6 : 3 is in a duple ratio.
Rario.

_ Dupre, Sub, Ratio, is where the confequent term is
double the antecedent ; or, the exponent of the ratio is 2:
Thus, 3: 6 is ina fub-duple ratio.

Dur a Sefquialera ;

Dupia Suiperbipaetiean tertias } Ratio. See Ratio.

Dupre Zime. See Tims.

DUPLEIX,-Scrieio, in Biography, a French hiftorian,
was born at Condom in 1569. Queen Margaret of Na-
varre brought him to Paris in 1605, and made him her
matter of requefts. After this he was appointed hiltoric-
grapher of France, and laudably employed many years in re-
fearches into the ancient records of his country. Hence he
publifhed ** Memoirs of the Gauls,’ 1619, 4to., which, on
account of the fe ts contained in them, were highly efteemed.
It might alfo be regarded as the firlt part of his ‘* Hiftory
of France,’’ which is brought down to the vear 1545.
The laft two reigns were reviled by cardinal Richlieu, which
will account for the adulation paid to that minifter. He
intended to have re-written a part of the work after the
death of the cardinal, but did not live to effet it. He
was author of a “* Roman Hittory,”? and a ‘* Courfe of Phi-
lofophy,’’ and other pieces of no great note. In the decline
of life he compofed a work on the liberties of the Gallican
church, which he prefented in MS. to the chancellor Seguier,
requefting permiffion to print it, but the chancellor unfeel-
ingly threw it in the fire befere his face. The poor old
man was fo affeCted with this circumftance that he never again
lcoked up, and died foon after, in 1661, at the age of 92.
Moreri.

Dupverx, Josep, acelebrated F-ench naval commander
in the Eaft Indies, was brought up to a mercantile life, and
fent out inthe year 1730 to dire& and fupport the declining
fettlement of Chandernagore, which, by his aétivity and great
addrefs, he reftored to a moft profperous condition. He
‘extended his country’s commerce through the great mogul’s
territories as far as Tibet, and eftablifhed a maritime trade
with the Red fea, the Perfian gulf, the Maldives, and Manilla.
And in 1742 his great fervices were recompenfed with the
government of Pondicherry. In 1746 La Bourdonnais af-
ferted the honour of the French flag, by difpoffeffing the
Englifh of Madras: this excited the jealoufy of Dupleix,
who broke the. capitulation, and fent charges againit Bour-
donnais to the French court, which caufed him to be confined
in the Baftile. In 1748 the Englifli attacked Pondicherry,
but Dupleix was fuccefsful in its defence, and exhibited fo
much fkiH and heroi{m on the occafion, that he was rewarded
with the title of marquis, and the red ribbon. From this
time his ambition was almoft boundlefs, and to him is to be
afcribed the fyftem of entering into the quarrels of the na-
tive powers, and effifting them alternately again{t each other,
fo as to render them at length tributaries and fubjets, and
almoft the flaves of European fettlers. He was at firlt very
fuccefsful in his projeéts, and procured for himfelf the nabob-
fhip of the Carnatic, of which he was extremely proud, and
indulged his vanity in afluming the ftate of a fovereign
prince. But fortune foon turned againft- him: the Englifh
under Lawrence and Clive became triumphant, and expelled
the French from their ufurpations. Dupleix was recalled in
1754, and the mortifications which he experienced at home
preyed fo mueh upon his mind, that he died foon after his
return. Hilt. of France. Modern Univ. Hift.

DUPLICATE, a fecond initrument, or a& in writing;
or atranfenpt, or copy of another.

The word is formed from the Latin duploma, or duplum,
double.

See

DUP

Tt is ufual.to fend a duplicate, when it is apprehended the
firt difpatch, &c. is loft.

Durticars, in Chancery, is particularly ufed fora fecond
letter patent granted by the lord chancellor, in a cafe where
he had formerly done the fame. See Parent.

Dupuicate Ratio, the ratio between the {quares of two
quantities. Thus the duplicate ratio of ato 5 is the ratio of
aato bb, or of the fquare of a@ to the {quare of b.

In a feries of geometrical proportions, the firft term to
the third is faid to be in a duplicate ratio of the firft to the
fecond; or as its fquare is to the fquare of the feeond: thus
in 2, 4, 8, 16, the ratio of 2 to 8, is duplicate of that of 2
to 4, or as the fquare of 2 to the f{quare of 4: wherefore,
duplicate ratio is the propoftion of {quares; as trtplicate is
of cubes, &c. and the ratio of 2 to 8, ts faid to be com-
pounded of that of 2 to 4, and of 4 to 8.

Durcicate Root, among Batanif/ls, one compofed of two
coats. See Roor.

DUPLICATION, Dovsttne, in Arithmetic, and Geo-
metry, the multiplying of a quantity, either difcrete, or con=
tinued, Dy two.

Dur tication of a Cube, is the finding of the fide of a
cube that fhall be double in folidity to a given cube; which
is a famous problem cultivated by the geometricians two
thoufand years ago.

It was firft propofed by the oracle of Apollo at Delphos;
which, being confulted about the manner of ftopping a
plague then raging at Athens, returned for anfwer, that
the plague fhould ceafe when Apoilo’s altar, which was
cubical, fhould be doubled. Upon this, they applied them-
felves in good earneft, to feck the duplicature of the cube,
which henceforward was called the Delian problem. The
problem is only to be folved by finding two mean propor-
tionals between the fide of the cube, and double that fide ;
the firft whereof will be the fide of the cube doubled, as was
firft obferved by Hippocrates Chius.

Thus let x and z be two mean proportionals between @
2

2 i
x x x
z= —;and x: —:

and 24: thena:xi:x: 11243
a Ganga
therefore x? = 24°. Suppofing the fide of the given altar
a to be to, then the cube root of 2 a’, or 2000, found by
approximation, will be the fide of the altar required, nearly.
Eutochius, in his comments on Archimedes, gives feve-
ral ways of performing this by the mefolabe. Pappus
Alexandrinus, aad his commentator, Commandine, give
three ways: the firlt, according to Archimedes; the fecond,
according to Hero; and the third, by an inftrument invented
by Pappus, which gives all the proportions required.
The fieur de Comiers has likewi‘e publifhed an elegant
demonftration of the fame problem, by means of a compats
with three legs; but thefe methods are all only me-
chanical.
Re-Duprication. See RepuPricarion.
Dupticartion, atermin the French plain-chant.
intonation by duplication is made by a kind of periclelis,
or leading notes, doubling the penultima note of the word
which terminates the intonation; and which can only hap-
pen when this penultima is below the terminating note. The
duplication then ferves to prepare and mark the clufe in the
manner of a note fenfible, or fharp 7th of the key. Sce
PeRICLEsIs. ‘
DUPLICATUM Arcanum. See Arcanum.
DUPLICATURE, in Anatomy, a term applied to the
folds of membranes or other foft parts, in which other or-
gans are contained. Hence all duplicatures confift.of two
Jayers. ‘Thus the lips and eycjids confit of duplicatures of
$ the

An |

a

ee

DUP

The ‘kin; the cartilage of the ear is enclofed in a duplicature
of the fame part; the inteftines, with the mefenteric vef-
fels, &c. are inclofed ina duplicature of the peritoneum, &c.

DUPLIN, in Geography, a county of America, in the
ftate of North Carolina and diftri& of Wilmington, bounded
E. by Onflow, and S.W. by Sampfon. ‘The number of in-
habitants is 6790, of whom 1364 are flaves. The farmers
generally cultivate wheat and rice, but more commonly eat
bread made of Indian corn Cotton and {weet potatoes are
railed in confiderable quantities. The court-houfe is 55
miles N. of Wilmington, and 566 from Philadelphia.

DUPLODES. See Gamuezon.

DUPONDIUS, in Antiquity, a weight of two pounds;
‘or a money of the value of two affes. See As.

As the as, at firft, weighed a jult pondo, or libra, the du-
pondius then weighed two. sind hence the name.

And though the weight of the as was afterwards dimi-
“nifned, and of confequence that of the dupondius alfo, yet they
dtl retained the denomination. See Pounp and Lira.

Dupondi, or double affes, were coined both in the former
and later period of the commonwealth. ‘The dupondius
was half the Sefertius (which fee), and worth one penny
fterling. Prior to Auguitus, and before the Orichalcus, or
yellow brafs, appeared in the Roman coinage fo generally as
it did afterwards, this coin was ftruck in copper juft double
the fize of the as. There are indeed dupondii of Julius in

ellow brafs, weighing half an ounce, with ahead of Venus
Receive on one fide, and Casar Dicr. Ter. reverle a
female figure, with ferpents at her feet, C. Crovi. Prar.;
others have a victory on the reverfe, with Q. Oppius Pr.
- From the time of Augutlus the dupondius was ftruck in
yellow brafs; as Pliny informs us it was in his time: and it
is known that no change took place between that and the
w\ugultan age. When this mode firlt began, the dupondi-
arius, ufed by Pliny, feems to have been adopted, expreffing
that the coin was not dupondiua, or double the weight of the
‘as, but of a dupondiary value. The word dupondins,
however, was never confined, in its literal acceptation, to
double weight, for Vitruvius and Varro ufe it as double length
‘or meafure, in the inftance of dupondius pes, that is two feet,
andthe like. Hence, in the imperial times, it did not mean
acoin of double the weight of the as, but of double the
value. ‘Uhe feltertius weiehed an ounce, and the dupondius
was the half of it; the as being of copper, as Pliny informs
us; and it is inferred from him and from the whole coins
that remain, that it ftood at half an ounce, till the gradual
decline of the feftertius, hardly perceivable before the time
of Alexander Severus, brought the as along with it. The
dupondius, being the half of the feftertius, kept pace with it
through all its tages. (See Sestertius.) It was one of
the moft common coins in the Roman empire, and it was
alfo common in the Byzantine empire. Although the da-
pondius was of the fame fize with the as, it was commonly
of much fixer workmanfhip, as its metal was elteemed fupe-
rior in value. The feftertius and the dupondius continued
to be of yellow brafs to the termination of the fettertius
under Gallienus; and the as was always of copper. Pink-
erton’s Effay on Medals, vol. i.

DUPORT, in Biography, a powerful performer on the
violoncello. Till our Cro/dil, ftimulated, perhaps, by his
example, had vanquifhed all the difficulties of finger-board
and bow, incident to the inftrument, we fhould readily have
joined with M. Laborde, in calling him the moft admirable
performer on the violoncello that has ever been heard. When
in England with his younger brother, it was thought that
he could only be excelled by the elder.

DUPPA, Brian, a refpetable Englith prelate, who

Wo. XIL,

DUUrP

flourifhed in the tyth century, was born at Lewitham,
Kent, inthe year 1588. The firft part of his education he
had at Weltminfter fchool, from whence he was removed
to Chrift-church, Oxford, inthe year 1605. Here he took
his firlt degree ; and in 1612, he was chofen fellow of All-
Souls college. Two years after, he took his degree of
M.A.; and having entered into orders, he travelled on the
contirent for fartherimprovement. Jn 1619, he was made
a proctor tothe univerfity of Oxford ; and in 1625, he took
the degree of doGtor in divinity. Ac this time he was chap-
lain to the prince Palatine, and lkewife to the earl of
Dorfet ; by the intereft of the latter, he was appointed to
the deanery of Chrift-church, in the year 1629. He was,
in the year 1632, chofen to the office of vice-chancellor of
the univerfity of Oxford; and in 1634, he was appointed chan-
cellor of the church of Sarum, and chaplain to king Charles I.,
who, in 1638, gave him the office of tutor to Charles,
prince of Wales, and his brother, the duke of York : in the
fame year he was nominated to the bifhopric of Chichetter,
and in 1640 tranflated to the fee of Salifbury, though, owing
to the confufion of the times, be drew no emolument from
it. He was a great favourite with the king, attended him
clofely in the fcenes of his affliGtion, and is faid to have
affited him in the compofition of the “ Eikon Bafilike.?
After the death of his royal mafter, bifhop Duppa retired to
Richmond, in Surrey, where he {pent the greater part of
his time in folitude, until the reftoration opened to him
brighter profpeéts. On the accomplifhment of that event,
the loyalty of the bifhop was rewarded by a tranflation to
the rich bifhopric of Winchefter, to which he was nominated
in 1660 ; he was alfo made lord almoner, and received other
marks of royal diftinction. In the following year, he began
to build, at his own expence, an hofpital for the poor of
Richmond, and projeéted other works of piety and benevo-
lence; but death, in 1662, ftopped his hand. Charles II.
fo much refpected his faithful tutor and fteady friend, that
he paid him a vifit only a few hours before his deceafe, and,
it is faid, knelt down by his bed-fide, and fought the blefling
of the dying prelate, which he, no doubt, beitowed with
true zeal and devotion. ‘The bifhop died, as he had ever
lived, honoured and beloved by all who knew him, and
leaving behind him a charaéter exemplary for piety, candour,
humility, mecknefs, generolity, and cvery ufeful virtue.
He was author only of a few occafional fermons. Burnet,
in his hiftory, affumes, that bifhop Duppa was unequal to
the tafk of educating the young princes ; but the biogra~
phers of the prelate have given good reafon to believe he
was admirably qualified for the office, as well by his talents
as his ftrict integnty. Biog. Britan.

DUPRE, De Sr. Maur, Nictovas, was born ac Paris
about the clofe of the 17th century ; by his education, he
was intended for the law, and obtained a place of matter of
the accounts. He acquired great reputation as a man of
letters, and was one of the firft of his countrymen who pof-
fefled a tafte for Englith literature, and who endeavoured to
promote it among his countrymen. He tranflated Milton’s
Paradife Loft, which, perhaps, was as well done as the
nature of the thing would allow, and on account of it, he
was admitted into the French academy, in 1733. He wrote
alfo an ‘‘ Effay on the Monies of France,” 1746, 4to.; In-
quiries into the Value of Monies, and the Price of Corn,”
1761, 12mo, And he communicated to Buffon ‘* Tables
on the Duration of Human Lite,”? which are to be found in
his Natural Hiftory of Man. M. Dupré died in 1775, at a
very advanced age, leaving behind him a number ot MSS.
on the fame kind of topics as thofe which he had difeufled
during his life. Gen. Biog.

Zi DUPUIS,

DUR

DUPUIS, Dr, Tuomas Saunvers, late one of the
organifts and compofers of tne king’s chapel. He was a
correé&t harmonilt in his compofitions, and a good performer
on the organ, with a fancy not very rich or original ; but
his finger was lively, and he knew the inftrument well. He
died in 1796, and was fucceeded in the chapel-royal by Dr.
Arnold.

Dupuis, Errcius. Cardinal Bona pretended, that ever
fince the eleventh century (which was that of Guido),

_Ericits Dupuis had added a note to the hexachord of
Guido, to avoid the difficulties of the mutations in folmifa-
tion, and facilitate the fludy of plain-chant. This affertion
cannot be fupported, as there remains not the’lealt veltige of
any fuch addition. No one doubts at prefent of this 7th
fyilable # having been added to the other fix by Le Maire,
about the end of the 17th century.

All his merit, however, eonfifts in giving the fyllable / to
the 7th note, for its utility had long been demonttrated. See
the works of Pere Merfenne. Laborde. The ufe of this
fyllable, however, is not yet general in any part of Europe,
except France; nor in any other country do they agree to
call c ut, except when it is the kzy note.

DUQUE Cornejo, Pepro, feulptor, painter, and ar-
chite&, born at Seville in 1677; difciple of Pcdro Roldan,

“but inferior to his mafter. His works are very numerous
at Seville, and particularly in the cathedral. He was al-
ready in high eftimation in that city, when Philip V., pafling
through it, carried the artift’with him to Madrid. He
thére executed feveral works; but, ‘his royal patron dying,
he returned to Seville, where he mnaintained, and even in-
‘creafed his former reputation. Thence, he accepted an in-
‘vitation to Granada, to make the ftatues for the chapel of
Nueftra Senora de las Anguitias, and afterwards proceeded,
on a fimilar invitation from the. chapter of the cathedral at
Cordova, to undertake the works of that church, which he
had fcarcely completed, when he died, at the age of 80, and
was fumptuoully interred in the cathedral, at the expence of
the chapter.

He poffeffed a ready invention, and great facility in all the
arts of defign ; but his public worksare chiefly on fculpture.
Diccionario Hiftorico de las Bellas Artes en Efpana.

DUQUELLA, in Geography, a province of Africa, in
the empire of Morocco, which extends to the walls of Saffi.
This province is bousded on the north by that of Temfena ;
to the eaft by thofe of Efcura, Ramna, and Morocco ; to
the fouth by the province of Abda, and to the weft by the
ocean. It is populous, rich, and commercial,’ abounds in
corn, and produces a great quantity of wool, part of which
is fold unwrought, and the reft employed in the manufac-
tures, with which it fupplies the fouthern provinces. ‘This
province formerly extended to the river Tanfif; but that
of Abda has been taken out of it, in order to divide it be-
tween two brothers who difputed the government. ‘The
inhabitants of Duquella are, in general, of a large fize, and
robult ; they are a trading people, and all more affable and
engaging than thofe of the other fouthern provinces. The
province of Abda, which once made a part of that of Du-
quella, begins at the city of Saffi, and extends to the river
of Tanfif: its form is triangular. The inhabitants are ad-
didted to the profeffion of arms, and many of them are in
the fervice of the court.

DUQUESNE, a river of the ifland of Grenada, which
runs into the fea, in a bay to which it gives name. N. lat.
12° 18/, W. long. '61°'27!,

Duquesne Point, a cape on the W. coaft of the ifland
of Grenada. N. lat. 12° 17/, W. long. 61° 29!.

DUR, Fr. harfh, in Mufic. Every found is called-dur

DUR

that is fhiiH, piercing, and difapreeable. There are coarfe
voices, harfh inftruments, rough harmony. The harfhuefs
of B quadrum, made it at firft be called durum. There are
harfh intervals in melody ; fuch are the tritonus and fharp
5th ; and; in general, all the major difcords. ‘The harfhnefs
of extraneous modulation renders the harmony difagreeable,
and offends the ear.

DURA, or Durts, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Hibernia, according to Prolemy.—Alfo, a town of Afia,
in Mefopotamia, according to Steph. Byz. and Polybius.—
Alfo, a river of Greece, in Trachinia, a canton of Theffaly,
—Alfo, an epifcopal town of Africa, in the Byzacene ter-
ritory.—Aifo, a town of Afia, in Coelefyria, according to
Polybius ; who fays, that it was well forcified, and unfuc-
cefsfully befieged by Antiochus, king of Syria. It is
thought to be the Dor of Scripture, lituated between Ptoles
mais and Ce!area—Alfo, Jmam-Mohammed-Dour, a town
of Afia, on the left bank of the Tigris, E.S.1. of Birtha—
Alfo, a town of Afia, in Mecfopotamia, on the barks of the
Euphrates, called alfo Nicanoris, aiid fituated S.E. of Cire
cefium. ;

DURA-MATER, or Meninx, in Anatomy, is the mem-
brane which lines the inner furface of the cranium. Sée
Brain.

Dura-maTer, tumours of. Mott writers have not unders
ftood the difeafes, which are now weli known by the ap-=
pellation of tungous tumours of the dura-mater, or outer
membrane of the brain. Thefe fwellings make their ap-
pearance fuddenly under the integuments of the head; but
they can only protrude externally in this manner, after they
have made their way through the bones of the fkull, which,
one might fuppofe, would be capable of impeding their pro=
grefs outward.

M. Louis, one of the greateft of the French furgeons, has
written a very interefting memoir on the prefent fubjeét. — It
is obferved by this gentleman, that the kind of relation,
which unintelligent perfons generally difcern between caufes
and effeéts, creates a prejudice, which prevents them from
feeing the poflibility of the cranium being perforated by a
fubjacent, foft, fungous excrefcence, formed by the veffels of
the dura-mater. But the comparative denfity of the boness
and foftnefs of the tumour, which prefent, on one hand, a
caufe to all appearances very weak, and on the other, a re-
fiftance which might be thought invineible, can only deceive
fuch perfons as are inattentive to the ordinary actions: of
nature. Numerous phenomena of a fimilar kind might be
pointed out. But, not to quit the human body, do we not
frequently fee aneurifms of the arch of the aorta occafion an
abforption of the fternum and ribs, while the aneuri{mal
fac, on the fide towards thefe bones, fuffers the leaft degree
of attenuation?

The fymptoms and complaints, which fungous tumours
of the dura mater have in common with fome other difeafes,
have been too fuperficially attended to by many practitioners,
who have, therefore, imbibed erroneous opinions concerning
the true character of thefe {wellings. M. Louis alfo very
juttly imputes fome of the flownets, with which furgeons
became acquainted with the real nature of the prefent dif-
eafe, to thofe few obfervers who did know fomething about
it, not extending their inveltigations beyond one particular
fact, which was the exclufive objet of their confideration.
Their views of the fubjeé&t being circum{cribed, they re-
garded the cafe only in the light of a very fingular and ex-
traordinary affection ; and every one wiil be of opinion with
M. Louis, that our knowledge, which is always too con-
fined, muft neceffarily be very imperfeét, when not drawn
from a due number of facts relating to one object, which facts

ought

-motion.

ought to be moft fcrupuloufly examined in every poffible
joint of view.

We think the belt way of making the reader acquainted
with the nature of fungous tumours of the dura-mater is,
to prefent him with the particulars of a cafe recorded by
M: Louis.

This eminent furgeon was requefted by M. Pibra to ex-
amine the head of a man, 35 years of age, who had died of
a difeafe which had for fome time been the fubjeé of con-
verfation. among profcflional men. ‘The patient had had an
excelient conftitution, and was born of very healthy parents.
Tewards the end of December, 1761, he flipped, and fell
with confiderable force on the tuberofities of the ifchium,
which alone fultained all the violence of the fhock. The

latter circumftance was afcertained beyond the poffibility of’

doubt. It isalfo highly deferving of notice, that the perfon
felt fo ftunned at the inltant of the fall, that he could fcarcely
inanage to get up again. The accident was attended with ro
degree of pain. ‘he fenfation of ftunning in the head lalted
inceflantly for four months, and then gradually went off.
After four months cafe, a barber, who was fhaving the
man’s head, perceived an odd fenfation under the razor, on
the right fide of the top of the head. It was a fort of cre-
pitation, like that occafioned by the handling of a piece of
dry parchment, which lay under the integuments. The
hair-dreffer expreffed his furprife to the patient, who felt his
head, and experienced the fame fenfation. At this period
there was no elevation nor depreffion at the part. he next
day; a tumour, about as large asa fhilling, made its appear-
ance; it was not very prominent, but it had a pullatory
It is obvious, that the crepitation previoufly felt
had been occafioned by the compreffion of the razor and
fingers on the furface of the parietal bone, which was ex-

~ ceedingly attenuated by the fungus, the upper part of the

tumour being merely covered with a plate of bone, fo very
thin as to be flexible.

The tumour, which was always of an indolent nature,
made confiderable progrefs in a few days, and this circum-
ftance led the patient to confult feveral perfons about it.
The firft one, whofe opinion was requefted, thought that the
{welling was an aneurifm, and, confequently, advifed the
employment of a bandage, for the purpofe of making preffure
onit. The patient, however, could not endure this plan.
‘Fhe tumour, when compreffed, was eafily reduced to a level
with the opening in the parietal bone; but when this was
done, very alarming numbnefles were produced, and it was
abfolutely neceflary to leave off the ufe of the bandage.
The (welling continued to grow larger, and the opening in
the parietal bone acquired an increafe of fize in proportion.
Several phyficians and furgeons met to give their opinions
concerning the difeafe; only one of them thought the cafe
an aneurifm. Some fuppefed it was a hernia of the brain;
but moft of them fufpended their judgment, not wifhing to
hazard an opinion on a difeafe which they regarded as aito-
gether extraordinary. ‘The patient was exempt from all fuf-
picion of having any venereal complaints; but, when he was
about 18, he had had fome appearances of {curvy, and this
circumftance led to the trial of antifcorbutic remedies.

Thefe, however, only impaired the conititution, and, far
from retarding the growth of the tumour, it increafed more
rapidly in fize during the exhibition of fuch medicines than
before. It-made its appearance externally, being as large
as aturkey’s egg, painful, and remarkable for this fingula-
rity, that when the tumour was compreffed the pain ceafed,
The ftupefadtion, which was the immediate cffeét of fuch
sompreflion, made the method intolerable, fo that the patient

DURA-MATER.

preferred an habitual pain to the means of getting relieved of
it. M. Louis thonght this circumftance eafily admitted of
explanation: the fenfe of pain was not a part of the charac-
ter of the difeafe, but only arofe from the irritation which the
tumour fuffered from the irregular points and inequalities of
the edges of the opening in the parietal bone. Gently puth-
ing back the prominent part of the fungus kept the tumour
at the initant from being hurt by the inequalities and tharp
edges of the preternatural opening in the parietal bone.
The patient for the four or five laft months of his exiftence
gave himfelf up to empiricg: he died-April r7th, 1763.
Tor the purpofe of examining the difeafe with the utmotb
care, and not doing mifchief with the knife, M. Louis made
a circular incifion in the foft parts at the bate of the fkull-
cap, fo. as to be able to faw it and take it away, together with
the dura-mater and integuments, while thefe parts retained
the fame relations which they had tothe tumour, both irter-
nally and externally. The tumour arofe from the convex
furface of the dura-mater, was as large.as the fift, and was
very regularly circumfcribed, being rather lefs prominens
under the cranium than above it. The bafe of the fwelling
was more extenfive than its upper part; the protuberant
part under the cranium was occafioned by a kindof thick-
ening of the dura-mater, and was lodged in a depreffion,
which it had: formed: for itfelf in the corre{ponding, portiow
of the brain. The inner layer of the dura-mater, in the f-
tuation of the tumour was a little thicker than elfewhere,
and its veffels were more confiderable and large. ‘
The tumour was not at all adherent to:the cranium; the
preternatural opening in the fkull was exceedingly. irregular;
and on the outfide of the parietal bone, round the aperture,
there were fome bony eminences. Between the two ante+
rior angles of the parietal bone, near the.coronal future, atv
unequal. piece of bone. was found, as wide as a quill, and
about an inch long, which rofe almoft perpendicularly fron:
a bafe very little larger than the reft of this portion of bone.
The inner table of the parietal bone was irregularly deltroyed
around the opening, and to an. extent proportioned to the
bafe of the fwelling, which the. inceffant pulfations of the
brain tended to force entirely out of the cranium, by begin-~
ning to deftroy the bony parts, which covered the difeafe,
Both externally and internally there were numerous ine-
qualities on the furface of the adjacent bones for fome way:
from. the opening. The fungous fubftance of the dura-
mater was covered with a membrane which accurately circum-
{cribed: its extent. Its confiftence was fuch as common far-
comatous {wellings ufually have, being attended at no point
with either elafticity or flu@uation. The blood, which flowed
out when. an incifion was made, was dark coloured, like what
the veins of the above kind of {welling commonly contain.
Paré has recorded acafe, which M. Louis concludes was cer-
tainly a fungous tumour of the dura-mater; although Paré
himfelf was informed by two furgeons, who examined the head
after death, that itwas a tumour compofed of the fub{tance of
the brain itfelf. M. Louis fays, that this muit certainly have
been a miftake; for, while the cerebrum is covered by the
dura-mater and cranium, it cannot overcome the refiftance
which thefe parts prefent. Fora hernia cerebri to have taken
place the bone muft have been previoufly deftroyed in fome
way or another, and there mult have been at the {ame time
a folution of continuity iu the dura-mater, Experience bas
frequently proved, that in wounds of the head, attended with
great deftru@tion of the cranium, no hernia, nor fungus ce~
rebri ever occurs as long as the dura-mater covers this vifous,
In the fame cafes, when this membrane has been torn or cut,
a protrufion of the brain a3 not happen, except from a ae
ed cuhar

DURA-MATER.

culiar alteration of the very fubftance of this organ, ia con-
fequence of the injury it has fuftained.

M. Petit, in his ‘* Traité des Maladies des Os,”’ takes no-
tice of certain tumours, .attended with a pulfation on the
furface of the cranium, and with caries of the bone. ‘T'hefe
were obvioufly, according to M. Louis, fungous fwellings of
the dura-mater; they alfo had been miltaken by feveral
practitioners for aneurifms. Petit fhews how wrong this
opinion was, and explains that the pulfation of the tumours
in queftion was only communicated to them by the brain.

M. Louis, in his valuble diflertation on the prefent fubje&,
cites a vaft number of cafes, from which it appears, that
fungous tumours of the dura-mater are ufually preceded by
external violence done to the head. Some examples are
alfo adduced, which were fuppofed to have proceeded from
internal fyphilitic caufes. However, M. Louis himfelf was
well aware, that the tumours in queftion might only be an
accidental complication, and not at all conneGted with the
venereal difeafe. Of this faQ@, we think there can be little
doubt.

Fungous tumours of the dura-mater may originate at any
part of this membrane; but they are faid to be particularly
apt to grow on the furface, which is adherent either to the
upper part of the infide of the fkull, or to its bafis... They
are firm, indolent, and chronic, feeming as if they were the
confequence of.a flow inflammation, affecting the veffels
which fupply the dura-mater, and inofculate with thofe of
the diploe. It is very difficult, one might fay impoflible,
to determine, whether an afleGion of this kind always
begins in the dura-mater, or the fubftance of the bone itfelf.
‘The patient, whofe cafe is above quoted from the memoir
of M.-Louis, had received no blow upon the head, and
could only impute his complaint to a fall, in which the head
had not ftruck againft any thing. Although this cafe may
tend tofhewthat fungoustumours of the dura-mater may form
{pontaneoufly, yet, it is confirmed by the examination of a
vaft number of cafes, that the difeafe more frequently follows
blows, than any other caufe. Hence, a flow kind of
thickening of the dura-mater is produced, which ends in a
farcomatous excrefcence, the formation of which always
precedes the deftruétion of the bone.

1n the memoir, publifhed by M. Louis in the 5th volume
of thofe of the Royal Academy of Surgery, there is a very
interefting cafe, illuftrating to what an extent this difeafe
may proceed. The fubject is a young man, aged 21, who
had on the left fide of his head a confiderable tumour,
which was fuppofed to be a hernia cerebri. The {welling
had begun in the region of the temple, and had gradually
acquired the magnitude of a fecond head. The external ear
was difplaced by it, and pufhed down as low as the angle of
the jaw. At the upper part of the circumference of the
bafe of the tumour, the inequalities of the perforated bone,
and the pulfations of the brain, could be diitinGly felt.
Some parts of the mafs were elaftic and hard; others were
foft and flu@tuating. A plafter, which had been applied,
brought ona fuppuration at fome points, from which an
ichorous difcharge took place. Shiverings, and febrile
fyptoms enfued, and the man died in lefs than four months.
On diffeQiion, a farcomatous tumour of the dura-mater was
dete&ed, together with a deftruétion of the whole portion.
of the fkull, correfponding to the extent of the difeafe.

When a fungous tumour of the dura-mater has. once
formed, it makes its way outward, through all the partsy.
foft, or hard, which are in its way. Such portion of the
Mkull, as oppofes its progrefs outward, is abforbed, and then
the {welling, all on a fudden, and, in general, very unexpect-

edly, rifes up externally, confounds itfelf with the {calp, and
prefents itfelf outwardly in the form of a preternatural, foft,
yielding {welling, which even fometimes betrays an appear-
ance of a decided fluctuation, or a pulfation; which latter
{ymptom, as we have remarked above, has very frequently
led former praétitioners to fuppole the cafe an aneurifm.
When once the {welling has made its exit from the cavity
of the cranium, it {preads out on every fide under the inte~
guments, which readily make way for its growth. The
{calp becomes diftended, {mooth, and cedematous over the
extent of the tumour, and, laftly, it ulcerates. The matter
which is difcharged from fuch ulcerations, is thin and
fanious. The outer part of the tumour is confounded with
the integuments and edges of the fiull on which it re{ts, fo
that, in this ftate, it is eafy to miftake the tumour for one
whofe bafe is altogether external. While the {welling thus
increafes in fize externally, it alfo enlarges internally. ‘The
latter change takes place, in particular, while the opening in:
the cranium is not large enough to admit the whole mafs of
the tumour, which then depreffes the brain, and lodges in an
excavation which it forms foritfelf. Butthis cavity quickly
diminifhes, and becomes reduced almoft to nothing, as foon
as the tumour has formed an external protrufion. In order
to make way for the progrefs of the {welling outward, a
portion of both tables of the fkull is ablorbed; but, it is:
remarked, that the internal, or vitreous table, is always.
fuund much more extenfively deftroyed than the external:
one. Sometimes, as is mentioned in the preceding cafe,
new bony matter is found depofited around the opening in.
the cranium,

The exittence of a fungous tumour of the dura-mater can«
not be afcertained, as long as there is no external change.
The effe&s produced may originate from fo many caufes,
that there would be great riffs of a grofs miftake in referring
them toany particular ones. Thisis not the cafe when there:
is an opening in the fkull. Then a hardnefs, which is always:
perceptible from the very firlt, at the circumference of the
tumour, denotes, that 1t comes from within. When the:
part of the fkull, immediately over the difeafe, has become:
exceedingly attenuated, and the outward {welling is. juft
commencing, a crackling fenfation is perceived, on handling-
the part, juft fuch as one may fuppofe would-arife trom
touching fome dry parchment ftretched under the fkin.
When much preflure is made on the difeafe, confiderable
pain is excited, and fometimes a numbnefs in all the limbs,
ftupefaGtion, and other more or lefs alarming fymptoms.
Preffure makes the tumour recede inward, in a certain de-
gree, efpeciaily when the {welling is not very large. How-
ever, as foon as the compreffien is difcontinued, it gradually
rifes up again. In fome inftances, the difeafe is attended
with pain; in others, this effe&t is not produced; which
circumftances may depend on the manner in which the tu-
mour is affeGted by. the edges of the bone, through which it
paffes. ‘Fhe pain ofcen admits. of being relieved by com=
preffion ; but recurs as foon as this is difcontinued. The
tumour has a pulfatory motion, which is communicated to
it by the brain, and which, as we have above related, has
led many practitioners into an erroneous fuppofition, that the
cafe was an aneurifm. When the tumour is pulhed fide-
ways, and the finger 1s put between it and the edge of the:
bone through which the difeafe protrudes, the bony margin
may be felt prefling againft the bafe of the {welling, fo aa
to caufe a certain conftriGion of it. When this fymptom
is diftinguifhable, and conjoined with a certain degree of
firmnefs and elafticity, and occafionally with a facility of
reducing the fwelling, it seri as a criterion for difcriminat~

ing.

DUR

ing a fungous tumour of the dura-mater, from a hernia of
the brain, external flefhy tumours, abfceffes, exoftofes, and
other difeafes, which fometimes exhibit fomewhat fimilar ap-
peatances to thofe of the prefent affeGtion.

Fungous tumours of the dura-mater are generally at-

tended with a vaft deal of danger, as well on account of their
nature, as of the difficulty of curing them in any certain
manner, and of the dreadful fymptoms which they are apt
to induce. Thofe fungous {wellings of the dura-mater
which have a {mall bafe, which are firm in their texture,
which are unattended with much difeafe of the furrounding
bone, which are moveable, and not very painful, and which
alfo affect perfons who are, in other refpeéts, quite well,
afford moft room for hope. However, though it is our
duty to make fome effort to cure the difeafe, when thus
éircumftanced, the event muft always be regarded as very
* uncertain.
~ Our expe@ations of fuccefs muft be very inconfiderable,
indeed, when the difeafe has-exiited a great while, and the
funGtions of the brain are ferioufly impaired by it.
~ The moft fimple mode of attempting a cure 1s compreflion.
It was ‘this which naturally prefented itfelf to the minds of
all thofe former furgeons, who fell into the error of miltak-
ing the difeafe for an aneurifm,-or a hernia cerebri. Erro-
neous opinions have alfo arifen, concerning the efficacy of
compreffion, in confequence of the tumour, while below a
certain fize, fometimes admitting of being reduced into the
cranium, without any bad effets. However, as any one,
at all acquainted with the nature of the difeafe, might ex-
peat, the reduction was only attended with a very tem-
porary appearance of good being done. It had no effect
whatever on the original caufe of the affeCtion, the fymptoms
returned, and the {welling rofe up again, immediately when
the preffure was difcontinued.
* M, Louis records, in his differtation on the prefent fub-
jet, a fa&t, which tends to fhew, that a certain degree of
relief may fometimes be derivéd from a prudent employment
of preffure. A woman, who had been brought to death’s
door by the alarming fymptoms arifing from a fungous tu-
mour of the dura-mater, refted, for fome time, on the fame
fide of her head on which the difeafe was fituated, the con-
fequence of which aé was, that all her appearances of diffo-
lution fuddenly vanifhed, and the {welling difappeared in fo
inftantaneous a way, that fhe conceived her cure was the
effe& of a miracle. The tumour was afterwards kept from
protruding again, by means of a piece of tin, faftened to the
infide of her cap. The preffure, however, was not always
maintained in an equal and regular manner, fo that the bad
fymptoms occafionally recurred. They then ceafed, after
the {welling was reduced, and had got into a certain pofition.
There cannot be the {malleft doubt, that the bad fymptoms
were produced by the irritation which the tumour fuffered
in pafling the inequalities of the edges of the opening in the
cranium. The patient lived in this ftate nine years, fubjec&t
to occafional fits, in one of which, attended with hiccough
and vomiting, fhe perifhed.

The compreffion being a very uncertain means of relief,
it is, perhaps, better to expofe the tumour with aknife. This
plan of bringing the {welling into view is infinitely prefer-
able to that of applying cauftic for the fame purpofe.
Every one knows, that the aGtion of cauftic can never be
regulated with fufficient precifion; befides being confider-
ably more painful than an incifion, and attended with an un-
neceflary deftruGtion of parts. The beft way isto make a
crucial divifion of the fcalp, immediately over the tumour,
and then diffe up the flaps, and refleét them, fo as to ex-
pofe all the bony circumference of the opening, through

DUR

which the fungous tumour projets. The furgeon fhould
next cautioufly remove all the part of the fkull immediately
furrounding the bafe of thefungus. This objeét has nfually
been effeéted by applying the trephine as often as neceflary ,
but, perhapa, the belt inftruments for the accomplifhment of
the obje&t in view, would be the faws defcribed by Mr.
Hey, and now fold by all the makers of furgical inftruments.

The fungous {welling having been difengaged on all fides,
is next to be cut off witha {calpel. Some advife the fur-
face, from which the tumour grew, to be next fprinkled with
fome of the pulv. hydrarg. nitrat. rub. However, the lat-
ter meafure feems by no means certainly proper; for, apply-
ing efcharotics to one of the membranes of the brain cannot
be free from danger. Were we to offer our fentiments on
this part of the fubje€t, they would be in favour of cutting
away the very root of the difeafe, in preference to ufing
ef{charotic applications.

Cutting away fungous tumours of the dura-mater is al-
ways a more advifable plan than tying their roots witha
ligature, which cannot be executed, without dragging and
ferioufly injuring the dura-mater, fo as to occafion the dan-
gerous effets always attending any confiderable inflamma-
tion of this membrane. The employment of the knife is
alfo preferable to that of cauftics, which are productive of
much more pain and irritation, are apt to bring on fatab
convulfions, and can never be accurately made to deftroy a
certain quantity of fubftance, and no more.

In whatever way the furgeon choofes to operate, the root
of the fungus mutt be dettroyed, or elfe the excrefcence
will fhoot up again, and, by its injurious effets on the brain,
at length prove fatal. When the knife is ufed, the praéti-
tioner mutt not be afraid of removing a piece of the inner
Jayer of the dura-mater, if there is any likelihood that the
whole of the difeafe cannot be taken away without this pro—
ceeding. Cutting the dura-mater is certainly by no means a
thing unattended with rifk ; but the difeafe, if not fupprefled,
is furely fatal ; and of the plans which hold forth the chance
of a cure, none feem lefs dangerous. and objectionable thar
that attempted with the knife. The effort to extirpate the
difeafe at its very origin is lefs perilous, and lefs certainly fatal,
than the unchecked progrefs of the fungus, and, upor
this principle, is obvioufly right, and, indeed, the only ra~
tional alternative.

Another circumftance, which we wih to urge, is, that the
attempt to extirpate fungous tumours of the dura-maten
be always made as foon as the nature of the difeafe is known.
In the early period of the diforder, the profpeét of a cure
muft be more hopeful, as it would not be neceflary to expofe
fo much of the dura-mater, as afterwards becomes un-
avoidable.

Writers have defcribed other tumours of the dura-mater,
which chiefly differ from the preceding ones, in only occur-
ring after a perforation has been made in the cranium.
They fhould be difcriminated from a hernia of the brain.
See Funcus.

The inflammation of the dura-mater will be fpoken of
in another place. See Jnjuries of the Heap.

Every one whojs defirous of being well acquainted with
the fubje&t we have juft quitted, fhould read the differtation
written by M. Louis, entitled, ** Memoire fur les tumeurs.
fongeufes de la Dure-mere,” and inferted in the fifth vol.
of the Mem. de l’Acad. de Chirurgie. 4to.

Dura-portio, is that part of the feventh pair of nerves,
which fupplies the face, and is more properly termed the
facial nerve. See Nerves.

DURADE, or Duro, inthe/talian Mujic, ignifies hard,
harfh, or, more properly, fharp. This name is given to B na~

tural.

DUR

Celt becanfeits found is tharp, when compared with B mol,
or flat. ;

DURATKA, in Geography. a {mall ifland of Arabia, in
the Red fea, avout four leagues from the coaft. N. lat.
16° 48!.) Ex long..41° 31.

DURAKOVA, atown of Ruffia, in the government of
Archangel, on the:coaft of the White fea; 48 miles W. of
Archangel.

DURAMPOUR,a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Guzerat; 45 miles S.S.E. of Surat, and 96 N.N.E. of
Bombay. N. lat. 20° 32’. E, long. 73° 14.

DURANCE, The, a river of France, which has. its
fource in the mountains north of Briangon, near the high
road over MontGenevre,in the department of the Upper Alps.
Tt runs: to Briavgon, Vailanc, and Embrun; thence flowing
to the welt, and taking up the river Ubaye, it paffes by
Talard, near Gap, divides the department of the Upper
from that of the Lower Alps, the latter of which it crofles
from north to fouth; pafles by Sifteron, where it receives
the river Buéche, by Mancfque and Saint Paul; after which,
fhaping its courfe to the weit, it divides the department of
Vauclufe from that of the Bouches du Rhone, flows to Per.
tuis, in the neighbourhood of which place it takes up the
Verdon, anda little lower down the Cavallon, and at laft
falls into the Rhéne, three miles below Ayignon. Its whole
courfe is. about 180) miles.

The current of the Durance is fo rapid, that this. river
can be croffed only in barks; hitherto, at lea(t, it has been
found impracticable to throw a bridge over it below Sifteron.
Its frequent inundations make a dreadful havoc; it even
alters its bed, and cannot be navigated on account of the
many iflets and fand-banks by which its courfeis obftruGted.
A company or affociation of Jews offered. feveral years ago
to embank the Durance at their own charge, provided. all
the land faved! fhould be declared their property; to this the
land. owners objeGed, but it would now be confidered as a
very advantageous bargain. The Durance generally over-
flows its banks in July, after the melting of the fnow in the
Alps, and after the heavy rains of the month of November.
It abounds, however, in fifh, chiefly eels and trout. Its
numerous iflets, aboundimg with rabbits, are the haunts of
fnipes and wild ducks.

DURAND De Sr. Pourrain, Wituram, in Biogra-
phy, a learned {cholaftic divine in the 14th century, was
born imthe town annexed to his name, in the diocefe of Cler-
mont, and educated as a preaching monk of the Domi-
nican order. In confequence of his eminent attainments in
philofophical and theological ftudies, he was admitred: to the
degree of doctor in divinity, in the untverfity of Paris, in
the year 1313; and he afterwards delivered public lec-
tureg on facred literature as mafber of the facred palace at
Rome. In 1318 he was nominated bifhop of Rey, and, in
1326, tranflated to the bifliopric of Meanx, by pope:
John XXII. By his indefatigable perfeverance in the dif-
cuffion of difficulties in fcholaftic theology, he obtained the
appellation of the ‘ Molt refolute Doctor.” He was at
firtt a follower of Thomas Aquinas, but afterwards attached
himfelf to the fe& of Scotifts, and defended their tenets with
fo much acutenefs and zeal, that he offended the Thomifls,
and incurred their difpleafure to fuch a degree, as to induce
one of them, after his death, which happened in 1332, to
degrade his memory by the following epitaph :

“ Durus Durandus jacet hic fub marmore duro,,

An fit falvandus ego nefcio, nec quoque curo.”

He was the author of ‘* Commentaria fuper libros 4-Sen-
seatiarum,” the belt edition of which was publifhed in 15715

DUR

alfo, Liber. de origine JurifdiGionum, feu de ecclefiaftica
Juri{dictione, et TraGatus delegibus,’? printed in 4to. in
1571; and other treatifes, one of which was never publifhed,
and others enumerated in a,colleétion of his works edited,
under the care of Dr. Merlin in 151s. Cave’s Aift. Lit.
vol. ii, Szc, Wicklev. p. 22. Brucker’s Hilt, Philof. by
Enfield, vol. ii. p. 381.

DURANGO, in Geography, a: town of Spain, in the
province of Bifcay, about three leagues from the fea-coalt,
and four eaft of Bilboa. 4

Duranco, the capital of the kingdom of New Bifcay,,
in. the Spanifh dominions of North America, and the farthelt
town of any note towards the north. his city is more re=
markable for the extent of its bifhopric, than for ite popu-
lation, which only confifts of 5°00 perfons, including the
companies of militia appointed to defend it againft the Iu-
dians. The climate is mild and healthy, and the foil ex-
tremely fertile in wheat, maize, and fruits, whilft the paftures
abound with excellent cattle. It contains four convents
and three churches, one of which is fituated ona hill without
the city. It has.an office of the royal treafury, for colleét-
ing the duties on the numerous mines in New Bifcay. The
bifhopric was founded in 1620, and extends over all the pro-
vinces of New Bilcay, viz.. Tepeguana, T'araumara, Topiay
Batopilas, Culiacan, Cinaloa, Oftimuri, Senora, and Pimeria.
The amount of the tythes.in, the bifhopric of Durango for ten
years is 1,080,313. pefos., Darango is fituated on an inland
river, which is.loft ina lake. This river feems to be the
Guadiana, (another name of Durango,) or the Sauceda of
D’Anville. N. lat. 23° 30’. W. long. 103°.

DURANTA, in Botany, in honour of Caftor Durante,
phyfician to, pope Sixtus V., who publithed feveral medico-
botanical works, among{t others an Italian herbal, which
pafled through many editions in folio, and fome in quartoy,
iluftizied with the {maller wooden cuts ufed by Matthiolns.
Plumier, who founded this. genus, called it Ca/forea, but
Linnwus rightly changed, it, to accord with the faauly name
of the perfon commemorated, as in other cafes. Linn. Gen.
324. Schreb. 424. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.350. Mart. Mill,
Did. v. 2. Jufl. 109. Gaertn. t. 57. (Cattorea; Plum.
Gen. 30. t. 17. Eilifia; Browne Jam. 262. Loefl. tt. 194),
Clafs. and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Per-
Jonata, Linn. FVitices, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth, of one leaf, inferior, tubular,
fomewhat abrupt, five-cleft. Cor. of one petal. Tube
longer than tke calyx, a little curved; limb {preading,
rounded, in five deep, nearly equal, fegments. Svam. F.la-
ments four, enclofed within the tube, two longer than the
reft; anthers roundith. Pift. Germen inferior, roundifh ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, fhorter than the tube; ftigma a little
{welling. Peric. Berry roundifh, clothed with the calyx,
and crowned with its teeth, of one cell. Nuts four, convex
on one fide, angular on the other, each of two.cells. Sveds
folitary.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, tubular, with five teeth. Corolla
tubular, curved, its limb five-cleft, nearly equal. Stameng
inthe tube. Berry with four nuts, of two cells each.

1. D. Plumieri. Linn. Sp. Pl 888. Jacq. Amer, 186.
t.176.£.76. Ic. Rar.v. 3. t. 502. Leaves ovato-lanccolate,
flightly ferrated. Calyx-teeth of the fruit {pirally twilled
together.—Gathered by Plumier, probably, and certainly
by Jacquin, in Hifpaniola. The fem forms a fmall tree,
about fifteen feet high, with alternate, erect or drooping,
{quare leafy branches. caves oppofite, ttalked, an inch
and half long, lanceolate, inclining to ovate or elliptic, more,
or lefs acute, ufually with a few fhallow ferratures towards
the upper part, fometimes neariy. entire, fmooth on both fides,

2 paler

‘ovato-lanceolate, fharply ferrated.

DUR

paler and opaque beneath, veiny. Inthe bofom of each
Peat ig a {mall tuft of other leaves, or a downy bud, above
which ftand3a horizontal awl thaped thorn, various in length,
and fometimes wanting. C/u/ers of flowers fituated in the
place of thefe thorns, in great abundance towards the upper
part of each branch, folitary, fimple, many-flowered, three
or four inches long, their common ftalks, and efpecially their
partial ones, filky, as are likewife the awl-fhaped bra¢teas.
Calyx fomewhat bell fhaped, rather filky, with five angles,
and five f{mall, acute, incurved teeth. Corolla blurith or
lilac, its two uppermoft fegments rather narroweft, and each
marked with a dark longitudinal line. Fruit invefted with
the permanent bafe of the calyx, which becomes united to
it, and orange-coloured, while the teeth are fpirally twilted
together and crownthe top, Such is the plant of the Lin-
nzan herbarium, in which are very perfect fpecimens in flower
and fruit. The figure in Plumier’s Icones, t. 79, is proba-
bly the fame plant, but its leaves are much too ftrongly
ferrated, and there are no thorns; the latter circumflance
is, however, faid to be variable. We cannot but rely on
the repeated affurances of the learned Jacquin, that this
{pecies is different from the following, and that the charaéter
taken from the calyx-teeth is permanent, efpecially as there
is a difference ia the leaves alfo. Swartz appears to have
known but one f{pecies.

2. D. E£llifia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 888. Jacq. Amer. 187.
t.176.f.77. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 51. t. 99. Sm. Tour on

the Continent, ed. 2.v. 3.97. (Ellifia frutefcens, quan-

doque fpinofa, foliis ovatis utrinque acutis ad apicem ferratis,
fpicis alaribus; Browne Jam. 262. t. 29. f. 1.) Leaves
Calyx-teeth of the fruit
ereét.— Native of Jamaica. Very like the foregoing in ge-
neral afpe@ and characters, except the calyx-teeth, and the
deeper ‘eatin of the leaves, which are conftant, as re-
prefented by Jacquin, in all the fpecimens that have fallen
in our way. We have feen this fpecies cultivated in the
open ground near Genoa, fo that it feems lefs tender than
molt Jamaica fhrnbs. ts beautiful flowers rival thofe of our
Veronica Chamedrys. Jacquin’s plate is excellent.

3. D. Mutifiana. Sm. Intr. to Bot. 381. (D. Mutifit;
Linn. Suppl. 291. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 380.) Leaves el-
liptical, obtufe, entire, fhining on both fides. Sent from
New Granada by Mutis to Linneus. This has the general
habit of the two preceding, but is ftronger, and, notwith-
ftanding the fuggeftion of the younger Linnzus in the Sup-
plementum Plantarum, we cannot but think it clearly and
abundantly diftin@. The /eaves are of an elliptical figure,
fcarcely above an inch long, and above half as broad, very
obtufe, perfeGtly entire, fomewhat revolute, fhining on both
fides, and very little paler beneath. C/uflers about as long
as the leaves, only ftronger, but in other refpe&ts much like
the lait. The ¢ranches alfo are {pinous.. The fruit we
have not feen. S.

DURANTE, Francisco, in Biography. This illuftri-
ous diferple of Alcffandro Scarlatti, whom he fucceeded as
principal mafter of the confervatorio of Sant? Onofrio in
Naples;~defervedly merited the chara€ter of the beft and
moft judicious contrapuntift that Italy can boaft ; not fo
much for the fuguea,canons, or maffes which hehas compofed,
as for the number of illuftrious {cholars which his in{truc-
tion and example’ have produced. No better proofs need be
inftanced than Pergolefi, Terradeglias, Piccini, Sacchini,
Gaglielmi, Traetta, Anfoffi, and Paefiello, with whofe
admirable productions all Europe is well acquainted.
Though Durante can hardly be called a fecular compofer,
having pointed his labours to facred mufic, in which no very
light or gay melodies can occur with propriety : yet his

DUR
maffes and motets abound with elegant movements ingeni-
onfly and richly accompanied ; in which there is learning
without pedantry, and gravity without dulnefs. Thefe are
treafured up in the confervatorio, for which they were pro-
duced, and where, in 1770, they were {till in conftant
ule.

But the cantatas of his mafter Ale ff. Scarlatti for a fingle
voice, which, after his deceafe, Wurante formed into duets,
of the moftlearned, graceful, and expreffive kind, are what
the greateft malters now living continue to ftudy, and teach
to their favourite and molt accomplifhed f{cholars.

Several muficians have doubted whether the ground- work
of thefe very elaborate fudj was Scarlatti’s, among whom
was Pacchierotti; but in turning over different volumes of
his cantatas in the prefence of this admirable finger, while
he refided in London, we found, and fhewed him in Scar-
Jatti’s own hand-writing, the beautifnl movements and reci-
tatives upon which Durante worked with much felicity.

DURANTI, Joun Srepuen, was born at Touloufe,
and defigned in early lite for the bar, at which he afterwards
diftinguifhed himfelf for his eloquence. In the year 15635
he was made firft magiitrate; afterwards he became advo-
cate-general, and, in 1581, was nominated by the king
prefident of the parliament of Touloufe. He was ftrongly
attached to the royal caufe, and when the maffacre of the
duke and cardinal of Guife, in 1589, had inflamed the
rage of the leaguers, efpecially at ‘Youloufe, he employed
all the force of his eloquence to appeafe the people. He
afterwards prevented the parliament from throwing off their
obedience to Henry I11, and narrowly efcaped with his
life. His papers were feized and fearched, but nothing was
found to criminate him ; fome letters however written by his
brother,in-law, Daffis, to the king’s commandant at
Bourdeaux, imploring affiftance, being intercepted; the
crime was imputed to Duranti, and the mob went in a body
to the Jacobin convent, where he had fought protection,
and demanded him to be given up. Taking leave of his
wife and children, and commending his foul to God, he
went forth, and afked with a tranquil mind of what he had
been guilty. Fora moment a profound filence enfued, at
length a villain fired a mufket which brought him to the
ground, and immediately he was opprefled by a thoufand
bloody hands, which inftantly put an end to his life. They
treated the dead body with every indignity, and, at length,
tied it to the pillory, with the king’s picture hung at its
back. This maffacre of an excellent man, who had, in a
hundred inftances, been beneficial to his country, was perpe-
trated in February 1589. He was a friend and patron to
letters, and had colleéted a fine library which was difperfed
after his death. He is {uppofed to have been the author of
a learned and excellent work, ** De ritibus Ecclefiz,’?
which was given to Peter Danes, bilhop of Lavaur.
Moreri.

DURAS, in Geography, afmatltown of France, inthe
department of Lot and Garonne, chief place of a canton,
in the diftri@ of Marmande, with a population of 1576 in-
dividuals. It is feated on a {mall river which flows into the
Drot, 40 miles N.W. of Agen. Its diftri was ereéted into
a dukedom in the year 1688, but loft its title with the
French revolution of 1789. The canton has an extent of
2224 kiliometres, and contains 18 communes and 11,907
inhabitants. .

Duras, in Ancient Geography, a river of Vindelicia,
which ran into the Ifter, according to Strabo, fuppofed to
be the prefent Draum.

DURASTANTE, La Marcarira, in Biographyy
the firft capital female finger imported for the Italian opera

in

DUR

in Eegland. When Handel was commiffioned by the di-
rectors of the Royal Academy of Mute to engage vocal
performers in the year 1720, he brought over from Dre{den
the Durattante at the fame time as Senefino, Borenftadt
aad Bofchi. The figure of the Duraftan'e was fomewhat
mafculive ; but fhe was thought a good aétrefs, and more
admired in male than female parts. She feems-to have been
in great favour at our coutt; for his majefty, Geo. L.,
hongured her fo far as to command an opera, and be prefent
at her bencfit, July 5, 17223 and in the Evening Pott, N°
1810, from Saturday the 4th to Tuefday the 7th of
March 1721, we find the following paragraph: ** Laft
"Churfday his majefty was pleafed to ftand godfather, and
the princefs and the lady Bruce. godmothers, toa daugh-
of Mrs. Duraitante, chief finger in the opera-houfe. The
marquis Vifconti for the king, and the lady Litchfield for
the princefs.”’

In the B-itifh Muleum, among the Harlcian MSS. there
are verfes written by Pope on the Duraitante leaving
England, :

‘© Generous, gay, and galant nation,” &c. which are
parodied by Arbuthnot, ‘* Puppies, whom I now am leav-
ang.” &c.

DURATION, an idea we get by attending to the fleet-
ing, and perpetual perifhing parts of fucceffion.

The idea of fucceffion we get by reflecting on that train
-of ideas, which continually follow one another in our
minds, while awake. The diitance between any parts of
this fucceffion is what we call duration; and the continua-
tion of the exiftence of curfelves, or any thing elfe com-
menfurate to the fucceflion of, idcas in the mind, is called
“our own duration, or that of the thing co-exifting with our
thinking. So that we have no perception of duration when
that fucceffion of ideas ceafes.

Duration, in Mr. Locke’s philofophy, is a mode, er
smodification of [pace.

The fimple modes of duration are any lengths, or parts
‘thereof, of which we have diftant ideas; as hours, days,
-wecks, months, years, time, eternity, &c.

Duration, as marked by certain periods and meafures, is
what we call properly call time. :

1. By cbfcrving certain appearances at regular and feem-
ingly equidiitant periods, we get the ideas of certain lengths
and meafures of duration, as minutes, hours, &c. 2. By
being able to repeat thofe meafures of time, as often as we
will, we come to imagine duration where nothing really en-
‘dures, or exifts: thus we imagine to-morrow, next year,
yelterday, &c. 3. By being able to repeat fuch ideas of
any length of time, as of a minute, year, &c. as often as
we will, andadd them to one another, without ever coming
to an end, we get the idea of eternity.

Time is to duration, as place is to {pace, or expanfion.
They are fo much of thofe boundlefs oceans of eternity,
and immenfity, as is fet out, and diftinguifhed, from the
seit; and thus they ferve to denote the pofition of finite
real beings, in refpeét of each other, in thofe infinite oceans
of duration and fpace.

Duration of adion. See Action.

Duration of an.Eclipfe. See Ecvipse.

Duration, feruples of half. See Scrurre.

Duration of a folareclipfe. See Ecuipse.

Duration of found, in Mufic. See Sounn.

Duration, in Vegetable Phyficlogy, means the determi-
nate period of exiftence appropriated to each fpecies of
plant, whether annual, biennial, or perennial, Annual

lants are fuch as {pring up from feed, arrive at perfeGtion,
ripen their feed, and totally perifh, in the {pace of one year, or

DUR

rather one feafon, as Mullard, Radithes, Barley, and various
garden flowers. In fome inftances the exiltence of fuch
plants is limited toa very few months or even weeks, and is
dormant in their feed the greater part of the year. ‘Truly
aunual plants can never be propagatcd by cuttings or layers,
except indeed fome whofe decumbent branches of them-
felves take root, and may therefore be feparated from the
parent root for that feafon only, as the common annual
meadow-grafs, Poa annua. The roots of fome alfo are
capable of divifion, and may therefore be increafed artificis
ally to a great extent, as is fometimes practifed by curious ,
perfons on corr by way of experiment. ;

Biennial plants arrive at only a certain degree of perfec.
tion the firft feafon, fhewing no figns of flowering, and
continuing ftationary through the winter. In the following
feafon they bear flowers, perfect their feed, and then perifh
like annuals. Of this nature are many fpecies of mullein or
Verbafcum, the Fox-glove, Digitalis purpurea, the Canter-
bury Bell, Campanula Medium, &c. The tree mallow
Lavatera arborea is juttly efteemed biennial, becavfe though
it may furvive feveral winters, if circumftances do not favour
its flowering, it foon dies after ripening feed. A biennial
plant therefore never fructifics more than orce, how long
foever its previous exiftence may be- Wheat is perhaps ra-
ther to be reckoned annual than biennial; for though witht
us itis found molt convenient to commit it to the ground in
autumn, ic may be raifed in one feafon, and does not require
one fummer to bring iis herbage to perfection, and another
to form fruétitication.

Perennial plants live and fru@ify through many fucceffive
feafons, like the generality of trees and fhrubs, as well ag
many herbaceous plants, and may be increafed by dividing
their roots, or by cuttings, layers, or grafts. Their pro-
pagation however by fuch methods, dces not appear to be
unlimited. Several berbaceous perennial plants are well
known to require frequent renewal from feed, in order te
flourifh in perfection, and fome late experiments and obfer-
vations on fruit-trees feem to prove that each variety, or, in
other words, each individual plant, originally raifed from
feed, is limited to a certain period, in fome kinds longer,
in others fhorter, beyond which the offspring of their buds
or cuttings drag on but a fickly exiitence, and finally perifh.
This is bef feen in the hiftory of the different varieties of -
apples, fome of which, after flourifhing long, are now in
decay, witnefs the golden pippin, while others raifed from
time to time by feed, either difappear by the effects of can-
ker in a very few feafons, or feem to promife a long future
exiftence. Wiullows and ofiers of various kinds feem, as far
as we can obferve, to be of very long, or even indetermi-
nate, duration, being increafed by cuttings, year after year,
without any apparent decay or deterioration. This is per-
haps becaufe each fpecies is inits natural original ftate, with-
out the marks or properties of a variety. Befides, we have
had ample opportunities of obferving that this genus of
pus are frequently renewed fpontaneoufly by feed, and
uch feedlings, being more vigorous, may often be chofen
uncon{cioufly for cuttings by their cultivators, But human
life is not long enough fully to determine this quettion.
Gardeners well know that the freqvent renewal of plants
from feed is the beft way to have them in perfeGion, and
they chiefly therefore prefer that method, except where a
variety is to be preferved, whichis not propagated by feed.
This gencral experience is fufficient to confirm what we have
advanced above. S,

DURATON, in Geography, ariver of Spain, which runs
into the Duero, near Penatiel.

DURAVEL, a {mall town of France, in the depart,

ment

DUR

wment of the Lot, on the river of that name; 3 miles E. of
Fumel.

DURAZZO, a fea-port town of European Turkey, in
“Albania, anciently named L£pidamaus and Dyrrachium,
{trong and populous, with a good harbour in the gulf of
Venice; the fee of a Greek bifhop; 88 miles S.S.E. of
Ragufa. N. lat. 41° 42’. E. long. 19° 16’.

DURBACH, a {mall town of Auttria, in the Saxon
country of Tranfylvania, in the diftri& of Biftritz.

DURBAN, a[mall town of France, inthe department
-of the Aude, chief place of a canton in the diftrict of
Narbonne. It has only 296 inhabitants; but the canton
contains 2837 individuals, difperfed in 12 communes, upon
a territorial extent of 240 kiliometres.

DURBEN, a town of the duchy of Courland; 24 miles
8.5.W. of Goldingen.

DURBION, a river of France, which runs into the
Mofelle, near Chatel fur Mofelle, in the department of the
Vofges.

DURBUNGA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Bahar; 48 miles N.E. of Patna, and 58 S.W. of Amer-

our.

DURBUY, a fmall town of France, in the department
of Sambre and Meule, chief place of a canton in the dil.
tri€t of Marche, with a population of 312 individuals, fitu-
ated on the river Ourte, 30 miles S. of Liege and 40 miles
S.E. of Namur. It is alfo called Durbu. The canton has
a territorial extent of 150 kiliometres, and contains 19 com-
munes, with 5783 inhabitants.

DURCKHEIM, a [mail town of Fiance, in the depart-
ment of Mont-Tonnerre, chief place of a canton in the dif-
trict of Spire, 15 miles N.W. of Spire, with a population

of 3037 individuals. ‘The canton has 19 communes, and
14,520 inhabitants.

DURDUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a chain of
African mountains in Mauritania Cefarienfis, which extend
themfelves from the fouth-weit to the north-ealt.

DURE, Door See Sutu-Daure.

DUREL, Joun, in Biography, was born at St. Helier,
in the ifland of Jerfey 1 the year 1626. He was entered
a ftudent at Merton college, Oxford, in 1640, and having
continued there about two years, he was, on account of the
civil wars, induced to retire into France, and become a mem-
ber of the college at Caen in Normandy. Here he took
his degree of M. A.in the year 1644, and henceforth ap-
plied himfelf affiduoufly to the ftudy of theology. In 1647
he returned to Jerfey, and took aétive meafures in behalf of
the royal caufe, fo that when the ifland was reduced by the

arliament’s forces, he was obliged to feek refuge at Paris.
ps he was ordained according to the Englifh epifcopal forms
at the chapel of fir Richard Brown, king Charles refiding at
that time in France. He received two invitations to fettle as a
minifter, which he declined, and engaged himfelf as chaplain
to the duke dela Force, father to the princefs of Turenne,
a fituation in which he continued about eight years. On
the reftoration of Charles II. he cameto England, affifted
in eftablifhing the French church at the Savoy, London,
where he continued to officiate feveral years. His fteady
zeal in defence of the royal prerogative obtained for him
conliderable preferment. In 1663, he was made prebendary
in the cathedral church of Salifbury ; chaplain to the king;
and foon after canon of Windfor, and prebend of Durtiam.
He was afterwards created doctor in divinity by the univer-
fity of Oxford, in confequeuce of letters addrefled to that
body by the chancellor, in which the greatelt praife was be-
OL ee lla.

*

~ Canticles,

DUR

ftowed on his loyalty, fidelity, and important fervices
atchieved by him forthe king. He hadevery profpeét of
being made bifhop, but his death, in 1683, put an end to
farther promotion. He was the author of feveral works,
but chiefly of the controverfial kind ; from this general ac-
count we mutt except his ** Theoremata Philofophiz ratio-
nalis, moralis, naturalis, & fupernaturalis,”” &c. 4to. 1664.
It muft be fpoken highly tohis praife, that as an honeft and
truly confiftent character, he wasalways a zealous advocate
for the conftitution of the church of England, even when
he was in the moft hopelefs and defperate condition. Aa a
controverfialift he was, by the learned Du Moulin, reckoned
candid and open, but by the puritans of England he is dif-
ferently chara@terized.. Biog. Britan. -

DURELL, Davin, was born at Jerfey in 1728, and
though the name is differently fpelt, it has been thought that
he was of the fame family as John already mentioned. He
ftudied at Pembroke college, Oxford, where he took his de-
greeof M. A. inthe year i753. At this college he was
chofen firft a fellow, and in 1753 the principal. In 1764,
he publifhed a learned theological work, entitled ‘© The
Hebrew Texts of the parailel prophecies of Jacob and Mofes
relating tothe r2 tribes, with atranflation and notes, &c.
&c.” He now took his degree of doétor of divinity, and
great expectations were formed of his future fervices in
biblical criticifm, from his publication in which he difplayed
confiderable knowledge in the oriental languages, and much
induftry in elucidating the fenfe of the facred {cripturcs.
Dr. Durell was prefented in 1767 to a prebend in the church
of Canterbury, and foon after to the vicarage of Tycehurlt
in Suffex. In 1772, he laid before the public * Critical
remarks on the books of Job, Pfalms, Ecclefiaftes, and
” ina 4to. volume. This work will long renrain a
monument to his erudition, and at the fame time it exhibits
a fuperiority tolong eftablifhed prejudices. In his preface,
the doétor pleads earneftly for a new tranflation of the bible,
and offers powerful arguments for this meafure, in oppofition
to the objefions urged againft it. To the great lofs of
biblical literature, he died in the year 1775, when he was
only in the 48th year of his age; he was as diftinguifhed
for piety and goodnefs, ashe was eminent for found and ex-
tenftve learning. Biog. Britan.

DUREN, in Geography. See Deuren.

DURENMETTSTETTEN, a fmall town of the
kingdom of Wirtemberg, which formerly was an inde-
pendent lordfhip in Suabia, and which was ceded to
Wirtemberg at the peace of Luneville as part of its indem-
nity for thelofs of fome provinces on the left fhore of the
Rhine.

DURER, Atoserr, in Biography, a painter and en-
graver of hiftory, portrait, and land{cape, born at Nurem-
berg, A. D. 1471. He was the fon of an eminent gold-
{mith of thattown, by whom, as he has himfelf left on re-
cord, he was inftruéted in the art of working in gold, as well
asin chafing in general. Tis father appears to have de-
figned him to follow his own bufinefs, fince, during his child-
hood, he had not made even the flighteft attempt at paint-
ing, and it was not until he had reached the fifteenth year of
his age, that he received the firft inftruGtions in that art from
Michael Walzemuth, a painter of Nuremberg, under whofe
tuition he was then placed for a term of three years.

At the expiration of that term, Albert was fent by his
fatherinto Belgium, with what view is uncertain, but he
continued there four years, and it is evident that he mull,
in that period, have meade himfelf matter of confiderabte
kuawledge in the art of engraving, fince the fir of his

3A works

DU R Eee

works that is noticed, on his return to his native city, was
a print of three or four naked females ; a work which bears
the date of 1497, and is remarkable for the fuperfcription
which he affixed to it, of O. G. H. faid by Sandrart to be
defigned for the initials of the German words O Gott Hite!
or, O God, deliver us from witchcraft!

His engravings of * The paffion of Chrift,”” bear the
dates of 1507, 1508, and 1512. The laft date found on
any of his works is that of 1526, on the portrait of Me-
Tanéthon.

But the difplay of his talents, however confpicuous in that
art, was not confined to engraving. He difcovered a genc-
ral capacity, not only for every branch of defign, but for
every feience that ftoodin any relation to it, and wrote
treatifes on proportion, perfpeCtive, geometry, civil. and
military architeéture. He crowned his various knowledge
by the moft eminent fkil in painting, in which he fo tar
farpaffed all thofe who had hitherto fiudied and practifed the
art in hisown country, that he ‘obtained the appellation of
. © Father of the German fchool.”

Che firft piures which are known to have been painted
by him, are a portrait of his mother, and another. portrait
‘of himfelf in his thirtieth year, A. D. 1500; placed in the
palace of Prague, as were, afterwards, many other of his
works. Among the molt celebrated in that colleGtion, were
the * Magi;?? * The Virgin crowned with Rofes by Angels;”
«s Adam and Eve,”’ of the fize of life; ** 'The fufferings of
the Martyrs;”? and the ‘ Chri on the Crofs, furrounded
with Glory;” in which the painter has introduced, at the
foot of the crofs,a group of popes, cardinals, and emperors,
and a figure reorefenting himfclfas holding a {mall canvas,
on which is written: Albertus Durer, Noricus, faciebat,
anno de Virginis partu 1511.

His ftyle was fo generally admired by the artifts of his
time, that it was imitated by his countrymen to the utmoft
of their ability, and he received a flill more gratifying ho-
mage from the profeflors of the Italian fchool, many of
whom, and thofe, (according to Sandrart) of the highelt
reputation, thought it so diminution of their fame to adopt
not only the attitudes, defigns, dreffes, and other ornaments
‘of Albert’s figures, but the entire figures themfelves, and
even fometimes painted nearly the whole of large hiltorical
compolitions from his engravings on wood and copper.

Among theartiftsof the then flourifhing ‘Tufcan {chool,
in whofe principles and talte the importation of his works
into Italy is faid to have cfieéted a change, Andrea del
‘Sarto, and Jacopo da Pontormo, are particularly mentioned;
and Raffaelle himfelf is faid to have accepted with pleafure
‘fome engravings feat to him by Albert, and to have hung
them in his own apartment.

His works are at prefent very numerous throughout Italy
and Germany ; and in fame he ranks with the higheft artilts
of his time.

His charaGter is thus given by an artift of our own days,
‘© He was aman of extreme ingenuity, without being a
genius. In compolition, copious without tafte, and anxi-
oufly precife in parts. Inconception, he had fometimes
aglimpfe of the fublime; but it wasaglimpfe only. Such
is the expreffive attitude of bis ‘“‘ Chnift in the Garden,”
and fuch the figure of ** Melancholy,”’ as the mother of in-
vention. He ltudied, and, as far as his penetration reached,
eftablifhed certain proportions of the human frame; but he
did not invent or compofe a permanent ftandard of ityle.

He made the neareft approach to genius in hie colour,
which went beyond the age he lived in, and, in eafel pictures,
he as far furpaifed the oil colour of Raflaclle, in juicynels,

breadth, and handling, as Raffelle furpafied him in every:
other part of hisart. His drapery is broad, but much too:
angular in its folds.”

The merit of Albert Durer was not loft in obfcurity.
Having painted a picture of St. Bartholomew, for the church
dedicated to that faint at Venice, the fame of the work rofe
fo high, that the emperor Rodolphins 12. fent orders to
Venice for the pidture to be purchafed for himfelf at any
price, and to be brought to Prague, (a journey of great
length,) not by the ordinary methods ct conveyance, for
fear of its receiving fome damage, but by meaus of a pole
carried on men’s fhoulders,

With the emperor Maximilian he was a- fill greater fa—
vourite, enjoying his particular patronage, 2s well as after~
wards that of Charles V. Several of his. principal pi€iures
were painted exprefsly for Maximilian’s palace. And itis
related that, one day, when the emperor came to vilit
Albert in his room, where he was employed on.a‘piéture of
large dimenfions, the artiit being defirous to touch fome part
of his work at a confid:rable height, from the ground, and
his ftool not enabling him to reach it, Maxinvlian ordered
one of his nobles who attended lim to hold the ladder for
Albert, while he’ went up to the point he wifhed. The
nobleman drew back, and, with the utmoft reverence and
humility, ventured to reprefent to his majefty his doubt,
how far fuch an office might be derogatory to his rank :_on
which, Maximilian is faid to have replied, that he confidered-
Albert Durer as a man far above any noble io his fuite ; for
that he could, at any time, make a nobleman of a clown,
but that he could not make a painter of a nobleman. In
confirmation of thefe fentiments, he immediately ordered a~
patent of nobility to be made out for the painter.

In addition to his great celebrity as an artift, Albert:

ontinual fuggeitions
ty in the lucrative
points of his profeffion ; and her rep s

little reft, that fome of his friends counfelled him to leave
her for a time: ‘and, agreeably to their advice, he fet out.
fecretly for Flanders, and took up his refidence in the houfe
of the celebrated painter, Lucas Van Leyden, where the
artifts drew the portraits of each other, in fign of mutual
friendfhip and elteem. But his abode could not long be
concealed from the unremitting curiofity and refearches of
his wife; and, having once difeovered the fecret, fhe, by~
repeated folicitation, and the moft earnelt promifes of gentle
condu& on her part, prevailed on him to return to his home.
He returned, and her iil temper returned, and, fatally for
the world, triumphed over the ftrength of his conftitution.
He is faid to have died of this fecond periecution.

In his behaviour to contemporary artifts he was fo cour-
teous, that, whenever they brought their works to him to
receive his judgment, even the total want of any thing
which he could commend im the pictures did not leffen his
attention to the authors of them. In converfation he was
cheerful, without licentioufnefs; and, as a firm friend of-
piety and virtue, he never profaned his talents, by-employing
them on fubjeéts unworthy of -his mind and pencil.

On his return to Nuremberg, he was named one of the
members of the council. He died in that city, in 1528,
and was buried ie the church of St. Jobn; and a monument
was raifed to his memory, which, falling to ruin, was reo

fe paired

se

Daur ®R.

aired 153 years afterwards; and the following elogium
inicribed in brafs over his grave:

Vixit Germaniz fue decus
ALBERTUS DurRERUS,
Artium lumen, fol artificum,
Urbis patrie Nor. Ornamentum,
Pittor, chalcographus, fculptor,
Sine exemplo, quia omnifcius,
Dignus inventus exteris,
Quem imitandum cenferent,
-Magnes magnatum, cos ingeniorum,
Poft fefquifzculi requiem,
Quia parem non habuir,
Solus heic cubare jubetur,

Tu flores {parge, viator.
A.R.S. MDCLXXXI.

Opt. Mer. F. Cur.

J. De S.

* Some books written by him in German, on the rules of
ainting, his ** Inftitutiones Geometrice,” &c. were pub-
ifhed after his death.

He ufed this mark on his works ; and fome

.

of his contemporaries having alfo aflumed it, and particularly
Marc Antonio Raimondi, m a feries of engravings of the
Life of Chrift, Albert Durer brought an accufation againtft
the latter before the fenate of Venice, who ordered M. An-
tonio to efface the mark, and forbad any one befide Albert
to ufe it in future. Sandrart, Pilkington, &c. &c.

DURESSE, Hard/bip, in Law, is where a perfon is
kept in prifon, or reftrained of his liberty, contrary to the

order of law; or is threatened to be killed, maimed, or
beaten.

In which cafe, if a perfon fo in prifon, or in fear of fuch
threats, make any fpeciality, or obligation, by reafon of
fuch imprifonment, or threats, fuch deed is void in law; and
‘in an action brought on fuch fpeciality, the party may plead,
that it was brought by dureffe.

DURETAL, in Geography. See Durrat.

DURFORT, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Oude.—Alfo, a {mall townof France, in the depart.
ment of the Gard; 9 miles S.W. of Alais.—Alfo, a {mall
town of France, in the department of the Arri¢ge; 6 miles
N.W. of Pamiers.

D’URFY, or D’Urreyv, Tom, in Biography. We cannot
help being a little familiar with this facetious bard, who was
himfelf no refpecter of perfons. Tom had much wit and
humour of acertain kind, but very little delicacy or decorum
in exprefling it. Tom’s mufe was hardly of a higher order
than an oyiter girl, or a cinder-wench, who are not without
their wit andhumour any more than l’om: only the ufe thefe
ladies make of the vulgar tongue is in plain profe, and Tom’s
is embellifhed with verfe.

Tom lived in a merry time, and his writings are well
tinG@tured with the mirth in feafor. As a poet, Tom’s
meatures are as froliclome as his ideas; and as a mufician,
his tunes correfpond with the comicality of his verfes. If
Tom had been a little more fqueamifh in his moments of
jecularity, and, in making up his ‘ pills to purge melan-
choly,”? had kept out the moft offenfive ingredients, the
recipe itfelf, being a good one, might have been filed with
fafety and benefit to the public. ‘To quit the medical meta-
phor, the colleétion, had it been purified of its molt grofs
and coarfe materials, containing fo many originalfongs, and

roufly agreed toa& “ The Plotting Sifters,”

DUR

grotefque tunes of a much higher date'than his own, would
have been a curious'repolitory of {uch words and tunes as it
would be difficult to find any where elfe.

D’Urfy was defcended from an ancient family in France.
His parents, being Hugonots, fled from Rochelle before it
was befieged by Lewis XIII. in 1628, and fettled at Exe-
ter, where this their fon was born, but in what year is un-
certain. He was originally bred to the law; but foon find-
ing that profeffion too faturnine for his volatile and lively
genius, he quitted it, to become a devotee of the mufes; in
which he met with no fmall fuccefs. His dramatic pieces,
which are very numerous, were in general well received: yet,
within thirty years after his death, there was not one of them
on the mufter-roll of aGing plays; that licentioufnefs of in-
trigue, loofenefs of fentiment, and indelicacy of wit, which
were their ftrongeft recommendations to the audiences for
whom they were written, having very juftly banifhed them
from the flage in the periods of purer talte. Yet are they
very far from being totally devoid of merit. The plots are
in general bufy, intricate, and entertaining ; the chara¢ters
are not illdrawn, although rather too farcical ; and the lan-
guage, if not perfeétly corre&t, yet eafy and well adapted
for the dialogue of comedy. But what obtained Mr. D’ Urfy
his greatelt reputation, was a peculiarly happy knack he pof-
feffed in the writing of fatires and irregular odes. Many of
thefe were upon temporary cccafions, and were of no little
fervice to the party in whofe caufe he wrote; which, to-
gether with his natural vivacity and good humour, obtained
him the favour of great numbers of all ranks and condition:,
monarchs themfelves not excluded. He was ftrongly at-
tached to the tory intereft, and in the latter part of queen
Anne’s reign, had frequently the honour of diverting that
princefs with witty catches and fongs of humour, fuited to
the {pirit of the times, written by himfeif, and which he
fung in a lively and entertaining manner. And the author
of the Guardian, who, in N° 67, has given a very humorous
account of Mr. D’Urfy, with aview to recommend him to
the public notice for a benefit-play, tells ns, that he remem-
bered king Charles If. leaning on Tom D’Urfy’s thouler
more than once, and humming over a fong with him. He
ufed frequently to refide with the earl of Dorfet at Knowle ;
where a picture of him, painted by ftealth, is ftill to be
feen.

He was certainly a very diverting companion, and a cheer-
ful, honeft, good-natured man ; fo that he was the delight
of the molt polite companies and converfations, from the
beginning of Charles II.’s to the latter part of king
George I.’s reign; and many an honeft gentleman got a
reputation in his county, by pretending to have been in
company with Tom D’Urfy. Yet, fo univerfala favourite
as he was, it is apparent that towards the latter part of his
life he ftood in need of affitance, to prevent his pafling the
remainder of it in a cage, like a finging-bird ; for, to {peak
in his own words, as repeated by the above-named author,
«¢ After having written more odes than Horace, and about
four times as many comedies as Terence, he found himfelf
reduced to great difficulties by the importunities of a fet of
men, who of late years had furnifhed him with the accom-
modations of life, and would not, as we fay, be paid with a
fong.”?” Mr. Addifon then informs us, that, in order to
extricate him from thefe difficulties, he himfelf immediately
applied to the direétors of the play-houfe, who very gene-
a play of Mr.
D’Urfy’s, for the benefit of its author. What the refule
of this benefit was, does not appear; but it was probably
fufficient to make him eafy, as we find him living and con-
tinuing to write with the fame humour and livelinefs to the

3A2 time

DUR
time of his death, which happened Feb. 26, 1723. What

was hisaze at this time, is not certainly fpecified any where 5
but be mutt have been confiderably advanced in life, his firft
play, which could fearcely have been written before he was
20 years of age, having made its appearance 47 years be-
fore. He was buried in the church-yard of St. James’s;
Weftmintter.

Thofe who have a curiofity to fee his ballads, fonnets, &c.
may find a large number of them in 6 vols. 12mo. entitled;
# Pills to purge Melancholy,”? of which the Guardians
ja N° 29, {peaks in very favourable terms. Te titles of
his dramatic pieces, thirty-one in number, may~be found in
the Biograpbia Dramatica.

DURGA Pooea, the name of the great autumnal fefti-
valof the Hindoos. Ona this occafion, an effigy of Durga,
in combat with the chief of the Raccafles Soomne Soom, 18
exhibited, amidit a gaudy group of evil genii and auxiliary
gods, forming a picture, in alto relicvo, {ufficient to fill the
breadth of a large faloon, as fhewy as brilliant colours and
tinfel ornaments can make it. ‘This effigy is removed, on
the lat day at noen, and conveyed in proceffion to the
Ganges, where Durga and her affociates are committed all
togetherto the deep. During this latter part of the feltival,
which is generally known in Calcutta by the appellation of
the Nautehes, the houfes of the mot opulent Hindoos are
open to Eusopean vifitors, and conitantly attra&t a pro-
digious concourle of company. This feftival, which is the
mof famous among the Hindoos, gives occafion alfo in
Bootan to a great difplay of ingenuity. The feftival lalts
for ten days, and it is there termed * Mullaum.” The
grotefque figures that ‘exhibited themfelves in the combat
formed a very fantaltic motley group. Elephants, horfes,
apes, and a mot frightful fgure environed with {nakes,
were among the reprefentations intended to perfonate rac-
cuffes, or evil genii. Virtue appeared in the fhape of Durga,
with a view to extermizate vice; and fome of the group re-
ceived very hard blows b<fore they would quit the ttage ;
but the force of Durga never failed to maintain its ground
in all the triumph of viGory. The objeé& of this feftival
feems to have been the celebration of the arrival of the au-
tumnal, as that of the ** Hooh’’ does the vernal equinox.

Darga Poogah is diftinguifhed alfo as being the well-
known period, when the armies of the native powers in India
have always been accultomed to take the ficld: and till their
acquaintance with Europeans taught them the neceflity of
relingviihing fome of their moft inveterate prejudices, it was
very feldom that any of their troops aflembled in the field,
till after the celebration of the Duffkra, which happens on
the firlt full moon after the equinox. As that has been ever
confidcred as the fignal for holtile preparations, fo has the
Dewali, the following new moon, a feitival kept in honour
of the dead, when it is ufval to make large feafts, to diftri-
bute food to the poor, and to make grand illuminations
during the night, been commonly the time to fet their troops
ju motion. ‘Turner’s Embafly to Tibet, p. 162.

DURGAN, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia; 48 miles S.E. of Caftamont.

DURGUT, a town of Atiatic Turkey, in the province
of Natolia; 18 miles E. of Smyrna.

DURHAM, a county in the northern part of England,
bounded to the eak by the German ocean, to the north by
Northumberland, from which it 1s feparated by the rivers
Tyne and Derwent, on the weft by the counties of Cum-
berland and Weftmoreland, and on the fouth by Yorkfhire.
The area thus enclofed forms a triangular figure, and mea-
fures about 36 miles in its greateft extent from north to
fouth, by nearly 45 miles in an oppofite direGtion, Its fu-

D*U' R'’

perficial area includes about 610,000 acres. This fpace is
divided into four wards, all of which derive their names from
places of little. importance, wiz. Chefter, Darlington,
Eafirgton, and Stockton; befides which there are two other
diftri€is, called Norhamfhire and Iflandfhire. The county
is divided, according to fome authors, into.» 513 parifhes,
while others fay 120, including one city and ten market
towns. According to the laf report to parliament, this
diftri& contained 27,195 houfes, and 160,361 inhabitants,
of whom 74,770 were males, and 85.491 were females,
Four members are returned to parliament; two for the
county and two for the city,

This part of England was anciently inhabited by the
Brigantes, a clafs of Britons, diltinguifhed by Tacitus as:
being powerful, brave, and numerous; but who were fub-
dued by the Romans, The latter included Durham within=
the divifion of Maxima Cefarienfis ; and the Saxons made it
part of the kingdom ef Northumbria. In the year 685,
Egfrid, king of this difri&, granted all the lands between
‘ the rivers Weare and-Tyne”’ to St. Cuthbert, the apoftle
of the north, From this time the county was invefted with»
great privileges, and has been generally termed the Bi/bopric,
and County palatine. Edward I., however, feized the power
from the bifhop, and transferred the liberties of the fee to
the crown. Thefe were afterwards reftored in part; and
were augmented or enlarged by different monarchs, till:
queen Mary re-eftablithed them. The bifhops of Durham,.
from time immemorial, have exercifed peculiar immunities ©
and power; confifting of all manner of royal junfdiétion,
both civil and miitary, by land and fea. For the exercife
of which they had their proper courts of chancery, ex=-
chequer, and court of pleas, as well of the crown as of the
county. The nature and peculiarity of all thefe cannot be
properly defcribed in this place, but may be found fuliy
explained in Hutchinfon’s Hiftory of Durham, 3 vols. 4to.-
and Gough’s edition of Camden’s Britannia, vol. ii. p. 109,
&Co
. The general afpe& of Durham is hilly and mountainous,
particularly towards the weftern angle, which is a bleak.
barren, and naked region, crofled by a lofty ridge called
the Englifh Apennines. Several different ftreams iffue
from the eaftern fide of thefe mountains. On the eaftern
fide, and near the centre of the county, are fome fine and
fertile vallies, through which varicus brooks and rivers flow
to the fea. Nearly one-third of the land is held by eccle-
fiaftical tenure, under leafes for lives, or for 21 years. "Che
cattle of Durham are in great repute, as to fhape, weight,
produce of milk, &c. The fheep are mottly large, and.
covered with long wool.

The wafte or uncultivated lands of this county are of con=
fiderable extent, occupying, according to Mr. Grangery
nearly 130,000 acres. According to fir William Appleby,
in a communication to the author of the Agricultural Re-
port, ** Durham, taking its fmall dimenfions into confidera-
tion, is not to be equalled by any other county in- Great
B itain, except Middlefex, for its numerous and important
coal, Jead, and iron mines; its large caft-metal founderies,
and iron manufatories, potteries, glafs-houfes, copperas
works, coal, tar, and falt works, quarries of marbie, fire
and free-ftone ; lime, brick, and tile-kilns; grind-ftone and
mill-ftone ; linen and woollen manufaétories; trade, agri-
culture, and population.” Granger’s general View of the
Agriculture of the County of Durham, 4to.

Towards the eaft and north-eaft parts of Durham are
feveral extenfive coal-mines. The feams or ftrata, now
worked, are five in number, which extend horizontally for
many miles,.and are. from 20. to 100 fathoms beneath the

furface.

DURHAM

furface. Each ftratum is from three to about eight feet in
thicknefs. Bclow thefe are feveral other feams of coal,
Some fteam-engines have been ereéted, to ratie che coal to
the furface, and for the purpofe of pumping the water out
of the mines. In the great fea-fale collieries, feveral horfes
are conftantly kept under ground, to draw the coals to the
mouths of the pits.

In the vicinity of Walfingham, a firm black {potted lime-
ftone or marble is procured, and is much ufed for hearths,
chimney-pieces, &c. ‘he fame neighbourhood alfo abounds
with ftone, much ufed in making mill-ftones. Many quarries
of excellent flate have been opened in different parts of the
eounty ; and Gatefhead-fell is particularly famous for pro-
ducing what are vulgarly termed Newcaftle grind-ftones,
from being moftly fhipped off at that port. Fuire-ftone, in
high eftimation for making ovens, furnaces, &c. is obtained
in various parts of the county ; and large quantities are an-
nually exported. Several lead-mines are worked in Tces-
dale and Wear-dale. Some extenfive works for-manufac-
turing falt from fea-water have been long eftablifhed at
South Shields ; but thefe have been much negie¢ted, in con-
fequence of a fingular falt {pring having been difcovered at
Birtley. The water rifes at the depth of 70 fathoms, and
fias produced 20,000 gallons per day for fome years patt.
The water is found to be four times ftronger than any fea:
water,

The manufa@tures of Durham are-aumerous and import-
ant, and are diftributed over various parts of the county.
At Chelter-le-Street is a very extenfive foundery for cannon;
and another at Wafhington. At Swalwell and at Winlaton
are fome very large iron-works; and at Lumley is a manu-
factory for converting f{crap-iron into engine-boiler-plates,
and caft metal into malleable iron. At Shortley-Bridge,
Derwent-Coal, and Blackhall-Mills, are manufactories of
ftecl for {word-blades. Tammies, carpets, and wailtcoat-
pieces, are manufaétured at Durham; tammies and hucka-
backs are alfo made at Darlington; cottons are manufac-
tured at Caftle-Eden, Stockton, and Bifhops- Auckland ;
glafs-bottles in large quantities are made at Sunderland, &c.

The chief rivers of this county are the Tees, the Weare,
and the Derwent. The total return of income, under the
influence of the property-tax bil] for this county, in 1806,
was 1,320 364/. The amount of the poor-rates for 1803,
at 2s. 41d. in the pound, was 71,6657.

Duruam, a city, and the capital of the county of the
fame name, England, is fituated on a fingular rocky emi-
nence, rifing near the centre of the county, and almoft fur-
rounded by the river Weare. From all the neighbouring
points of view, its appearance is unique and ftriking: its
public edifices exhibiting a degree of magnificence not to be
expected at fo remote a diftance from the metropolis; and
its fituation and figure being fo peculiar as to have acquired
the emphatic appellation of the Lngli/b Zion. Durham
derives its name from its fituation ; the term being a corrup-
tion from the Saxon words, Dur, a hill, and ho/me, a river
ifland. By the Latins, obferves Camden, ‘it is called
Dunelmus; and by the common people, Durham or Du-
re{me.” ‘The earlieft hiftorical notice of this city is con-
tained in the monkifh legend of St. Cuthbert, from whofe
‘votaries Dunholme, as it was then called, accumulated all
its celebrity and riches. From this legend we colle&, that
the faint died in 687, and was burned in the church of
Landisfarne, at that period an epifcopal fee, which rank it
continued to hold till the year 876, when the Danes, under
Hialfden, ravaged this part of the country, exercifed pe-
culiar cruelty againft the clergy : on which bifhop Eardulf,
and the other members of the church, refolved on immediate

migration; and colle@ting all their ‘relics, facred veffels,
{hrines. jewels, and ornaments, abandoned Landisfarne, and
were followed by all the inhabitants. After a long feries of
temporary refidences, Dunholme was the place fixed en for
the lafting abode of St. Cuthbert’s relics, and the further
eftablifhment of the holy fraternity. From thefe and other
correllative circumftances, we are led to date the rife of the
town of Durham in the beginning of the eleventh century.
In the year 1040, it appears to be ftrongly fortified, when
attacked by Duncan king of Scotland: for the townfmen
fuftained his affaults for a confiderable time ; and at length,
by a vigorous fally, totally routed the affailants, and be-
headed the leaders in the market-place. In 1069, William I.
fent Robert Cumin, whom he had created earl of Northum-
berland, with 700 veteran Normans, to enforce his authority.
Thefe warriors committed great enormitics, which excited
the inhabitants to a defperate refiftance ; when, after a very:
fanguinary conteft, the earl with his 700 guards (one only
excepted, who efcaped wounded) were put to death.
William, determined on revenge, indulged the malignity of
his heart in the {poil and blood of his fubjeéts, and defolated
the country in fuch a manner, that, for 60 miles between
York and Durham, he did not leavé a houfe ftanding; re-
ducing. the whole diftri& by fire and fword. Churches and
monatteriés were not {pared. A dreadful famine enfued ;
and a mortality unequalled in the annals of this country.
The bifhop, ecclefiaftics, and principal inhabitants, evacuated
Durham, and again returned to Landisfarne, till the king’s
departure, and the reitoration of fome degree of tranquillity”
enabled them to return to their defolated country. William,
on his retreat from an expedition againit Malcolm king of
Scotland, contidering that Durham was a proper barriet
againft the Scottifh incurfions, refolved to ere& a caftle
here, which might ferve alfo to keep the neighbourhood in
awe; or, as he explained it, ‘* to fecure his earl of that pro-
vince from tumults and infurretions, as alfo to proteét the
bifhop of the fee, and his church.’? About this time, the
Domefday book was compiled; and as Durham does not
occur in it, a fuppofition arifes, that the county was fo
wafted, as not to be worth the expence of a furvey. Mal-
colm king of Scotland now entered the county, and being
oppofed by Robert, fon of king William, a frefh fcene of
warfare commenced. On the acceffion of William Rufus,
the brfhop of Durham, William de Carilepho, fled into Nor-
mandy ; and his temporalities were feized by the king, who
appointed John de Tailbois and Ernefius de Burone gover-
nors of the caftle and palatinate. Durham futtained great
injury by fire in the time of bifhop Flambard, when, in con-
fequence of his flight to Robert duke of Normandy, his
poffeflions were in the hands of the crown. ‘This bifhop, to
ingratiate himfelf at court, opprefled the bifhopric with
taxes, but without fuccefs; king Henry having an.invincible
hatred to the principles of the prelate. In 1112, the bifhop
founded the hofpital cf Kepier, which he dedicated to St.
Egidius or Giles, and amply endowed it. After hig,reltor-
ation to the fee, he improved the fortifications, by extend«
ing the walls between the cathedral and ca{tle, removing the
houfes on the intermediate area, and levelling the ground.
He fortified the caftle with a moat, improved the banks of
the river, and built Framwell-gate bridge. In the reign of
Stephen, Durham and its vicinity again experienced the
horrors of war, from the incurfions of David king of Scot-
land, in behalf of bis niece Matilda. On the eftablifhment
of peace, this city was chofea as the place of aflembly by
the members of that convention, in April, 1139. Henry II.
having a difpute with bifhop Pudfey, took poficflion of the
caftle and city of Durham; and, on various eine eo |
prived=

DURHAM.

prived the bifhop of the cultody of fo ftrong a poft. This
bifhop obtained a charter from pope Alexander IIT. at the
council of Lateran,in 1176. He alfo made many additions
to the cathedral, and ornamented the city by feveral public
firuGiures 3 he built Elvet bridge, and rebuilt. the borough
of that name, which had been deftroyed by Cumin and his
adherents; he conftruéted the city wall from the Gaol-gate
to the Water-gate, part of which is fill remaining ; and re-
edified the caltle, which -had been deftroyed by fire. The
Boldon buke, now remaining in the auditor’s office, was com-
piled by’his order; and has been admitted as evidence in all
cafes, to afcertain the ecclefiaftical property of the diocefe.
The caftle feems to have remained in the crown; for, when
Henry III. confented to the ele@ion of Richard Poore to
this fee, he excepted the poffeffion of the caftles of Durham
and Norham. ‘This pious prelate made, by an agreement
with the convent, feveral regulations concerning the privi-
leges of the two boroughs of Durham and Elvet, with re-
fpe& to civil authority, weights, meafures, &c. In this
reign, it appears that Durham had a royal and palatinate
mintage within itfelf, which Edward I. on his acceffion,
made a point of reforming. This city exhibited a fingular
fcene of feftivity in 1333, on the promotion of Richard de
Bury or Aungerville to the bifhopric, He entertained, tn
the great hall of his palace, Edward III. and his queen,
the queen dowager, the king of Scotland, the two metro-
politans, and five bifhops, feven earls and their ladies, “all
the nobility north of Trent, with a vait concourfe of
knights, abbots, priors. It was in this year that king Ed-
ward IIT. gained the famous battle of Hallidown-hill. This
monarch again vifited the city in 1356, and iffued fummonfes
for the military tenants to attend him, previoully to the fiege
of Berwick. Bifhop Hatfield, who fucceeded De Bury,
was 2 great benefaétor to the church and city, In 1377,
he granted a toll on certain merchandize brought to
Durham, to defray the charges of paving the city and re-
pairing the walls. Letters patent were likewife granted by
him to Wiiliam de Elmedon, gaoler and porter of the caftle,
with certain profits annexed to the office, among which are
fees for fealing the meafures to be ufed in the city. In the
34 of Henry VI. the city was enlivened by the marriage of
James king of Scotland with his coufin Jane of Somerfet,
grand-daughter of John of Gaunt duke of Lancafter: the
folemnity was attended by many of the moft illuftrious per-
fons of both kingdoms. ‘The fuppreffion of the rebellion of
the Nevilles, in the reign of Elizabeth, occafioned a fcene
of horror in Durham; not fewer than 66 perfons being exe-
cuted, to fatisfy the brutality of fir George Bowes, who
boafted, that in a tra&t of country 60 miles in length and 40
in breadth, between Newcaftle and Wetherby, there was
fearcely a town or villaze wherein he had not facrificed fome
of the inhabitants. Douriog the time of the commonwealth,
an attempt was made to eftablifh a univerfity at Durham:
the plan was ftrenuoufly promoted by Oliver, and advanced
fo far asto excite the jealoufy and oppofition of the univer-
fities of Oxford and Cambridge ; when the machine of go-
vernment fell to pieces, and involved in its ruins this new
feminary of learning. It is a fingular fa&, that George
Fox, the founder of the quakers, effumed to himfelf the
confequence, and, as he thought, merit of bemg the means
of {uppreffiing this laudable inititution.

The prefent magnificent cathedral of Durham owes its
origin to bifhop William de Carilepho, who, having pro-
jected a change in the government of this church, which had
hitherto been direGted’ by the fecular clergy and their pros
voft, obtained, under the authority of the king and the pope,
a licence to introduce regular canons, Conceiving alfo, that

the church built by ‘his predeceffors was unfuitable to the
increafing dignity of the fee, he formed a plan for eretting.
a ftruGute fimilar to the fuperb fabrics he had feen curing
his exileon the continent. Accordingly, on Auguft 11,
1093, the foundation was laid with fuitable folemnity, at
which Maleolm, king of Scotland, affited. The biftiop
compelled the monks to labour in the holy work conitantly;
but no confiderable progrefs was made in his life time,
which terminated within two years after the commencement
of the edifice. His fucceffor, Ralph Flambard, who en-
joyed the bifhopric twenty-nine years, and was equally zealous
in the pious undertaking, finifhed the building nearly to the
roof. This prelate, before his promotion to the fee of
Durham, had given proof of his ability in archite€ture, by
the ereGion of the collegiate church of T’winambourne, or
Chrift church, Hampfhire. The cathedral ere&ted by thefe
bifhops was of the form univerfally adopted by the Norman
archite@s; along crofs, with two turrets at the welt end,
and between them, a large and richly ornamented entrance:
the eaft end probably terminated in a femicircular form, as
the lines of union of the original work, with the chapel of
the nine altars, ftrongly indicate. The fideaifles, both of the
nave and choir, were vaulted with femicircular arches,
groined, andthe ribs of the groins carved; but the nave and the
choir were open to the timber roof. The nave exhibits the
next change of ftyle. Bifhop Poore, having already given a
fpecimen of his tafte in the conftruction of Salifbury cathe-
dral, induced prior Melfonby to conform to a more orna-
mental mode of archite@ture in the roof, which he was then
building. Under his direction the whole vault was accommo-
dated to the pointed arch, though the Norman zig-zag is
ufed along the ribs of the groins. Succeffive additions have
rendered this church as it now appears; not only an en-
larged {pecimen of Norman building, but “ a moft inftruG-
ive feries of examples, illuftrating the gradual change of
ftyle which took place during the reigns of the three firft
Henrys, till, by degrees, the pointedhad completely fuperfeded
the femicircular arch; and the heavy clufters of the Norman
pillars were polifhed into the light fhafts of the early
Englifh.? «* Account of the Cathedral Church of Durham,
with Plan, Seétions, &c.” publifhed by the Society of An-
tiquaries of London.

To defcribe the whole of this firuGure, with its numerous
chapels, tombs, conneé¥ed edifices, &c. would occupy more
fpace than we can confiftently appropriate to this artiele.
Thofe who are defirous of fuch information, may confult
the work juft referred to, alfo the Beauties of England,
vol. v., and Hutchinfon’s Hiltory, &c. of Durham. A few
additional particulars refpeGting it may, however, be required,
When bifhop Flambard depofited the remains of St. Cuth-
bert in the new church, he ere¢ted an clegant fhrine, called
the Feretory, over them. Bifhop Hugh Pudfey began to
ere@t, at the eaft end of the cathedral, a chapel to the Vir-
gin Mary; but relinquifhing this, he appropriated a part of
the welt end, called the Galilee, for the admiffion and fanétu-
ary of females; as they were not allowed to enter the ca-
thedral. This exclufion was one of the ftrange prejudices,
or infatuations, of the difciples of St. Cuthbert, who, they
afferted, had an antipathy to the female fex.

The great central tower, 214 feet in h . was partly
built by prior Melfonby, foon after 1233, and completed by
priors Middleton and Hugh, before the year 1258. A fur-
vey of the cathedral was made in 1776, when it was found to
want much reparation, &c. which was immediately com-
menced: and fince that period, workmen have been con-
ftantly employed on this ftrn€ture. During the laft fifteen
or fixteen years a fum amounting to not lefs than r500/. or

5 200c/.

el

" DURHAM. .

_ 2000/. has been -annually expended for this,purpofe; anda
fund is provided to anfwer future demands, Of this noble
ftruGure Dr. Johnfon fpeaks in his ufual, ftyle, that ‘ic
_ftrikes with a kind of gigantic dignity, and afpires to no
other praife than that of rocky folidity, and indeterminate
duration,» The cathedral: may be defcribed as confilting
of anave, with two aifles; atranfept with an aifle towards
the eafksya choir, with two aifles; the chapel of the nine
altars at the ealt end, extending north and fouth; an oblong

_chapter-houfe, with femicircular eaft.end; a cloifter to: the

.fouth; a chapel, or Galilee, at the welt ends and feveral
apartments on the weft and fouth fides of the cloifters.

Theentive length of this ftructure is 461 feet, thus divided :
Nave 250 by 74 feet, and Gg feet fix inches in height;

dength of tranfept. 170 by 57 feet in width; choir 129
by 74 feet; chapel at eaft end 130, feet from N. to S.

_ by 51 in an oppolite direétion; Galilee 50 feet from E. to

W.by So feet from N. to S. Thefe are interior meafur¢- .

ments.

From the cathedral on the north extends an open area, _

ealled the Place, or Palace Green, on the north fide of whichis
_the caltle, now the refidence of the bifhop when he vifits Dur-
ham. This ftru€ture ftands onthe continuation ofthe famerocky
eminence on which the cathedral is built; and from its upper
apartments commands fome fine views of the city and fur-
rounding country.
_the keep or tower, which occupies the top of an artificial
mount, and is fuppofed to have been of Norman conftruc-
tion. The buildings, which now conttitute the caltle, have

_ heen ere&ted at various periods, an2 have confequently but -

httle unitormity. Some parts, which have fuffered by fire,

"were reftored by bifhop Pudfey, who acceded to the fee in

3453. He is alfo fuppofed to, have-ereSted the firft hall:
but this, with other parts of the caltie, going to decay, a
new and more magnificent hall was built by bifhop Hatfield,

_ the original length of which was 1z0 yards. From this apart-

iment the prefent hall was formed, which is of extenfive di-
mention; its length being 180 feet, the breadth 50, and the

height 36. _ Contiguous to the keep, on the calt, isthe great

north gateway, avery ftrong fabric, ereGted by bifhop Lang-
ley, and now ufed as the gaol. The outward, or Jower

-p2rt, was defended by a gate and portcullis; within which
isa-recefs, conftruéted with fallyports and galleries; for the
annoyance of affailants, who might force the firll gate: the
upper part was fecured by double gates. All the other
gates of the city have been removed.. On the welt fide of
the Place Green is the exchequer, a {trong {quare ftone build-
‘ing, ereGed by bifhop Neville about the year 1450. Adjoin-
ing it isthe bsfhop’s library, built by bifhop.Cofta, who alfo
_ greatly contributed towards the erection ot the law courts,
where the: affizes, quarter feffions, &c..are held. The court
for the trial of crown caufes was much enlarged in 1791.
Onthe oppolite fide of the green is an hofpital, or alms-
-houfe, for cight poor men and women, founded by bifhop
Cofin in 1666; and adjoining it, at-each end, a {chool-houle,
rebuilt by him about the fame period, but originally en-
dowed by bifhop Langley. From the Piace Green is an
avenue leading.to the public walks called the Banks, which
fkirt the river, and were made, and are {till kept in repair,
by the munificence of the dean and chapters hele walks
,are much celebrated for their beauty and interefting views.
Over the river Weare are three bridges: Framweli-gate
bridge, ereé&ted by bifhop Flambard,. about 1120;, Elvet
bridge, by bifhop Pudfey, about 1155; and the New bridge,
built in 1772. ‘ i
. Independently of the cathedral, Durham contains fix
‘churches, the principal of which is that dedicated.to Qt.

The moft ancient part of this edifice is |

than ufeful or honourable.

Nicholas, an ancient ftru@ure, fituated on the fouth fide of
the market-place. It contifts of a nave and fide aifles, with
a {quare tower at the fouth-welt angle. The church of St.
Mary-le-Bow, or Bough, is on the ealt fide of the North
Bailey; on the fame {pot, according to tradition, where St.
Cuthbert’s remains were lodged, in a tabernacle of boughs and
wands, when firlt brought by the monks to Durham. St.
Ofwald’s church is an ancient flru€ture, occupying an ele-
vated ficuation on the eattern banks of the river in that part
of the fuburbs called New Elvet: it confilts of a nave,
chancel, and fide aifles. St. Giles’s church is of remote
origin, having no aifles; it is narrow, long, and lofty. The
church of St. Margaret, fituated 1n Crofsgate, and that of
Little St. Mary, in the South Bailey, difplay nothing re-
markable. The market-place is a {mall {quare, having a
Guildhall, or Tolbooth, on the welt fide, a pant to fupply
the inhabitants with water, near the centre, and a plazza,
where the corn-markets are held on the fouth. .

The original denomination of Durham, after its civil efta-
blithment, was that of Borough ; and its local polity was
exercifed by a bailiff, appointed by the bifiops. In 1565
the civil juri{diétion was velted, by bifhop Pilkington, in
an. alderman and twelve burgefles. In 1602 bifhop Mat-
thew changed it to that af a mayor, twelve aldermen, and
twenty-four common, councilmen. This mode of govern-
ment, having fultained feveral mterruptions, was finally re-
eftablifhed in 1780, by a new charter from bifhop Egerton,
in which the rights of the citizens were explained and cons
firmed.

Neither the county, nor the city of Durbam, was re-
prefented in parliament till the reign of Charles II.; a cir
cumftance which may be afcribed to the valt power and
influence of the bifhop: as returning members to parliament
was anciently confidered more grievous and inconvenient,
The extenfion of learning in-
duced ideas more favourable to liberty: and, in 1673, an
act was paffed, authorizing the city and county to fend each
two members; and from that time the returns have been
regularly made. The right of el,tion for the city is in the
mayor, aldermen, and freemen: the voters are. about 10oo.
Durham is fituated 260 miles N. from London; has a
weekly market on Saturdays, and three,annual fairs; and
contained, as returned under the late act, 1024 houfes, and
7530 inhabitants. .

Duruam, atownlhip.of America, in Cumberland county,
Maine, on the S.W. bank of Androfcoggin river, which
{eparates it from Bowdoin on the N.E. . lt was incorporated
in-1789, contains 1242 inhabitants, and lies 145 miles north-
eafterly of Boften. N, lat. 43° 55’—Alfo, a poft town in
Scrafford county, New Hampjhire, feated. on Oyfter river,
near its junction with the Pifcataqua; 12 miles W. of
Portfmouth. . It was incorporated in 1633, and contains
1120 inhabitants. It was formerly a part.of Dover, which
adjomns it on the north, and wag called Oytter river.—Alio,
a poft town.in New Haven couniy, Connecticut, fettled from
Guildford in 1698,. and incorporated in 1708. It is abovr
22. miles S,W..of Hartford, and» 18 miles N.E. of New
Haven... ‘he Indians called it ‘‘.Cagingehague,”? which
name a {mall river,that rifes here ftiil bears. It has 1029
inhabitants.—Alfo, -a townthip in. Bucks county, Pennfyl-
vania, having, 405 inhabitants.—Alf{o,. a county in. Upper
Canada, bounded on the. E. by the county of Northumber-

_land,,on the S. by lake Ontario, until it meets the wellern-

motft, point of Long.Beach, thence, by a line running N.

.16° W. until it intcrfeas the fouthera boundary of a tra&

of,land belonging to the Miffaflaga Indiaps, and thence along:

the faid traét,. parallel todake Qatario,, until it meets the
’ N, welternmait

DUR

N. wefternmoft boundary of the county of Northumberland.
Morfe.

DURIA Mayor and Minor, in Ancient Geography.
See La Doris Baltea and Riparia.

DURIO, in Botany, (from a Malay word dury, which,
according to Rumphuus, means a thorn, the names of this
fpinous fruit, Duryon, Duréin, or Dureyn, in Malacca, Ter-
nate ard Amboyna, are derived. JLinnawus, perhaps, con-
fidered the word Durio as rendered canonical, by an equally
corre& allufion to the hard coarfe rind of the fruit, “a frv€itis
duritia.””) Durion. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 581. Schreb. 516.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1434. Jufl. 244. Konig in Tr. of
Linn. Soc: v. 7. 256. Clafs and order, Polyadelphia Poly-
andria. Nat. Ord. Afalvacee, Konig.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, double, each of one
leaf, fomewhat coriaceous, {mooth within, externally clothed
with very minute, fhining, filvery, ftellated, pellucid feales:
the outer one widet, obtufely two-lobed, fpreading:
the inner longeft, nearly an inch in length, urn-fhaped,
fwelling, with five ereét, acute, equal, marginal fegments.
Cor. Petals five, above twice as long the inner calyx,
inferted into its bafe, elliptic-lanceolate, entire, recurved,
equal, with furrowed claws. Stam. Filaments numerous,
from twenty-five to forty-five, rather longer than the petals,
upright, thread-thaped, equal, united in a fomewhat forked
manner into five fets, inferted into the bottom of the calyx,
oppofite to the petals; authers roundifh, compofed of nu-
merous aggregate cells. Pi/. Germen fuperior, obovate,
obfcurely five-fided, fealy; {tyle fimple, thread-fhaped, the
length of the filaments, a little twifted upwards ; ftigma capi-
tate, with five furrows. Peric. Apple very large, globofe,
inclining to oval, pointed, entirely clothed with crowded, pro-
minert, pyramidal, acute tubercles, of five cells which open
outwardly. Seeds from two to five in each cell, ovate-oblong,
fhining, enclofed in one, common, aggregate, foft, pulpy
tunic, which fills each cell, and is firmly attached to the
central column. Cotyledons two, without any feparate
albumen. Embryo ftraight, in the bafe of the feed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx double, the outer one two-lobed. Petals
five. Style one. Apple with five cells. Seeds in a pulpy tunic.

D. sibethinus, the ouly f{pecies. Kon. Tr. of L. Soc. v.7.
266—273. t.14, 15,16. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.2. Lamarck
Did. v. 2. 333. t. 641. (Durio. Rumph. Amb. v. 1. 99.
t. 29.) Native of Malacca, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the
Molucca iflands. It forms a very lofty tree. Zeaves al-
ternate, on {welling ftalks, elliptic-oblong, pointed, entire,
with one rib and numerous veins; {mooth and dark green
above; clothed with minute rufty fcales beneath. Stipulas
none? Flowers in lateral bra¢teated branches from the
larger branches, unpleafantly feented. Partial flalks two
or three inches long, round, fcaly, jointed at the bafe. Petals
of a dirty white. Stamens and ftyle red. Fruit yellowith-
green externally. Sveds of a yellowifh brown; their tunics
white, of a foft, mucous, and very tender fubftance. Thefe
tunics conttitute the eatable part of the Durion fruit, which
is efteemed one of the moft delicious vegetable productions
of India, and compared by Rumphius to cream or d/anc
manger. This author tells.us, however, that perfons not ac-
cultomed to eat this fruit, are at firit deterred from tafting it
by the intolerable {mel which it diffufes, refembling rotten
onions ;‘but thoie who overcome their firft repugnance grow
extremely fond of it. He further mentions, that it is not
alwaysto beeaten with impunity. The pulp of one or two
Dunions is fufficient for one perfon at a time, though fome
ftomachs will bear a much greater quantity. Their immo-
derate ufe caufes violent and dangerous inflammatory dif-
orders, and the feafons when they abouud are generally

DUR

very unhealthy. It is forbidden by law to throw the rinda
of this fruit into much-frequented places, on account of
their dangerous feetor. The Chinefe ufe their afhes in
painting and dyeing. Mr. Konig is the firft who has given
an accurate botanical defcription of this plant.

DURIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Hifpania Inte-
rior, now Douero or Douro.

DURKO, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia; 42 miles S.W. of Amafeh.

DURLACH, or Deovrvacn, a fmall but handfome
town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, on the river
Pfinz, with a caftle called Karlfburg. Jt was formerly the
refidence of one branch of the houfe of Baden, the fons of
margrave Chriltopher of Baden, who had reunited two former
lines in 1503, having commenced two new lines of Baden Ba-
den, and Baden Durlach. See Bapen.

DURLAH, a river of Bengal, which divides the diftri&
of Cooch Bahar from that of Rungpore.

DURNESS, a town of Scotland, in the county of Su-
therland, near the N. coait, at the bottom of a bay, formed
by a river of the fame name, called the *¢ Kyle of Durnefs ;*”
46 miles N.N.W. of Dornoch. N, lat. 58° 33’. Long.
1° 21! W. of Edinburgh.

DURNISH, a town of Scotland, on the weftern coaft
of the ifland of Skye.

DURNOVARIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Albion, which all our antiquaries agree to fix at Dorchefter,
where many Roman antiquities have been found, and where
the veltiges of the Roman walls of the city and of an am-
phitheatre without them are ftill vifible. See Dorcues-
TER. It wasalfo called Dunium, which fee.

DUROBRIVIS, the ancient name of Rochefter in An-
tonine’s Itinerary, which our aptiquaries derive from Dury
ariver, or water, and Sriv, a town.

Durozriyis, is alfoa name given in the 5th Iter of An-
tonine to a place fituated between Cambridge and Ancatter,
Dr. Gale fixes it at Bridge Cafterton, two miles N. from
Stamford : but Camden, Baxter, and Horfley, place it at
‘Caftor upon the river Nen, or rather at the village of Dora-
ford, near Caltor, where many Roman coins and other an-
tiquities have been tound.

DUROCHSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Irkutfch, on the borders of China, near
the river Argunia; 160 miles S.S.E. of Nertchinfk.

DUROCOBRIVIS, in Ancient Geography, a place marked
in Antonine’s Itinerary between Fenny Stratford and St.
Albans, which is generally fixed at Duntftable ; though Mr,
Horfley conje€tures, that the two ftations Magiovintum and
Durocobriva have been tranfpofed by the careleffnefs of fome
tranf{criber ; and that the latter was at Fenny Stratford,
and the former at Dunftable; becaufe, in that cafe, the
meaning of the original Britifh names of thefe places will be
more agreeable to their fituations.

DUROCORNOVIUM, a ftation between Gloucefter
and Speen, fuppofed to be Cirencetter.

DUROIA, in Botany, (in commemoration of Dr. John
Philip Duroi, a phyfician of Brun{wick, author of an inau-
gular differtation, confifting of botanical remarks, publifhed
in 177%, and of a German work on trees and economical
plants, with figures. He was a frequent correfpondent
of Linnzus, whofe herbarium, as we are informed by
Dr. Sm:th, he much enriched.) Linn. Suppl. 30. Schreb,
230. Willd.Sp. Pl.v.2.222. Juff. 203. Mart. Mill. Dié.
v. 2. (Pubet; Linn. Amen. Acad. v. 8.254.) Clafs and
order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Jul. §

Gen. Ch, Cal. Perianth of one Jeaf, fuperior, cylindrical,
abrupt, fhort,contraétcd. Cor. of onepetal. Tube cylindricak;

limb

-_

DUR

ib the feneth of the tube, in. fix deep, oval, fpreading
epments, Stam. Filaments none; anthers fix, oblong,
feffile in the tube of the corolla. Pi. Germen interior ;
ftyle thread-fhaped,. the length of the tube; fligmas two.
Peric. Berry globofe,umbilicated, denfely clothed with pre-
minent hairs. Seeds numerous, imbedded in pulp, ova), flat,
wery fmooth, lying in two rows over each other. The
flowers are often abortive, and there are many ef them alfo
male, wanting the germen altogether. Lion.

Joffieu, frem the evident charafers of his natural order of
sRubiacee in this plant, prefumes its fruit to be of two cells.
Ate chara&ters very nearly approach Gardenia.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, cylindrical, abrupt. Corolla
swith a cylindrical tube, and fix-cleft regular border. Anthers
fcffile in the tube. Berry hifpid, umbilicated.

D. £Lriapila, is the only fpecies. Linn. Suppl. 200.
(Marmelade-Doosjes-Boom; Merian Surin. 43. t- 43-)
Native of Surinam, whence it was fent by Dalberg to Lin-
neus, from yrhofe account and the figure tn Merian, concerning
whole fynonym there furely can be no reafonable doubt, all
our knowledge is derived, for we have never feen a {pecimen.
Itis deicribed as a Jofty tree, with thick, unequal branches,
hairy in their upper part. Leaves about the fummits of the
branches, oppolite, crowded, a {pan long, obovate, bluntifh,
entire, hard, rigid, downy above, reticulated beneath, with
ong rib, and many tranfverfe veins. cot flalks fhort, hairy.
Merian deferibes a kind of rough excrefcences, growing either
on the ftalks or branches, throwing out numerons cylindrical
or awl-fhaped horns, which are prefcribed in pulmonary
diforders. The (flowers are terminal, feffile, cluttered,
numerous, but molt of them abortive; their coro//a white,
zefembling the Arabian Jafmine. J ruit rather larger than
a turkey’s egg, globofe, with a furrow on each fide, yellow,
‘covered with fhort, denfe, brown, prominent hairs, crowned
with the cup-hke permanent bafe of the calyx, and filled with
uumerous feeds lodged in pulp which is eatable, and com-
pared by Madam Merian to that of the European medlar.
Her figure evidently indicates a feparation of the berry into
two cells, as fufpeGed by Juffieu. The bark refembles a
box, and hence the above Dutch name, equivalent to Mar-
melade-box tree.

The caterpillar of a beautiful butterfly feeds on this tree,
which is near Papilio Protefilaus of Linnzus, but, we believe,
very dikinét, though cited for it by him as well as by Fa-
bricius,

DUROLEVUM, the nameof a ftation between Rochefter
‘and Canterbury; the fituation of which is uncertain; and
Mr. Herfley feems to be fingular ia placing it at Milton.

DUROLIPONS, a ftation fixed by fome at Cambridge ;
-but thofe antiquarians who place Camboricum at Cam-
‘bridge, fix Durelipons at Godmauchetter.

DUROLITUM, in Ancient Geography, a ftation between
Chelmsford and London, fuppofed to be Le&on.

DURONIA, a town of Italy, placed by Livy in the
country of the Samnites.

DUROT, in Geography, a bay on the N. fide of the S.
peninfula of the :fland of St. Domingo,

DUROTRIGES, in Ancient Geography, the name of an
ancient Britifh nation, feated next te the Danmonii on the
ealt fide, and poflefling that country, which is now called Dor-
Sethhire. ‘The name is evidently derived from the two Britith
words dur or dwr, water, and ¢trigo, to dwell; and it is
equally evident that they owed this name to tbe fitvation of
their.country, which lies along the fea-coatt. It is not very
certain whether the Durotriges formed an independent ftate
under a prince of their own, or were united with their neigh-

‘ bours, the Danmonii ; as they were reduced by Vefpafian
syavOu. SIT,

DUR

under the dominion of the Romans, at the fame time, and
with the fame eafe, and never revolted. (utrop. l. 5. c.8:)
The peaceable difpofition of the inhebitants is the reafon
why the Romans had fo few towns, forts, and-garrifons in
this pleafant country. Dorcheffer, its preferit capital, was
a Roman city of fome confideration, and is {uppofcd to have
been called Durnovaria. ‘The country of the Durotriges was
included inthe Roman provirce called Flavia Czfarienfis,
and governed by the prefident of that province, as long ag
the Romans kept any footing in thefe parts.

DUROVERNUM, a ftation about the fituation of
which at Canterbury there is no dowbt; and Mr. Baxter
derives its name from dura river, and vern, a far€tuary.

DUROUR’s Isianp, in Geography, an ifland in the Pe-
cific ocean, difcovered by Capt Carteret, in September,
1767.- 8. lat. 1° rg’ or 16’. E. long. 143° 21'.

DURRENBERG, a {mall town of the kingdom of
Saxony,in the diftri&t of Merfeburg, remarkable for fome very
abundant falt-fprings, which furnifh as much falt as the whole
confumption of the kingdom requires.

DURROW, a market and poft town of the county of
Kilkenny, Ireland, on one of the roads from Dublin to Cork.
It is very neat, and has an excellentinn. The roads near it
are peculiarly pleafant, paffing through the demefne and plan-
tations of lord A fhbrooke, whofe refidence is at Caftle Durrow
adjoining the town. It has been obferved that this tract
contains more extenfive woods, and prefents a greater variety
of beautiful profpedts from the diverfity of well planted hills,
and rich vallies, than any other part of Ireland. Durrow,
though furrounded by the Queen’s county, is in Kilkenny,
which is thus accounted for. On its coming into the pof-
feffion of the Butler family, who were perpetualy harraffed
by the powerful fept of the Fitzpatricks, tlre earl of Ormond
procured an act of parliament to make this eftate part and
parcel of the county of Kilkenny, and the offending Fitzs
patricks being taken were transferredimmediatelyto Kilkenny,
and there, removed from their conneétigns, they fuffered the
penalties of the law. Durrow is 52 miles S.W. from Dublin,
and 12 from Maryborough. Wilfon’s Dirc&tory, &c.

DURSEY, an ifland in the Atlantic, about two miles
long, and half a mile broad, fituated near the fouth-welt
coaft of Ireland, belonging: to the county of Cork. It is
near the northern point of Bantry bay. It is in long. 10° 4’
W.. Lat. 51° 33’N. Beaufort.

DURSIANS, or Dururians, in Eceleflaflical Hiflory,
See Druses,

DURSLEY, in Geography, a town in the hundred of
Berkeley, Gloucefter(hire, England, was formerly a borough,
but bas long fince loft the privilege of fending members to
parliament. It confifls of two narrow ftreets. ‘The go-
vernment is vefted in a bailiff and four conttables. The
church is a fpacious {tru€ture, having two aifles and a tower.
On the fouth fide of the church-yard a copious {pring of
water rifes, which gives motion to a fulling mill. In the
vicinity isa peculiar rock, called by Leland Toqw/e fone, and
by the natives Puff-fone, which, though foft in hewiag, bee
comes very durable when expofed to the air: of this flone
the church is but. Durfley is 108 miles N.W. from Lon-
don: has two annual fairs; and a market on ‘Thurfdays:
the market houfe, which is a handfome edifice, was ercéted
in 1738, By the late return, the town congained 460
houfes, inhabited by 2379 perfons, of whom 1040 were
defcribed as being employed in trade and manufaGure ;
there being a contiderable traffic in broad cleth, and card
making for the clothiers; and an extenfive paper manufacs
tory. - Here wag anciently a caftle, tle fite of which is {till

3B * ealled

DUR

called Caftefeld, where fome earth-works ate ftill-to be feen.
Rodge’s Hiltory of Gloucetterthire, vol. ti. p. 216

DURSTUS, or Daust, in Biography, was the fon of
Erp, or Erpin, a diftinguifhed chara¢ter in the line of P:é&-
ith kinge ; who began toreign A, D 4063 and after fight-
ing more than a hundred battles, and living to the protraéted
age of one hund-ed years, died A. D. 451. In that mo-
narch’s reign the Piéts were converted to Chriftianity by
St. Ninian. See Dr. Anderfon’s Royal Genealogies.

DURTAL or Durerat, in Geography, a {mall town of
France, in the department of Mayenne and Loire, chief place
of a canton in the diftri@t of Segré.g miles S. W. of la Fléche,
with a population of 3107 individuals, and remarkable for the
fertility of its territory, which produces excellent wine, and
abundance of corn. The canton contains fix communes
and 9498 inhabitants, upon a territorial extent of 205 kilio-
metves.

DURVES, a town of Afia, in the country of Candahar ;
130 miles §.E. of Candahar.

DURUM, Latin, in Mufic, hard, harfh, fharp, one of
the diflinétive terms applied to the three original major keys,
in forming the hexachords. G is the wf of the durum
hexachord. C of the natural hexachord, and F of the

molle. 'Thefe furnifh a feries of fix founds afcending in each,
by the fame intervals.
GABCDE
CDEFGA
FGABbCD

By thefe hexachords the three keys are conneG@ed: there
being three notes of each, in common with the next hexa-
chord above or below.

DURUNGI, or Durunici, in Botany, the Arabic
appellation of the Doronicum Pardalianches, from which its
prefent generic mame is fuppofed to have been corrupted by
modern writers, as fome ftill more recently have made 4ilan-
thus from Aylanto, and Pandanus from Pandang, words
which, to ufe the expreffion of Linnzus, ‘“ may be tole-
rated, but are not to be imitated.” See Doronicum.

DURVUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Gaul, in the province called ‘* Maxima Sequanorum.” By
this mountain there was a paflage from the country of the
Rauraci on the north to that of the Helvetii in the
fouth.

DURY, Joun, in Biography, a learned divine, who
Aourifhed in the feventeenth century, was born in Scotland,
and educated forthe minifiry. The great obje& of his early
life was an endeavour to unite the Lutherans and Calvinitts ;
for this purpofe he obtained the approbation of the arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, and fome other of the bifhops. He
circulated his plans over the whole of proteftant Europe,
which he feconded by his own perfonal labours, and by
almof innumerable journies taken exprefsly with this view.
After many years of labour and toil, he gave up the hope
of uniting the Proteftants ; and began a ftill more arduous
work, viz. of uniting in the bonds of friendfhip Chriftians
of all feéts, which he expeéted to effeG by a new explica-
tion of the Apocalypfe. Befides this work he publifhed a
book, entitled “* Johannis Durei Trenicorum Tra@tatuum
Prodromus, in quo preliminares continentur traétatus de I.
pacis ecclefiaftice remoris € medio tollendis. II. Concordiz
Evangelice fundamentis fufficienter ja@is. III. Recon-
ciliationis Religiofe procurande argumentis et mediis. IV.
Methodo inveltigatoria ad controverfias omnes, fine contra-
dicendi ftudio et prajudicio pacifice decidendas, &e.”? In
this book the author gives an account of the works which
he had promifed to the public, and of the expedients which
he thought moft favourable to his defign. Dury wrote a

DUS

Jetter to Peter du Moulin, concersing the ftate of the Engs
lith, Scotch, and Inth churches under Cromwell, which,
with other pieces, was printed at London, in the year 1658,
by the care of Louis du Moulin, It is uncertain in what
yearhedied. Bayle.

DUSART, Cornetius, painter of converfations,
dancinygs, and taverns, bern at Haerlem 1665, difciple of
Adrian Oftade, He fudied with great affiduity, and exe
preffed with equal humour and {pirit the manners and paf-
fions -of the boors in their fealts, fports, &c. and he nearly
approached, although he never equalled, the merit of his
ma{ter. He was naturally of a weak conititution, which he
had ftiil more impaired by ftudy; but his memory continued
fo furprifingly retentive, that he could, at any diftance of
time, retrace any ftriking obje& which he had once feen, with
the utmoft accuracy and precifion in every point. He died
in r794. Pilkington.

DUSENSUS, or Dusiranus, in Ancient Geography,
an ep'{copal fee of Africa.

DUSKY Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S.W. coalt
of the mott foutherly ifland ot New Zealand, difcovered and
fo named by Cook in March 1770. It is between three
and four miles broad at the entrance, and feemed to be as.
deep as broad: it contains feveral iflands, behind which a
fhelter is afforded from all winds. The north point of this
bay, when it bears S. E. by S. is rendered very remarkable
by five high peaked rocks which lie off it, and have the aps
pearance of the four fingers and thumb of a man’s hand, on
which account it was called ** Poiat Five Fingers ;” and
the land of this point is further remarkable, for being the
only level land within a confiderable diftance.

It extends nearly two leagues to the northward; it is
Jofty and covered with wood. ‘The land behind it is very
different, confifting wholly of mountains, totally barren and
rocky ; and this difference gives the cape the appearance of
an ifland. The welters-moft point of land upon the whole
coaft, called ‘¢ Weft Cape,’’ lies about three leagues to the
fouthward of Dufky bay, in the latitude of 45° 54! S.
and in the longitude of 193° 17/W. The land of this
cape is of a moderate height next the fea, and is diftine
guifhed by a very white cliff, two or three leagues to the
fouthward of it. Captain Cook again vifited Dufky bay
in March 1773; and found, at the entrance of it, 44 fa»
thoms water, a fandy bottom, the Weft Cape bearing S.S.E.
and Five Fingers point, or the north-point of the bay, north.
A great {well rolled in from the S\W. The depth of wa-
ter decreafed to 40 fathoms; and afterwards they had no
ground with 60. Difliking the place in which they had
anchored, they removed to another on the S. E, fide of the
bay, where they had a good harbour, with every conveni-
ency- Captain Cook determined to make fome itay in this
bay, and thoroughly to examine it; as no one had ever
landed before, on any of the fouthern parts of this country.
He alfo availed himfelf of the opportunity that was now
afforded for neceflary repairs, and for other occupations
that were conducive to the health and convenience of his
fellow-navigators. Here he found a tree, refembling the
American black fpruce, from the branches and leaves of
which he made a kind of beer, that with the addition of
infpiffated juice of wort and molaffes furnifhed a very whole-
fome beverage, and fupplied the want of vegetables, which
the place did not afford.

The fouth entrance of Dufky bay is firuated on the N,
fide of Cape Welt, "in S. lat. 45° 48’; and is formed by the
land of the cape to the fouth, and Five Fingers point to the
north. This land, whea viewed from certain fituations,
bears fome refemblance to the five fingers of a man’s hand,

6 whence

DUS

-whence it takes its name; and different from the other ad-
jacent lands, it is a narrow peninfula, lying north and fouth,
of a moderate and equal height; altogether covered with
wood. The depth of water is the only inconvenience that
attends the entrance into this bay, as it affords no anchorage,
except im the cov-s and harbours, and very near the fhores,
which is fometimes impracticable. The anchoring places,
however, are fufficiently numersus, and equally fafe and
commodious. ** Pickerfgill harbour,” where captain Cook
lay, is not inferior to any other bay for two or three hips ;
it is fituated on the fouth fhore abrealt of the welt end of
‘Indian ifland,’? which ifland may. be known from the
others by its greater proximity to that fhore. here is a
paflage into the harbour on both fides of the ifle, which lies
before it. .The next place on the upper or ealt fide is
« Cafcade Cove,’’ fo called from a large cafcade at the eatt
point of the cove, that falls from a high mountain on the S,
file of the bay. Inthis cove there is room fora fleet of
fhips, and a paflage in, on either fide of the ifland which
lies in the entrance. The feveral anchoring places in this
capacious bay are marked in Cook’s chart, which willbe a
fufficient guide to all who need information. The north
entrance into this bay lies in S. lat. 45° 35!, and five leagues
to the north of Five Fingers Point.

The adjacent country 18 very mountainous ; not only about
Dulky bay, but through all the fouthern part of the weltern
coalt of ** Tavai Poenammoo.”? Within land nothing ap-
pears but the fummits of mountains of a ftnpendous height,
and confifting of rocks that are totally barren and naked,
except where they are covered with fnow. But the land
bordering on the fea-coaft, and all the iflands, are thickly
covered with wood, almolt down to the water’sedge. Tlie
trees are of various kinds, and are fit for the fhipwright,
houle-carpenter, cabinct-maker, and many other ufes. The
moft conliderable for fize is the {pruce tree, many of which
trees are from fix to eight or ten feet in girt, and from 60
to So or 100 feet in Jength; large enough to make a
main-matt for a 50 gun fhip. The woods in many parts are
fo overrun with fupple-jacks, 50 or 60 fathoms in length,
that it is fearc-ly poffinle to force one’s way amonpit them.
The foil is a deep black mould, compofed of decayed ve-
getables ; and the ground amongtt the trees is covered with
mofs and fern, ofboth which there is great variety ; but
except the flax orhemp plant, and a few other plants, there
is very little herbage, and none that is eatable. except fome
few crefles and a {mall quantity of celery. Dufky bay
abounds moft with fifth; fo that a boat with fix or eight
men, with hooks and lines, caught every day enough to
ferve the whole fhip’s company, Of ducks there is alfo
great plenty, and no lefs than five diffrent kinds. One
cove, which abounds withthem, was called ** Duck-cove.’”
The molt mifchievous animals are the {mall black fand flies,
which are very numerous and very troublefome. Wherever
they bite they caufe a {welling, and fuch an intolerable itch-
ing, which induces a fcratching that brings on ulcers like
the fmall-pox. The almoft continual rains may be reckoned
another evil attending this bay. But though our navigators
were perpetually expofed to them, they experienced no per-
nicious effeéts. Thofe who were fick and cemplaining,
when they entered the bay, recovered daily, and the whole
crew foon became ftrong and vigorous. This happy circum-
flance could only be attributed to the healthinefs of the
place, and the frefh provifions it afforded; and more par-
ticularly to-*he liberal fupply of beer,

» The inhabitants of this bay belong to the fame race of
people with thofe in the other parts of this country: they
ipeak the fame language and obferve nearly. the fame cul-

DUT
toms. They live a kind of wandering life, and one family
feems to maintain no perfeét amity-with another.

From a great variety of obfervations made by Mr. Wales,
he found that the latitude of his obfervatory at Pickerfgill
harbour was 45° 47! 261! S.; ard by the mean of feveral
diftances of the moon from the fun, that its longitude was
166° 18! EZ, ‘The variation of the needle or compafs was
found to be 13° 49! E., and the dip of the fouth end 70° 53/.
The times of high water, on the full and change days, he
found to be at 10? 57', and the tide to rife and fall atAhe
former eight feet, at the latter five feet eight inches,
Hawk({worth’s Voyage, vol. iii. Cook’s Voyage, vol. i.

DUSRACH, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman ; 156 miles S. of Sirgian.

DUSSAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Dordogne and diftri& of Exideuil; 4 miles N. of
Exideuil.

DUSSEL, a river of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wettphalia, which runs into the Rhine at Duffeldorp.

DUSSELDORF, or Dussextpor?, a very handfome
town of Germany, chef city of the grand duchy of Berg,
which, fince the appointment of its grand duke, Joachim
Murat, to the throne of Naples in 1808, has been taken
peficffion of by the French. Duffeldorf is fituated on the
river Duffel, ac the place where this river falls into the
Rhine, Tull the peace of Luneville it belonged to the
eleétor palatine of Bavaria, now king of Bavaria, to whom
it is principally indebted for its embetlithments. It is 27
miles N. W. of Cologne, 27 miles N. E. of Juliers, and 75
S.W. of Muniter. The ftreets are wide, regular, and
clean; the houfes lofty, and the inhabitants extremely in-
cultriovs.. Their number amounts to about 15,0900.

Duffeldorf is chiefly remarkable for its celebrated gallery
of pictures, which confifts of three larze and two {maller
rooms, bearing each the name of the ichool to which the
pictures belong, viz. the Flemith fchool, Gerrard Dow, the
Italian fchool, Vander Werff, and Rubens.

DUSSENT, Jossr, in Biography, a Spanifh painter,
difciple of Vanlos, and one of th- cofMpetitors in public, at
the opening of the Royal Academy of San Fernando, at
Madrid, in 1752. Diccionario Hiftorico, &c. de las Bellas
Artes.

DUST, minute and almoft infenfible particles broken off
from any hard body.

Thofe broken from ftones, or formed of extremely {mall
{tones, are more properly-called fand. See Sann. ~

The fubtle matter of Des Cartes is a fort of duft
produced by the collilfion of the matter of the fecond
element.

Dust, Gold and Lead. See the refpeGive articles.

Dust, Mos. See Byssus.

DUSZMIANY, in Geography, a town of Lithuania,
in the palatinate of Troki; 20 miles S.S.W. of Troki.

DUTCH Coins, Fortification, Monies, Pens, Pink, Tele-
Jcope, Tyles, Trading Companies, Meafures. See tue {ub-
ftantives.

DUTCHESS Couxry, in Geography, a county of New
York, in America, lying on the eait tide of Hudfon river.
It has the ftate of Conneticut on the Ex, Weit Chelter on
the S., and Columbia county on the N. It is about 4%
miles long, and 23 broad, and contains 15 townhhips, of which
Poughkeepfie and Fifh-kill are the chief. The number of
its inhabitants is 47,775, of whom 1609 are Maves. This
county fends feven reprefentatives to the aflembly of the
ftate,

DUTCHMAN’S Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of the
Hand of Antigua.

Bz Dwrci

g
“

Bt T

Dutcuman’s Zand, an ifland of America, in the Poto-
mack river ; 14 miles above Wafhington.

Dutcnman’s Poipt, a point of land on the Vermont
fide of the lake Champlain; about 16 miles S. of the Canada
line. It was retained by Britain for fome time after the
peace of 17333 but it has been fince furrendered to the
United States.

DUTCHY, an appellation given to the dominions of a
duke. See Duke:

Durtcuy-Court. See Court.

DUTHILL, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Invernefs ; 20 miles S.E. of Invernefs.

DUTKINA, a town of Ruffian Siberia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfch, on the Lena; 16 miles S. of Orlenga.

DUTLINGEN, a {mall town of the kingdom of Wir-
temberg, with a caftle and a bridge over the Danube; 36
miles N.E. of Schafhoufe, and so miles N.W. of Conttance,
remarkable for fome rich iron mines fituated in its neigh-
bourhond. N. lat. 47° 55’. E. long. 8° go!

DUTY, in a moral fenfe. See Orrice.

Duty of Marriage. See Marriace.

Duriss, taxes, or impofts, levied for the purpofe of rai-
fing a publc revenue. It has been faid, that there is no
branch of the art of government which is attended
with more difficulty, than how to take from the
pockets of individuals the fums neceffary for the exi-
gencies of the ftate, without difabling the perfons who
contribute from enjoying moft of the neccflaries and con-
veniencies of life to which they have been acculftomed.
lt is proper that individuals fhould contribute in proportion
to the benefit they derive from government; and this ‘is, in
fome degree, determined by the quantity of property, in the
polfeffion of which they are protected. But, unfortunately,
the vatt increafe of the public expenditure, and the neceflity
of large and immeciate fupplies, have furnifhed modern finan-
¢iers with a pretext for overlooking thefe principles ; and in
the duty impofed exprefsly on property, different cleffes of
the community are lo very differently affected by it, that
formerly while duties were profefied to be impofed on equit-
able principles, it would have been deemed very unequal
and unjuft. ;

Duties have been levied on property ef various defcriptions,
bue particularly on goods imported from cther countries,
on which the impoft appears as a toll for receiving them
into protection. It has been the policy of fome coun-
tries to keep the duties on the Importation and ex-
portation of merchandife very low; this was the cafe in
Hoiland, previous tothe revolution, which gave great advan-
tages to the trade of that country, as from the eafinefs of
paying the duties, both {trangers and natives were invited to
bri g great quantities of merchandife there, not only as toa
market, but as to a great magazine, where it might be
lodged, with little expence, till demanded for other markets ;
fo that Amifterdam and Rotterdam were filled with the
produce and maaufaciures of every part of the world. At
Hamburzgh, Bremen, and Lubeck, the duties ou exportation
and importation were very moderate, which contributed
materially to the commercial profperity of thofe cities.
In moft countries, a diftinétion was formerly made between
the duties paid by natives and by foreigners, the latter
being fubje& to a much higher rate.

High duties give rife to {muggling, and dimiaifh the con-
fumption of the article oa which they are laid. This im-
portant financial principle has, however, been frequently
difregarded, and the aétual produce of an exifting duty
being thought to furnifh the means of computing, with
tolerable certainty, the fum to be procured by an augmentas

DUV

tion of it, new duties have been added to the old ones, either’
by feparate rates, or a proportion of the former rates, which
have not only created much perplexity in the revenue, and
trouble to traders, but often diminifhed the old duty, onthe
produce of which the computation of the additional revenue
had been founded, Before the paffiag of the Confolidation
A, there were feven duties on ale, fix duties on malt, nine
duties on foreign f{pirits, as great anumber on the diftillery ;
and on many articles of the cuftoms there were ten, twelve,
and even fifteen duties: the abolition of thefe complex
rates, and the fubftitution of a fingle duty om each article,
contributed materially to the improvement of the revenue ;
and this fimplification of duties has been repeated at feveral
fubfequent periods.

The evidence fo frequently produced of the encourage-
ment -given to fmuggling by high duties, has occafionally
induced the legiflature to lower the duties, with the view of
augmenting the revenue, Thus, in the year 1745, when
the grofs produce of the inland duty on tea was 151,168/.
5s. Id. the duty was reduced from 4s. in the pound to Ts. in
the pound, and 25 per cent. on the price. The confequence
of this redution was, that in the year following, the produce
of the duty rofe to 249,018/. 19s. 11d., and in 1747, it was
263,514/. os. 3d. But the advantage which evidently flowed
from this meafure was not long kept in view, the duties
being raifed again, at different times, till they exceeded their
former amount. The revenue committee, in their firft report,
ftate, that in the year 1783, ‘the total duties of cuftoms and
excife, paid on tea, betore it could legally come into the
hands of the confumer, amounted, on the loweft kinds of

tea, to more than cen’. per cent. on the prime coft, and on

other kinds of tea, on an average, to about 75 per cent. It
was, therefore, thought proper to recur again to the former
principle of lowering the rate of the duties, with the view
of augmenting the revenue; in confequence of which, the
adi, known by the name of the Commutation A&, was
paffcd, by which the duties on tea were reduced to 124 per
cent. on the prime coft. Before this period, on an average
of ten years, there were very little more than fix million
pounds weight per annum, legally confumed in Great Bri-
tain; but within the firft twelve months after the a& took
place, the quantity legally fold exceeded 16 millions of
pounds, which has fince increafed to upwards of 20 million
pounds, i

For an account of the various duties conftituting the
permanent public revenue, fee Customs, Excise, STAMPS;
&e.

Dury, in the Military Art, is the exercife of thofe func-
tions that belong to a foldier; with this diftinG@tion, that
mounting guard, and the like, where there is no enemy
cire&tly to be engaged, is called duty ; but marching to meet
and fight an enemy, ts called going on fervice.

DUVAL, Vatcentine Jameray, in Biography, was
born at Artonay, a village of Champagne, in the year 1695,
of very poor parents, who died while Valentine was very
young, leaving behind them a very numerous progeny, in a
{tate of the greateft indigence. The fubje€t of this article
was in a fhort time taken into the fervice of a farmer, and
employed by him in the care of his poultry. For this kind
of bufinefs he was ill qualified ; and, for want of fteadineis
of condu&, he was difmiffed from his humble itation, at the
beginning of the fevere winter of 1709. Deftitute of every
refource, and probably without a fingle friend, he fet out,
not knowing whither- he was to proceed. In walking to-
wards Lorraine, he was feized with the {mall pox, of which
he muit have perifhed, but for the humanity of a fhepherd.
From this time, till the age of 19, he became an attendant

4 on

—s

DUV

ott the flocks of the plains, when, being of a contemplative
turn cf mind, and having, by his own exertions, acquired a
talte for reading, he fought proteétion at the hermitage of
St. Anne, not far from Luneville, of which the inhabitants
made him an overfeer of their rural concerns. Here, be-
fides a moft diligent attention to the bufinefs in which he
was engaged, he learned writing and arithmetic ; and, like
our own countryman Fergufon, fpent his nights in examin-
ing the heavens. His obfervatory he made in the top of one
of the higheft oaks, which he conftru&ted of oziers, in the
form of a ftork’s neft. His finances, though very trifling,
evabled him to purchafe a few maps; with thefe he contrived
to gain fome knowledge in aftronomy and geography, which
was introductory to more f{ublime purfuits. He now found
himfelf in want of money to purchafe books and other things
neceflary to the attainment of knowledge ; and to fupply
his need, he hunted and killed a vaft number of wild animals,
for the fake of their fkins, the produce of which he con-
verted into a fund to fupply his literary exigencies. Ac-
cident procured him the prote@ion and affiftance of an En-
glifhman, Mr. Forfter, by whofe liberality he obtained a
library of fome hundred volumes: he began now to be
uncafy at his fituation in life, which he thought was not that
in which he ought to move. Purfuing his ftudies one day
under the fhade of a widely f{preading tree, with his maps
and books about him, he was accofted by a hunting party,
who proved to be branches of the royal family, with their
tutors. Struck with the novelty of the fcene, and having
learnt Duval’s hiftory, they perfuaded him to follow the
beat of his inclination at the Jefuits’ college at Pont-a-
Mouffon, under the patronage of the duke of Lorraine, who
was fo much pleafed with his progrefs in {cience and general
literature, that he afforded him the opportunity of accom-
panying him to Paris, at the end of the year 1718. Soon
after he became a profeffor of hiftory in the high {chool of
Luneville. His le€tures were attended by many foreigners,
particularly Englifhmen, who happened to be at Luneville
at that time, and by whofe report the reputation of Duval
was greatly increafed. In the year 1738, Duval removed
to Florence, and became keeper of the ducal library : the
ftudy of coins was a favourite objet, and he now began to
colle& all that he could meet with which were valuable on ac-
count of their antiquity. Scarcely had he formed his plan,
when the emperor Francis I. formed the refolution of efta-
blifhing at Vienna a cabinet of ancient and modern coins,
and invited Duval to that capital to. undertake the infpec-
tion and arrangement of it.- A houfe was affizned him in
the imperial quarter near the palace, and he uluabiy dined
with the emperor one day in every week. He was appointed
fub-preceptor to Jofeph IL., in 1751, and was ever held in
the highelt efleem and veneration by the court. He res
mained free from the ufual infirmities of age till his 79th
year, and died in 1775, in the Stit year of his age. Atter
his death, M. de Kock, fecretary of legation at Peterfburgh,
colle&ed and publifhed his works, which, with his hfe,
written by himfelf, are confidered as very interefting, and
highly to the credit of the author. He was plain in his
drefs; fimple in his manners; mild and kind in his difpofition ;
and grateful to his benefactors. ‘I'o the hermits of St. Anne
he prefented an elegant manfion, with land ; andon the {pot
where he was born, he ere€ted a houfe, and affigned it asa
dwelling for a {chool-mafter. Gen. Biog.

Duvat, Peter, born at Abbeville, about the year 1618,
~ was nephew of the famons geographer Sanfon, and became
a teacher of the fcience in which his uncle bad fo much ex-
celled. He died at Paris in 1653, leaving behind him

DU U

various geographical treatifes, maps, &c. which have bee
fuperfeded by better works of the fame kind: * La Geogra-
phie Francoife, contenant les defcriptions, les cartes, et les
blafons de France, &c.”? ftill bears fome degree of reputation,
He was the author of chronological tables, and feveral arti-
cles in genealogy and heraldry. Moreri.

Duyat, Nicuowas, a painter of hiftory ; born at the
Hague, 1644, where he learned thy art of painting; tra-
velled to Italy; became the difciple of Pietro da Cortona,
whofe manner he imitated. He was recommended to the
prince of Orange, (William III.) who employed him in fe-
veral works at Loo, and afterwards, in England, entrufted
him to clean and repair the cartoons of Raffaelle at Hamp-
ton-court.

He was appointed dire“tor of the academy at the Hague,
where he painted the cicling of the faloon. He died 1732,
Pilkington Dia.

DUVENEDE, Marc Vay, painter of hiftory, born
at Bruges in 1674; went to Italy ; and at Rome became a
difciple of Carlo Maratti. On his return to Flanders, he
painted many great works in the manner of his matter,
among others, the Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, in the chapek
of St. Chritopher at Bruges. Pilkington.

DUUMVIR, a general appellation among the ancient
Romans, given to magiftrates, commiffioners, and officers,
where ¢wo were joined together in the fame funétion. So
that they had almoft a3 many duumviri as they had officers
joined two by two in commiffion. ‘There were duumviri to
dire& the building, repairing, and confecrating of temples
and altars ; capital duumviri, who took cognizance of crimesy
and condemned to death ; duumviri of the marine, or navy,
&c. But the molt confiderable of the duumviri, and thofe
ufually thus called by way of eminence, were the :

Duumviri Sacrorum, created by Tarquin the Proud,
for the performance of facrifices, and keeping of the Sybils?
books, ‘Thefe were chofen from among the nobility, or.
patricians, and held their office for life : they were exempted
from ferving in war, and from the offices impofed on the
other citizens ; and without them the oracles of the Sibyls
could not be confulted.

The commiffion lafted till the year of Rome 387, when,
at the requeft of C. Licinius, and L. Scxtius, tribunes of
the people, they were changed into decemviri; that is, in
lieu of ¢zvo perfons, the truft was committed to ¢ex, who
were half patricians, half plebeians.

Sylla A.U.C. 671, added five more to their number,
upon which they became denominated quindecemvini ; their
body was afterwards much increafed, and at length amounted

‘to fixty; yet ftill it retained the denomination of quinde-

cemviri.

They were entirely abolifhed under the emperor Theodo-
fius, towards the clofe of the 4th century, along with the
re{t of the heathen fuperttitions. See Pacanism.

Duumyiri, The capital, Duumviri Perduellionis, were not
ordinary magiltrates; but created only on certain occurrences.

The firft commiffioners of this kind were thofe appointed
to judye the furviving Horatius, for killing his jfifter, after
vanguifhing the Curiatii, in the reign of ‘Tullus Hoftilus,
See Curiatit.

There were alfo duumviri in the Reman colonies, who
held the fame rank and authority in their refpective colonies,
that the confuls held at Rome. They were chofen out of
the body of decuriones, and wore the pretexta, or robe,
bordered with purple.

Wealfo read of municipal duumviri, whom Vigenere com-

parce

DW:A

pares to our fheriffs, or rather mayors of towns, whofe autho-
rity Jaited only five years. .

DUUMVIRATE, Duumviratus, the magiftrature,
office, or dignity, of the duumviri. See Duumvir.

DUX, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz; 15 miles W.N.W. of Leitmeritz.

DUXBOROUGH, a maritime and poft town of Ame-
rica, m the ftate of M-ffachufetts, and county of Plymouth,
incorporated in 1637. This is a healthy town; employs
20 veflels, moft of them being from 60 to go tons, and
contains 1664 inhabitants. It lies N. by W. of Ply-
mouth. 3 miles from it by water, and 8 by land, and
58 S.E. by S. from Bofton. Witbin the harbour are
Clarke’s ifland, containing about 100 acres of excellent land,
tand Suquifh ifland formerly joined to the Gurnet, which
is an eminence at the fouthern extremity of the beach, having
on ita light-houfe, but now infulated by the water. The
Indian name of this town was Mattakeefet, or Namakeefet.
Tt was firtt fettled by Standifh and his affociates, who came
to Plymouth with the firft fectlers in 1620.

DUXBURY, a townfhip of America, in Chittenden
county, Vermont, about 20 miles SE. of Burlington ;
containing 153 inhabitants,

DUYT, in Commerce, a Dutch copper coin,

DUYVELAND, in Geography, an ifland of Zealand,
feparated from the fouth-eait part of Schouwen by a narrow
paflage ; its dimenfions being about three leagues by two.

DUZDEB, a town of Atiatic Turkey, in the province
of Natolia; 28 miles W. of Eregri.

DUZEY, a town of France, in the department, of the
Meufe and diftri& of Eftain; three leagues N. E. of Ettain,

DWALE, or Dwat, in Heraldry, the herb nightthade.;
ufed by fuch as blazon with flowers and herbs, inftead of
colours and metals, for fable or black.

DWARF. See Pyomy and Stature.

Dwarfs were called nani and nang among the Romans ;
and were held in fuch requeft, that artificial methods were
ufed in order to prevent the growth of boys detigned for
dwarfs, by inclofing them in a box, or binding them with
bandages. Auguttus’s niece, Julia, was very fond of one of
thefe dwarfs, called Sonopas, who was only two feet anda
hand-breadth high.

In the Philofophical Tranfattions we have well authen-
ticated accounts of two dwarfs; one born in Norfolk, who,
at the age of 22, weighed no more than 34 pounds with all
his cloaths on, and whofe height, including hat, wig, and
fhiocs, was only 38 inches; and another, in Wales, who, at
the age of 15, meafuredno more than two feet feven inches,
and weighed only 13 pounds; and who, at that early period
of life, laboured under all the infirmities and calamities of
very oldage. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvi., p. 67., and vol. xlvii.,

. 279.
‘ Pieces, a fort of diminutive fruit trees, frequently
planted in the borders of gardens; thus called from the
lownefs of their ftature.

Dwarf-trees were formerly very much in requeft in gar-
dens; but, fince the introducing of efpaliers, they are much
negle&ted. The manner however of propagating dwarf
pears, which have been found to fucceed the bett of any
dwarfs, is this: they are to be grafted on a quince ftock,
and that at about fix inches above the ground; and when
the bud has fhot fo far as to have four eyes, it is to be
Stopped, to give rife to lateral branches. Two years after the
budding the trees will be fit to tranfplant to the {pot where
they muft remain. They fhould be fet at 25 or 30 feet
fquare diftance, and the ground between may be fown or
planted for kitchen ufe while the trees are young, only ob-

Dix iE

ferving not to plant too near their roots. There fliould be
{takes driven down all round the tree, to which the branches
mutt be nailed with lift while they are young, training them
into an horizontal dire€tion, and no branches are to be fuf-
fered afterwards to crofs one another, and in fhortening the
fhoots the uppermoft eye muft always be left outwards. The
fummer and autumn pesrs are thofe which do bett in dwarfs,
for the winter ones never fucceed well on them.

- Apples are alfo fometimes planted as dwarts, and are for
this purpofe moft commonly grafted on paradife ftocks;
thefe fpread much lefs than the pears, and therefore need
only be fet at about eight feet diltance. Some aifo plant
apricots and plums for dwarfs, but thefe being of a more

tender conftitution feldom fucceed well. Miller. See Es-
PALIER.
Dwarr-fern. See Dwarf-Tern.

DWINA, in Geography. See Dvina.

DWORZEC, a town of Lithnania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; eight miles S. of Novogrodek.

DWORZYSZCE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Wilna; 20 miles S. of Wilna.

DYADIC, Arithmetic. See AriTHMETIC.

Antenio Van,
DYCK, { Parse Van, } se Vanpycr.
Froris Van,

DYE, in Architedure, the part of a pedeftal contained be=
tween the bafe and the cornice, in the form of a {quare prifm,
approaching frequently to a cube or dye, whence the name
originates.

Dye is alfo ufed' for a cube of ftone, placed under the
feet of a ftatue and over its pedeftal, to raife it and thew it
the more. ‘

DYEING, Aiffory of. The origin of the art of dyeing
is involved in that ob{curity which pervades the hiltory of
all thofe arts connected with the common wants and ne-
ceffities of life. They have originated in times beyond
the reach of hiftory or tradition, and are the offspring
of the natural faculties of man direGted by the great
primeval wants of food, fhelter, and raiment: The art of
dyeing is, of courfe, pofterior to many of thefe, and is
founded lefs on the neceffities than paflions of mankind.
A love of diftin€&tion is common to man in every ftage
of civilization, but that paffion for admiration which is
difplayed in a love of finery and ornament is peculiar to
him in his moft barbarous and uncultivated ftate. Hence
favage nations delight in brilliant and gaudy colours, and
many paint their fkins, and adorn themfelves with feathers,
ftones, and fhells of various hues. Hiftory hasnot furnifhed
us even with her fables on the origin of dyeing ; but from
analogy, as well as obfervation of the praétice of barbarous
nations at the prefent day, we may trace the rude begin-
nings from whence the art has fprung. The rich and gaudy
plumage of birds, the finely {potted fkins of animals, co-
loured ftones, and fuch other fubftances as nature herfelf
{upplies, would afford the firft materials for favage finery
and drefs. The caps and mantles of the chiefs of the South
Sea iflands, fuch as were brought home by captain Cook,
are compofed almoft wholly of feathers richly coloured.

It is eafy to conceive that accident muft furnifh innumer-
able inftances of obfervation even to the eye ofa favage,
that many of thefe colours were capable of imitation, and
that fome fubftances readily imparted their colour to others.
The bruifing of a fruit, a flower, or leaf, is one of the moft
natural and obvious occurrences to which we fhould look for
the firft notion of applying vegetable juices to dyeing, and
doubtlefs the knowledge of the tingent properties of vari-
ous herbs was thus early acquired. The art, ae be

my.

DYEING.

mutt have waited the progrefs of induftry and luxury, be-
fore it became extended and improved. Long antecedent,
however, to the period when authentic hiftory begins, it
muit have made confiderable progrefs, Mofes {peaks of
ftuffs dyed blue, and purple, and {carlet, and of fheep-fkins
dyed red. Thefe colours require great fkill in the prepa-
yation, and the knowledge of them implies a very advanced
ftate of the art at that peried.

The colour which appears to have been earlieft brought
to perfection, and which was held in fuch high eftimation
among the ancients, is purple. It was to chance alone, ac-
cording to the tradition of antiquity, that they owed this
difeovery. A fhepherd’s dog, inftigated by hunger, having
broken a fhell on the fea fhore, his mouth became {tained
with fuch a colour as excited the admiration of all who faw
it. They endeavoured to apply it to ftuffs, and fucceeded.
There is fome difcordance in the details of the ancient wri-
ters of the circumftances of this event. Some place this
difcovery in the reign of Pheenix, fecond king of Tyre, that
is to fay, a little more than 500 years before Chrift: others,
at the time that Minos the firft reigned in Crete, about 1439
years before the Chriftian era. But the greateft number
agree in giving the honour of the invention of dyeing pur-
ple ftuffs to the Tyrian Hercules. He gave his firlt trials
to the king of Pheenicia, who was fo pa of the beauty
of this new colour, that he forbade the ufe of it to all his
fubje&ts, referying it for the garments of royalty alone.

Some authors relate the ftory differently. Hercules’s dog
having ftained his mouth with a fhell, which he had broken
on the fea fhore, Tyras, a nymph of whom Hercules was
enamoured, was fo charmed with the beauty of the colour,

that. the déclared to her lover fhe would fee him no more’
till he brought herafuit dyed thefame. Hercules thought
of a way to fatisfy his miftrefs ; he colleted a great num-
ber of the fhells, and fucceeded in ftaining a robe of the
colour the nymph had demanded. Such are the different
traditions handed down by the ancients of the origin of the
purple dye. They are evidently blended with fiction, yet
they may ferve to fix the epoch of this difcovery, which
appears to have been made about fifteen centuries before the
Chriftian era. Whether the purple of Tyre was fimilar to
that mentioned in holy writ, as uled by Mofes for the velt-
ments of the high prieft, and the ornaments of the taberna-
‘cle, may admit of fome difpute, fiuce it is not certain, ac-
cording to M. Huet, that the word argaman, of the Hebrew
text, which all the interpreters tranflate by purpura, means
_ in reality that colour.
The teftimony of Homer confirms the antiquity of this
' difcovery. This great poet and accurate obferver, afcribes
to the heroes of that age, in which we have fuppofed it be-
came known, ornaments and cloths of purple.

The ancients had fuch an efteem for this colour, that it
was efpecially confecrated to the fervice of the deity. Mo-
fes, as we have juit obferved, ufed ftuffs of purple for the
works of the tabernacle, and the habits of the high priett.
The Babylonians gave purple habits to their idols ; it was
the fame with moft of the other people of antiquity. The
Pagans were even perfuaded that the purple dye had a par-
or ae and was capable of appeafing the wrath of
the Se

Purple was alfo the diftinguifhing mark of the greateft
dignities from the earlieft times. We have feen that the
king of Pheenicia, to whom tradition fays the firft eflays of
‘this colour were prefented, had it referved for the fovereign.
Among the prefents which the Ifraelites made to Gidecn,
the feripture makes mention of: purple habits found among

the {poils of the kings of Midian, Homer gives us plainly

to underftand, that it only belonged to princes to wear this
colour ; and we may remark, that this cultom was ebferved
by all the nations of antiqnity.

It is not eafy to give a clear and precife idea of the procefs
followed by the ancients in the production of this highly
valued cclour. We find fome details in the works of Arif-
totle and of Pliny, im whofe days the practice was very
common, but they are not fufficiently circumitantial. The
purple dye, according to Plmy, was drawn from many fpe-
cies of fhell fifh. The beft were found near the ifle where
New Tyre was built. They fithed for them in other parts
of the Mediterranean. The coafts of Africa were famous
for the purple of Getulia. The coafts of Europe fupplied
the purple of Laconia, which was held in great efteem.

In the 36th chapter of his feventh book, Pliny ranges in
two claffes the different kinds of fhell fifh which produced
the purple. The firft comprehended the {maller fpecies
under the denomination of duccinum, from their refemblance
to a hunting horn ; the fecond included thofe denominated
purpura. Thefe Fabius Columna conceives to haye been
alfo diftinguifhed by the generic name of murex, though
others fuppofe this to have fignified all the different {pecies
generally. All thefe feveral fpecies, the chief of which are
enumerated by Pliny, appear to have given colours of dif-
ferent fhades, from which, by mixture of the liquors in va-
rlous proportions, other varieties of colour were produced.
A few drops only of this precious dye were obtained from
each fifh, by extraéting a white vein placed in the throat ;
but to avoid this trouble with the {maller fpecies, according
to Ariftotle and Pliny, the whole fifh was bruifed in a mor-
tar, a practice which, according to Vitruvius, was often
followed with the larger. The liquor, when extracted, was
mixed with a confiderable portion of falt, and {uffered to-
remain three days ; after which it was diluted with five or
fix times its quantity of water, and digefted, moderately hot,
during ten days, in a lead or tin veflel, {kimming it fre-
quently, to feparate all impurities. The woel was after-
wards put in, being well wathed, cleapfed, and properly
prepared. After foaking five hours, it was taken out,
carded, and again immerted in the boiling dye, till all the
colour was taken up or exhaufted. To produce particular
fhades of colour, nitre; urine, and a marine plant called
fucus, of which the beft kind is found on the rocks of the
ifle of Crete, were occafionally added.

The Tyrians, by the confeffion of all antiquity, fucceed-
ed beft in dyeing ftuffs purple. Their procefs differed’ a:
little from what we have related above. They ufed nothing
to make their colour but purple fhells taken out at fea..
‘They made a bath of the liquor they drew from thefe fifhes..
They fteeped their wool in this a certain time, and after-
wards took it out and fteeped it in another boiler, in which
was nothing but buccina or trumpet fifh. This is all the
ancients tell us of the praétice of the T'yrians. Wool, which
had received this double Tyrian dye, (diabapha) was fo
very coftly, that in the reign of Auguftus, each pound fold
for 1000 Roman denarii, about 36/. fterling. Nor need we
wonder at this exceflive price, when we confider the tedious
nature of the procefs, and the fmall quantity of dye afforded’
by the fhell fifth, from each of which not more than a fingle
drop was obtained. For 5olb. of wool they ufed no lefs than
2ocibs. of the liquor of the buccinum, and 1oolbs. of that
of the purpura, or 6lbs. of liquor to 1lb.. of wool. We
ought not to be much furprized, therefore, that this colour
vied in value even with gold itfelf. The ancient’ writers
diftinguith many different fhades of purple. One of them,
which was very dark, appears to have beena kind of violet,
inclining towards a reddifh hue, ‘ Nigrantis rofe colore

fublucens,’?

DYEING; a

fublucens,” Pliny, lib, 9. fee. 50. Another, lefs efteemed,
wasa kind ofcrimfon. ¢* Rubens color, nigrante deterior,’’
lib. g. fec.62. "The moit valued of all, and in which the
Tyrians particularly excelled, was a deep red purple, of the
colour of coagulated blood. ‘ Laus ei fumma in colore fan-
guinis concreti,” Pliny, ibid. It is in allufion to this that
Homer and Virgil give to blood the epithet purple. ‘There
was afourth kind known in later times, very different from
thofe we have fpoken of. The colour was whitifh; an
account of which may be feen in Perrault’s trarflation of
Vitruvius. t

Vhe purple has been almoft every where a mark of dif-
tinction-attached to high birth and dignity. It was an or-
nament of the firfl office sof Rome 3 but luxury, which was
carried to great excefs in that capital of the world, rendered
the ufe of it common among the opulent, till the emperors
referved' to themfelves the right of wearing it. Soon after-
wards it became the fymbol of their inauguration. They
appointed officers to {uperintend the manufaGtories, princi-
pally eftablithed in Pheenicia, where it was prepared folely
for their ufe. -The punifhment of death was decreed againtt
all who fhould have the audacity to wear it, though covered
avith another colour. ‘The penalty, fo tyrannically denoun-
ced againft this whimfical f{pecies of treafon, doubtlefs occa-
fioned the lofs of the art of dyeing purple; firft in the Weft,
but much later in the Eait, where it flourifhed confiderably
till the eleventh century.

It appears that fome kinds of purple preferved their co-
lour for a very longtime. Plutarch, in his life of Alexander,
telates that the Greeks found in the treafury of the king of
Perfia a great quantity of purple which had not loft its
beauty, though it was 190 years old.

It is commonly afferted, on the authority of moft of the
ancient writers, that the purple had a very ftrong and dif-
agreeable odour. It would appear, however, from Pliny,
lib. 9. fec. 36. tha: this was the :cafe.only with fome parti-
cular kinds. After extolling the beauty of the true purple,
and allowing that it was juftly.an object of ambition, he
aiks, how it happens that the ether kinds of purple, ob-
tained from the fhell-fith called conchylia, fhould be fo high
priced, confidering the ftinking difagreeable odour which
the ituffs have that are dyed with them.

After all, the boafted purple of antiquity was a miferable
dye compared with many which we now pofiefs, and affords
a ftrong proof of the imperfect ftate of the art at the period
when it was_held in fuch efteem. It was, no doubt, the
moft rich and brilliant colour then known.

It is a curious fa&, that Mr. Bruce, whofe acquaintance
with ancient authors ought to have convinced him of the
contrary, maintains that the T'yrian purple was produced
avith cochineal, and that the flory of its being the blood of
a fhell-fifh was invented and propagated by the Tyrians with

_a yiew of deceiving other nations, and keeping the art of
dyeing this colour exclutively to themfelves. He even
adduces this as a proof of the early intercourfe carried on
with the new world, in times long antecedent to thofe in
which we fuppofe the difcovery of the continent of America
avas firfi made.

The ancients obtained from the coccus, now known by the
mame of kermes, a colour which was almoft as highly
elteemed as purple, and which was fometimes mixed with
it. Pliny informs us it was employed in the preparation of
the imperial robes. It was geterally called {carlet, and
was {fometimes confounded with the purple. The ufe of

the coccus in dyeing is very ancient, fince it appears from
fhe commentators, to be alluded to in Exodus, chap. xxxix.
ver. 1. and 28,

tac

‘Our materials for a hiftory of the art of dyeing, during”

the ages of claffical antiquity, are very feanty. ‘Amongit
the Grecks the ufeful arts were degraded even in the eyes of
philofophers, and this contempt:defcended to the Romans;
for Pliny, {peaking of dyeing, avowedly negleéts the de-
fcription of operations which are unconneéted with the libe-
ral arts. “ Nec tingendi rationem omififfimus, fi unquam ea
liberalium artium fuiffet.”?

The art of dyeing among the Greeks appears to have
made no great progreis; the drefs of the people was of clotk
which had received no dye, and which might be wafhed.
The rich preferred coloured clothes ; they eiteemed fuch as
were dyed fearlet with the kermes, but they valued {tll
more highly thofe of purple.

The few details relative to dyeing into which Pliny has
entered in his great work, are almoft wholly confined to the
purple, of which we have given an account. "The few feat-
tered fais to be met with, that ferve at all to illuitrate the
hiftory of the art, we fhall briefly notice. Some varicties
of colour, derived from the purple, and produced by dif-
ferent mixtures of the various kinds of hhell-fifh, and alfo by-
admixture with the dye of the coccus, or kermes, appear
to have been fafhionable in Phiny’s time. Thefe originated,
according te ourauthor, in the errors and failure of the
dyers, who having, in the firft inftance, {poiled their cloth,
endeavoured to hide the defects by giving it another fhade:
hence arofe thofe compound twice-dyed colours which were
foon held in high repute.

Befides the Tyrian purple, fcarlet, and the varieties and
compounds of-thofe colours, Pliny mentions yellow as a
yery ancient dye, and highly efteemed in former times. The
veil which the bride wore on her wedding day was of yellow,
and none but women were permitted to ufe it. They had
alfo a colour refembling the cyanos, or blue-bottle, and
another like the golden yellow flower elichryfon. None of
thefe colours, fays Pliny, were known, or at leaft in requeft
in the days of Alexander the Great; for the Greek writers,
who wrote foon after his deceafe, make no mention of them.
They are evidently, however, of Greek origin, as appears
from their names, which, though Greek, were current in
ltaly in Pliny’s time.

The ufe of vegetable dyes appears to have been ina great
meafure unknown to the Romans; though the inhabitants
of Gaul, according to Pliny, imitated all colours, even the
Tyrian purple and the fearlet, with the juice of certain
herbs. In the eleventh chapter of the thirty-fifth book of
Pliny’s hiftory, is preferved a valuable notice of the procefs
followed by the Egyptians in dyeing linen. They itained,
fays he, white cloth, not with colours, but with certain
drugs, which have the property of abforbing them, but

which exhibit no appearance of any dye till they have been }

boiled fome time in a cauldron, from which they are .with-
drawn painted or ftained of various colours. What is moft
extraordinary, fays Pliny, is, that the cauldron containing
only colour of one kind fhould impart to the cloth fhades of
various hues according to the nature of the drugs which
were laid on; and the colours are fo fixed that they can
never be wafhed out, but are more durable and fixed than
if they had never been immerfed in the boiling dye. . ~

We have here a tolerably accurate defcription of the pro-
cefs of calico printing ; and the only mention in any ancient
author of an art which has exited for ages paft in the Eait,

and is practifed there at this day, probably with little varia-

tion from the mode deferibed by Pliny. \
The art of dyeing linea appears not to have been known
in Greece before Alexandgr’s inyafion of India, where they
mye

.

DYE

dyed the fails of his veffels of different colours. The Greeks
- feem to have borrowed this art from the Indians.

We may form fome idea of the ftate of the art of dyeing
amongit the Romans, from the enumeration of the different
colours which were in ufe, and the fub@ances employed in
producing them. In addition-to thofe enumerated by
Pliny, wefind, that in the equeflrian games of the ci¥cus,
the different divifions were diftinguifhed by the colours
green, color prafinus; orange, rufatus; grey, venctus ;
and white. We fhall enumerate, after Mr. Bifchoff, who
has minutely examined the fubje@, the ingredients em-
ployed at that time in the art of dyeing, in addition to the
two important ones already mentioned, the purple fifh and
eoccus.

1. Alum. It is probable, from what we fhall tate here-
after, that the ancients were unacquainted with our alum in
its {late of purity.

2. Alkanet. ‘Suidas fays, that this fubftance was alfo
ufed by women as a paint.

3. The blood of birds, which was ufed amongft the
Jews.

4. The fucus; that of Crete was preferred, and it was
generally employed as a ground or preparative for valuable

* colours.
5. Broom.
~~ 6. The violet, from which the Gauls prepared a kind of
purple.

7. Lotos medicago arborea ; fnail trefoil; the bark was
ufed in dyeing (kins, and the root in dyeing wool.

8. The bark of the walnut-tree and the peel of the hell.

9. Madder. We are not certain whether the madder of
the ancients was the fame as ours, or another root of the
fame tribe.

10. Woad (glaftum). This plant was undoubtedly in
ufe among the ancients, but we do not know whether their
preparation of it was the fame as ours.

We are not to infer, however, that thefe were the only
fubftances employed by the ancients in the art of dyeing ;
many more being, in all probability, in ufe, of which we

have no account. Indigo (indicum nigrum) is mentioned
r

by Pliny, and xh fome doubts have been entertained by
his commen’ e€ting the true nature of this fub-
itance, fome fuppofing it to have been Indian ink, yet it is
very evident he meant the indigo of the moderns, from the
purple fmoke which he fays it emitted when fet on fire,
and which we believe is peculiar to indigo. It was never,
however, we believe, employed in dyeing, but fimply as a
pigment.

» "India was the nurfery of the arts and fciences, which
were afterwards {pread and perfeéted among other nations,
Accidents, which had a tendency te improve the art,
could not fail to be multiplied rapidly in a country rich in
natural produétions, which requires little labour for the
fupport of its inhabitants, and the population of which was

Migs
A

~ favoured by the bounty of nature and the fimplicity of man-

ners, tillit was oppofed by the tyranny of fucceeding con-
~ querors. But religious prejudices, and the unalterable divi-
fion into cafts, foon put fhackles upon induftry ; the arts
became flationary, and it would feem that the knowledge
of dyeing cotton in that country was as far advanced in the
time of Alexander as it is at prefent.
The beautiful colours which we obferve in their printed
‘ calicoes, would lead us to fuppofe that the art of dyeing
had then attained a high degree of perfeétion, yet we find,
from the details of thofe who have witneffed their operations,
sthat the Indian proceffes are fo complicated, tedious, and
-imperfe&t, that they would be impraéticable in any other
PPV ot. XII.

ING.

country, on account of the difference in the price of labour,
The art of printing calicoes has been praéiifed in India at
lealt twenty-two centuries; for the hiftorians of Alexander’s
invafion of that ill-fated country fpeak of their flowered
cloths or chintz. If they excelled therefore in the richnefs
and brilliancy of two or three colours; itis to be attributed
to the fuperior quality of fome of their dyes, peculiar to
their own country, the effet of which was perhaps height-
ened by the length and multiplicity of their operations. ‘The °
knowledze of this art appears to have {pread: over a con-
fiderable part of Afia. It was practifed, and is to this day,
by the Perfians; and we have {een that in Plisy’stime, it
was eftablifhed in Egypt.

From the fifth volume of the ** Memoires concernant
VHittoire, les Sciences, les Arts, les Mceurs, &c. des
Chinois,” it appears, that wool was never worn in China
but as a fubflitute for fur, and that cotton and filk, being
the only fubftances ever dyed by the inhabitants, received
ali their colours from vegetable tingent matters; that their
colours were principally red, blue, violet, and what is called
a woad colour; and that under the three firlt dynafties
the bufinefs of dyeing was chiefly practifed by the female
part of each family, for its own particular ufe; and it pro-
bably continued to be prattifed without any thing like prin-
ciple or fcience until near the end of the feventh century,
when the Chinefe difcarding their own, borrowed the art
and means of dyeing which were then in ufe among the
Indians and Perfians ; and it is faid, that alum and copperas,
which the Chinefe did not ufe before, were among the
means fo borrowed ; a fact which renders it probable, that
there was little, if any thing, in the Chinefe art of dyeing,
of which the lofs need now be regretted.

It appears, however, that long hefore this time a know-
ledge of the ufes of alum and of iron in dyeing had fpread
from Hindooftan and Perfia weftward to Egypt, and thence
to Greece and Rome. Bergmann, indeed, and after him,
Beckmann, have reprefented the alum of the ancients as dif-
ferent from the eryftallized falt of the moderns; and have
fuppofed that the varieties ofalum mentioned by Diofcorides,
were ftalaétites, containing but little alum, and confifting
chiefly of calcareous earth. Nature, however, does produce
fome, though but little, cryftallized alum, particularly in
Egypt and fome parts of Afia; and it probably was in this
ftate that its good effet in. dyeing had been firft obferved,
before mankind were led to the means and operations
fince employed for feparating and colleéting it from the
various aluminous ores. Bergmann informs us, that the fac-
titious falt which is now called alum, was firlt difcovered in
the eaftern countries, and that among the moft early works
eftablithed for the preparation of alum, we may juftly number
that of Roccho, a city in Syria, now called Edefla, hence
the appellation of rach alum. He adds, that Bartholomew,
Perdix, or Pernix, a merchant of Genoa, who had been at
Roccho, difeovered the matrix of alum in the ifland of
Ifchia, about the year 1459, and eftablifhed a manufactory
there; at the fame time, John de Caltro, who had vifited
the manufadtories at Conftantinople, difcovered a matrix at
Tolfa, by means of the ilex aquifolium, which he had alfo
obferyed to grow in the adjacent mountains of Turkey ;
and his opinion was confirmed by the tafte of the ftones.
The attempts made by the Genoefe at Viterbium and at
Volaterre fucceeded extremely well; and the preparation of
it in Italy foon increafed wonderfully faft. The firft manu-
factory of alum in England was eftablifhed in the reign of
Elizabeth, at Gifborough, by one Thomas Chaloner.

In the fifth century all the arts were loft throughout the
Welt, except a few, which ina {tate of decay were preferved

3C in

“DY E PNG,

in Italy; and no traces were left of knowledge, induftry,
or humanity.

Muratori quotes a manufecript of the eighth century, in
which we find a defcription of fome dyes, principally for
fkias, and fome procefles connected with the arts; but the
Latin, which is almoft unintelligible, and the chafms we find
here and there, prevent us from being able to form a jutt
idea of thefe proceffes.

The arts were better preferved in the Eaft, where articles
of luxury were procured by fome of the great, even fo late
as the twelfth century. During the crufades, the Venetians
derived their power from the barbarous mania of the age :
their commerce increafed; the arts were eltablifhed among
them, and improved by the induitry of the Greeks, and
{pread from thence through the other parts of Italy. In
the year 1338, Florence contained two hundred manufac-
turers, who are faid to have made from feventy to eighty
thoufand pieces of cloth, which, as an objeé& of commerce,
were worth twelve hundred thoufand crowns of gold.

It is faid that archil was accidentally difcovered by a
Florentine merchant, about the year 1300. Having ob-
ferved that urine imparted a very fine colour to a certaia
{pecies of mofs, he made experiments, and learned to prepare
archil. Te kept his difcovery fecret a long time; his
polterity, a branch of which ftill exifts, according to
Dominique Manni, have retained the appellation of Ruc-
cellai, from oreiglia, the Spanifh term for that kind of
mois.

The arts continued for a long time to be cultivated in
Italy with increafing fuccefs. In the year 1429, the firft
colle&tion of the proceffes employed ia dyeing appeared at
Venice under the name of “* Mariegola del’ arte dei tentori ;””
a fecond edition, much improved, came out in 1510. A
certain perfon, named Gioran Ventura Rofetti, formed the
defign of rendering this defcription more ufeful and exten-
five. He travelled through the different parts of Italy, and
the adjacent countries, where the arts had begun again to
Rourifh, in order to make himfelf acquainted with the
various proceffes employed, and he publifhed, under the
title ** Plidho de Parte de tentori,’? &c. a colleétion which,
according to Mr. Bifchoff, is the firft that united the dif-
ferent pruceffes, and which ought to be regarded as the
leading itep toward the perfection which the art of dyeing
has attained. This work was printed at Venice, in 1548; a
French tranflation of it appeared at Paris in 1716. It is
remarkable that in the work entitled ‘* Pliétho,’’ not a
word is faid either of cochineal or indigo; from which we
may conclude that thele two dyes were either unknown or
not employed at that time in Italy.

The firft indigo ufed in Europe appears to have been
brought from the Eaft Indies by the Dutch. India was
doubtlefs the country where that valuable fubftance was
firft produced. Ty ancivilized inhabitants of other coun-
tries have, indeed, difcovered modes of obtaining colouring
matter, very nearly refembling that of indigo, from other
plants, as the ifatis tin¢toria, or woad, and the genipa
americana, but they obtained thefe matters in a liquid
form only, and employed them in their recent ftate.

The natives of India, however, went farther, they pre-
cipitated and gollected, in a dry folid form, the colouring
matter of igtligo, and difcovered the means of afterwards
diffolving and applying it to ftuffs. In Africa, the Mlan-
dingo negroes, according to Mr. Park, dye their cloth of a
lafting blue colour, by the following fimple procefs. The
leaves of the indigo, when frefh gathered, are pounded in
a wooden mortar, and mixed in a large earthen jar, witha
ftrong ley of wood afhes; chamber-lye is fometimes added.

The cloth is fteeped in this mixture, and allowed to remain
until it has acquired the proper fhade. In Kaarta and Lu-
damar, where indigo is not plentiful, they colle& the
leaves and dry them in the fun, and when they wifh to ufe
them, they reduce a fufficient quantity to powder, and mix
it with the lye as before. * Either way,’ fays Mr. Park,
‘¢ the colour is very beautiful, and equal to the beft Indiaw
or European blue.”” The ufe of indigo was known to the
Mexicans before the arrival of the Spaniards, and Clavigero,
in his hiftory of that country, gives an account of the
method of obtaining it. Hernandes had long before de~
{cribed the plant as being indigenous in Mexico, and em-
ployed by its ancient inhabitants ; and Ferdinand Columbus,
in his * Life of Chriftopher Columbus,’’ mentions it as one
of the native plants of Hifpaniola. What the abbé Raynal
therefore afferts, of its being tranfplanted from the Eaft
Indies to America, can be true only of one fpecies, the indigo-
fera tia¢toria, Linn, The manufacture of indigo, however,
was not eitablifhed in America till fome time after the difco-
very of that country; and on the plant which produces it
being recognized by the Portuguefe in Brazil as identical
with that from which indigo was extraéted in the Eait In-
dies. The ufe of indigo, which was a great acquifition to

the art of dyeing, was not eftablifhed without confiderable-

difficulty. It was ftri€tly prohibited in England in the
reign of Elizabeth, as was alto logwood, which was ordered.
to be burned if found in any manufactory. This prohi-
bition was not taken off till the reign of Charles IT.

In like manner the ufe of indigo was profcribed in
Saxony, in the edi& againft it, which brings to one’s
mind the edié againft the employment of antimonial
emetics; it is fpoken of as a highly corrofive colour.
This is a ftriking example of the errors into which an
unenlightened adminiftration may fall, which liftens to the
fuggeitions of interefted individuals. Thofe who dyed blue,
and were accuftomed to ufe paftel and woad, reprefented
that indigo would deltroy the fale of thofe two articles,
which were the produce of the country. Such a reafon,
which would appear fpecious to many, even in the prefent
day, eafily produced a prohibition which would be foon
eluded by paying a tribute to the induflry of other nations.
The prejudice againit indigo was likewife communicated to
France, and Colbert’s inftruGtions forbade the ufe of more
than a certain quantity in the paftel vats.

Cochineal was another important acquilfition to the art of
dyeing, for which we are indebted to the firft conquerors of
Mexico. The Spaniards, having obferved that the inhabit-
ants of Mexico employed cochineal in pamting their houfes
and dyeing their cotton, gave their government an account
of the beauty of the colour; and Cortes, in the year 1523,
was ordered to promote the increafe of the valuable infect
from which it is obtained. ‘The natural colour, however,
which the cochineal gives, is but a dull colour.
cochineal was known in Europe, a great chemift of the
name of Kufter, Kuffler, or Kepfler, Pond out the prefent
procefs for dyeing fearlet by means of a folution of tin, and
carried the fecret to London in the year 1543. See
Cocuineat and Scare. :

The ancients applied the name fcarlet to the colour ob-
tained from kermes, which was much inferior in beauty to
the colour we diftinguifh by that appellation. We probably
know how to employ the kermes to greater advantage than
they did, fince we poffefs a pure alum which difpofes the
ftuff.to receive a more beautiful and durable colour; yet
our dyers have almoft entirely difcontinued the te cf it,

ecaufe they can obtain from cochineal a colour beyond all
comparifon more beautiful. The fuppofition, that the
colour

Soon after ©

¥ohe

DYEING.

colour which we obtain from kermes is preferable to that
optained by the ancients, is fupported by the teftimeny of
Pliny, who infinuates that it was not adurable colour ; now
the colour we give by means of kermes to wool prepared
with alum, is exceedingly durable. The difcovery of
{carlet may be confidered as the moft important era im the
art of dyeing, as it introduced to our knowledge.the folu-
tion of tin, fince fo varioufly and happily applied. A T'le-
mifh painter, called Gluck, got poffeffion of this fecret,
and communicated it to Gobelin, The knowledge of the
procefs afterwards {pread throughout all Europe. Gluck
travelled into the Eaft, where there were ftill fome remains
of Grecian induiftry, and afterwards fettled in Tlanders,
where he {pent a long and profperous life. According to
Mr. Francheville, this man, who had been fo ufeful to his
country, died about the year 1550.

For along time Italy, and efpecially Venice, poffeffed
the art of dyeing almoft exclufively ; a circumflance which
contributed to the profperity of their manufaétures and
commerce: by degrees it was introduced into France. Giles
Gobelin, to whom the precefs for making the true fearlet
had been communicated, eftablifhed a manufaétory in the
place which {till bears his name ; and this undertaking was
deemed fo rafh, that it was termed Gobcelin’s folly.

The attention of the Royal Society appears to have been
early directed to the improvement of the art of dyeing. At
a meeting of that learned body on the 3oth of April, 1662,
Mr. Hook was defired to tranflate into Englifh, a work on
dyeing, which appears to have been that already mentioned
under the title of Plictho. On the fame day alfo, fir William
Petty, one of its earlieft and moft ative members, in con-

_fequence of a previous requeft from the fociety, brought
in “ An Apparatus to the Hiftory of the common praétices
of Dyers,’’ which was afterwards printed in * Dr. Spratt’s
Hiftory of the Royal Society,” and feems to have been the
firft work publifhed in the Englith language on the procefies
and operations of dyeing. Nearly two years afterwards
Mr. Boyle prefented to the fociety his ‘¢ Experiments and
Confiderations touchin ; Colours.” And on the roth of
Auguit, 1664, it was ordered by the fociety, “ that the
way of fixing chur ha be recommended to Mr. Howard,
Mr. Boyle, and Dr. Merritt.’? Thefe, and efpecially the
two firlt, were amongft the moft diftinguifhed members of
the fociety ; but it does not appear that any thing deferving
of notice was done in confequence of this recommendation.
However, at a meeting of the fociety on the 11th of No-
vember, 1669, that very ingenious and ufeful member,
Mr. Hook, produced a piece of calico flained after the way
contrived by himfelf, which he was defired to profecute in
other colours befides thofe that appeared in this piece;
and accordingly on the gth of the following month, Mr.
Hook produced another {peeimen of ftaining with yellow,
red, green, blue, and-purple colours, which he faid would
endure wafhing with warm water and foap. But from this
time it does not appear that any thing confiderable was done
for nearly the {pace of a century by men of {cience in this
country towards the improvement of the arts of dyeing and
calico printing.

In France, however, the minifter Colbert, anxious to
extend the commerce and manufactures of his country,
which had languifhed during the ftormy adminiftrations of
Richlieu and Mazarin, turned his attention particularly to
the art of dyeing. He invited the moft fkilful artifts, re-
warded their talents, and eftablifhed many manufactories ;
and it is curious to remark, that thofe of Vaurobais and
Sedan were called, in the letters patent which were granted
them, manufacturers of fine cloth after the Dutch and

Englith fafhion. In 1672, he publifhed a Table of Inq
{tructions for Dyeing, under the title of ** General Inftruc-
tions for dyeing Wool and woollen Manufaétures of all
Colours, and for the Culture of the Drugs or Ingredients
employed in them.’? This, however, was not intended
merely to diffufe information, but as a legiflative act, to
controul the dyers in their operations. This work merits
attention ; we thall firft notice the reafon which he gives for
confidering the fubjeét as one of great importance.

« If,?? fays Colbert, “¢ the manufactures of filk, wool,
and thread are to be reckoned amongit thofe which moft
contribute to the fupport of commerce, dyeing, which gives
them that ftriking variety of colour by which they refemble
what is.moft beautiful in nature, may be confidered as the
foul of them, without which the body could {carcely exiit,
Wool and filk, the natural colour of which rather indicates
the rudenefs of former ages, than the genius and improve-
ment of the prefent, would be in no great requeft if the art
of dyeing did not furnifh attraGtions which recommend them
even to the moft barbarous nations. All vifible objeéts are
diftinguifhed and recommended by colours, but for the pur-
pofes of commerce it is not only neceflary that they fhould
be beautiful, but that they fhould be good, and that their
duration fhould equal that of the materials they adorn,”’—
But Colbert, though he inftituted many ufeful regulations
for the inftru€tion of the farmer and the artift, impofed a.
fy {tem of prohibition and reftraint { exceffive, as almoft to
bar all future improvement. He divided the dyers inte
two claffes, to one of which were confined the colours
deemed durable and fixed, whillt the other clafs was allowed ,
only to meddle with thofe which were confidered fugitive.
In the dyeing of black cloth he infifted that the operation
fhould be begun by the dyers-in grain, or thofe who gave
the durable colour, and finifhed by thofe who produced the
falfe one. Each was confined to a certain number of ingre-
dients, and neither were fuffered to have Brazil wood, and
various other articles. The bad effects of this prohibition
were moderated by the facility of eluding it, and by the
rewards beftowed on thofe whofe expetiments promoted
the progrefs of the art, and whofe difcoveries were af-
terwards to be publifhed, and to modify the exifting re-
gulations.

French induftry loft its pre-eminence by the criminal re-
vocation of the ediét of Nantz, which carried defolation
into her manufa¢tories, and difperfed her workmen, and the
knowledge of her arts, throughout all Europe.

Since that time the department of adminiftration, charged
with the fuperintendence of the arts and manufactures, has
conftantly fought to repair thofe errors, and to encourage.
induitry and exertion by the diffufion of knowledge, which,
under wife laws, is the moft efficacious means that can be
employed.

Dufay, Hellot, Macquer, and Berthollet, have been fuc-
ceflively charged with the eare of improving the art of
dyeing ; and to their labours all Europe is indebted for moft
valuable acquifitions.

Dufay amended, or rather fuperfeded, the “ Inftruc-
tions, &c.” of Colbert, by the publication of a new one,
under the adminiftration of M. d’Orry, in 1739. He ap-
pears to have been the firft who entertained juft, though in-
complete, ideas of the true nature of colouring fubftances,
and the caufe of their adhefion te ftuffs when dyed. In his
‘‘Obfervations phyfiques fur le melange de quelques couleurs
dans le tinéture,’?? Mem. de l’Academ. 17375 he obferves,
that colouring particles are naturally difpofed to adhere,
more or lefs firmly, to the filaments which receive them ;
and he remarks very juftly, that without this difpofition

3C2 fluffs

DYEING.

ftuffs would never affume any colour but that of the bath,
and would always divide the colouring particles equally
with it ; whereas the liquor of the bath fometimes becomes
as limpid as water, giving out all the colouring matter to
the ituff, “‘ which feems to indicate,” fays he, “ that the
ingredients have lefs attra@ion for the water than for the par-
ticles of the wool.” He alfo noticed, the difference in the
degree of attraiion which different fubftances, as wool and
cotton, exert on the fame colouring matters, and which he
found fo great, that a fkain of each having been in an equal
degree fubjeted to the operation for dyeing fearlet, the
woollen yarn was found to be fully and permanently dyed,
while the cotton retained all its former whitenefs. Yet
thefe faé&ts, important as they were, to the foundation of a
theory of the art of dyeing, were unproduétive in his hands;
for though fatisfied with the explanation they offered of
many phenomena, yet they left, fays he, fo much to be
wifhed for, that he would relinquifh it readily, if a more
probable one could be found. He appears to have had no
idea of the other and more important caufe of the permanency
of colours, that which arifes from the ufe of mordants, or
the interpofition of a fuitable balis, poffeffing a particular
attraction both for the colouring matter and dyed fubitance,
and ating as a bond of union between them. He exa-
mined, with great fagacity, certain procefles, and eftablifhed
the fureft methods that could at that time be employed for
determining the goodnefs of a colour, and this he did in an
eafy and familiar manner. His labours, on the whole, en-
title him to the gratitude of pofterity, and he may juftly lay
claim to the merit of having firft difcovered and enunciated
the facts, and of having drawn fome partial conclufions
from which the true theory of dyeing was fome years af-
terwards clearly and luminoufly deduced. :

He was fucceeded by Hellot, to whom we are indebted
for one of the beft practical treatifes on the art of dyeing
wool and woollen cloths now extant. This work is valu-
able for the accuracy with which the numerous procefies
are defcribed’: without profiting however by the hints
thrown out by his predeceffors, he fuffered himfelf to be
mifled by a vague and groundlefs hypothefis, on the caufe
of the adhefion of the colouring particles to the fubitance
dyed, the aétion of mordants, and the difference between the
true or durable, and falfe or fading dyes. OF his theoreti-
cal ideas, and the principles he laid down, fome judgment
may be formed from the following paffage taken from his
work. ‘I believe it may be laid down as a general piin-
ciple in the art of which I am now treating, that all the
invifible mechanifm of dyeing confifts in dilating the pores
eo the bady to be dyed, in depofiting in them particles of
foreigi matter, and retaining them there by a kind of co-
wering not liable to be affected by water, rain, or the rays
of the fun; ia choofing colouring particles of fuch a degree
of finenefs as to be rendered fufficiently fixed in the pores
of the fluff opened by the heat of boiling water, and again
conftriéted by cold, and alfo coated by the kind of varnifh
which the falts, employed in its preparation, had left in
thofe pores ; whence it follows thet the pores of the fibres
of the wool which has been wrought, or is to be wrought
into cloth, fhould be cleanfed, enlarged, coated over, and
then conftriffed, fo that the colouring particles may be re-
tained in them nearly in the fame manner as the diamond is
retained in the collet of aring.”?_ He fancied that he could
difcern in every dyeing procefs fome means by which ful-
phate of pot-afh, then called vitriolated tartar, might be
formed; and this neutral falt not being readily foluble by
cold water, nor air, nor light, he conceived the whole art

of dyeing to confit in Grit dilating the ve of the fubftance

to be dyed, fo as to prooure a copious admiffion of colour=
ing matter, divided bya fuitable preparation into atoms,
and then wedging or faftening thefe atoms within the pores
of the dyed fubitance, by the fraall particles or cryftals of
this difficultly foluble fait. Upon this mechanical hypothe-
fis, he fuppofed that alum became ufeful in dyeing, not by
the pure clay or alumine which it contains, but by furnifh-
ing fulphuric or vitriolic acid, to affift in forming the ful-
phate of pot-afh, which was to perform the important func-
tion of wedging or faftenmg the colouring atoms. But
though nothing could be more groundlefs than fuch atheory,
the learned in all countries appear to have been fatisfted
with it for a confiderable length of time, it being always
lefs troublefome to believe than to make experiments.—
Macquer followed next. He has given us an exatt defcrip-
tion of the proceffes employed in dyeing filk, and his prac--
tical treatife, publifhed in 1763, is held in deferved eftima-
tion. He has made us acquainted with the combinations of
the colouring principle of Pruffian blue ; he has endeavoured
to make aa application of it to the art of dyeing, and has
given us a procefs for communicating the moft brilliant co-
Jour to filk, by means of cochineal- Macquer intended to
have publifhed a general treatife on the art of dyeing, the
profpectus of which he iffied in the year 1781, but the in-
difpofition which fo long preceded his death, prevented his
engaging mit, and he died in 1784, betore he had been
able to carry into effe€t any part of his plan.
prifing that Macquer, who was an excellent chemift, and
amongft the firft who entertained corre& ideas of the nature
of chemical affinity fhould have been feduced by the hypo-
thefis of Hellot.
on dyeing filk, “ explain the ation of mordants, and unfold

the caufes of durable and fading dyes; but this fubject has .

been treated with fuch fagacity by Mr. Hellot, that I fhall
réfer the reader to him.” Bergmann feems to have been the.

firft who referred the phenomena of dyeing entirely to cheé--.

mical principles. Haying dyed fome wool and filk ina

dilate folution of indigo in fulphuric acid, he explains the -

effets he obferved in the operati
the precipitation occafioned by t particles having a
ftronger attraGlion for the particles of the wool and fitk than-
for thofe of the acidulated water: he remarks, that this
attraction of the wool is fo ftrong as to deprive the liquor
entirely of the colouring particles, but that the weaker at-
traction of the filk can only diminifh the proportion of
thofe particles in the bath ; and he fhews that both the du-

y attributing them to

rability of the colour, and the degree of intenfity itis ca- -
pable of acquiring, depend on thefe different attraCtions. _

This is the true hght in which the phenomena of dyeing,
which are purely chemical, fhould be confidered. Dufay

had advanced thus far, but overlooked the importance of -

his own fimple truths, in the fearch after more recondite
and complicated caufes. But the peculiar ation of mer-

dants was ftill unexplained, except on the wild hypothefis .

of Hellot, till our countryman Mr. Keir, the ingenious

tranflator of Macquer’s Chemical Diéionary, fuggeited, _

“* that in dyeing, the earth of alum was precipitated, and in

this form attached to the material prepared or dyed.” Mac- -
quer foon after adopted the opinions of Bergmann and Keir, |

and in the fecond edition of his diGionary, under the arti-

cle Dyeing, publifhed in 1778, treated the fubje@ in amore -
extended manner, and proved that he had formed juft con- -
ceptions of the nature and ufes of alum, and-of different me- -

tallic folutions, as mordants in dyeing. Berthollet fucceed-
ed next to the place of truft which had been fucceffively held
by Dufay, Hellot, and Macquer, a poft which he has held,
and fill holds, with diftinguifhed honour to himfelf, and

advantage

Tt is fur--

«J fhould now,” fays he in his treatife -

1% type

DYEING,

advantage to his countyy, In a ferics of memoirs, inferted
in the TranfaGtions of the academy, the Annales de Chimie,
and Journal de Phyfique, he has examined various points of
chemical theory connected with the art of dyeing, and al-
mott all his labours have fince been direéted to this object.
In 17915 he publifned his elements of the art of dyeing in
2:vols. 8vo. a work which has contributed more to the pro-
grefs of true theory and the general improvement of the art,
than any other treatife whatever. This work has been tranf-
lated into Englifh by Dr, Hamilton, and afecond edition
of the original, with confiderable additions, appeared in
1803. Every thing which a liberal and enlightened go-
vernment could do for the encouragement and progrefs of
the art, has been done in France, and this folicitude has
been crowned with the fuccefs it merited. Mr. Anderfon
attributes the fuperiority which certain articles of French
manufacture maintain over thofe of other nations, who pof-
fefs the moft beautiful wool, to the perfection of their dyes ;
and Mr. Home is of opinion, that the French are indebted
to the academy of fciences for their fuperiority in many of
the arts, and efpecially that of dyeing. Perhaps another
caufe of the alleged fuperiority of the French over other
nations in the art of dyeing, may be difcovered in the pe-
enliar nature of their manufactures. Silk, of all other fub-
ftances, feems beft adapted to the difplay of fine and bril-
liant dyes, and it conftitutes, in all its various forms, a large
portion of the manufactures of France. We may look,
therefore, to the dye-houfes of Lyons, as well as to the
academy of {ciences, for the caufe of that fuperiority which
is now gradually declining. We have already fpoken of our
countryman Mr. Keir, as the firlt who fuggetted the true
. theory of mordanjs, which was afterwards extended and
improved by Macquer. The worthy prefident of the lite-
rary and philofophical fociety of Manchetter, Mr. Henry,
fome time after, read a paper to the fociety, fince publifhed
inthe 3d volume of their Memoirs, “* On the nature of wool,
filk, and cotton, as objects of the art of dyeing ; on the
various preparations and mordants requifite for thefe different
{ifbftauces, and on the nature and properties, of colouring
matter.”? ‘Uhis paper, which is replete with new and in-
genious views of the nature and objects of dyeing, may be
confidered as among{t the firft attempts in this country to
reduce to fyftem and theory the fubjeé&t of which it treats:
Mr. Henry, in thefe Memoirs, firft pointed out the pecu-
liar nature-of the eluminous mordant of the calico printers ;
he fhewed that by double decompofition an acetite of
alumine was formed, and explained the caufe of its fupe-
riority over the fulphate of alumine, which confifts in the
fubftitution of a volatile vegetable acid in lieu of the
fulphuric.

In the year 1794, Dr. Bancroft publithed his «¢ Experi-
mental Refearches concerning the philofophy of permanent
colours, and the beft means of producing them by dyeing,
calico printing, &¢.’’ which may be confidered as the fit,
and indeed only original work on the fubjeét which this
country has produced. This work, as the title indicates,
is rather an experimental than practical treatife : it contains,
however, much valuable information, which the practical
dyer may apply in many cafes with confiderable advantage,
and is allo ufeful as containing a hiftory of all the different
fubftances of which it treats, and an account of the labours
of Macquer, Dufay, Hellot, Berthollet, and others, in
this field of {cience. It is to be regretted, that the work
is ftill imperfect, the firlt volume only having yet appeared.
The fecond, which was intended to comprehend all the re-
maining adjeétive colours and colouring matters, not treated
of inthe firlt, particularly thofe very interefting ones which

are derived from the tribe of madders, can hardly, after
an interval of fifteen years, be looked for with confidence,

Dr. Bancroft firft pointed out the true aétion of tartar in
the procefs for dyeing fcarlet, and clearly proved that the
nitro-muriate of tin, or any folution of tia alone, produced
a crimfon only ; and that the addition of tartar produced a
{carlet, by the converfion of a portion of the crimfon colour-
ing matter of the cochineal, to a pure yellow. On this ob-
fervation he founded an improvement in the {earlet dye,
which confifted in communicating to the clozh, by means of
quercitron bark, and any fuitable mordant, fuch a fhade of
yellow as would produce, with the crimfon of the cochineal,
a true f{carlet. By this procefs he expected to fave all that
cochineal which he conceived to be expended in the pros
duétion of the yellow: the trials on the large feale, how-
ever, we are informed by Dr, Bancroft, did not juitify the
Sepastanions he had formed, of the importance of the pro-
ces.

A more important and lafting fervice, however, he‘ has
rendered to the art of dycing, by the introduction of the
quercitron bark, a drug which is now become of fuch ge-
neral and acknowledged utility, as to fuperfede almoft every
other kind of yellow colouring matter whatever. For the
hiftory of this{ubftance, and other particulars refpeCing its
introduction, we mutt refer to the article itfelf, under the
head Quercivron Bark.

Though we have to record no brilliant difcoveries or im=
provements in the practice of dyeing, within thefe ‘few
years, yet the art has continued progreffively to improve,
the different proceffes have been fimplified and amended;
and what fome years ago was confidered a matter of chance
and uncertainty, is now reduced to fixed principles.

The dyeing of Turkey red is now fully underftood and
practifed in this country, with a fuccefs at leaft equal to
that of any other. The procefs has, with fome modifica-
tions, been applied lately to the dyeing of piece goods, and
the red thus produced furpaffes in beauty and durability, all
other colours which it is poffible to fix on cotton. But it
1s not our intention here to enter into hiftory of all the
minor improvements that have been made in the art of dye-
ing ; they will be treated of at large, during the progrefs
of the work, under their refpeétive heads,

Dyeine, the Laws relating to, are as follow: Dyers fhall
dye both the cloth and the lilt, or forfeit it. 1 R. IIL. cap. 4.
No dyer may dye any cloth with archil, or with brazil, to
make a falfe colourin cloth or wool, &c. on pain of twenty
fhillings, Stat. 3 & 4 Edw. VI. cap. 2. Dyers are to fix
a ieal of lead to cloths, with the letter AZ, to (hew that they
are well maddered, &c. or forfeit three fhillings and four-
pence ; and not to ufe log wood in dyeing on pain of forfeiting
twenty pounds, Stat. 23 Eliz. cap. 9, And penalties are
infl:éted on dyers, who dye any cloths deceitfully, and not
being dyed throughout with woad, indigo, and madder 3 allo
marks fhall be put to the cloth dyed, &c, Dyers in London
are fubject to the infpection of the Dyers’ company, who
may appoint fearchers; and out of their limits, juitices of
peace in {cflions to appoint them: oppofing the fearchers
incurs ten pounds penalty, by ftat. 13 Geo. I.c, 2

Dyetna, in a more extenfive fenfe, is applied to all kinds
of colourings given to bodies of any fort.

_ In which fenfe, dyeing amounts to the fame with colora-
tions and includes ftaining, painting, gilding, matbling,
printing, &c, ‘The Chinefe are faid to praétile the dyeing
of tea with catechu, which gives the worlt forts of green
tea leaf the colour, and its infufion the tinSure of bohea.
Short, Differt. on ‘ea, pref. p. 15. See Tea and Cares

CHU, elit
The

Diy E

The forts of dyeing now commonly ufed in vulgar trades,
are 1. Whitening of wax, and feveral forts of linen, and
cotton cloths, by the fun, air, and reciprocal effufions of
water. See BLEACKING. 2. Staining of wood and leather
by line, falt, and liquors, as in ftaves, canes, marble, lea-
thers, marquetry, &c. 3. Marbling of paper by tempering
the colours with ox-gall, and applying them upon a ftiff-
gummed liquor. See Farer. 4. Colouring, or rather
difcolouring filks, tiffanies, &c. by brimttone, 5. Colour-
ing feveral iron and copper works into black with oil. 6,
Giving leather a gold colour, or rather dyeing filver-leaves
like gold, by varnifhes; and in other cafes by urine and
fulphur. 7. Staining of marble and alabafter, with heat,
and coloured oils. 8 Tinging filver into brafs with brim-
ftone or urine. g. Colouring the barrels and locks of guns
blue and purple with the temper of f{mall-coal heat. fo.
Colouring glafs cryftals, and earthen-ware with the rults
and folutions of metals. See Portery, &c. 11. Co-
louring live hair, as in Poland, both horfe and man’s hair ;
and alfo of furs. 12. Enamelling and annealing. See Ena-
MELLING. 13. Application of colours, as in the print-
ing of books and pictures; and the making of playing cards,
japanning, &c. See Printinc, Carns, and JAaPanninc.
14. Gilding and tioning with mercury, block tin, and fal
ammoniac. See Gitpinc and Tinninc. 15. Colouring
metals, a3 copper with calamine into brals, and with
zinc or falt-petre into falfe gold, or into falfe filver with ar-
fenic. See Caxvamine, Brass, Zinc, Arsenic, &ce,
16. Making painters’ colours, by preparing of earth, chalk,
and flates, as in umber, oker, Cologn earth, &c. out of the
calces of lead, as cerufs and minium; by fublimates of mer-
cury and brimftone, as in vermillion; by tinging of white
earths varioufly, as in verditer, and fome of the lakes; by
concrete juices or fculz, as in indigo, pinks, fap-green,
and lakes: and by rufts, as in verdigris, &c. See Ceruss,
Minium, Vermixiion, Ixpico, &c. 17. The applying
of thefe colours by the adhefion of ox-gall, asin the marbled
paper aforefaid ; or by gum-water, as in limning : or clammy
drying oils, as the oils of linfeed, nuts, fpike, turpentine, &c.
See Painrinc, Limninc, &c. 15. Watering of tabbies.
See Warerinc, Cacenver, Taspy, &c. Petty. Appar.
Hitt. of Dyeing, ap Sprat.

Glafs dyed is the common matter of artificial jewels: the
tinGtures are given with zaffer, manganete, feretto, crocus
martis, &c. ‘The proceffes are defcribed at length in Anto-
nio Neri, de Re Vitrario, lib. i. cap. 12, 13, 14, feq. See
Guass, Gem, &c.

The Peruvian women, when grown old, dye their grey
hairs black by a very untoward operation, viz. holding the
head fome hours with the hair fopped in a boiling tinéture
ofthe root of a tree called cuchau, by the Spaniards maquey.

Dyetne of Hats, is done by boiling a hundred pounds of
logwood, twelve pounds of gum, and fix pounds of galls, in
a proper quantity of water for fome hours; after which
about fix pounds of verdigris, and ten pounds of green vi-
triol are added, and the liquor kept fimmering, or of a heat
a little below boiling. ‘Ten or twelve dozen of hats are im-
mediately put in, each on its block, and kept down by crofs
bars for about an hour and an half; they are then taken
out and aired, and the fame number of others put in their
room; the two fets of hats are then dipped and aired alter-
nately, eight times each ; the liquor being refrefhed each
time with more of the ingredients, but in lefs quantity than
at firft. This procefs affords a very good black on woollen
and filk ftuffs as well as on hats. Com. Phil. Tech. p. 428.
See Har.

Dyaine, or flaining of -wood, for inlaying, veneering, Sc.

Bey

Red is done by boiling the wood in water and alum; then
taking it out, adding brazil to’ the liquor; and giving the
wood another boil in it. Black, by brufhing it over with
logwood boiled in vinegar, hot ; then wafhing it over with
a decoGtion of gails and copperas, till it be of the hue re-
quired, Any other colour may be given by fqueczing out
the moifture of horfe-dung through a fieve, mixing it with
diffolved roch alum, and gum-arabic; and to the whole
adding green, blue, or any other colour defigned. After
ftanding two or three days, pear-tree, or other wood, cut to
the thicknefs of half a crown, is put into the liquor boiling
hot, and fuffered to remain till it be fufficiently coloured,
Park. Treat. of Japan. chap. xxvii. p. 82.

Dreine of bone, horn, or ivory. Black is performed by
fteeping brafs in aqua fortis till it be turned green; with
this the bone, &c. is to be wafhed once or twice; and then
put in a decoGtion of logwvod and water, warm. Green is
begun by boiling the bone, &c. in alum-water ; then with
verdigris, fal ammoniac, and white wine vinegar ; keeping it
hot therein till fufficiently green. ed, is begun by boiling
it in alum-water, and finifhed by decoétion in a liquor com-
pounded of quicklime fteeped in rain-water, ftrained, and to
every pint an ounce of brazil wood added: the bone, &c. to
be boiled therein till fufficiently red. Other methods are given
by Salmon. And from him by Houghton. Park. lib. cit.
p: 83. Salm, Polygraph. lib. ii, cap. 35. p.275. Hought.
Colle. N° 138. tom. i. p. 361. See Bones, Horn,
Ivory, &c. The refufe of the Bow-dye, given to hogs to
feed on, is faid to tinge their very bones red.

Dyeine of Leather. See Learner.

Dyeine of marble and flones. See STAtninG.

Dyeine of Thread. See Tureap. «+

DYER, Sir James, in Biography, was born about the
year 1511, and received his academical education at Oxford,
whence he removed to the Middle Temple, with a view of
fludying the law, where he diftinguifhed himfelf for his affi-
duity and talents. He aéted fome years as a barrifter, and,
in 1552, he was, by the king’s writ, called to the degree of
a ferjeant at law, and, in the fame year, was elected {peaker
of the houfe of commons. He rofe to the office of chief
juftice of the common pleas, an office which he held upwards
of 20 years, with a high character for integrity and ability.
He poffeffed a remarkably placid and even temper; and on
the trial of Sir John Throckmorton, he fcorned to take the
fame fort of liberties with the prifoner which were taken by
the other counfel, Mr. ferjeant Standford. He died in 1581,
at his eftate of Howton, in Huntingdonhhire, leaving behind
him a * Book of Reports” in folio, containing cafes and
decifions occurring in the reigns of Henry VIII., Ed-
ward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth; this work is very highly
efteemed for its concifenefs and folidity, and has been feveral
times reprinted. He was author of * A Reading upon
Statute 32 Henry VII1., c, 1., of Wills, and upon two
others for its Explanation.”? By the fervices which he ren-
dered his country, as well by his official duties as by his
works, he obtained the reputation of being a moft up-
right judge and excellent interpreter of the laws. Biog.
Brit.

Dyer, Joun, was born in Carmarthenfhire in 1700, but
was educated at Weftminfter f{chool. He was intended by
his father, who was an eminent folicitor, for the fame pro-
feffion as he had long followed himfelf ; but the young man
felt a repugnance to the law, and, on the death of his parent,
determined upon painting as a profeffion, and became a pu-
pil to Mr. Richardfon. In this he never greatly excelled,
nor perhaps rofe higher than an itinerant artift. His mind
feems to have been more inclined to poetry, and in 1727 he

7 made

DYK

made himfelf known by his ‘* Grongar Hill,” which became
very popular, ‘and has been admitted in many colleétions,
After the publication of this piece Mr. Dyer travelled to
Italy, by way of improvement as a landfcape painter; but
his acquirements in this journey were of more importance to
him as a poet than a painter. In the year 1740, he dif-
played his tafte, and the augmentation of his poetical images,
by the publication entitled “‘ The Ruinsof Rome.’’ ‘The
title of this work,” according to Dr. Jobhnfon, “ raifes
greater expedtation than the performance gratifies.”’ Buta
more candid critic fays, ‘* Ic contains many paffages truly
poetical, and the ftrain of moral and political reflection is
that ef a benevolent and enlightened \mind.”? After this
Mr. Dyer took orders, was married, and went to refide
in Leicefterfhire, where he had a {mall living ; this he ex-
changed for one in Lincolnfhire, to which another was
foon added. The county, however, he foon found to be ill
fuited to his conftitution, which had ever been delicate. In
1757 he publifhed his ‘¢ Fleece,”’ a dida&tic poem, of which
the theme is the care of fheep, the labours of the loom, and
the arts of trade. The firft part is paftoral, the fecond me-
_ehanical, and the third hiftorical and geographical. The
poem has been often publifhed, and yet it has not been one of
our popular poems ; there are, notwithftanding, in it many
pleafing, and fome grand and truly impreflive paflages.
Mr. Dyer did not furvive this publication many months: he
died in 1758, and, in the year 1761, his works were colleGed
and publifhed in one volume o¢tavo. He lived highly re-
{peGted, and at his death, ieft the reputation of a good poet,
and the charaGter of an honeft, humane, and good man.
Biog. Brit.

Dyer’s Black. See Brack.

Dyer’s Blue. See Brive.

‘ Dyer’s Broom, the name of a fpecies of Genifla; which
ee. ;

Dyer’s Green. See Green.

Dyer’s Jfland, in Geography, a {mall ifland of America,
in Narraganfett bay.

Dyer’s Weed, in Botany, the luteola of Tournefort, and
a fpecies of the refeda in the Linnzan fyftem. For the
generic characters, fee Resepa.

It grows in moft parts ot the world. The Greeks, of
old, ufed it in dyeing yellow, as we do at this time, and called
it cymene, and fometimes thapfia, the word fignifying, with
them, feveral different things which had the property of
dyeing yellow. It was called alfo by fome robia, or rubia;
but thofe who gave it this name have always diltinguifhed it
by fome peculiar epithet from the common rubia, or mad-
der. Paulus 2gineta mentions it as an herb ufed in dyeing
cloths ; and Neophytus, and feveral others, give it a place
among the things ufed to tinge the hair. See Wexp.

Dyer’s Yellow. See YELtow.

DYHRENFURT, in Geography, a {mall town of the
kingdom of Pruffia, in the duchy of Silefia, on the river
Oder, anciently called Prig.

DYKE, in Mineralogy. This term feems to have origi-
nated among the collieries of the north of England and of
Scotland, where it was and is ftill employed to denote thofe
banks of ‘bafalt (locally named whin) by which the coal
ftrata are frequently divided. The breadth of a dyke va-
ries from a few feet to many yards, and its length and depth

_ are generally of great but unknown extent: its dire€tion ia
nearly vertical, forming with the plane of the ftrata that it
paffes through, an angle approaching, more or lefs, to go
degrees. ; ;'

By the Scottifh mineralogifts, the term dyke is employed
as fignifying a vein, compofed of any compact earthy mi-
neral ; and in this fenfe is often made ufe of in the contro-

DYL
verfial publications, wherein the Hut*onian theory is attacked
or defended. At prefent, however, the term feems, in a
good meafure, fuperfeded by the more general one of
vein.

Dyke, Ofa’s, or Clawdh Offa, a famous dyke, con-
firu€ted by Offa the great king of Mercia, towards the
clofe of the eighth century, about A. D. 780; and intend-
ed either to mark the boundaries between a colony of
Saxons whom he planted in tue level country between the
Severn and the Wye, and the Welfh whom he had driven
out of it, orto defend the former from the hoftile incurfions
of the latter. This dyke extended from north to fouth,
about go miles, running along the fides and bottoms of the
hills, from the mouth of the river Dee to that of the Wye
near Chepftow. It is thought to have been an imitation of
the ramparts thrown up by Agricola, Adrian, and Severus,
to guard the Roman province againft the incurfions of the
northern barbarians ; but from fome remains of it, which
are fill to be feen, and for other reafons, lord Lyttelton
(Hift, Hen. TI. vol. ii.) concludes, that it was rather in-
tended for a boundary, to feparate the territories of the
Englifh from thofe of the Welfh, than to proteét the for-
mer, as a fortification. Whatever the intent of fo vaft a
work may have been, it was probably at this period, that
the larger towns and cities, fituated to the eaft of the Se-
vern and Dee, were built, for the purpofe of checking the
irruptions of the Welth by a ftrong line of frontier polts.
The villages likewife, on the eaft fide of Clawdh Offa,
whofe names terminate in ton or ham, were about this time
inhabited by Saxons, who were ufually called “ Gwyr-y-
Mars,” or the men of Mercia; though in after-times the
Welth fettled on each fide of the dyke. During an interval
of peace, Offa finifhed this dyke ; but the Welfh were not
infenfible of the difhonour and injury done to their country.
Accordingly they fecretly concerted the plan of its de-
ftruétion, and having fettled a previons agreement with the
kings of Northumberland, and of the South-Saxons, with
whom they were then in alliance, they fuddenly befet Clawdh
Offa, in the night of St, Stephen’s day, the night itfelf be-
ing extremely dark ; and affiited alfo by the country people,
they broke down the rampart, and in a fhort time, filled up
and levelled the dyke to the length ofa bow-fhor. Early in
the morning they aflailed the camp of king Offa, and flew
great numbers of his foldiers ; who, depending on the time,
were either afleep or unarmed, or had given themfelves up to
pleafure, or to the religious obfervance of the fettival. The
labour and charge of this dyke were much greater than the
benefit ; for foon after Mffa’s death, the Welfh again cxtended
their dominions beyond that dyke, forcing their way, like a
rapid torrent, which defcends from the mountains, and over-
flows the plain country. We fhall only add, that the limits
of the Welfh from that time, were very uncertain; being
often advanced, or fet back, as the fortune of war happened
to change, in favour of them or of the Saxons.

Dyxe-Reeve, a bailiff, or officer, that has tbe care and
overfight of the dykes and drains in deepening fens, &c. We
find mention made of this officer ann. 16 & 17 Car. II. cap. 11.
See. Dike,

DYLE, in Geography, a river of France, which gives its
nameto the laft of the thirteen departments of the firft
region of France, called the region of the countries added
to France by the peace of Luneville (des pays réunis.) It has
its fource in a {mall {pring near Marbais, paflesby Wavre,
Lovvain, and Malines. On coming from the latter, it takcs
up the Senne and the two Nethes near Rumpel, and flows
not far from this place into the river Rupel. Formerly boats
ufed to be towed on the Dyle from Wavre to Louvain.

Merchant veflels, however, come up a8 far as Malines ei
the

a) “YM

the Scheldt, by means of the tides which flow regularly
twice a day.

Dye, the department of the, isthe thirteenth department
of the firft region called ja région des pays réunis in France.
Bruffels isits chief city. It is formed of part of the duchy
of Brabant, and owes its name to the river Dyle, by which
it is irrigated.

The limits of the department of the Dyle, are on the
north, the department of the two Nethes; on the eaift, the
departments of the Lower Meufe and of the Ourthe; on the
. fouth, thofe of Sambre and Meufe and of Jemmapes; and

on the welt, that of the Efcaut, (Scheldt.)

Its principal rivers are the Dyle, the Demer, and the
- Senne; it has alfo two fine canals, that of Louvain and that
of Bruflels. The foil is uncommonly rich and fertile. Agri-
culture in all its branches, grazing, the rearing of cattle,
the bufinefs of the dairy, and horticulture, are extremely
flourifhing and well underftood. ‘The management of fheep,
however, is rather negleéted, but great attention is paid to
bees. Mineral produétions are fcarce;.there is a little iron.
The quarries yield fome very good white free-ftones, and
» fome blue, which are a kind of marble, befides grind-ftones,
anda fort of {mall granite, which makes good roads and
keeps them in excellent repair.

There is hardly any manufacture but what flourifhes in
. the department of the Dyle, and every one in the higheft
ftate of perfe&tion. Its trade is in proportion to its abund-
ance of raw and manufaétured productions. Induftry is
every where exerted in the higheft degree, of which it ap-
. pears capable.

Thetmoft confiderable towns,next to Broffels,are Louvain,
Tirlemont, Niveiles, Dieft, Wavre,and Halle. The whole
territorial extent of the department of the Dyle, is 3137
» fquare kiliometres anda half, or 671,746 arpens, 95,704 of

which are covered with forefts. “The popu'ation amounts to
363,956 individuals, or about 1978 inhabitants upon a
-Aquareleague. ‘Their average contribution to the expences
of the {tate is about tos. per head annually. The depart-

_ ment is divided into three diftriéts, Bruffels, Louvain, and -

Nivelles, 30 cantons, and 388 communes.

-DYMA, or Dyme, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Peloponnefus in Achaia, W. of Olené, and at the
bottom of a fmall gulph, having to the north-weft the pro-

_montory Araxum. ‘This town was more anciently called
Palea according to Paufanias, and Strabo fays, that it was
alfo called Stratos. Polybius, when he is ftating the influ-
ence which the Lacedemonians and the king of Macedonia
had onthe affairs of Greece, particularly after the death of
Alexander, adds, that in the 124th olympiad, 284 B.C.
Dyme and Patras, were two of the firft cities which united to
fhake -off the foreign yoke; afterwards, however, as we
learn from Paufanias, it was the only city of thofe belonging
to the Achzans, which took the part of Philip, fon of De-
metrius, when the Romans declared their oppofition to him.
‘This they honourably did by way of acknowledging the
kindnefs of this prince for recovering and re-eftabhifhing in
their city thofe of its inhabitants, whom the Romans had
made prifoners. But Sulpicius, who commanded the
Roman army, devoted this city to plunder after he had taken
it. In the time of the piratical war, Pompey placed here a
number of thofe pirates, of whomhe had cleared the fea
on thecoaftof Cilicia. Auguftus fubjefted Dyme ‘to the

_ dominion of Patras; the vicinity of this city was famous for
feveral engagements, and particularly for that which ter-
minated in the entire defeat of the Achzans by the La-
cedzmonians, under the condu& of Cleomenes in the year
227 B.C.

Strahan and Prefton,
New Street Square, London,

DYN

Dyma, or Dyme, a town of ‘Thrace, feated on the
ealtern bank of the river Hebrus, at fome diftance from the
fea; called by Ptolemy, andin the Itinerary of Antonine,
Dimi.

DYNA, in Commerce, a kind of Eaft Indian coin, worth
about thirty fhillings of Englifh money.

DYNAMICS (from ‘Suzi, power) is the f{cience of
moving powers ; or of the a¢tion of forces on folid bodies,
when the refult of that ation is motion. Mechanics, in its
moft extenfive meaning, is the {cience which treats of quantity,
of extenfion, and of motion. Now that branch of it which
confiders the, ftate of folids at reft, fuck as their equili-
brium, their weight, their preffure, &c. is called fatics ;
and that which treats of their notion, 1s called dynamics,
When fluids are confidered, inftead of folids, then that
branch of mechanics which treats of their equilibrium,
weight, &c. is called Hydroflatics, and that which treats of
their motion, is called Hydrodynamics.

An extenfive and varied ficld of ftri&t inveftigation, and of
fpeculative difenffion, falls under the denomination of dyna-
mics. Various difficult queltions are naturally conneéted
with the more evident propofitions refpeGting vifible effets 5
and if inftead of our remaining fatisfied with fats, we en-
ceavour toreafon upon the nature of their primitive origin,
the long and laborious inveftigation is feldom attended with
any ufeful or fatisfa@ory refults. In our prefent ftatement
of thisfcience, we fhall endeavour to explain the neceflary
definitions, fo far as to render our meaning unequivocal in the
following pages ; and we {hall arrange the general principles
with as much additional illuftration as the nature of the fub-
je may feem ta demand; but we fhall avoid, asmuch asit
may appear practicable, the difcuffion of abftrufe and {pecu-
lative particulars.

Maiter denotes in general the fubftance of which bodies
are formed. Thus a man,a f{tone, a tree, &c. are all formed
of matter. But we donot meanto aflert, that the matter
which forms the man, the lone, the tree, or any other body,
is, oris not, all originally of the fame kind; for we ate pers
fetly ignorant of its original nature.

Volume, bulk, or magnitude, denotes the fize of a body
with refpe& to the {pace it occupies. Thus the bulk of a
full grows-man is greater than that of a new-born child.
The butk of a ball of two inches in diameter, is eight times
as great as that of a ball of one inch in diameter, and fo
forth.

Denfity means the proportional quantity of matter which
is contained under a given extenfion; and we judge of this
quantity of matter by its weight. Thus, a cubicinch of
mercury weighs about 134 times as muchas a cubic inch of
water; therefore we fay that the denfity of mercury is to
the denfity of water as 134 to one.

Ma/fs denotes, at the fame time, the bulk and the denfity
of a body, viz. is the produ@ of the bulk: multiplied by
the denfity. ‘Thus, in the inflance of the preceding para-
graph, the mafs of a cubic inchof mercury is to the mafs of
a cubic inch of water, as 134to one; the mafs of two cubic
inches of mercury is double the mafs of one cubic inch of
the fame fluid metal ;"butis equal to 27 times the mafs of
one cubic inch of water; for itis evident, that if one cubic
inch of mercury contains 134 times as much weight as one
cubic inch of water, two cubic inches of mercury muft con-
tain twice 134 times; orin general, that the mafs is equal
to the denfity multiplied by the bulk.

Motion is a continual and fucceffive change of place. It
is diftinguifhed into ab/o/ute and relative, according as the
motion is performed in abfolute or in relative fpace. Thue,
if afhip could remain immoveable in the univerfe, a man
fitting in a part of it, would be abfolutely at reft; but if the

fhip

DYNAMICS.

fhip be in motion whilft the man continues fitting ; then this
man will be abfolutely in motion with refpe@ tothe univerfe;
but relatively at reft with refpeét to the parts of the fhip. If
you fuppofe, that the fhip moves equably forward over a dif-
tance equal to itslength, and that at the fame time the man
in his chair isdrawn from the fore to the back part of the
fhip, with the fame equable motion ; then the man will be in
motion relatively to the parts of the fhip; yet he would
remain in the fame abfolute place. }

Equable motion is that which paffes over equal portions of
extenfion, or of {pace, in equal portions of time. :

Accelerated, and retarded motion, is when.equal portions of
extenfion are paffed over in portions of time either {ucceflively
fmaller or fucceffively larger. Thus, if a body in motion
paffes over the firft yard of extention in one hour, the fecond
yard in 50 minutes, the third in 40 minutes, and fo on;
then its motion is faid to be accelerated. But ifa body
paffes over the firft yard in one hour, the fecond in one hour
and a quarter, the third in one hour and a half, &c. then
its motion is faid to be retarded.

Velocity is the ratio of the quantity of lineal extenfion that
has been run over in a certain portion of time; or it is the
ratio of the time that has been employed in moving along a

terminate extenfion. For inftance, if a body A-has moved
along an extenfion of ten miles in one hour, and another body
B has moved along an extenfion of one mile in the fame time,
viz. in one hour; then the velocity of A is faid to be to the
velocity of Biastentoone. Alfo, if the body A has moved’
along the diftance of one mile id four minvtes, and the body
B has moved along the fame diftance in two minutes, then
the velocity of B isto the velocity of A, as two to one,
When both the times.and the {paces are unequal, then the
velocity is equal to the quotient of the {pace divided by the
time ; it being evident, that if a body paffes over two miles
in on€ minute, or four miles intwo minutes, or ten miles in
five minutes, the velocity is con{tantly the fame; and, there-
fore, in order to reduce thefe expreffions to unity, we mutt
divide the 4. miles by 2 minutes, or the 1o-miles by 5 minutes,
andthe quotient is always the fame, viz. 2; meaning two
miles per minute. But if the body pafles over the ten miles
in two minutes, then the velocity, when reduced to unity
by dividing the 10 miles by two minutes, is 5, meaning five
miles per minute. Hence, univerfally, the velocity is repre-
fented by, oris equal to, the quotient of the {pace divided
bythe time. ‘Thus, if a.body A: paffes over four miles in
JO.minutes, and another body B: paffes over 12 miles in 18
minutes ; then the velocity of A isto the velocity of B, as
xs tO 175 Oras O.4 to 0,666, &c. In this initance, we
have taken a minute for the unit of time; but any. other
portion of time, fuch asan hour,.or a fecond, &¢. may.be
confidered as the unit ;. but then in the fame computation,
the fame portion of time mult be conitantly, confidered as
fhe unit. In moft mechanical computations,.a {ccond:is
ufually taken for the unit.

A force is that which caufes a change ia the flate of a
body, be it of reft or of motion. Of the. nature of forces
we know nothing. Their effeéts alone come withia our
knowledge, and it is from the quantity of thefe effeas, that
we meafure forces.. Thus, if a body is fet in motion by the
ation of a certain force, and is enabled by it to.move with
a certain velocity, and another equal body is fet in motion
by another force, which enables it to.move with the double
of the above-mentioned velocity;.then we fay, that the.

former force is to the latter as one to two; or that the latter.

is double the former.

Some authors are of opinion, that a quadruple force is re-
Guired to produce a double velocity, and they alledge cer-
Vou. XII.

Serahan an? Prefion ,

tain fats which feem to corroborate their opinion; but we
fhall in the fequel mention an argument which to us feems
conclufive in favour of the above-mentioned ftatement.. It
is evident, that if the maffes are unequal, and the velocities
which have been produced by the attion of certain forces,
are equal, then the forces muft be as the maffles; confe-
quently when both the maffes and the velocities are unequal,
then the forces are as the produdts of the majfcs multiplied
by their refpeGive velocities.

The momentum, or quantity of motion, ig the force of a body
in motion, and is equivalent to the impreffion which it would
make on another body: that fhould be placed:at reft juft
befcre it. Therefore, according to the definition of forces,
the momentum is equivalent to the produ of the mafs of
the body multiplied by: the velocity ; hence forces are equiva-
lent to, or are meafured by, the momentum, or quantity of
motion, they are capable of producing.. From. this ftate-
ment then it follows, that if we put Q forthe mafs or quan-
lity of matter, M for the momentum, and ¥ for the velocity,

v
M« Q V, and V o&—, or in other words, the mafs is as

the following proportions will ftand good, viz. Q x

the momentum divided by the velocity, the momentum is
as the mafs multiplied by the velocity, and the velocity is
as the momentum divided by the mafs..

Forces have been ufually-confidered as being of two {pecies,
and thefe effentially different from each other:. They have
been called preffures and impul/es. Whatever aéts upon a
body fo as to put it in motion, and, by the continuance of
the a€tion,.accelerates-that motion, has been.called a preffurc,
or preffive force ; and the force of gravity, which, by ¢onitantiy
acting upon defcending bodies continually accelerates their
velocity, is of this kind.

An inpulfe or impulfrve force, is that which a&s,inftan-
taneoufly upon a body (according to our perception) and
then leaves the body without any farther folicitations ;: and
fuch is the ftroke of a hammer, or in generai of one body
ftriking againit another body. Thusa bali in motion {trikes
againft another ball at rett, and puts it im motion. The
latter, having received the {troke, proceeds by itfelf; and its
velocity will be uniform: as long as it does not meet. with
obitrudtions,

The reafons which feem to prove that an.impulfive force is
infinitely greater than a preffure, orthat the one is not capable
of comparifon with the other, are derived from the effects. For
inftance, a man with the moderate itroke of a hammer can
drive a nail into a plank,.when a weight of feveral hundreds
gently laid upon the head of the nail will not produce the
fame effe&. A pebble, hkewife, which would fupport an
immenfe weight, is ealily broken by the ttroke ot another
pebble,.or ofa hammer. This difference of cffetis has given
rife toa variety of conjeCtures, of explanations, and of contro=:
verfier, which towards the commencement ofthe laft century
filled up many volumes, and employed the thoughts of the
mott able philofophers-and mathematicians. (See Rerd’s
Effay on Quantity. in the Phil.. Tranf.. vol. xiv. and Dr.
Irwin’s inquiry into the meafure of the force of bodies iu
motion, Phil. Tranf. for 1745.). Yet upon-a due exami-
nation of the facts, and of the reafonings which have been
grounded upon thofe facts, it does: not-appear, that the gra-
dual communication of motion by a preffure,.and the
inftantaneous communication of it by-an impulle, are clearly
proved to be effentially different.in their natere. Perhaps
an impulfe may be confidered as a powerful.preflure ating
for a very fhort time, and a preffure may be confidered as-as
weak impulfe- repeated at-iofinitely {mall portions of time.
But let the real ftate of the cafe be as it may, we fhall,

3D agreeably

DYNAMICS.

agreeably to our plan, omit any farther confideration re-
{pecting the nature of forees ; acknowledging to notice
merely their effc cts,

In the examination of thefe effets, it becomes neceffary
to {tate, to examine, and to explain, the various motions that
take place among !t the works both of nature and of art 5 the
general laws to which they are reconcileable; the peculiarities
by which they are dilcriminated from each other, and m con-
fequence of which they are arranged under diftin@ denomi-
nations; and lattly, the application of the fame to various
ufeful purpofes. The fubject is vaft and intricate; but fince
zccording to the nature of our work, every particular branch
of motion mult be explained under the article of its peculiar
appellation; there remains very little more for us to arrange
in the prefent article, then an enumeration of the various
fpecies of motion, a ftatement of their definitions, .or of the
peculiarities by which they are cifcrimiated from each other,
and that mutual dependence which evidently feems to re-
gulate the whole doétrine of motion. We fhall, at the fame
time, refer the reader to other articles for a more ample and
fatisfatory explanation refpe@ing each particular kind of
motion.

For the fake of perfpicuity, the examination of the various
movements of bodies, has been ufually arranged under the
follcwing heads :

-I. Uniform re&tilinear motion, with what is commonly
called the compofition and refolution ot forces.

2. Collifion, both direct and oblique.

3. Metions arifing from the ations of central forces.

_4. Motions ariling from tke joint aétions of a central
and an impulfive force ; viz. of a preflure and of an
impulfe.

5. Projectiles.

6. Defcent of bodies along inclined planes.

7. Vibrations of pendulums.

8. Curve of {wifteft defcent.

Rotation of bodies about fixed axes.

Centres of ofcillation, of percuffion, of gyration, &c.

Movements of machines.

10.
if.

Each of thefe fpecies of motion has certain peculiarities
by which it is difcriminated from the reft, or rather that
vender a feparate examination of whatever belongs to it,
more conducive to perfpicuity. But there are certain rules,
laws, or affeétions, which belong to them all, and which we
fhall now ftate. ‘They are three in number, and are com-
monly known by the denomination of fir Ifaac Newton’s
Jaws of motion.

Firft Law. Every body will remain either in a ftate of
reft, or of uniform motion ina ftraight line ; unlefs it be com-
pelled to change that ftate by forces imprefled.

Second Law. The change cf moucn is always propor-
tionate to the moving force imprefled, and 1s always made
in the direGtion of the right line in which that force is im-
prefled.

Third Law. Aé€ion and re-aétion are always equal and
contrary to cach other. Or the mutual actions of two bodies
upon each other, are always equal and diretted contrary ways.

Thefe laws have been eftablifhed by all the faéts which
have been hitherto obferved, and by the ftri¢teft reafoning
of the moft enlightened philofophers. A careful examina-
tion of the particulars will eafily manifeft the evidence and
the extent of thefe laws ; which at firft fighs may perhaps
not be eafily comprehended. In order to affilt the elucida-
tion of the fame, we fhall add a fhort explanation of thofe
parts at lealt, which are more likely to create any difficulty.

That a body at reft fhould continue in that fituation, un-

lefs it be put in motion by fome force or forces, no perfon .
wil be inclined to-deny, it being an idea naturally fugzelted
by the refult of common occurrences. But that a body
once put in motion, and nut afterwards driven by any other
force, or oppofed by any obttacle, fhou.d continue to move on
in a ftraight line for ever after 1s not eafily believed ; confi-
dering that all the movements, however rapid, which fall un-
der our obfervation on the furface of the earth, prefently ter-
minate in reft. This apparent difficulty, however, will be
ealfily removed by confidering that all the movements
which fell under our obfervation near the furface of the
earth, are performed under the influence of other forces ; the
principal of which are the force of gravity, and the refilt-
ance of the air, in which the whole earth and all its feparute
bodies are involved ; the former of which forces continualiy
draws bodies towards the centre of the earth, whiikk the
latter obftruéts all forts of motion. So that a body fet in
motion by any impulfive force ; for inftance, a bullet thrown
horizontally by the difcharge of a gun, would continue to
move uniformly in a ftraight line for ever after, were it not
drawn downwards by the force of gravity, which, combined
with the impulfive force, would oblige it to defcribe a parti-
cular curve, which is very nearly a parabola; but the re-
fiftance of the atmofphere, which continually obflruéts it,
forces it to defcribe another fort of curve, the nature of
which is extremely intricate. Therefore it appears that
the motion of the bullet, thus impelled by a gun, falls
under the condition of the'fecond part of the firft law of
motion ; vz. it is compelled to change its {tate of uniform
reCtilinear motion, by the force of gravity, and by the pref-
fure of an obftructing medium.

Bat notwithitanding thefe evident caufes of deviation
from the dire€ion of the original impulfe, it may {till be
fuppofed, that without them, the bullet would have con-
tinued its motion only fome time longer ; but that it would
ultimately terminate in reft. The an{wer to this is, that as
far as obfervations and calculations can reach, the deviation
of the bullet from its original motion, or of any other body
fet in motion by an impulfive force, is always proportional
to the obftruéting caufe, or caufes; whence it neceflarily
follows, that when the ob{ftruéting caufe vanifhes, or becomes
zero, the deviation of the original motion in the abovemen-
tioned cafes mutt likewife vanith.

Several ufeful confequences are naturally deduced from
the foregoing illuftration. Thus, whenever we fee a body
in motion, we mutt conclude that it has been put in motion
by an adequate force. If the direGlion, and the velocity
of that motion be altered, we muft conclude that its altera-
tion has been occafioned by the aGion of other forces. If
the movement continues without any vifible alteration, or
if its velocity be increafed, we muft fuppofe, that the body
is continually urged by a preffing force; for otherwife it
would not, even for a moment, remain uninterrupted in a re=
fitting medium, and under the influence of other exifting
forces,

With refped to the fecond law of motion, it is only necef-
fary to obferve, that though it be expreffed as if we were ac-
quainted with the nature of the force which produces the
change of motion; yet the real meaning is, that we only con-
fider the changes of motion as the meafures of the torces
which occafion thofe changes ; and we confider the direétion
of the change as the indication of the dire¢tion of the force.

The third law of motion, namely, that ation and re-
ation are always equal and contrary to each other, will be
eafily aflented to, if the leaft attention be paid to common
occurrences. A weight faftened toa horfe by means of a
rope, and thus dragged over the ground, produces a hig =

ich’

DYNAMICS.

which muft be overcome by the fuperior power of the horfe ;
for the ftone refilts in a direGtion contrary to that of the horfe.
ifa ftone be thrown againt a glafs, ora glafs be thrown
again a ftone, the ftroke will be equally felt by both bodies ;
yet the glafs will be broken by it, and the ftone will not,
becaufe the fame ftroke is fufficient to break the continuity
of the former, and not of the latter. When a boat is moved
by means of oars upon water, the aétion of one extremity of
each oar againft the water in one direétion, re-a¢ts upon the
boat, and impels it in the oppofite direGtion.

Thus much may be fufficient to illuftrate the laws of motion
for the prefent article ; but if farther explanation be required,
fee the article, Morion, Laws of.

We fhall now proceed to define, and to make fome general
obfervations on the different fpecies of motion according to
the enumeration {tated above.

The fimpleft ftate of motion is that of a body aQtuated by
a fingfe impulfive force, and moving uniformly ina flraight
line. But fuch a cafe can exift only in our imagination 5 for,
as we have already remarked, all the movements which can
come within our obfervation, are performed in refifting media,
and within the influence of other forces; yet it !s from the
confideration of {uch fuppofed fimple cafe, that we can form
ufeful theorems or ufeful deductions. We are alfo led to
conclude, that the above-mentioned fimple cafe would ac-
tually take place, if every obftructing medium, and every
other interfering force could be removed, becaufe we find,
that, as far as calculation and experiments can affilt us, the
deviation of the body’s uniform reCtilinear motion is propor-
tionate to thofe difturbing caufes.

The particulars which may be remarked, with refpe& to
the above-mentioned fimple motion, are the relations of the
time during which a certain linear extenfion is run through ;
the extenfion itfelf when the time is given, which expreffes
the velocity; the quantity of matter moved; and the mo-
mentum. ‘Thole relations are eafily obtained; for, accord-
ing to the definitions at the commencement of this article,
the velocity is as the quantity of linear extenfion run through
‘In a given time: for inftance, in one fecond. Hence, of
two bodies in motion, that which runs through a greater
extenfion during a fecond of time is faid to have the greater
velocity. But if the extenfions or fpaces run through in
different times be compared together; then, in order to re-
duce them to one fecond, each of the fpaces mult be divided

“by the time in which it has beenrun through. For inttance,
if a body, A, has pafled over ten feet in two feconds ; and
another body, B, has pafled over eighteen feet in three
feconds ; and their velocities are to be compared together,
Lfay, with refpeét to the body A, if, in two feconds, A
has moved along ten feet, how much has it moved in one
fecond? thus, 2: 10:: 1: where, in order to find the
fourth proportional, I need only divide the 10 by 2, wiz.
the {pace by the time, and the quotient is 5. With refpect
to the fecond body, I fay, by the very fame way of reafon-
ing, 3: 18%: 1: and dividing the {pace by the time, viz.
18 by 3, the quotient is6, Then the ratio of the velocities
of A to B is that of 5 to 6. Therefore it appears that,
univerfally, the velocity is as the {pace divided by the time :
hence, putting V for the velocity, S for the {pace, and T

for the time, we have V

a
ufual ftatement of proportionable and variable quantities, it
follows that S is as V'T, and T is as et Or, in words, the

Then, according to the

velocity is as the quotient of the {pace divided by the time ;
the {pace is as the product of the velocity multiplied by the

time, and the time is as the quotient of the {pace divided by
the velocity. ‘The momentum, according to the explana-
tion which has been annexed to the definition, is as the
quantity of matter divided by the velocity. In this cafe of
fimple motion, there isan important obfervation to be made
with refpecét to the origin of the motion, the ufe of which
in mechanics is very extenfive. What we allude to is, that
a body, fet in motion by two impulfes at the fame time, will
likewife move uniformly in a ftraight line: therefore, when
a body moves uniformly in a ftraight line, it may be fup-
pofed to have been aétuated by one impulfe, or by two tn
certain direGtions, which, as it will prefently appear, may
be varied indefinitely. ‘This theorem is ufvally expreffed in
the following manner.

Tf a body be aéted upon by two moving forces at the fame time,
fo that each of tho @ forces would by itfelf caufe it to deferibe the
Side of a parallelogram, uniformly in a given time; the body, in
confequence of their joint aflions, will defcribe the diagonal of
that parallelogram uniformly in the fame time.

Thus, fuppofe that the body A, Plate XXV. Mechanics,
Jig. 1, be impelled in the dire€tion AD, by a force which
would enable it to move at the rate of four feet per fecond ; alfo,
that at the fame time the fame body be impeiled by another
force, in the direction A B, which would enable it to move at
the rate of three feet per fecond. Make A D equal to four,
and A B equal to three (inches or feet, or any other mea-
fure to reprefent feet). ‘Phrough D draw DC parallel to
AB, and through B draw BC parallel to A D, which will
complete the parallelogram. Draw the diagonal AC; and
this diagonal will reprefent the dirzétion and the velocity of
the body, arifing from the two impulfes which have put it
in motion; fo that at the end of one fecond, the body will
be found at C.

That the body thus impelled by two forces muft move
along the diagonal A C, is eafily deduced from the fecond

law of motion: for, fince the change of motion is propor-
tionate to the moving force imprefled, if from any point c,
in the diagonal AC, you draw two right lines; viz. dc
parallel to AB, and dc parallel to AD, thofe two lines
will reprefent the deviations of the body’s motion from the
direGtions AD and AB; fince, by the fecond law, the
change of motion is made in the dire€tion of the moving
force imprefled, and thofe two lines are proportional to the
impelling forces, or to the lines A B and AD, which re-
prefent thofe forces. If it be faid, that the body thus im-
pelled will at any time be found at fome other piace 0, out
of the diagonal A.C, draw om parallel to A D, and od pa-
rallel to AB; then om and od, which reprefent the devia-
tions, ought to be proportional to the forces which occafion
thofe deviations, viz. to AD and AB. But this is not
the cafe, becaufe the parallelogram Admo is not fimilar to
the parallelogram AD BC. Therefore it appears, that
the body mutt move along the diagonal A C, and in no other
direétion.

This theorem is affented to, or is acknowledged by all
the writers on mechanical philofophy ; and it is from this
that we derive the argument mentioned above in our defini-
tion of a force. Thus, fuppofe that the two impulfive
forces which put a body A, fg. 2, in motion are equal, and
that their dire@ions form a very {mall angle; A D being the
dire&tion of the one, and AB the direGtion of the other.
Complete the parallelogram, which, on account of the
equality of the impulfive forces, is equilateral, and draw the
diagonal AC. In confequence of the form of the parallelo-
gram, it is evident that the diagonal A C is nearly equal to
the fum of AD and DC, or of AD and AB; viz. the
velocity reprefented by AC is nearly double the velocity

3D2 reprefented

DYNAMICS.

represented by AD, or AB; that is, the velocity derived
from the two impuifes is nearly double the velocity derived
by one of thofe impulfes. Now if we fuppofe that the di-
rections of the two forces come fo near as to coincide, then
the fides of the parallelogram will coinctde with the diagonal
AC; viz. the velocity reprefented by the diagonal will be-
come exaétly double the velocity teprefented by A D, or
A.B; and it evidently fhews, that a double force produces
a double velocity: for the two equal impulfes joined to-
gether form a double impulfive force; and the veiocity AC
is double the velocity, which each of thofe impulfes by itfeif
would have generated.

In the above-mentioned cafe, the forces which would pro-
duce the movements along the fides of the parallelogram are
called the Jimple forces, or the confittuent forces ; and their
compound effe€&t, which aétually produces the movement
along the diagonal of the parallelogram, is cailed the com-
pound force, or the refulting force, or the equivalent force.

Now, as this compound effeét is determined by finding the
diagonal of a parailelogram, whofe fides are the movements
arifing from the fimple forces ; fo, when we have any uniform
rectilmear movement of a body, we may confider it as the
diagonal of any parallelogram, and may fuppofe it to be the
compound courfe arifing from two fimple forces a@ting in
the directions of the fides of that parallelogram. Thus, for
inftance, let a body A, fig. 3, move from A to B in a given
time. We may fuppofe that the body has been impelled by
a fingle force in the direction AB; or by two forces, one
of which impelled it in the dire€lion A E, and the other in
the direGticn AF; or by two other forces, one of which
impelled it in the direétion AC, and the other in the di-
rection AD; and fo forth: for A B is the diagonal of the
parallelogram A CB D, and of the parallelogram AE BF,
and of an infinity of other parallelograms.

This mode of finding a compound courfe arifing from more
impuifes than one, or of fuppofing that a given courfe is the
refuit of more than one impulfe, is called the compofition
and refoluiion of forces ; and the application of it in mechanics
is highly ufeful and extenfive.

Befides the cafe of two forces, a compound courfe may
arife from the joint aétions of three, or four, or more fimple
forces; or it may be fuppofed to be the refult of feveral
fimple forces. But the farther confideration of thefe more
complicated cafes, and their applications, &c. will be found
under the article Compofition and Refolution of Forces.

The next itep which demands confideration in the move-
ments of bodies, 13 the collifion of thofe which happen to go
again{t and {trike each other. ‘Fhis is generally reduced to
three cafes; viz. the bodies may run in the fame ftraight
line, but in contrary direétions; they may run in the fame
itraight line, and in the fame direGtion, but the preceding
going at a flower rate, fo that the fubfequent may overtake
it, and itnke againftit; or, laftly, the two bodies may
ftrike again{t each other in oblique direGtions. The effets
of thofe cafes differ according as the bodies are elaftic or
non-elaftic. See CoLxision.

The above-mentioned movements arife from the ation of
fimple impulfes, and the particulars which belong to them
are eafily determined ; but thofe which arife from the actions
of preffures, or of actions conftantly acting are much more
intricate. Thefe are called variable motions. A body aétu-
ated by a fingle impulfe will, according to the firft law of
motion, continue unstormly in the direction of that impulfe ;
bet if, whilit fo moving, another impulfe ats upon it, then
its motion will be altered; end if the direction of the fecond
impulle coincide with that of the firft, the velocity of the
body will thereby be increafed. I the dire@tion of the fe-

cond impuife be direétly contrary to that of the former, then
the fir(t velocity will be checked; and, according to the
ratio of the two velocities in oppofite dirc€tions, the body
may either proceed in its former dircGtion, but at a flower
rate; or, it may be entircly ftopped ; or, laftly, it may be
obliged to go back with the excefs of the fecond velocity
above the firtt. If, inflead of the two impulfes aétmg in
the fame ftraight line, the dire€tion of one of them be ob-
Ique to the other, then a compound motion arifes, which
mult be determined zccording to the particular circumftances
of the cafe. ‘The body may alfo reccive a third, a fourth,
and many other fubfequent impulfes: thefe may fucceed
each other at ¢qual or unequal intervals of time; and they
may a¢t either in the fame, or in different direGions: whence
an indefinite varicty of cafes arifes, which can by no means
be comprehended under a few general propofitions.

When a force aéts continually and uniformly upon a body,
it is the fame thing as if equal impulfes were repeated at
equal and infinitely {mall intervals of time. In this cafe,
the velocity of the body undergoes equal changes; and the
force thus ating is cal'ed a conflant or uniform accelerating
force, cra conflant retarding force, according as it tends to
increafe or to diminilh the velocity of a body actually in
motion.

The particulars which demand peculiar confideration, with
refpeét to thefe forces, are the {pace defcribed by the body
thus fet in motion, the time,of defcription, the velocity ac-
quired, the force which produces it, and the variations of
thofe quantities, which arife from the difference of the forces,
as well as of the mafles upon which they act. The deter-
mination of thefe particulars (which will be neceffary for
the illuftration of the following part of this article) has been
concifely demonttrated by Mr. O. Gregory, in the follow-
ing manner.

‘€ Propofition. The velocities generated in equal bodies by the
adion of conflant forces, are in the compound ratio of the forces
and times of ading.

‘* For, when the times are the fame, the velocities gene-
rated each inftant are as the forces of acceleration, and con-
{equently the velocities generated at the end of equal times
are as thofe forces; and if the forces are the fame, the velo.
cities generated are as the times wherein the forces a@: be-
caufe, when the force is given, equal velocitics are generated
in equal times, and confequently the whole velocities ree
quired are as the times wherein the given force aéts; where-
fore, both times and accelerating forces being different, the
velocities generated will be as the forces and times of acting,
jointly.

“ Cor. 1. The momenta generated in unequal bodies are alfo
conjointly as the forces and their times of adion —This is evi-
cent, becaufe momenta in unequal bodies may be fubftituted
for proportional velocites in equal bodies, throughout the
whole reafoning.

“Cor. 2. The momenta loft or defiroyed in any times are
likewife conjointly as the retarding forces and their times of
adion.—Yor, whatever momenta any force generates in a
given time would an equal force deftroy in an equal time, by
acting in a contrary direétion.

«« And the fame is true of the increafe or decreafe of mo-
tion, by forces that either confpire with or oppofe the
motions of bodies.

“ Cor. 3. The velocities generated or dsftroyed in any times
are diredly as the forces and times, and reciprocally as the bodies
or maffes.—For, tince the compound ratios of the bodies and
their velocities are as thofe of the forces and times, the velo-
cities are as the forces and times divided by the bodies.

‘* Propofition. Zn motions uniformly acecleraied, when the

force

‘DYNAMICS. :

Sorce and body are given, the fpace defcribed during a certain
time is the half of that gubtch the body, moving uniformly, would
defcribe in an equal time.

* Since the velocities are as the times of defcription,
when the body and force are given, the velocities which a
given body is found to have fucceffively for the duration of
each confecutive interval form an arithmetical progreffion,
&, 2£) 3g, &e. of which the laft term is gt, or v, the
number of terms being ¢, that isgo fay, being marked by
the number of-folicitations of the accelerating force. And
fince each of the velocities is nothing elfe than the {pace
which the bady would defcribe uriformly during the corre-
fponding interval, the total {pace defcribed during the time
ft, will therefore be the fum of the terms of this arithmetical
progreffion ; which, becaufe g and v are the extremes, and ¢
the number of terms, will be exprefled by $#(g+v). Or,
if s be the total {pace defcribed by the body, then will s =
4¢(g+). Conceive now that the accelerating force acts
(as by hyp.) without intermiffion, or, which comes to the
fame, imagine that the time ¢ is divided into an indefinite
number of infinitely {mall parts, or inftants, and that at the
beginning of each inltant the accelerating force gives an im-
pultion tothe body. Then g being infinitely minute in re-
Jation to v; which 1s the velocity acquired during the inde-
finice number of inftants denoted by ¢, muft be omitted in
the equation s=4¢(g++), which wiil become fimply
s= tv, the {pacc aGtually defcribed.

“This granted, imagine that at the end of the time ¢ the
accelerating force ceafes to a&t; then, by the firft law, the
body will p-rfevere in its motion with the velocity v it has
acquired ; but in uniform motions, the {paces defcribed are
as the times and velocities jointly ; therefore the body mov-
ing with the velocity v, during the time ¢, will defcribe a
{pace s’ = tv; which is evidently double the fpace $f v, de-
{cribed by the body in an equal time, by the conttant action
of the accelerating force.

‘© Propofition., The fpaces defcribed by a body uniformly
accelerated are as the fquares of the times.

** Since the velocities acquired increafe as the time expired,
if ? be the velocity at the end of one fecond, then the ve-
locity acquired after a number ¢ of feconds will be ?¢#: thus
wehavev=Ot. The equations=jvé, found in the pre-
ecding propofition, becomes therefore s=49/. If, in like
manner, we reprefent another fpace by S, which is deferibed
by uniform acceleration during the time T, we fhall have
S=i0T?; hence we fee, that s:S::49:40T?::2: T’.

* Cor. 1. Becaufe the velocities acquired are as the times,
we have allo the fpaces deferibed as the /quares of the velocities.

“Cor. 2, Therefore either the velocities or the times are as
the /quare roots of the [paces defcribed from the commencement of
the motion.

* Cor. 3. All that has been fhewn applies equally to
motions uniformly retarded ; provided that by the times, we
mean thofe which are to elapfe before the extinétion of the
vel city; and by the fpaces, thofe which remain to be de-
{cribed until the body is brought to reft.”” See AccEcE-
RATION.

Of forces ating irregularly, we fhall not take any notice
in this place ; firft, becaule they are not materially illuftra-
tive of the general theory ; and, fecondly, becaufe they are
very different from each other: whence they are better ex-
amined under other articles, to which they more particularly
belong. The unbending of fprings, the motion of a veffcl
upon water, when it firlt {preads its fails to the wind, &c.
are inftances of forces acting irregularly.

The principal accelerating forces, which occur in nature,
are the central forces, viz. thefe attractive forces which are

dire&ed to a centre. Thus, the force of gravity, which
_conftantly draws bodies towards the centre of the earth, is
of this nature. Such alfo is the force which retains the
planets of our folar fyftem within their orbits, and which ts
dire€ted to a common centre, fituated not much diftant from
the centre of the fun; anda fimilar force retains the fatellites
in due diltanées from their primary planets.

The great difference between the forces which produce
motions uniformly varied, and the central forces, is that the
former do not take place in nature, and the latter become
more powerful nearer the centre of attra€tion, and lefs fo
farther fromit. In fhort, their power generally is inverfely,
as the fquare of the diftance from the centre of attraétion.
Yet we have above added the demontftration of the particulars
belonging to the former, becaufe they are more eafily un-
derftood, and more eafily, as well as fafely, applied to the
phenomena of the afcent and defcent of bodies, and to other
phenomena upon the furface of the earth, within the limits
of our obfervation, as will be prefently fhewo. As for the
particulars relative to the central forces, comprifing their
decreafe and increafe of power, according to the diltances,
&c. they will be found under the article Centrat Forces.

The obfervations which fhew, that the phenomena of
alcending and defcending bodies upon the furface of the
earth, may be referred to the action of uniformly accelerating
forces, are clearly expreffed by Mr. O. Gregory in the fol-
lowing manner: ‘ Gravity being that force which folicits
all bodies to dcfcend in vertical lines, or thofe which are
perpendicular to the furface of the earth, it would follow
that, if that furface, as compofed of land and fea, were per-
feétly {pherical, the dire€tions of gravity would all concer
atitscentre. The earth, however, 1s not perfeétly {pherical;
yet its variation from that fhape is fo trifling, that, with
refpe& to the obje¢ts which fall under our obfervation, it
need not be regarded. We have obferved that the direGtions
of gravity may be confidered as parallel: that it may be
feen-to what extent this remark may be applied, let it be
confidered that a circle whofe radius js 20,9}5,200 feets
will have more than 6000 feet for the meafure of a minute
of a degree, and upwards of 100 feet for that of a fecond;
fo that the diredions of gravity at two places on the carth’s
Surface, a mile afunder, will not vary one minute from paral-
leli{m.”

“As to the magnitude of the gravitating force, ftridily
{peaking, it is different at different diitances from the equa-
tor, and at different diftances from the centre of the earth :
but the quantities of thofe differences, fo far as they de-
pend upon the variety of fituation on the earth’s furface,
are very {mail, and need not yet be attended to; and the
differences refulting from different diftances from the centre
of the earth, will sot be fenfible in any cafes refpecting the
fall of bodies. Thus, if two bodies were fituated, the one
at the furface of the earth, and the other at a mile above
it, the difference in the attractions to which they would be
fubje&ted, would be nearly one part in 2000 of the whole
attraction ; fo that as a mile is greater than any altitude, or
any depth from the furface, with regard to which we fhall
have to trace the effects of falling or rifing bodies, we may
coniider the force of gravity as conftant. We confider,
therefore, this force as ating inceflantly, and ating equally
at each inftant upon every particle of matter. Now itis
clear, that if every particle of a body receive the fame ve-
locity, the aggregate of the body will move with the fame
velocity as would have been impreffed upon a fingle molecule :
confequently, the velocity which gravity impreffes upon
any mafles whatever, does not depend upon the magnitude
of that mafs; but it is the fame with refpe& to the each

mais

DYNAMICS,

mafs as the greateft. Itis true, we do not, when bodies
of different maffes and denfities defcend through the air,
obferve them all to fall from the fame heights in equal
times; but this is occafioned by the refiftance of the medium,
and when that is taken away, as in the receiver of an air-
pump, the mott denfe and the moft rare bodies fall through
equal {paces in equal times.”

Tt is therefore evident, that the particulars which have
been demonftrated above relative to the effe€is of forces
aGting uniformly, may be fafcly applied to the afcent and
defcent of bodies near the furface of the earth. According
to thofe particulars, when bodies fimply fall from a ftate of
reft, the velocities acquired are as the times; and the whole
Spaces defcribed will be as the fquares of the times, Thus if
the times be as the numbers Te east Ase Ss. MGs acces
The velocities acquired will be, as 2, 4,6, 8, 10, 12, &c.

The whole fpaces, as Ty 4:9; 16, 25, 36, &c.
The fpace for each time, a3 My ae Seton Oy Ls ecGe
‘Their conftant differences 2 Fy eh 25" DACs

Now it has been found by means of accurate experiments,
that a heavy body inthe latitude of London fells nearly 16,4,
feet in the firft fecond of time from its quiefcent ftate, and
has then acquired a velocity which, if uniformly continued,
would carry it over twice 16,1,, or, 32% feet, in the next
fecond; but the aétion of gravity upon the body continu-
ing, the motion will be fuch that at the end of the next
fecond of time, the body will altogether bave pafled over 2°,
or four times 16,4,, viz. 644 feet, and will have acquired a
velocity of twice 644 feet fer fecond, and fo forth.

From thefe data, and the particulars demonftrated above,
we have the following real {paces, velocities, &c. defcribed
by bodies falling from a ftate of quiefcence near London.

If the times, in feconds, be ty ee wer 4, &e.
The yelocities acquired in feet

willbe - = - - 32% 64% 962% 1283, &c.
The {paces in the whole times 162, 644 1449 2571, &c.

The {paces for each fecond 16,5, 484 805, 1127,, &c.

Thefe particulars, however, are fuch as would take: place
in vacuo; butin the air, the refults are confiderably different;
that difference evidently arifing from the refiftance of that
medium. The differences which have been obferved be-
tween the theoretical calculations, and the refults of aGtual
experiments, may be feem under the article Descent of
Bodies.

It has been fhewn above, that in the cafe of fimple im-
pulfes, when a body receives two impulfes at the fame time,
but in directions oblique to each other, the body will thereby
be obliged to move with an equable motion along the diage-
nal of a parallelogram, whofe fides are the dire@tions of the
two impulfes. But when one of the forcea which impell a
body is a fimple impulfe, and the other is a continued pref-
fure, or a force uniformly accelerating, then the body is
obliged to move witha changeable velocity, in a curve line;
the nature of which differs according to the nature of the
aQing forces. A bullet fired horizontally out of a gun is
an in{tance of this cafe; for, the force of the gun-powder
impels it horizontally, and the force of gravity draws it
downwards with an accelerating velocity; therefore the bul-
let moves in a curve, which, were it not for the refiftance of
the air, would be nearly a parabola, as the great Galileo
firlt demonftrated.

Any other body projeé&ted in any other direétion, does
Tikewife move in a curve of a fimilar nature; excepting in-
deed when it is projeted cither perpendicularly upwards, or
perpendicularly downwards; for in either of thofe cafes the
body will evidently move in the perpendicular line, though
not with a uniform velocity,

- attraGion in our folar fyftem.

Let a body A, fiz. 4, be impelled from A towards H,
with fuch a force as would enable it to move along the
equal fpaces A B, BF, F G, &c. in equal portions of time;
for inftance, each of thofe fpaces in a fecond of time. Let
at the fame time an accclerative force continually draw the
fame body A towards the centre C, in fuch a manner as by
itfelf wou'd enable it to defcend along the unequal {paces
AT, TK, KL, in equal portions of time, viz. each fpace
ina fecond. Then, in conf quence of the aétions of both
thofe forces, the body A will be obliged to move along the
curvilinear path ANOP, &c. Throngh B, draw BC in
the direGtion of the centre of attra€tion; and through IJ draw
IN parallel to A B. . Then it is evident that at the end of
the firft econ of time the body will be at N. Now if at
this period the attractive force ceafed to act, the body would
proceed in the diref&tion N R, by the firft law of motion.
But fince the attraCtive force continues to a&, the body at
the end of the fecond /econd of time will be at O, for the
fame reafon as above: at the end of the third /econd, it will
be at P, and fo forth. The courfe then, ANOP, is not
ftraight, but confifts of the lines AN, NO, OP, &c.
forming certain angles.

If inftead of finding the place of the body A at the end
of every fecond, we had determined it for each thoufandth.
part of a fecond, then each of the lines AN, NO, &c.
would have been refolved into a thoufand fmall lines inclined:
to each other. But fince the atraétive force atts conftantly
and unremittedly, therefore the path of the body A is not
a polygonal courfe confifting of an infinite number of fides;
but 2 continued curve which paffes through the points.
A, N, O, P, &c. as is indicated by the dotted line.

Upon thefe principles the movements of projectiles in-
military affairs are calculated, and are determined within a
ufeful difference from the truth; for the variable obftruétion
of the air, and other interfering circumitances, prevent any
very accurate determination of thofe particulars. See the
article ProjyECTILES.

In the above inftance of the two forces of different kinds
ating upon the fame body, we fuppofed that the attra@ive
force was fuffieient to draw the body towards the centre of
attraction. But if it be fuppofed that the equable motion
arifing from the fimple impulfe be fo great in proportion to
the attractive force, that the latter, though capable of draw-
ing the body from its reétilinear courfe, 1s, however, not able
to bring it nearer to the centre of attraClion, than a certain
limited diftance; in that cafe the confequence will be, that,
the body will continue to move in a curvilinear path round ;
and round the centre of attraction, without actually coming
to it. Now this fort of motion is called an orbital motion;
or that curve path is called an or$it;.and fuch are the mo-
tions of the planets in orbits round the common centre of
j See the article Orzits.

The defcent of bodies arifing from the force of gravity
is, in many cafes, modified by certain circumftances, which
frequently and neceffarily occur, and on which account they
are in need of examination. Thus the defcent of bodies
upon inclined planes is one of thofe cafes; for inftead of
defcending ina ftraight line perpendicular to the furface
of the earth, the body is obliged to roll along the furface
of the plane in an oblique direGion. The vibrations of
pendulums are likewife of this kind, and. fo on. The prin-
cipal of thofe cafes will be mentioned in the fequel.

When a body is placed upon an inclined plane, the gravitating
power which draws that body downwards, ads with a force fo
much lefs than if the body defcended freely and perpendicularly,
as the elevation of the plane is lefx than its length.

If a body be placed upon an horizontal plane, the

8 force

DYNAMICS.

Force of gravity acting in a dire€tion perpendicular to that
plane, cannot draw the body one way more than another,
therefore the body remains motionlefs ; but if the plane be
inclined, then the body will run down along the furface of
it, and with greater velocity, in proportion as one end of
the plane is more elevated above the horizon. When a plane
is inclined to the horizon, and a body is laid upon it, the
aGtion of gravity is not entirely, but partially counteracted
by the plane. From the centre A of the body, which !s
laid upon the inclined plane, fig. 5, draw A G perpendicular
to the horizon, and A F perpendicular to the plane. Then
the whole force of gravity, which is reprefented by the line
AE, is refolved into the two forces, A IF, and E I’, where-
of A F being perpendicular to the plane, is that part of the
gravitating power which is loft, or which is countera&ted by
the inclined plane; and EF reprefents the other part of
the gravitating power, which urges the body downwards
along the furface of the plane. Therefore the force of
gravity is diminifhed, in the proportion of AE to EF.
But the triangles AEF, EDG, and BDC, are equian-

ular, confequently fimilar: therefore A E is to EF, as

B to BC; that is, the whole force of gravity is to that
part of it which urges the body downwards along the fur-
face of the plane, as the length of the plane is to its eleva-
tion.

The extenfion, which is deferibed by a body defcending freely
from refi towards the earth, is to the extenfion qwhich rt will
deferibe upon the furface of an inclined plane in the fame time, as
the length of the plane is to its elevation.

The gravitating force which draws a body downwards
along an inclined plane, is only diminifhed by the interven-
tion of the plane; but its nature is not otherwife altered, fo
that it {till aéts -conftantly ; in confequence of which the
motion of the body is continually accelerated, and the
{paces it defcribes are alfo proportional to the fquares of the
times; but thofe fpsces are fhorter than if the body de-
f{cended freely and perpendicularly ; viz. they are to the
latter as the elevation of the plane is to its length.

A body defcending frem a certain height to the fame horizxoxtal
dine, will acquire the fame velocity, whether the defcent be made
perpendicularly, or obliquely, over an inclined plane, or over
many fucceffive inclined planes, or, laflly, over a curwe Jurface.

It has been fhewn above, that the velocity of a body
defcending freely in confequerce of a conttantly aGting
force, is as the product ot the force multiplied by the

.time; and we have jult fhewn, that, upon an inclined
plane, the force of gravity is diminithed in propor-
tion of the elevation of the plane to its length ; whence it
evidently follows, that the time of the body’s running down
an inclined plane muft be increafed in the inverfe proportion ;
wiz. that as the force 1s diminifhed, fo the body is drawn
downwards in longer time ; that is, lefs forcibly.

Now, if the times increafe in proportion as the force de-
creafes, it evidently follows, that the product of the time by
the force is always the fame ; viz. the velocity which a body
acquires by falling from a given height is always the fame,

' whether it falls perpendicularly, or along any inclined plane.
And it is evident, that the effe& muft be the fame when the
body falls from the fame height along a fucceffion of inclined
planes, or along a curve ; for the whole height may be divi-
ved in parts each equal to the altitude of one of the inclined
planes, and the fame thing may be fhewn at the end of each.
And asacurve line may be conceived to confift of an infi-
nite fucceffion of inclined planes, the application to it needs
no further illuftration.

In the preceding explanation of the motion of a body
upon an inclined plane, we have fuppoied the bodies, to be
fpherical, and the planes, as well as the bodies, to be per-

‘

fe&tly {mooth. But in pra@tice this is not to be expeft-d ;
forthe {mootheft bodies, in moving over one another, are, in
fome meafure, affefted by friftion, The air, hkewife, op-
pofes its ufual refiftance, &c., in confequence,of which, the
motions of bodies, uoon inclined planes, will be found in
practice to differ confiderably from the refults of theoretical
calculations. or farther particulars refpecting this fubjeét,
fee the article IncLineD PLane.

Treating of the defcent of bodies, we fhall here barely
mention a remarkable property of a curve, which, at firft
fight, can hardly be besieved ; for it fhews that a body,
defcending from a fuperior to an inferior place, not in the
{ame perpendicular, will arrive at the lower place fooner by
going clong a certain curvilinear path, than along a fraight
one: In fhort, if tevo points be given in a vertical plane, but
not in the fame line perpendiular to the horizon, a body will
defcend from the upper point of the lower in the fhorte/ time
polible, if it be caufed to move along the arch of a cycloid,
which paffes through thofe points, and whofe bafe is an hori-
zontal line that paffes through the upper point.

On this account, the cycloid has been called the line of
Jwifteft defeent. See Cycroip.

When a body is fufpended by a flexible ftring, or by a
pin, which paffes through a hole in it, and is fixed to a
fteady fupport ; or, in fhort, whenever a body hangs down
from any point, fo as to be capable of {winging about thaz
point, it 1s called a pendulum, or pendulous body; and as
pendulums are of a moft extenfive ufe in mechanics, their
properties have been inveftigated with great attention, both
theoretically and experimentally. In the examination of the
chief properties of pendulums, which will now be ftated,
we mutt fuppofe the pendulum to confift of a globular body,
faftened to the end of a ftring, the other end of which is
fixed to a pin; the ilring is fuppofed to have no weight,
and to be perfeGtly flexible, fo that the pendulum may move
with perfect freedom about the point of fufpenfion. In its
natural fituation, fuch a pendulum hangs ftraight downwards,
in the dire€@tion of the centre of the earth; but if it be
moved out of that direétion, and be then let go, it will begin
to fwing, going backwards and forwards, and will continue
that motion for a confiderable time. Each of thefe motions,
from one fide to the otber, is called a vibration, or an ofcil/a-
tion ; and the particulars which become the obj-&s of exami-
nation in pendulums, are the times in which the vibrations are
performed under given lengths of pendulums, the velecitics,
which the pendulum alternately acquires and lofes in the
courfe of vibration, the momenta, &c. The propofitions
which follow will be fufficient to thew the conneéiion be-
tween the vibrations of pendulums, and the other kinds of
motion which are confidered in dynamics. But farther par-
ticulars muft be fought for under the article Penputum,

Tf a pendulum be moved out of its perpendicular diredion
CB. fig. 6, to the fituationC A, and there be let go, it will. of
itfelf, defcend towards the perpendicular CB; then it will ay-
cend on the oppofite fide to CD. nearly as far from the per-
pendicular, as the place from which it began to defcend ; after
which it will again defcend towards the perpendicular, aud thus
it will keep moving forwar#'s and backwards for a confiderable
time ; making the vibrations continually fmaller and-fmaller until
it flops ; which is owing to the obftruction of the air, and a litile
Siffnefs of the pendulum-ftring ; for, without thefe obfirudiions,
the pendulum would continue to perform vibrations of the fame
length for ever after.

The body A will defcend along the are A B with an ac-
celerated motion, in the fame manner as if it defcended over
a curve furface AB; for it is evidently the fame thin
whether a body defcends along fuch a furface, or is confine
by the ftring CA, fo as to defcribe the fame curve, By

the

DYNAMICS.

the time the body A arrives at the loweft point B, it will
acquire the fame velocity as if it had defcended perpendi-
cularly from E to B, (from what has been faid refpecting
inclined planes:) This velocity (abira€ting the refiftance
of the air, &c.) would carry the body A beyond the point
B, with a retarded motion, in an equal portion of time, as
far from B as A is fromit. The body A wiil then defcend
again, with an accelerated motion, towards B, and fo on.
For, fince the velocity of the pendulum in its afcent is re-
tarded by the fame uniformly acting power, which accele-
rates it in ite defcent ; viz. by the.force of gravity ; there
mutt be the fame time employed in deftroying, as in gene-
rating it.

That, ceteris paribus, the weight of the pendulum can-
not alter its time of vibration, may be eafily derived from
what has been faid above, refp:Ging the fall of bodies; 2x.
that, abltra¢ting the refiftance of the air, all kinds of bodies
will fall from a ftate of quiefcence, through a given exten-
fion, in the very fame time.

The velocity of a pendulum. in its loweft point, is as the chord:
of the arc which it has defcribed in its defcent.

Thus, the body A, defcending from A to B, will, when
at B, have acquired a velocity which is proportionate to the
chord of the are A B, or to EB.

In eftimating the length of a pendulum, a peculiar cir-
cumttanee occurs, which is not obvioufly perceived, and the
determination of which demands peculiar attention. When
tne pendulum confliits of a fpherical body, faftened to a
firing, a perfon unacquainted with the fubje@ might, at firft
fight, imagine, that the length of the pendulum muft be
reckoned from the point of fufpenfion, to the centre of the
ball. But this is not the cafe; for the real length of the
pendulum is greater than that diftance, the reafon of which
is, that the [pherical body does not move in a ftraight line,
but it moves in a circular arc; in confequence of which,
that half of it which is fartheft from the point of fufpention,
runs through a longer fpace, than the other half which is
nearer to the point of fufpenfion ; hence, the two halves of
the ball, though containing equal quantities of matter, move
with different velocities, and, therefore, their momenta are
not equal. Now, it is, in confequence of this inequality,
that the centre of ofcillation (for fo is the point denominated
from which the length of the pendulum to the point of fuf-
penfion muit be reckoned,) does not lie between the two
hemifpheres; viz. in the centre of the ball ; but it lies with-
in the lower hemifphere, which has the greateft momentum.
Tt evidently tollows, that if the ball of the pendulum could
be concentrated in one point, that point would be the centre
of ofcillation ; fo that the centre of ofcillation is that point
wherein all the matter of the body, or bodies, that may be
joined together to form a pendulum, may be conceived to
be condenfed. The method of determining the fication of
the centre of ofcillation in any pendulum, will be found
under the article CentER of Ofcillation. See alfo Oscitia-
TION.

In a pendulum thus vibrating about a point of fufpenfion
as has been mentioned above, whether it be a body faltened
to aftring, or an oblong folid like a rod, &c. the fame
point of ofcillation is likewife called the centre of percuffion ;
for this reafon, that if a body be oppofed to the pendulum
whilft vibrating, at that point, it will receive the greateft
ftroke poffible. And if the obftacle be oppofed to any
other part of the pendulous body, the ftroke will be lefs
powerful. This point does not coincide with the centre of
gravity, as one might at firft fight be cafily induced to
believe; nor does it coincide with the centre of ofcillation
in allcafes. In fhort, the centre of percuffion cannot be faid
to be the fame thing as the centre of ofcillation ; but is that

point in a body revolving about an axis, at which,.if it ftruck
an immoveable obftacle, all its motion would be detftroyed,
or it would not incline either way :. fo that if at the inftant
of the impact the fupports of the axis were annihilated, the
body would remain in abfolute reft.. Fhe method of de-
termining the fituation of the centre of percuffion in all cafes,
will be found under the article Center of Percuffion. See
alfo Percussion.

During the preceding iluftration of the various fpecies
of motion, whether uniform; accelerated, or retarded, and
whether reGtilinear or curvilinear, the impelling force has
been generally confidered as if it aed in the direGion of
thecentre of gravity of the body ; fo that every part of the
body mightacquire the fame velocity ; or as if the whole
body were concentrated in a fingle point. But in a great
many inftances the application of one or more forces is made
out of the line which pafles through the centre of gravity
of the body,. or of a fyftem of bodies ; in confequence of
which that body, or that fyltem, acquires a rotatory mot'on.

According to the various forms ot bodies cither fingle or
in conneétion,. and according to the various applications of
a force or forces ‘in different parts, a valt variety of cafes of
this rotatory motion may be eafily conceived ; and the princi-
pal of thefe cafes will be found defcribed in the prefent
work according to the references that follow. In thefe
cafes of rotatory motion, the particulars which are princi-
pally deferving of mathematical inveftigation, are the fol-
lowiag two points or centres, which we fhall barely define
in this place.

The centre of gyration, which is that point in a body, or
fyftem of bodies, in which, if all their matter were condenfed,
the fame angular velocity would be generated ina given
time, that would be generated in the whole body or fyftem,
by the fame force fimilarly applied. See Center of Gyra-
tion and GyRATION ; and

The centre of /pontaneous gyration, or of /pontaneous rotation,
which is that point about which a body begins torevolve at
the inftant in which it is flruck by a force acting out of the
direGtion of its centre of gravity. Place a ftick upona
fmooth horizontal table, with one extremity out of the table.
Strike that end in an horizontal dire€tion, and immediately
after the ftroke, the above-mentioned extremity of the ftick
will begin to move in the direGtion of the ftroke, whilit its
other extremity moves in the contrary direGtion. Now it iv
evident, that between thofe two parts of the ftick there
mutt be a point about which thofe parts begin to revolve 5
and that isthe centre of {pontaneous rotation. See CENTER
of Rotation and Spontaneous Rotation, or Spontaneous Gre
RATION.

The various movements that are produced by the aétion of
forces differently applied, in the endlefs variety of dire€tion,
of combination, of duration, and of power; can only be
examined by reducing them into clafles, according to the
peculiarities which a certain number of them feem to have in
common. In this manner we have, in the preceding pages,
taken a general view of the whole, and have explained the
principal properties of each kind of motion, fo far as it
feemed neceflary to point out their extent and their general
conneftion. But the reader has at the fame time been ree
ferred to other articles for more ample and more fatisfactory
information. The only part of the fubject which remains
to be added for the completion of this article, is the applicae
tion of the fubje& to ufeful purpofes ; with this view, there-
fore, we fhall now add fuch general remarks as may fuffice
to manifelt the vaft importance of the general application.

Two very remarkable and very extenfive objeéts are an-
f{wered by the fubje&t of dynamics. It enables the human
being to comprehend and to explain the phenomena of

’ nature,

~ Fda

* theory was formed.

DYNAMICS.

nature, and it furnifhes him with ufeful machines, by the
ufe of which he becomes capable of accomplifhiag fuch
wonderful effeéts, as would otherwife be utterly out of his
power.

Sir I, Newton firft conceived the grand idea of a general
connetion between the bodies of the untverfe. Hethought
that the celeftial objects were aQtuated and conne¢ted by a
general and mutual gravitation. Willing to prove the truth
of the fuppofition, he firtt endeavoured to inveftigate the
laws of fuch forces, or gravitating powers. One truth na-
turally developed another truth, until an ample demoniirative
His next ftep was to examine how far
the aftronomical obfervations were conformable to that
theory ; and he was delighted to find an admirable coinci-
dence, which confirmed the truth of the fuppolition. Sub-
{equent mathematical improvements, farther difcoveries, and
much more accurate obfervations, have rapidly advanced
the whole fubjeé&t, fo much fo, that the prefent generation
is thereby enabled to calculate and to foretel the nicefé,
aftronomical phenomenon ; whence immenfe advantages are
derived, efpecially in navigation,

With refpeét to mechanical application, the reader may
be pleafed to confider how limited is the power of the bare
limbs of a man; how great are the powers of the natural
world ; and what attonifhing effets the human being can
accomplifh by employing thofe natural powers in a proper
way. The immenfe force of the wind regularly applied,
gives motion to powerful mills, and to other machinery; it
drives very large and heavy veffels acrofs the fea, &c. A
ftream of water is likewife applied to diverfe ufeful purpofes,
many of which are fo common as to be known to every body,
So is the force of fteam; the expanfive torce of gun-powder};
the ftrength of animals ; and fo forth.

The ufe of machines, then, is for the purpofe of applying
natural powers to our advantage, or to perform that which
the bare application of thofe powers could not poflibly ac-
complith. A man, for inftance, wifhes to removea ftone of
a ton weight from any particular plece; his ttrength, unaf-
fifted by art, is inadequate to the purpofe 3 but he takes a
pole, or lever, which being applied in a proper manner, a¢tu-
ally enables him to remove the ftone. The vibrations of a
pendulum are performed nearly in equal portions of time;
therefore, by fetting a pendulum in motion, and counting the
vibrations, a man might meafure time ; but the motion of
the pendulum. requires to be renewed at times, and the

3 counting of the vibrations requires a conftant attendance,
~ the performance of which would be an infufferable hardfhip.

But all this hardfhip is removed by the contrivance of a clock,
to which a man applies his power all at once, by raifing a
weight, or winding up a {pring; then the power thus im-
parted to the fpring, or weight, is gradually communicated
to the pendulum, fo as to keep it in motion during a day, a
week, a month, and even a longer time. ‘The other parts
of the mechanifm ferve to reckon and to indicate the number
of vibrations, under the denominations of feconds, mjnutes,
and hours.

The number of machines that have been ‘invented, that
have been ufed, and that are aétually in ufe, is really im~
menfe, and new ones are daily conftru@ted. But all thofe ma-
chines confift of certain parts or fimple mechanifms varioufly
combined and conneéted with each other. Thofe {imple
mechani{ms are commonly called the mechanical powers, and
their number is not above fix orfeven. They are the lever,
the wheel and axle, the pulley, or fyfrem of pulleys, the inchned
plane, the wedge, and the ferew.

Several writers on mechanics reckon the balance amongt
the mechanical powers; but other authors do not; for in

Vou. XII,

fa&, there is no power gained by the ule of the balance ;
and this gain of power undoubtedly is the charaéteriflic pro-
perty of the mechanical powers. There are fome who ex-
clude the inclined plane from the number of mechanical
powers; whilft others confider it as one of the principal,
and reckon the wedgeand the {crew as only {pecies of it.

In each of thofe fimple mechanifms, a force or power is
applied at one end, in order to overcome a refiftance at the
other end. Thus with alever, a manthrufts the end of a
pole under the weight B, jig. 7, refts part of the pole, or lever,
upon a firm obftacle, or prop, or fulcimer C, and applies
his hand to the other end A of the lever. Then by low-
ering the end A of the lever, the weight will be raifed,
({uppofing that the power of the manand the weight of B
are not too difproportionate.) Now in this cafe the man’s
hand is the force or moving power, the weight B is the re-
fiftance which is to be overcome, and the pole is the lever,
or the mechanical power, by which the man is enabled to
raife the weight ; which effet he could not have produced
by the immediate application of his natural ftrengtb.

Tiiftead of applying a man’s ftrength to the end A of the
lever, a weight may be applied to the fame end, which, by
a proper adjuftment of the lever, may be. made to raife the
weight B much greater than itfelf.

If it be afked how it happens, that a fmall weight at A
can 4ift up a much larger weight at-B; the anfwer is, that
by the motion of the lever the weight at A, which atts as
the force or power, defcribes a much larger {pace than the
weight B; and there is this general principle which holds
good in all the mechanical powers, and which is demonttrated
under the article Mechanical Powers; namely, that as long
as the product of the weight at A, multiplied by the fpace
through which it moves, exceeds the predu& of B multi-
plied by the {pace through which it moves; A will prepon-
derate, and of courfe will lift up B. Suppofe, for in&ance,
that the weight at A be equal to 40 pounds, the weight B
300 pounds, the length A C twelve feet, and C B one foot.
Then, fince the arcs which the ‘two extremities of tle
lever and the two weights defcribe, are as the diftances A C
and BC; multiply the weight A, viz. 40 pounds, by
12, which is the diftance A C, and the produét is 480; end
multiply the weight B of 300 pounds by the diltance BC
of one foot, and the produét is 300. . Now, fince 480 exceeds
300, the weight A muft preponderate, &c. If the two
produéts had been equzl, the whole would have remained
balanced and at rett, ,

The hike illuftration may be applied to all the other me- |
chanical powers, as well as to machines of all kinds, whe-
ther fimple or complicated; for in every one of them the
following particulars muft be indifpenfably found, vs.
r{t. One or more bodies muft be moved one way, whilft one
or more other bodies move the contrary way. One of thofe
bodies, or fet of bodies, is called the power, arid the other
is called the coeight; or they may be ‘called oppofite powers.
2dly. If the produét of the weight of one of thofe powers,
multiplied by the {pace it moves through in a certain time,
be equal to the produé&t of the weight of the oppefite power
multiplied by the {pace it moves through in the fame time ;
then the oppofite momenta are equal, and the machine re-
mains at reft, or ina flate of equilibrium. But if: one of
thofe products exceed the other, then the former wilk pre-
ponderate, and the parts of the machine muft move in the
direétion of the preponderating power, In the above com-
putation, however, a deduétion muft be made on account of
fri@tion, imperfe€tion of workmanfhip, &c. which fometimes
amounts to a confiderable quantity; but there are no ge-

3 E neral

DYN

neral rnles by which fuch deductions may be made with to-
lerable accuracy,

The complicated machines, which contain two, or more,
and fometimes a great repetition of the fimple mechanical
powers, caznot conveniently be colleéted under general and
comprehenfive claffes. Their number, their various ufes,
the different powers which aétuate them, their fizes, and
their effets, render the particular defeription of each ma-
chine too extenfive and nearly impracticable. Yet it is to
be withed that all forts of machines were regularly defcribed
and delineated in a fort of general mechanical repofitory;
for though feveral of thofe machines may not have anfwered
the purpofes for which they were intended, they are never-
thelefs of ufe to mechanical perfons, who are contriving other
machines for fimilar purpofes.

In the examination of machines, it is peculiarly entertain-
ing to obferve how different the powers are from the effcéts
of fome of them, and by which means thofe effects are pro-
duced. Certain machines are formed to produce a regular
effet from the application of an irregular power. ‘Thus
atthe Albion Mills, (which were erected fome years ago
near Blackfriars bridge, and were afterwards unfortunately
deftroyed by fire,) the alternate ftrokes of the piftom of a
fteam-engine were made to produce the regular rotatory mo-
tion of grinding-mills. In other machines a regular power
is caufed to produce an irregular, or an interrupted effeét.
Sometimes a power once applied a&ts gently during a con-
fiderable period of time; and at other times the aceumula-
tion of weak powers is made to produce powerful effetts at
ftated times.

It isnot only the produGtion of a certain effect from a par-
ticular power, that fhould be obferved in machmery; bat
the manner by which. the object is attained fhould be care-
fully examined; for the fimplicity of the means, the fafety,
and the durability of the machine, are the particulars which
form tltz beauty of the contrivance, and upon which the ficitl
of the contriver principally refts.

DYNAMOMETER, (from dumps, power, and perpen,
fF meafire, meaning a meéafurer of power,) is the name of
an initrument intended for meafuring the mufcular ftrength
of men aud other animals. Ain inftrament of this knrd-was,
fomte years ago, invented by Mr. Grahanv, audi was after-
wards improved by Dr. Defaguliers; bat it was too bulky,
and too. kimited in its ufe; fo that it was. foon nevletted.

Mr. Le Roy of the Academy of Scienees-at Paris, con&ructed,.

foon after, a much more ufeful inttrument for the fame pars
pofe. It confilted of a metal tube about a foot long, placed
vertically on a foot like that of a candlefick, and containing
in the infide ai {piral [pring, having above ita. graduated
fhank terminating ina globe. This fhank, together with
the fpring, fank into. the tube more or lets, ia. proportion
to the weight. which prefled upon the globe at. the tap of
the (hank, and the graduation of the latter indicated. the
quantity of it. ‘Therefore, when a man’s ftrength. was to
be tried by means of this inftrument, the man needed. only
prefs upon. the above-mentioned globe with all his power,
and the graduation of, the fhank. indicated the quantity of
that power, viz. it fhewed the number of pounds weight
to which it was equivalent. ;

Mc. Regnier, at Paris, at the infligation of Meflrs. Beffon
and Gueneau, contrived another fort of dynamometer. It
confiited: chiefly of an elliptical {pring a foot long, and
rather narrow. It was covered with leather, that it might
not hurt. the hand which comprefled ix ‘Phe ftrength
of this {pring was fuch as to exceed that of any animal to
which it might be applied; and it contained am index. with
a mechanifm which iadicated how much it was compredfed ;

a7)

DexiN

or; which is the fame thing, it indicated the quantity of the”

power which compreffed the foring. Therefore, when a
perfon wifhed to meafure his power by means of this mae
chine, he was obliged only to comprefs the elliptical ipring
with ali his force, and to obférve the quantity of that force
as pointed out by the index of the machine. (See le Journat
de Ecole Polytechnique, vol. i.) Both. the ufe and the
conitruétion of the lath de{cribed machine were mach ex
tolled; but, upon a ftri€t examisation, it does not*appear
that it was fuperior to Le Roy’s contrivance.

Since the above was made public, nothing peculiarly”
ufeful has been offered for the purpofe of meafuring the
ftrength of animals. Yet wpon the whole it feems, that the
common well known fpring ftee-yard, thongh not intended
expre(sly for that purpofe, is the belt inftrument for meas
furiag the ftrength of men and other animals. In principle,
it js nothing more than Mr. Le Roy’s contrivance ; but under
a much more commodious form. It has a ring at one end,
and ahook at the other. By endeavouring to pull thofe parts
from each other, a graduated rod comes out of the exteraal
tube, and fhews the force which has been applied to it.
Therefore, by fattening the ring to an immoveable obj-&,
and the hook to a man, or horfe, &c. by means of a rape
ot otherwife, the ftrength of the man or other animal may
be eafily afcertained. See Sprinc STEELYARD, ,
_ It certainly is a defirable thing to know the various miu
cular power of men and animals, efpecially of fuch as are to’
be employed for work of various kinds; and upon the whole
a pretty good eflimate may be obtained from the ufe of the
above-mentioned machine. Yet, it mutt be obferved, that
a détermination of this kind is influenced by a variety of cir’
cumftances, which tend to render the refult inaccurate or
equivocal. For inftance, a man is much ftronger than an-
other man in his hands, whilft that other manismuch Rronger
thanthe former inns legs: One camearry agréat weight upon’
his head; another can pull a great weight after him, that is,
drag it over the ground, and fo forth. Nearly the fame’
thing may be remarked with refpect to other animals, But the
moft material circum#ance is the duratiow of the exertion,
viz. certain men, and efpecialiy fuch as are younp avd welk
fed, but not much ufed to work, are capable of inimenfe
exertion during a minnte, or aw hour, or even a day; but’
they are incapable of enduring a longer duration of labour ;
whiift others go on witha uniform. daily exertion during”
weeks and years. The fame variety in the length of the.
exertion takes’ place in other animals, efpecialiy fueh as. are”
moré commonly ufed for labour, viz. horfesy mwigs, oxen,
camels, &c.

figy ¥. Plate RXV I. Mechanics, reprefents one of the whip-'
pletrees; to which two horfes or oxen can beapplied, the cover
of the mecbaniiny being removed toexplain its mterneal ftrae~
ture. A A isthemaim whippletree, bavingya hook at ato back
it to the plouch,, &c., and two others to connect it with twor
fhort whippletrees B, B, by which the cattle draw; the Hook |
a is faltened to a ftraight bolt 4, flidme freely througty holes”
in two pieces of iron plate d, f; a pin is put through the”
end of the bolt to prévenvit being drawn quite thropyelr at e;

a circular plate of iron is pumed fat upon the bolt}, between —

which, and the: fixed plate d,. a fpiral fteeb fpring is’ placed,
which has a ftrong tendency to clowgate itfelf, and draw the’
hook to the machine: / isa fhort rack faltened to the iron
plate ¢, and turning a {mail pmion on the back of the!
mdex i, which pomts out the:divifions on the are #& The
divifions are made: by fufpending weights from the hook a5
thefe comprefs the {pring in proportiow to their weight, and
the rack moves the index 7; the value of each weight being
marked on the arc 4 at the place pointed out by the eee
0

e

ve

: 2 YON

of courfe, when the horfes are harneffed to the whipoletress

B, B, and the plough, or carriage, to the hock a, the mo-
tion of the index denotes the force of their draught.

Fig. 2. is another machine on the fame principle as the
laf, but is contrived fo as to require a very delicate fpring,
which is found to be more fenfidie than a large one, and to
keep its elatticity langer: this is accomplithed by having the
hook a formed into two eyes at the other end, to receive the
pivots of the lever 4; whofe fulerum, or hxed centre, is at d;
at the other end of the lever it is conneded by a {hort iron
link e, to a fecond lever f, of which gis the fulcrum: / is
the {pring barrel, exactly the fame as the other machine, but
much fmatler, being only to weigh abont sol). inttead of

“5 ceut.; its {piedle is attached to the lever f, and is moved

thereby when the hook ais-drawn: the fpindle of the fpring
has a rack i faltened to it, which moves a {mall pinion, on
whofe arbor the index to the dial-plate is fixed: the dial plate
is in this machine a whole circle, defcribed in the figure by
a dotted circle, with large divilions tor hundred weigtits, and
fubdivefions for the quarters. By means of the levers the
power exerted on the heok is fo far diminifhed, that the {mall
fpring of sold, willferve to weigh a quantity equal to 6 ccvt.;
and by increating the {pring a little, and altering the levers, by
throwing the hooks nearer the centres, and lengthening the
levers, it may be made to do for 12 cw. "The mechanifm is
covered over with an iron box, to defend it from injury.

“This machine is the invention of Mr. Rebert Salmon,
Woburn, Bedfordfhire, and they are now manufactured by
Mr. Shepherd, implement-maker, Woburn,

This article is alfo the mott proper piace to defcribe a

_method, employed by Mr. Salmon, to meafure the force

requifite to give motion to a threfhing and flour mill at
Woburn-Park farm, belonging to the duke of Bedford.
The mill was originally worked by a horfe-wheel, adapted
for eight horfes or oxen, though it is now worked by a
fteam-engine; but the horfe-wheel {till remains. It is re-
prefented in jig. 3, where AA js the main vertical fhaft,
having pivots at both ends, ove of which works in a brats
focket, fupported on beams, a, a, laid on the ground ;
and the other in a brafs bearing, bolted to the @ beam,
which is framed between two girders, B, B, of the floor
above. D is the rim. of the wheel, containing the cogs; it
is compofed of three thicknefles faftened together, and is

fupnorted by fixteen arms, F, from the enlarzed part of the

fhaft at IE, and braced by fixteen beams, L, extending
from the lower part of the fhatt to the middle of the arms.

“The horfes or oxen draw from upright pteces of wood, a,a,

bolted to the arms, F, and braced by long iron bars from
the aijoining arms. Light of the arms are furnifhed in ths
manner, for the oxen to work the wheel: they walk upon a
circular read at G G, on the level of the ground, while the
fhaft is funk in a pit walled round, to give a greater length
of fhaft, that the oblique braces may have more effet.

The method in which Mr. Salmon applied a dynamometer
to this wheel was as follows: a picce of board, J, was ex-
tended between and nailed to the two uprights, a,a, hy
which the oxen drew; in the middle of the board a large
pulley, g, was fitted, tarning very freely, and upon as {mall
a pivot as was coniiftent with ftrength ; another pulley, d,
was fufpended frem the arm of the whecl near the centre ;
a finall foft rope was pafled over both pulleys, hanging
frateht down fromthe puiley, /, and terminating in a double
Kook, and after pafling round the pulley, g, was tied to the
middle 6f a fhort round fick. Your of the arms were fitted
up ia this manner, and two men were placed at each, holding
the {liek in their hands behind thea. Mr. Salmon placed
Mimfelf in the pit, being provided with a number of weights,

gulf, between Anticyra and Anshéle.

DYR

fome of which he hooked on the hooks at the end of the
rope. He then direfted the men ta-procced forwards, in
the track formed by the feet of the cattle, drawing the rope
after them, Their aétion raifed the weights, and cavied the
wheel to follow; but whete the weights were drawn up to-
wards the puiley d, Mr. S. added more weight, until it was
fo adjufted that the wheel moved round with its proper velo-
city, without the weights rifing or falling above any point
at which they were placed. The fum of tkefe weizhts now
thewed the power required to move the mill; and the motica
might be continued as long as was neceflary to obtain a fair
refult.. By this method, any fudden jerk or exertion, which
the men might make, would not be communicated to the
wheel, as it would only draw up the weights, which woud
defcend azain, when the men relaxed their ftrain.

The mili was employed in threfhing ; and as this isa very
unequal kind of work, it was often neceflary to hook ou
more weights, to overcome the refiftance octafioned by
feeding the machine: for it mutt be obferved, that no more
power could. be applied to the wheel than the fum of the
weights, as it was only through the medium of horfes that
the men exerted any power at all upon the wheel.

The velocity of the wheel elfo depended upon the weights,
for the heavier they were the quicker it would follow’ the
men, who were direéted to move at fuch a pace, as the
wheel feemed to take, that the weights might not defcend
by their going too flow, or afcend by their going too faft.
The wheel’s velocity was meafured by a watch which Mr. S.
had in his hand; and each turn of the wheel was denoted to
him, by a nail which was drove in the rim of the wheel
flriking a piece of tin plate nailed up againft the wall. LE
he found by the watch the wheel was moving too flowly, he
applied more weight, or vice ver/d, until the proper weight
was found. Mr. Salmon made many experiments in this
manner, on-the force required to thrafh different kinds of
corn, of which we fhall give the refults uader Turesutne
Mitt.

DYNASTY, aterm in Hifory, fignifying a race, or fue-
ceflion of kings of the fame line, or family. The word is
formed from the Greek, dwasiz, or duvessuw, to be powerful,
to be king.

We tind frequent mention in ancient hitory of dynafties
of Perfians, Aflyrians, Medes, &c. The ancient Chronicon
of Egypt mentioned by Synceils, gives us an account of
three different dynafties ; that of the gods, that of the demi-
gods or heroes, and that of men or kings. ‘he two former
are reprefented as continuing thirty-four thoufand two buns
dred and thirty-one years, in order to favour the high anti-
quity of the Egyptians; the lat as comrencing with the
reign of Menes, the firlt king of Epypt, and terminating
with Neétanebus IL. under whom the kingdom was con-
quered by Artaxerxes Ochus; and this is Said to have lated
two thoufand three hundred and twenty-four years. Ma-
netho has left us an hittorical chrenology of Exypr, divided
into thirty dynatties, comprehending a {pace ot move than
five thoufaad three hundred years to the reign of Alex«
ander: butit is certain, that thefe were collacrai avd net
fucefiive.

DYOTA, in Chemiffry, fiom dis, double, and es, ear, a
pelican, or circulating vetlel with two ears, in thape re-
{embiing a man fanding with his arms bent outwards, and
with his hauels on his fides.

DYPTYCHUA, or rather Drerycua.

DYRAS, in Ancient Georraphy, a river which had its
“cig (lee ts cake :
fource m mount Octa, and dilcnare-d itfelf into the Mohac

See Dierycwa.

3E 2 DYRNITZ,

» YR

DYRNITZ, or Tyryirz, in Geography, a town of
Germany, in the archduchy of Auftria; 17 miles S. of St.
Poiten.

DYRRACHIUM, now Durazzo, in Ancient Geo-
grapky, a town of Illyria, with a port on the Adriatic fea,
oppolite to Brundufium. It was formerly called Epidamnus,
but the Romans changed it to Dyrrachium. ( Pliny, iii. 26.)
According to Strabo, this city was founded by a colony of
Corcyrzans. It is mentioned by Cicero, Pliny, Paufanias,
Pomponius Mela, &c. Its port was much frequented in the
time of the Romans, by ali thofe who had occafion to pafs
from Brundufium to Greece. At the mouth of the Adfiatic
gulf, the fhores of Italy and Epirus incline towards each
other; and the fpace between Brundufium and Durazzo,
the Roman paflage, is no more than 100 miles: at the lat
ftation of Otranto, it is contrasted to 50; and this narrow
diftance had fuggefted to Pyrrhus and Pompey the extrava-
gant idea of a bridge. The eity, being the weftern key of
the empire, was, previoufly to its fiege, A.D. 1081,
guarded by fortifications, and alfo by George Palzologus, a
patrician, victorious in the oriental wars, and a numerous
garrifon of Albanians and Macedonians, who had, in every
age, maintained the chara@er of foldiers. Accordingly, the
courage of Robert Guifcard was affailed, in the profecution
of his enterprife, by every form of danger and mifchance.
His fleet was fcattered by an unexpeéted ftorm ; and the
difafter was fo ruinous, that both his failors and foldiers
were much difpirited. Unfuccef:ful in their firft naval en-
gagement, a {ally from the town, to which they laid fiege,
carried flanghter and difmay to the tents of the Norman
duke. A feafonable relief was conveyed to the town; and
as foon as the befiegers had lof# the command of the fea, the
iflands and maritime towns withdrew from the camp the
fupply of tribute and provifion. The camp was foon
afflicted with a peltilential difeafe; 500 knights perifhed,
and the lift of burials comprehended 19,000 perfons. Un-
der thefe calamitics, the mind of Guifcard alone was frm
and invincible; and while he colle@ed new forces from
Apulia and Sicily, he battered, or {caled, or fapped the
walls of Durazzo. he befieged were equally valiant and
indultrious in concerting meafures of felf-detence. A move-
able turret, fufficient for containing 500 foldiers, had been
rolled forward to the foot of the rampart; but the defcent
of the door or draw-bridge was checked by an enormous
beam, and the wooden ftru@ure was inttantly confumed by
ardent flames. In the mean while the emperor Alexius,
the founder of the Comnenian dynafty, made a hafty peace
with the Turks, and undertook in perfon the relief of Du-
razzo. Guifcard, unalarmed, waited in battle-array the
nearer approach of the enemy. Alcxius, contrary to the
advice of his wifeft captains, refolved to rifk the event of a
general action, and exhorted the garrifon of Durazzo to
aft their own deliverance by a well-timed fally from the
town, After the firft attack, the army of Guifcard was re-
duced to 15,000 men. Many of his troops betook them-
{elves to flight; but when the Norman duke was on the
verge of rum, his wife, Gaita, by her fingular valour and
addrefs, fucceeded in rallying the flying troops, and gave a
turn to the batcle, which rendered Robert completely vic-
toricus over an army five times more numerous than his
ewn. After this cecifive battle, the fiege of Durazzo was
diligently profecuted.
ladders were dropped from the walls; the light Calabrians
afcended in filence; and the Greeks were awakened by the
mame and trumpets of the conqueror. Yet they defended
the ftreet three days againft an enemy already malter of the
rampart; and nearly feven months elapied between the firft

At the dead of night, feveral rope-

DYs5

inveftment and the final furrender of the place, A. D, 1082,
Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. x.

DYRZELA, a town of Afia, in Pifidia. Ptolemy.

DYS/E, in Mythology, inferior gcddeffes among the
Saxons, being the meflengers of the great Woden, whofe
province it was to convev the fouls of {uch as died in battle
to his abode, called Valka/, i.e, the hall of flaughter ;
witere they were to drink with him and their other gods
cerevifia, or a kind of malt liquor, in the fkulls of their
enemies. The Dyfe conveyed thofe who died a natural
death to Hela, the goddefs of hell, where they were tor-
mented with hunger, thirft, and every kind of evil.

DYSASTHESIA, in Medicine, from cvs, agré, and
awicSevouc, fentio, implying an imperfect faculty of percep-
tion or fenfation, is a term employed by Sauvages to de-
fignate the firlt order of the fixth clafs of his nofology ; and
by Cullen, as the denomination of the firft order of the
fourth clafs in his arrangement of difeafes. In both thefe
fyftems the fame difeafes are included under the term, wiz.
thofe maladies of the organs of fenfe, which impede their
funGtions: fuch as catara@, amaurofis, &c. producing
blindnefs ; he varieties of deafne/s, depraved tafe, fmell,
and fo forth.

DYSART, in Geography, a royal borough, in the hire of
Fife, Scotland, was incorporated abcut the beginning of the
16th century; at which time it is mentioned as one of the prin-
cipal trading towns in the fhire. Its traffic declined about
the commencement of the laft century; but began to re-
cover in the year 1756, and is now very extenfive; 36 veflels
being employed from this port in foreign trade. About
750 looms are worked here in the manufacture of checks, of
which 795,000 yards are annually made. Ship-building
alfo is carried on to a confiderable extent: and upwards of
17,000 bufhels of falt are made yearly. But the principal
trade is the exportation of coal, which abounds in this
neighbourhood: upwards of 20,000 tons are annually
railed, of which nearly 5000 are fent to Denmark and Hol-
land, whence wood is imported in return. The borough,
with the three villages of Porthead, Galaton, and Borland,
contain nearly 5385 inhabitants; the lower clafles of whom
are moftly employed in making nails ; fome are engaged in
the weaving, &c. of check-cloth, and fome are occupied in
fhip-building. ‘The ground on which the town ftands, rifes
gradually from the fea for about a mile in extent, when it
flopes again to the river Orr. Near Porthead, on a free-
ftone rock, ftand the ruins of an ancient fortification called
Raven’s Craig, the property of which has belonged to the
family of St. Clair ever finee the time of king James Il.—
Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xii.

DYSCINESIA, in Medicine, from dvs, and xv/w, moveo,
I move, fignifying impeded or depraved motions, ariling from
difeafe in the moving organs, is the denomination given b
Sauvages and Cullen to the third order of the fixth clafs and
the fourth clafs of difeafes in their refpe€tive nofological
fyftems. The difeafes of fammering, /o/s of voice, dumtne/s,
Squinting, and other Jocal diforders of motion, are included
under Dr. Cuilen’s order, to which are added pally, hemi-
plegia, and paraplexia in the order of Sduvages.

DYSCRASY. See Crasis.

DYSECAEA, from $v; and dxoy», hear, the fame with
Dearness, which fee.

DYSENTERY, the Fiux, or Bloody Flux, dyfenteria,
from dus, and Zvrepov, inteflinum, the bowels, is a cifeale
principally charaéterized by frequent_mucous or bloody

-difcharges from the inteftines, while the proper faces

are retained, together with griping, and ftraining at fool,
and fome fever.

/:
, The

r DYSENTERY.

The word dy/entery; as ufed by the ancients, had no very
precife fignification. Originally its import was an affedion
of the bowels in general, and we find Hippocrates uling it,
not only to. fignify all ulcerations, but all hemorrhages of
the iateftines (even thofe which. are critical and falutary), and
likewife every kind of flux, with or without blood. (Prorrh. 2.
et Epidem. lib, ii.) It would feem, however, that, after his
time, fome of the other Greek authors, whofe works are
loft, were fenfible of this want of precifion, and therefore
reftri&ed. the meaning of the word to an ulceration of the
bowels, attended with gripes and fenefinus, (or ftraining, )
and with mucous and bloody ftools. For a difeafe with thefe
Symptoms Celfus calls formina, and fays it is the dy/enteria of
‘the Greeks; and Ceelius Aurelianus, retaining the Greek
name, defcribes the dyfentery much in the fame manner with
Celfus. (See Celf. De Med. lib. iv. cap. xv.—Ceel. Aurel.
de Morb. Chron. lib.iy. cap. vi.) Yet Galen returns to the
Joofer acceptation of the word, fometimes defining a dyfen-
tery, an ulceration of the bowels, at other times mentioning
four {pecies of that diftemper, all with bloody ftools; but
of which only one agrees with the ¢armina of Celfus, or the
dyfentery of the moderns. Aretzeus confines the term to an
ulceration of the bowels. But, although this notion of the
conttant ulceration of the bowels, in*conjunGion with dyfen-
teric fymptoms, prevailed in all medical writings until the
time of Sydenham and Willis; and although it be true, that
the bowels are liable to be ulcerated in the true dyfentery ;
yet it has been fully afcertained, by the difleGtions of the
moderns, that ulceration is accidental, and not effential to
the difeafe; and that inftances even of fatal dyfentery, (con-
fequently of the difeafe in its moft fevere and protracted
forms,) in which the inteftines were found, are more nu-
merous than thofe accompanied by ulceration, For this
affertion, we have the authority of Morgagni, Bonetus,
Cleghorn, and Pringle; the firft of whom alleges, and it is
now generally underftood, that ulceration takes place only
in che advanced or chronic ftates of the difeafe.

Dyfentery appears to be the fame difeafe under all circum-
ftances of its occurrence, except in the degree of violence ;
which, asin other difeafes, neeeflarily varies with the feafon,
the conftitution of the patient, and the degree of expofure to
the exciting caufes. Sir John Pringle affirms, that all the
epidemic, dyfenteries, which he witneffed in the army, were
the fame; and that he was affured by Dr. Huck, and other
army phyficians, that this difeafe appeared, in different
countries and climates, in Germany, Minorca, America,
and the Weft Indies, with the fame fymptoms, and yielded
to the fame remedies ; and, farther, that the epidemic de-
{cribed by Sydenham, as having occurred in London, in
166g and the following years, was fimilar to the reft, as well
as to the fporadic cafes which he had met with in private
practice, both in England and Scotland. The following is
a detail of the fymptoms and progrefs of the diforder.

The dyfentery fometimes begins, as Sydenham obferves,
with cold fhiverings, fucceeded by heat, and other febrile
fymptoms; but in other cafes thefe feverith fenfations are
not felt, but a griping and twilting of the bowels, or ftitches
in the fides, or only a pain about the pelvis, with a conttant
fruitlefs {training to ftool, and much flatulence, while the
body is coftive; fometimes, though more rarely, fome de-
gree of diarrhoea is the firlt appearance. In whatever way
the difeazfe begins, it foon puts on its charateriltic appear-
ances. ‘The difpofition to evacuate the inteltines becomes

more frequent and urgent, but in indulging it, little is
' voided, except a watery or flimy matter, and the éene/mus
becomes confiderable. From this time, until the favourable
turn gf the complaint, formed and natural excrements feldom

appear, except whena purge operates well, and carries thent
down, and then they are in the form of /cyda/a, or hardened,
feparate balls. When thefe are voided, whether by the
efforts of the conftitution, or by the interference of art, a
remiffion of all the fymptoms, and more efpecially of the
frequent ftools, griping, and tene/mus, fucceeds. Thefe
Jeybala are of a firm texture, and round fhape, having been
formed in the cells of the colon, or great inteftine, where
they have lain in all probability from the beginning. The
excrementitious difcharges moft commonly confift of a mu-
cous matter, ftreaked or mixed with blood, and often with
a ferous or watery fluid, and fragments of a membranous
appearance, contifting of coagulated lymph, but often taken
for abrafions of the internal coat of the bowels: fometimes
a pure and unmixed blood is voided in confiderable quantity.
The frum, fir J. Pringle obferves, is perhaps one caufe of
the irritation, and defcends from the higher parts of the in-
teflines, whilft the mucus is moftly fecreted from the recum,
or lower gut, in ftraining. Streaks of blood, he adds, de-
note the opening of fome fmall veffels at the end of the
re@um, buta more intimate mixture is a fign that the blood
comes froma higher fource. If the difeafe advances into a
chronic form, a purulent, and fanious matter is often dif-
charged, proceeding from ulcerated or gangrenous parts. The
{tools are all along diltinguifhed by a peculiar {mell, different
from that of common excrements; it is faint, and not rank
at firft, but towards the ‘end, when the bowels begin to
mortify, the fcetor is eadaverous and intolerable.

When the difeafe is formed, ficknefs and vomiting fre+
quently come on, and the appetite is generally ioft. ~Some
degree of fever is always prefent; which is various in its
kind. Sometimesit is manifeftly of an inflammatory nature 3
and, efpecially in warm climates, it is often of a remittent
kind, and obferves a diurnal or tertan period. Frequently,
indeed, a flux in the beginning will have the appearance of
the autumnal fever, and the patient will be fevernith, with
fome diforder in the ftomach and bowels, for two or three
days before the dyfenteric lax comes on; but after that, the
fever fenfibly gives way. This obvious diminution of the
fever upon the appearance of the loofenefs, feemed to juttify
the expreflion of Sydenham, when he called the dyientery
the fever of the feafon turned in upon the bowels.” Bat
patients are befides liable to a low fever, which fir J.
Pringle fays, was commonly brought on by neglect of the
cafe in the beginning, or by the ufe of opiates and other
aftringents before evacuations. But the molt fatal fort of
fever, which fo often attends the dyfentery of the army,
though not effential to it, is the hofpital or gaol fever, which
at all times infeéts foul, ill-ventilated, and crowded wards.
This fever, combined with the bloody flux, is generally mortal.
Thefe febrile ftates continue to accompany the difeafe during
its whole courfe, when it terminates foon, ina fatal manner.
In other cafes the febrile condition almoft entirely difappears,
while the proper dyfenteric fymptoms remain for a long time
after.

Under thefe modifications, the dyfentery is of various
durations in different inftances. When the fever attending
it is of a violent inflammatory kind, or when it is of a putrid
nature, the difeafe often terminates fatally in a very few
days, with all the marks of a fupervening gangrene. When
the febrile {tate is more moderate, or dilappears altogether,
the difeafe is often protraGed for weeks, and even for
months, and even.then it often terminates fatally. More fre-
quently, efpecially when occurring out of camps, and military
hofpitals, it ceafes gradually, after proper treatment, the fre-
quency and flimy compofition of the fools, the griping and
tenefmus, all ceafing, and natural ftools returning. In other

1 caless

; DYSENTERY.

cafes, the difeafe, with moderate fymptema, continues long,
and ends in a diarrhoa, fometimes agcompanied with
licntertc fymptoms,

In general the dyfentery terminates at the Jower extremity
of the gut, or, as Sydenham fays, “ the difeafe at laft is
driven to the redum, where it ends in a fencfmus;’’ i.e, the
colon remains longer difeafed than the {mailer inteflines,
and the rectum is generally the lait part that recavers. But
the fame phyfician.obferves, that the tene{mus remaining at
the end of a flux, is not owing to an ulceration of the
reGtum; but that part he fuppoles to be the laft depofitary
of the irritating mucusof theinteltines. But fir J. Pringle ex-
plains it more rationally by afcribing this remaining tenefmus
to the forenefs of a part, which has been fo much exco-
yiated and inflamed during the courfe of the difeafe, and
which, by the conflant irritation of pafling exersment, is
dtill kept from recovering.

It is the fign of a bad cafe, fays the lat mentioned phy-
fician, when the firft vomit and purge do not relieve; when
the heGtic feyer increafes; when the diforder of the ftomach
is obftinate; when the countenance altcrs much; when the
pulfe inks and iotermits; when the patient is refUlefs without
complaining of gripes. In the beginning a hiceup is little
to be dreaded ; but in the low and advanced ftate, if abfti-
nate, it is commonly a fign of amortification. Thedifeafe,
when fatal, ends in a praltration of ftrength, a fore throat,
or ephihe, inyelyntary and cadaverous tools.

In the army, he adds, inthe molt Jayourable event, thofe
men, who have been fent to an hofpital, can be of little
more fervice for the reft of the campaign ; for no ailment is
moye apt to retuyn upon errors in diet, or expoiure to cold.
Not that thefe returns are fo much relapfes*into the true
dyfentery, as they are diarrhceas, but with more of the
dy{fenteric fymproms than are common in the white-flux.

The proximate cau/é, or the aétual condition of the intef-
tines, upon which the fymptoms above detailed depend,
appears to be an inflammatory ftate of the mucous mem-
brane, which lines the inteftines, efpecially the great gut,
together with a preternmatural conftriction of their mufcular
fibres. The exiltence of thefe two circumflances is {uffi-
cient to explain the fymptoms. The retention of the na-
tural feces inthe cells of the colon, efpecially in an inflamed
ftate internally, will account for the non-appearance of na-
tural excrement, and the conftant defire to go to ftool, for
the pain and griping, and ftraining; which laft will explain
the production of ftreaks of bloed, and in part the fecretion
of mucus, which tke inflamed. lining membrane fo copionfly
pours out. 4

Accordingly difecion has generally difcoyered confiderable
conttrictions in the colon, where gangrene had not deflroycd
the textureand form of the parts; and the proofs and con-
{equences of inflammation were invariably detected. Thefe
are a preternatuyal thickening of the coats of the inteflines ;
internal ulcerations in the colon and rectum; and abrafion er
rather corruption of the villous coat into a flimy greenifh
fubltance ; gangrene of the rectum and colen, fometimes
extending the whole length of both; and ve¢cafionally a
fort of pultular appearance, refembling the {nrall-pox, in
thofe parts. The {aall inteltines are gensxally found inflated,
but feldom in a difeafed condition in any ether refpedt,

Dylentery is to be ditingmthed from diarrdaa, eliefly by
the /ene/mus, or truitlefs and diltrefling eflorts at iteol, by
the ablence of natural feculent matter in the dileharges, and
the {mallnefs of the evacuation and frequent attempts; as
well as by the febrile condition, which accompanies vhele
fymptoms, in the acute and early fkages. From ¢alic and
chglera, in both which there is pain and griping, and in the

latter, fever, it is eafily difcriminated ; by the conftipation
and acutenefs-of pain in colic, and by the profufe evacu-
ations of bilious matter by ttool in chelcra, without tenel-
mus.

The exciting caufes of dyfentery have been differently
ftated by different phyficians, The army phyficians have
attributed the dileaie to the combination of heat and moitlure,
or an alternation of thefe with cold 5 becavfe it ufually ap-
pears in camps and in warm countries towards the end of
fummer and in autumn, after great and continued heats, and
at the fame time with the autumnal remittent and intermit-
tent fevers. Willis obferves, that the fummer of 1679
(which preceded the autumn in whieh the flux was at 11s
greatelt height) was remarkably hot; and fir J. Pringle fates,
that in the femmer.of 1762, the heat and drought were of
long continuance, andin the autumn the dyfentery prevailed
in London extenfively, fo that he belicves more cafes then
occurred, than in ail the fixteen years that he had previoufly
refided here. He farther remarks, that when, at that period
of the year, the men are expefed to night-damps and fogs,
efpecially after a hot day, or lie wet upon the ground, or in
wet clothes, part of them will-be feized with the autwmnal
fever, and part with the dyfentery, and perhaps fome of
them will have a diforder compornded of both.

Dyfentery, however, is contagious in camps and hofpitals.
s* In the camp,” fays Dr. Pringle, “the contagion peffes
from one, whois ill, to his companions, in the fame tert,
and from thence perhapsto the next. ‘I'he foul ftraw be-
comesinfeCtious. But the greateft fources of infe€tion are
the privies, after they have received the dyfenteric excre-
meits of thofe who firft ficken. ‘Phe hofpitals tikewite
{pread it; fince thofe who are admitted with the flux, not
only give it to the reft of the patients, but to the nurfes and
other attendants of the fick.” This is: moft concltfive evi-
dence of its flrongly contagious nature, under thofe cireum-
ftances. But we have alfo evidence of the hmited ¢xtent of
the influence of this, as of other eontagious efluvia. (See
Contacion.) “ Ingeneral the contagion docs not fuddenly
{pread. For whole towns and camps are never feized at
once, from the impurity of the atmofphere, but the infec-
tion is carried from one to another by the fiuvia, or clothes,
or bedding, &c. of the tainted perfén, qs in the cafe of the
plague, {mall-pox, and meafles.” Av Nimegcuen, the Jews,
who hed little intercourfe wich the reft ef che people, ef=
caped the epidemic dyfentery. (See Degner. Hitt. Dyfent.
biltofo-contagios. cap.i.§ 35.) Dr. Cullen has efferted
that dyfentery is always contagious; he belreved that cold
never produced the difeafe, except when the contagion
had been previoufly received ; and that a fpecifc conte-
gion was the folie exciting caufe of dyfentery. (Piri
Lines, § 575.)

This pofition we are éifpofed to confider as erroneous.
Sydenham makes no mention of any contagion, attends
the epidemic dylentery, which he has deferibed; and Willis,
who {peaks of the fame epidemic, exprefsly aflerts that it
was not infectious, It isa common difcafe in this metre-
polis, ina fpovadic form, and during the laft eutumn ra
was prevalent to a confiderable extent ; yct we do nat recol-
ke€t to have once obferved it to pafs to a fecond perfon in
any family; while its origin could be often fatisfactorily
traced to. expofure to cold aud moiiture. In this refpcé, toa,
the analogy of Cararru corroborates the notion of tts
beiag under one form coytagious, and under another-fimoly
the eflcct of the operation of cold. ‘The common fporadic
examples of catarrh, which we witnels every day, are fo
notorioufly the effeét of this agent, that the cifeale irfelf is
denominated a Coup, by a bgure of fpeech. Yet there

can

DYSENTERY,

ean be little doubt, that, under the form of Inravenza,
the catarrh is an uifeAions dileafe.

Many writers have alcribed the dyfentery fo the ufe of
fruit, or to the overflow of bile, or to bath thefe catifes,
But their opinions have erroneoufly arifen from the circum-
fhance, that the feafon of the prevalence of dyfentery is
ufwally that, in which fruit is abudddat,; and bilious difeafes
occur; namely, the end of fumimer, and the autumn. Sy-
denham, however, who confiders fruit as a caufe of Cros
LERAy never mentionsit as the occafion of the dyfenteries,
witich were epidemic in London inthis time; and Degner,
another diligent obferver, exprefsly fays, that fruit had no
fhare in producing the flux which raged fome years ago at
Nimeguen. Sir J. Pringle is decided in his denial of the
effzcts of fruit in exciting dyfentery. He obferves that the
folidiers could not afford to procure fruit ; and befides he
ftates that the worlt flax, which prevailed in the army, in
which he ferved in the Low Countries and in Germany,
began inthe end of June, when there was no other fruit but
firawberries, which the men oever tated ; and that it nearly
cealed about the firft of OGober, when the grapes were
ripe, and fo plentiful in open vineyards, that the men eat
what quantity they pleafed. Avs to the bile, it is certain
that occaliooally a cholera terminates in a dyfentery; but
this is very rare, and is often to be attributed to the
unfeafonable interruption of the difcharge by aftringents,
and ftrong opiates. Where the bowels are very irritable,
any unulual determination to them may bring on dyfentery.

Cure.—It has beew iuftly obferved, that there are few
acuie cifeafes lefs indebted to the natural efforts of the con-
flitucion for a cure, ot in which the apparent indications are
more deceitful, than dyfentery. The conftant flux feems to
require the admiiitration of {trong aftringents, and the great
pains and gripings in the bowels eppear to demand the free
ufe of opiates: aud yet thefe remedies, unlefs employed with
much caution, or corrected by others, tend much more to
confirm than to remove the difeafe. On the other hand,
purges add emetics, under fuch a ftate of irritation and
perpetual difcharges, would appear to be inadmiffible, and
have been condemned; yet later experience has fhewn them
to afford the chief means of cure.

We fhall follow fir J. Pringle in treating of the method of
cure, under three different flates of the difeafe: namely, firlt,
inthe acute ltate of the difeafe, or while it is recent; fe-
contly, in the chronic Rate, or when the diforder is of a bad
kine, has continued long, and has much inipaired the
ftrength, injured the inteltises, and induced a hectic fever;
and, thudly, when the’ patient, although recovering, is kept
low by a fne/nius; or fome'other remains of the difeafe, or
becomes fudje€t ro frequent returns of a loofenefs, from the
wealenels of his bowels.

I. Is the aciete fate—In very {trong habits, and where
inflameiatory {ymptonis, either aceeffory, or belonging to
the difeafeirfelf, ron high, a moderate bleeding may be pre-
mifed, "Lilie, however, is very rarely neceflary, efpecially in
fporadi¢ cafes; and the repetition of it may be confidered
asigendrally uaneceflary or hurtful. The privcipal object of
cure, in a recent cafe of dyfentery, is to obtain a full evacu-
atiow of theinteftinal canal, by whict means the /zyJa/a, or
Hardened exerement, or the morbid fecretions into the canal,
thay be removed; at the fame time to take care that the in-
flammatory condition of the mucous membrane, lining the
pailages, be as livtle affeted by the irritation of the procefs
aspoffible. This evacuation indeed is fometimes contrary

tothe inclinations of the patient, who conceives that his

bowels are already too much griped and purged; and a
priori it might jattly be fuppofed, that any additional irrita-

tion, froma purgative fabftance, wou'd be hurtful, did we
not recolle& that we thus remove a much greater irritationy
the hardened faces, which a@ually caufe or keep up the
difeafs,

Tt isdefrable, therefore, to adopt the mildelt means of
evacuation, which are adequate to the full cff-&. Emetic
fubltances, efpecially antimonial preparations and ipecacuanhay,
have been much employed for this purpofe, adminiftered in
fuch a way as to aét upon the bowels. The vitrum ceratum
antimonii, glafs of antimony, or vitrified oxyd of antimony
melted with wax; was ftrongly recommended (fee Edin.
Medical Effavs, vol. v.) as acure for dyfentery, and ufed
by fir J. Pringle, and many other pra€titioners, with faceefs.
It always occafioned vomiting, and generally purging, with
whiclr lat operation its fuccefs was obferved to be particu-
larly connected. But the uncertainty and oceafional violence
of the effvéts of this medicine have caufed it to be generally
laid afide by praétitioners. A vegetable emetic was imtro-

-duced by Prso, as a {pecific againft dyfentery, namely, the

ipecacuanha root. He relied on its purgative quality, how-
ever, though he adds, that it flillhad a better efle&t when
it vomited alfo. (See Gul. Pilon. Hitt. Nat. et Med.
Indie Occid. hb. ii. cap. ix.) Sir John Pringle ufed this
as his firft medicine in the commencement of dyfentery, and
found it moft certainly fuccefstul, when given in divided
dofes, of five grains each, at the intervals of an hour.
Three dofes generally brought ona purging; no drink being
allowed until that effect was produced, and then fome gruel
was taken to promote it.

But fince it has been clearly afcertained, that the falutary
operation of thefe and fimilar medicines, confifs entirely of
their cathartic effeéts, and that thofe fubftances, which pof+
fefs a purgative quality only, are equally efficacious and
More certain in their operation, the latter are now generally
employed. Various cathartic medicines have been adopted
upon theoretical principles, or from obfervation, in the
treatment of. dyfentery. Rhubarb was formerly much ufed,
becaufe its purgative operation was followed by an effe& of
aflringency, upod which principle, by the way, Piso re+
commended the ipecacuanha; but, on the contrary, it feems
defirable that we fhould ufe a purgative, which may leave
the body open. Amorg the mildeft and moit certain means
of procuring evacuations from the bowels, are the neutral
falts, efpecially the foluble tartar, or fartrite of pota/i, and
the Epfom falt, or /ulphate of magnefia, well diluted, and with
the addition of cinnamon, or peppermint water, in divided
dofes of a 3 ; or two drachms every hour or two, till an
evacuation is procured. The caftor oil, olewm ricini, fenna,
and manna, lave been ufed with fuccefs; and calomel alone,
or with rhubarb, is an efficacious medicine: fir J. Pringle
ufed to adminilter five grains of calomel with thirty of rhu-
barb. But hejuftly obferves, “ that we are to attend leis
to the dofe than to the effeéts, which are not to be jadged
of by the frequency, but by the copioufnefs of the ftoole,
and by the relief which the patient finds from the gripes and
tenefmus after the operation; and that, as oa the one hand, the
phyfician ought to avoid all the rough and ftimulating purges,
fo on the other he is not to {pare thofe of a lenient kind, ef-
pecially rhubarb, which is commonly under-dofed.”? Rhu-
barb, however,is much condemned by other writers.

But it fs neceflary to remark, that the cure cannot always
be readily effe€ted by purgatives alone. The irritation
which they occafion, under the tender ftate of the internal
coat of the inteftines, in dyfentery, tends, in many inftances,
to counteract the good effects of the removal of the /ardes.
It has been the cuftom, therefore, with praétitioners In
general, to give an opiate in the evening, after the purgative

operation

DYSENTERY.

Gperation was accomplifhed; to repeat the purgative, at the
interval of a day or two, interpoling opiates, efpecially in
the evening of the day of purgation ; or to alternate purga-
tives and opiates, until the ftate of the bowels become na-
tural, It is fingular, that our great phyfician, Sydenham,
recommends the interpofition of cathartics only in the epi-
demic dyfentery, when the difeafe affumes a more fevere
form; and ufed opiates alone for the cure of the milder or
{poradic cafes of the diforder. ‘This is certainly inconfiftent
with the obfetvation and experience of {ucceeding phyficians :
for even in the mildeft inftances of dyfentery, opium, while
it gives a temporary relief to the pain and tenefmus, is ob-
ferved but to poftpone their fevere occurrence, and to pro-
traG the complaint, which it rather confirms than removes,
by retaining ‘the enemy within the bowels.’? In the more
ufual forms of the difeafe, the general voice of experience
has decided, that opiates, given previous to or without
purgation, aggravate the difeafe. Indeed fir George Baker,
and fome other authors, ftrongly condemn the ufe of opiates,
until the ftools have become natural, in confequence of the
full evacnation of the bowels: they affirm that opiates, like
other aftringent medicines, gives rife to tympanites, by re-
tainic x the feces and morbid fecretions within the inteftines.

We are fatisfied, however, from obfervation, and we have
no lefs authority in our favour than the practice of the late
Dr. Werren, (fee Medical Tranfa@ions of the Coll. of
Phyf.) that opiates may be ufed, from the firlt appearance
of the difeafe, with advantage, provided an evacuation be
procured at the fame time, by the combination of purgative
medicines with them. The conjunétion of opium with
cathartics isan ufefu) practice in extremely irritable condi-
tions of the bowels; it retards, but {carcely diminifhes, the
Operation of the purgatives, the irritation of which it in a
great meafure prevents. We have known inftances of dy-
fentery, which had received but a temporary removal from
the alternation of cathartics and anodynes, yield at once to
the combination of them, efpecially of opium with calomel.
Dr. Clezhorn, a‘ter mentioning two modes in which dyfen-
tery begins, obferves, **in both cafes, when other means
have failed, fix or feven grains of calomel, with a grain of
opium at night, (after the ufe of the /emicupium,) and a purg-
ing apozem, made of fenna, manna, and fal satharticum, the
next day proved fuceefsful, and brought off a prodigious
quantity of round, hard, foctid lumps, to the great relief of
the patient: nor is it eafy to conceive,”? he adds, ‘* how fo
much had been colle&ted, or where it had lodged fo long,
as in fome cafes I have obferved; the patient having. eat
nothing for two or three weeks that could furmfh much ex-
crement, and during that time had taken feveral glyfters and
common cathartics, which brought away liquid ftools.”’
(On the Difeafes of Minorca, chap. v. p. 252.) In fuch
cafes, it is clear that the opiate aided, inftead of impeding,
the operation of the cathartic; probably by relaxing the
conftrition of the mulcular fibres of the bowels, which we
have already noticed as conftituting part of the difeafe, and
which retained the hardened excrement, in {pite of the opera-
tion of cathartics alone.

IT. But if medicines have been altogether negle&ted, or
improperly or unfuccefsfully adminiftercd, during the carly
and acute flage of the difeale, the fever becomes more of a
heétic form; the pulfe more feeble and {mall; the ftrength
is confiderably impaired ; and the body more or lefs ema-
elated; while the griping and tenefmus remain, and the
ftools continue fmall, frequent, and flimy; with various
other appearances of the feces, which require attention, as
indicating the probable degree and mode in which the in-
teftines are difordered; fuch as fimply flimy or mucous eva-

cuations, thofe ftreaked or tinged with bload, or containing
ragged membranous appearances, {cybala, or purulent and
fanious matter.

In this ftage of the difeafe, evacuation of the offending
matter from the bowels is itill the leading obje& of medi-
cine; with this difference, that the mildeft means are now
more requifite, and that it may be particularly ufeful to
fheathe the inflamed inteftines from the acrimony of morbid
and acrid fecretions ; to aid the operation of Jaxatives, by
means of bland, mucilaginous, or oleaginons fluids; and to
pfocure a refpite from pain and f{pafm by anodynes. For
the former purpofes, the caftor oil has been particularly re-
commended, or any mild oil combined with tindture of
rhubarb. Manna, and the mild neutral falts, fometimes
combined with oil or manna, have !:kewife been fuccefsfully
employed; and the neutral falts, with mucilaginous diluents,
and opiates in conjunétion, are well adapted to thefe pur-
pofes. Emollient and anodyne glyiters were found beneficial
by fir John Pringle in this ftage of the dyfentery ; fuch as a
decoction of linfeed, or of ftaxch, or fat mutton broth, in
the quantity of from four to eight ounces, according as more
or lefs could be retained. When the irritability of the lower
bowels and tenefmus were fo great, that thofe glyfters were
rejected, the tin¢ture of opium was added. But fir John
acknowledges, that the parts were often fo tender, as to
render it impoffible to adopt that praétice. And in fa& it
not unfrequently happens, that the introduétion of the pipe
into the anus cannot be borne, in confequence of the in-
flamed and excoriated ftate of the ref@um. In fuch cafes, a
pill of opium may be fometimes introduced within the gut
with great relicf to the frequency of the motions, and to the
griping and tenefmus.

The food and drink fhould be contrived of a bland and
demulcent nature. With this view, the dict may confift
chiefly of rice or barley-gruel, of fago, arrow-root, panada,
light pudding, or preparations of milk, Animal broths
were at firlt allowed by fir J. Pringle, when the patients were
but flightly feverifh ; but experience taught him, that a: inal
food in any form was in gencralimproper. Objections have
been made to the ufe of milk diet in dyfentery, in confe-
quence of an obfervation of the author juft named, that fome
white fubflances, paffled in the tools, and which have been
called corpora pmguia, were found, in a cafe examined by
Dr. Huck and himfelf, to be pieces of cheefe. But it is
much lefs difficult to fuppofe, that thefe cheefy matters were
the remains of that indigeftible fubftance, which had lain
in the inteftines fince the commencement of the difeafe, like
the /cybala mentioned by Dr. Cleghorn, than to believe that
as actual cheefe-making procefs goes on in the alimentary
canal, from the milk that is fwallowed. We cannot but
deem a milk-diet the moft favourable to recovery, while the
hectic fever is kept up in confequence of flow inflammation,
or ulceration, in the internal coat of the lower inteftines.

For drink, in this ftage of the difeafe, rice or barley-
water, toaft and water, linfeed-tea, or a decoétion of flarch
with gum-arabic, feafoned with fome fimple cinnamon water
and fugar, have been employed; and preparations of wax
have been long in r pute for their virtues in dyfentery. Bates

recommended a folution of it in {pirits, and Diemerbroeck:

praifes it when diffolved in milk. In a {pirituous form it is
to be ftrongly deprecated ; and the oily and mucilaginous
demulcents appear to be on the whole preferable to wax.
M. Senac, phyfician to the French army, informed fir J.
Pringle, that after bleeding and adminiilering an emetic of
tartarifed antimony, he fucceeded in curing dyfentery by
giving one grain of that antimonial, diffolved in a pint of
common whey or chicken-water, every day, in divided

draughts,

S gr 6 ng el ee a

¥

D YS.

draughts, which ferved for all food, drink, and mediciae,
till the patient recovered.

For mitigating the griping pains, and relieving flatulency,
ftimulant carminatives, as they have been called, ought not
to be employed. Fomentations or the warm-bath are often
ferviceable for this purpofe; but the fymptoms are mott
effectually relieved by a free evacuation of the bowels, from
a laxative combined with an opiate. Where morbid acidity
prevails in the firft paffages, with heartburn, the abforbent
earths, fuch as chalk and magnefia, are beneficial.

When the flux continues till the ftrength is much im-
paired, and the pulfe finks, while the heétic heats remain,
the danger is great: though there are ftill hopes, as long as
there are neither involuntary ftools, nor aphthe, nor a hiccup,
and while the patient does not complain of great lownefs and
anxicty about the precordia. If thefe fymptoms are prefent,
the cafe is moft unfavourable, and fcarcely admits of pallia-
tives; fince opiates have but little effe& in eafing the pain,
or checking the frequency of the ftools.

III. But if the general fymptoms of the difeafe are re-
moved, and the patient is chiefly kept low by the irritation
of a tenefmus, or by frequent returns of a diarrhoea, from
the weaknefs of his bowels, opiates, altringents, and bitters
will be ufed with advantage. The tenefmus, in this cafe,
is-occafioned principally by the increafed fenfibility and ten-
dernefs of the bowels, efpecially of the rectum, which renders
the pafling of every matter, even the proper fecretions, pain-
ful. The introduétion of a pill of opium, with or without
the extra& of cicuta, is often in fuch inftances particularly
ufeful. Sir J. Pringle recommends a preparation of mutton
fuet in milk, with alittle finely powdered ftarch, to be taken
internally as food, under the fame circumftances. When
the ftomach and bowels are fo enfeebled, that a /ientery is
occafioned, the food being carried off imperfe@ly digelted,
the aftringent vegetable fubftances, fuch as logwood, catechu,

Jimarouba, &c. with opiates, mult be adminiftered. Dia-
phoretic medicines, by tending to reftore the exhalation from
the flcin, and thus to alter the deternnnation of fluids to the
inteftines, are alfo frequently beneficial.

During this aftringent courfg, attention to the diet will
ftill be requifite: It fhould ftill be of a light, eafily di-
geftible, and nutritious quality, confifting much of milk,
vegetable ftarches, fuch as fago, falep, and arrow-root, rice,
and the common farinacea ; greens, and other laxative and
flatulent articles, being {paringly ufed or avoided. It has

‘been remarked by the belt writer on this fubje&t, fo often

quoted, (Pringle,) that he has often known a cure ob-
tained, when aflringents have been of no avail, by a milk and

farinaceous diet, without them.

.

Together with the ufe of thefe remedies, exercife in the
open air, regularity of life in refpeét to the hours of eating,
fleeping, and rifing, and every other means of reftoring the
funétions, fhould be adopted : and nothing is more conducive
to prevent relapfes of the flux, or of the diarrhcea, than
warm clothing, efpecially the ufe of flannel worn next the
fkin. See Pringle on Difeafes of the Army, p. iii. c. 6.
Cleghorn on the Dif. of Minorca. Cullen Firft Lines,
§ 1067. See alfo an ample lift of references in Cullen’s
Nofology, gen. 41. ,

DYSMENORRHG:A, painful menftruation.

In fome women, more efpecially about the period’ of pu-
berty, the difcharge of the catamenia is preceded and accom-

_ panied by pain, fometimes ina very violent degree, about

the Joins and pelvis, and other parts conneted’ with the
uterus. The ftomach often | fympathifes with this morbid
condition of that organ, and naufea, lofs of appetite, and
even vomiting take place; and there isa general languor of
pd Vox. XII.

DYS5

the whole frame, fometimes amounting to a€tual fainting.
This diforder occurs moft commonly in delicate females,
and the health is ufually indifferent in the intervals; occa-
fionally there is a flight difcharge of the nature of /eucorrhea.
Very rarely it has been obferved that this pain and diforder
have attended every period of menftruation through life.

The patient fhould be kept quiet, or confine herfelf to
bed, when the period returns; the bowels fhould be kept
gently open, and warm diluent drinks vfed freely. The
two expedients, which afford the moft effeGtual relief, are
the ufe of opium, either internally or by glyfter, or both;
and the warm bath, or femi-cupium, the good effects of
which are partially obtained by fomentations to the lower
region of the abdomen, and to the lower extremities. Dr.
Hamilton, the prefent profeffor of midwifery at Edinburgh,
recommends the free ufe of the infpiflated juice of the hyof-
cyamus, asa preferable narcotic in this painful complaint.
He orders from two to four grains every hour, till the paia
is mitigated. The earlier the medicine is adminiftered the
better, and the fmaller the dofe of the medicine required to
produce relief. Opium, however, has feldom failed, under
our obfervation, to alleviate the diforder. The following
are the obfervations of Dr. Fothergill upon this topic.

Let the patient have by her a few pills of the extra@um
thebaicum, one grain each, made foft with a little of any
kind of conferve. She is to take one of thefe pills the
moment fhe finds the pain attending this difcharge coming
on. A pill may be taken every hour till the pain gocs
off; they feldom require more than two of thefe pills;
one is often fufficient, if given early; and it ought to
be a conftant rule obferved in adminiftering anodynes, to
give them, when they are plainly indicated, early. It re-
quires much lefs of an opiate to obviate pain than to quiet it
when acute.

When the time is paft, a courfe of chalybeate bitters, in
fmall dofes, may be continued till within a few days of the
return; and the belly fhould be kept open by fome proper
laxative: two or three grains of the cathartic extra@, with
half the quantity of calx antimonit illota, taken every night,
will often fucceed perfeétly well. The anodyne muft ftili be
in readinefs to take when the pain comes on, and to be taken
to fuch a quantity as to mitigate the pain, be the dofe what
it may.

This excruciating pain feems to be fpafmodic, and to pro-
ceed from the extreme irritability of the uterine fyftem: the
blood naturally determined hither, in order to its being dif-
charged, by diltending the very’ irritable vcffels, occafions
the {pafm; this produces a conitri€tion of the veffels; they
become impervious, and the ni/us to the difcharge con~
tinuing, the pain becomes exquifite and general, till the pa-
tient, worn out with the ttruggle, is debilirated and funk;
the fluids are then difmiffed, fome eafe fucceeds, but the
patient is oftén fo reduced, as not to recover her ufual
ftrength before fhe has another confli& to undergo.

Dr. Fothergill remarks that the /fvor albus is frequently
the confequence of this ftruggle, and that it would feem as if
the uterus itfélf was fo far a fufferer as to be rendered by
degrees lefs fit for fecundation. I think it has been ob~
ferved by other phyficians, he adds, as well as myfelf, that
few of thofe who have fuffered much’in the manner here de-
feribed, have borne children. See Medical Obfervations aud
Inquiries, vel. v. >

DYSODA, in ‘Betany, from Avcwers, fetid, a name
given by Lonreiro to the Lytidm foetidum, wich he rightly
feparated from Ly¢ivm, but which Jufficu has called Seri/a,
and the latter is now adopted. See Serissa.

DYSODIA, in’ Medicine) from: 30; and 62, eleo, is -a

3 1, genus

D Y's

genus of difeafe conftituted by Sauvages, including the va-
riety of fcetid exhalation or bad {mells arifing from the
body, as from fores, bad breath, &c, See his Nofol. Meth.
clafs ix. g. 35.

DYSOPIA, is the title of a genus of difeafe in Dr. Cullen’s
arrangement, fynopymous with the amblygpia of Sauvages,
and comprehending thofe varieties of depraved or imperfe&
vifion, which require a particular quantity of light, a par-
ticular diftance, or pofition of the objects. The term in-
cludes the Aemeralopes and nyéalopes of authors, or thofe
who are blind except in twilight or in the broad day-light,
and alfo the fort fighted, &c.

DYSOREXIA, from dus and ogekss, appetite, or defire,
fometimes ufed as fynonymous with Anorexia, or lofs of
appetite for food. Dr. Cullen has adopted the term, as the
title of the fecond order of his fourth clafs of Jocal difeafes,
including the deranged or erroneous appetites and defires, as
well as thofe which are defe&tive; fuch as Bultmia, or canine
appetite; Polydipfia, or exceflive thirft; Pica, or appetite
‘oh things not eatable ; Satyriafis, Nymphomania, Anaphro-
difia, &c.

DYSORUM Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain,
which, in the time of Herodotus, feparated Thrace, towards
the coaift of the fea, from Macedonia. It was at afmall dif-
tance from the Jake Prafias, and from a filver-mine, which
had fometimes yielded a talent per day. Herod. |. v. 17.

DYSPEPSIA, Dysrepsy, in Medicine, from dus and
memset, to digefl, or concod, a weaknefs or derangement of
the funtion of digeftion. See Dicrstion.

This weakened condition of the digcitive power in the
ftomach is conne&ted with a variety of complaints, which,
together or feparately, mark its prefence in different inftances:
fuch as Nausea; VomitinG; heart-burn, or CARDIALGIA;
pain of ftomach, or Gastropynia; FratuLence; Py-
ROSIS, or water-brafh; &c. which fee refpedtively.

It is alfo often a prominent feature in what are denomi-
nated Nervous difeafes, in Hypocuonpriasis, and fome
cafes of Mevancnotvy, of all which, in fa, the derange-
ment of the digeftive organs is frequently the exciting or
proximate caufe. It is alfo generally the precurfor of the
paroxy{m of regular Gour. See InpvicesTrion, and the
articles here alluded to.

DYSPERMATISMUS, from 9us, and orepparisposs
Jeminatio, a flow, impeded, and infufficient emiflion of the
feminal fluid, in the generative ac.

The caufes by which this impediment is induced may be
arranged under a few heads. 1. Difeafes of the urethra, which
narrow the canal; as thickening of the parietes, ftritures,
ulcers with elevated edges, caruncles, or excrefcencies, fun-
gous enlargements of the corpus fpongiofum, &c. (See
Sharpe’s Critical Enquiry, chap. 4.) conftituting the dy{-
permati{mus urethralis of the nofologifts. 2. Nodes, or
hard tumours, in the corpora cavernofa (D. nodo/is.) 3. A
contraGtion of the prepuce (D. preputialis, or phymoficus.)
(See Arantius de Tumor preter natur.) 4. Mucus lodged
in the urethra (D. mucofirs.) 5. A too rigid extenfion of the
virile member, contraéting the canal of the urethra. (See
Edis, Med. Effays, vol.i.art. 35-) (D. Aypertonicus.) 0. A
general epileptic convulfion (D. epilepticus.) 7. An imper-
fe extenfion of the member. (D. apradodes.) (See Etmul-
ler de Morb. virorum. cap. 2. p. 469. Veflingii Epift. et
Obf. Ep. 38. Foreft. lib. xxvi. obf. 18 dnd 19.) 7. The
fluid being -dire&ed towards and flowing into the bladder.
(D. refluus.) (See Petit. in AG. Acad. Chirurg. tom. i.
p- 434.) This reflux of the femen into the bladder Mr.
Sharpe afcribes generally to a {chirrus, or fometimes a
f{pongy enlargement of the verumoatanum, with or without

DYS

ulceration, or to an obftruction in fome part of the urethra.
This f{pecies of the difeafe under confideration 1s not very
uncommon. See Sharpe /cc. cit... Sauvages Nofol. Method.
clafs. ix. gen. 31.

DYSPHONIA, from dvs and Qayn, voice, a difficulty of
fpecch.

‘ DYSPNGA, from dvs, and wx, J breathe, a difficuity
of breathing.

Difficulty of breathing originates from a great variety of
caufes, and is a fymptom connected with a great number of
Gifeafes. Whatever impedes the entrance of the air into the
cells of the lungs, obitru&s the circulation of the blood
through them, prevents their free expanfion, or narrows the
cavity of the cheft, will neceffarily be en impediment to the
act of refpiration. When the difficulty of refpiration is fo
great, as to render it neceflary for the patient to maintain
the ereét polture, it is termed ORTHOPNOEA.

t. Among the impediments to the free paffage of the air
into the cells of the lungs, which occafton dyfpneea, may
be enumerated, the thickening of the membranes of the paf-
fages from inflammation, and the confequent effufion of
mucus, or coagulable lymph, as in Cararru, and Croup, in
which a frequent cough is excited by the irritation of thefe
fecretions, which enables the lungs to diflodge them. In
the chronic catarrh of old people, inthe Baflard Peripneu-
MONY, andin AstuMa, thefe mucous fecretions are moft
copious, and, by filling up the cells and tubes of the lungs,
occafionaliy produce actual fuffocation. In the paroxyfm of
afthma, the difficulty of breathing appears to be augmented
by a {pafmodic contra&tion of the gioitis, which ftill farther
impedes the free paflage of the ar. Inflammation of the
lungs, both in the form of PLeurisy and PeripNEuMONY,
is accompanied by dyfpncea in confequence of the congettion
of blood, and the effufions of ferum, blood, or lymph,
into the cells of the lungs, which, when the difeafe is violent,
ufually enfue; and often deftroy the patient by a fatal in-
terruption to the breathing.

The cells of the lungs are compreffed, and the admiffion
of air therefore prevented, by tumours, and colle€tions of
fluids, in their fubftance; hence dy{pncea is occafioned by
the prefence of sus, confequent on acute inflammation of
the lusgs, in the form of Vomicz; and by the prefence of
tubercles, hydatids, fteatomatous, or other tumours, and of
ferum effufed into the cellular membrane, conftituting the
ancfarca, or hydrops pulmonum. See Drorsy of the Lungs.

2. Whatever obitruéts the pulmonary circulation to a
confiderable extent alfo occafions dyfpnea. If the blood is
prevented from flowing freely back to the heart, a congeftion
is produced in the lungs, which neceflarily comprefles the
cells and air-tubes; and if, on the other hand, the blood ts
impeded in its way to the air-cells, then it is imperfectly
changed by the influence of the air, and the fenfation
of fuffocation, and laborious refpiration equally enfue.
Polypous concretions about the heart, aneuryfms of the
heart or great veflels, offification of its valves, &c. contri-
bute to produce thefe morbid ftates of the circulation. See
Carpiogmus and ANEURYSM.

3. Whatever prevents the free expanfion of the lungs ne-
ceffarily impedes the funGtion of refpiration. Thus dyfpnaa,
often orthopnea, is a conftant attendant on Aydrothorax,
when the water, effufed into the cavity of the cheft, occu-
pies that portion of the cavity, which the expanded lungs
would ctherwife fill. (See Drorsy of the Chef). When
vomice burft, and their purulent contents are poured into
the fame cavity, the effet produced on the lungs is the
fame as that of Aydrothorax, but the dyfpnoea is not aug-
mented by this procefs, fince the compreflion of the lungs,

by

—_—_—

oo |

.

mys

by the fame quantity of matter internally, was nearly the
fame previoully. (See Lm?yema.) Inabmilar way Deorsy
of the pericardium comprefles the lungs, and induces dy{p-
neea: aud Broncuocece, or {welling of the thyroid gland,
by externally comprefling the trachea, or wind-pipe, fome-
times is accompanied with difficulty of breathing.

4. Whatever narrows and dim:nifhes the cavity of the
cheft, neceffarily likewife p-events the free expanfion of the
lungs, and therefore produces the fame effe€ts on the re{pira-
tion. Hence dyf{pnoea is occafioned by arly targe tumour,
or fluid colleétion in the cavity of the abdomen, which
prefles the diaphragm upwards: fuch as a copious feer-tion
ot fat in the omentum, and other parts, (fee ConruLence);
or ichirrus, fleatomatous, or other folid tumours; the
gravid uterus, in the latter flages of pregnancy; ayciles, or
Dropsy of the lelly; Tympanitts, or the diftenfion of the
abdomen by flatus; Hyparips, &c.

The dyfpncea, occurring from thefe various caufes, will
require the different remedies for its relief, which are adapted
to alleviate the difeafes, of which it is a part; and its nature
will be difcriminated by an accurate obfervation of the trains
of fymptoms, with which it may be accompanied, and which
charaéter'ze thofe difeafes, to which therefore we refer
refpectively. *

DYSTG@CHIASIS, (from dus, dad, sosxos, order,) an
irregular arrangement of the eyelathes.

DYSU'RIA, (from 4u;, diffcultly, and seo, the urine, )
a difficulty of difcharging the urine.

DYTISCUS, in Entomology, a genus of CoreorrerRa,
of the aquatic kind, diftinguifhed by having the antenne fe-
taceous; feelers fix in number, and filiform; hind legs
formed for fwimming, fringed on the inner fide, and nearly
unarmed with claws. ‘The fpecies are inhabitants of ftagnant
waters, and from the peculiar {tru€ure of their legs are able to
{wim extremely well; they are feldom obferved on the wing,
except in the night time, when they fly abroad in fearch of
other waters. The males have a horny concave flap or fhield
on the fore legs. The larve fubfift on worms, aquatic in-
feéts, and the fry of fifh, the latter of which they deftroy in
vaft numbers when firft hatched from the egg. They feize
their prey by means of their ftrong forcipated jaws, and de-
ftroy it by fucking out the moifture. Linnzus included
under the generic name of dytifcus, the infects which later
writers comprehend under the two genera dytifcus and
hydrophilus. It is underftood that Linnzus, aware of the
impropriety of uniting thofe two diftin& natural families,
intended afterwards to feparate them into two genera. Fa-
bricius has fince divided them; the character of his genus
hydrophilus confifts in having four filiform feelers; the
maxilla bifid; lip horny, and fub-emarginate ; and the an-
tennz clavated and perfoliated ; and his dytifcus fix fihform
feelers; the lip horny, truncated and entire, and the an-
tennz fetaceous. Gmelin adopts the genus hydrophilus
in his edition of the Syftema.

Species.

Latissimus. Black; margin of the wing-cafes dilated,
with a yellow line. Linn, Fn. Suec. 768. Fabr. Spec.
Inf. Dytifcus amplifimus, Mill. Scarabaus aquaticus, &c.
Frifch. %

Native of Northern Europe; the female fulcated, male
fmooth and polifhed.

Costatis. Black; band on the head ; margin of the
thorax, and coftal ftreak on the wing-cafes ferruginous.
Fabr.

The head is black, and marked above the mouth each fide
with an imprefled dot ; wing-cafes {mooth, with three re-

D¥ T

mote pundtured flria. In the female the colours more ct#
fcure. Inhabits Surinam,

Marcinauts. Olivaceous black; margin round the
thorax and exterior margin of the wing-cafes yellow. Linn.
Donov. Brit. Inf. Le Ditique noir a@ bordure, Geoftr.
Hy drocantharus nofiras, Ray.

Native of Britain, and other parts of Europe.

Roeseri. Greenthh; fhield, with the aargin of the
thorax and wing-cafes white, the latter glabrous, with three
punctured ftrie. Fabr. Dytifcus difpar, Roflo.

Tnhabics waters in France.

Puxctrurarus. Black; thield, margin of the thorax
avd wing-cafes white ; wing-cafes with three rows of dois.
Geoflr. Dytifcus pundetus, Oiivier.

Found in waters in [england and Germany. The head is
black with a brown frontal {pot; body beneath black ; legs
teflaceous. ,

Limsatus. Black; exterior margin of the thorax and
wing-cafes yellow ; the latter very fmooth. abr.

Ai native of China, in the Bankfian cabinet. The legs
in this fpecies are black, with ‘the thighs of the anterior pair
ferruginous ; the abdomen black.

Ruricotiis. Black; front and thorax fulvous; wing-
cafes with the exterior edge and ftreak at the bafe teftaceous,
Fabr.

Inhabits Siam. The head fulvous with the margir
black ; wing-cafes glabrous ; anterior legs yellow. Bank-
fian cabinet.

Suucatus. Wing-cafes brown, with ten longitudinal
villous groovese Linn. Donov. Brit. Inf. &c.

Native of Europe. The head is black ; the mouth and
eyes yellow; thorax black, with margin and charaéter om
the back yellow; margin of the wing-cafes yellowith ; body
beneath with the legs black.

Fasciatus. Wing-cafes yellow, with two black bands
and a black dot at the tip. Fabr.

Inhabits waters in India. The head is yellow; thorax
yellow with a black dorfal line, and two {mall red fpots on
the back ; wing-cafes {mooth with black future.

Srriarus. Brown; thorax yellow, with an abbreviated
black band ; wing-cafes finely ftriated tranfverfely. Linn.

Common in waters in Europe.

Fuscus. Deep brown; margin of the thorax yellow ;
wing-cafes very finely ftriated tranfverfely. Linn,

Found in waters in Europe. Refembles ftriatus, but is ra-
ther lefs. The head is black ; wing-cafes impreffed with two
ftriz of dots ; body black ; legs ferruginous ; thighs black.

Lanio. Black; mouth, two dots on the crown, and
margin of the thorax rufous; wing-cafes brown. Fabr.

The head is brown; wing-cafes marked with two lines of
impreffed dots. Native of Madeira, defcribed from the
Bankfian cabinet.

Cicurus. Black, {mooth; mouth, dot on the crown
and margin of the thorax rufous; wing-cafes {triated with
yellow. Fabr.

Found by Vahl at the Cape of Good Hope. The headis
deep black, the {pot betweentheeyeslarge; eyes filvery dotted
with brown ; thorax with a rufous dorfal line ; body black.

Virrarus. Black, fmooth; wing-cafes with a yellow
marginal fillet, and black fpot atthe bafe. abr.

Defcribed from the Hunterian mufeum as a native of In-
dia. The head is black ; mouth yellowifh ; thorax black ;
{pot at the bafe of the wing-cafes large and oblong.

Cinereus. Afhy; margin of the wing-cafes and half
the thorax yellow. Linn. Le Ditique a corcelet a bandes,
Geoffr.

Common in waters in Europe. The head is black, mouth

BE 2 ycllow,

YDYTISCUS.

yellow, body beneath black with yellow fpots on the fides;
legs black and yellow ; antennz yellow. ;

Griseus. Cinereous; wing-cafes with: an indented
black band. Fabr.

A native of India. The head is yellow with a tranf-
verfe frontal black {pot ; thorax grey with two tranfverfe
black {pots on the back ; body beneath yellowith,

Sricticus. Palifh; wing-cafes grey with an oblong
imprefled lateral {pot of black. Linn. :

Inhabits Aftica. Wing-cafes. marked with two very ob-
{cure lines of brown dots. 4

ro-Punctatus. Black and glabrous; wing-cafes with
five white dots. Fabr.

Native of New Holland, defcribed from the Bankfian ca-
binet. The antennz are fhort and ferruginous ; head black
with the front palifh ; thorax with a pale marginal {pot each
fide; legs fufcous. :

Furicinosus. Black; mouth and margin of the wing-
Cafes ferruginous; head immaculate. Fabre

Inhabits waters in Germany. Body black; mouth and
legs ferruginous. :

Birustutatus. Smeoth, deep black; head with two
red {pots behind. Linn.

Native of the North of Europe. The red fpots on the
head are very minute.

_Cinctus. Head and thorax yellow; wing-cafes black 5
margin entirely white. Fabr. An American fpecies.

Biruncratus. Deep black, thorax yellow, with two
dots of black ; wing-cafes varied with yellow and fufcous.
Fabr. Donov. Brit. Inf.

Found in watersin Germany, and alfo in England. The
head is black, the mouth fubferruginous ; the thorax yellow,
with two black dorfal fpots; wing-cafes fmooth, glabrous,
and fufcous; and body black with ferruginous legs.

Fenestratus. Beneath ferruginous, above black; wing-
cafes with two tranfparent dots. _Fabr.

Defcribed by Fabricius from a fpecimen in the cabinet of
Schulz, found in the vicinity of Hamburgh. The fpecies
has been fince taken by Panzer in Auftria, and in England.
See Marfh. Ent. Brit. The head is black ; mouth, antennz,
and two dots at the bafe ferruginous ; thorax black with
ferruginous margin.

Hysnert. Smooth, deep black; mouth and margin of
the thorax ferruginous; wing-cafes with a marginal yellow
line. _ Fabr.

Difcovered in Germany by Hybner. ;

Sracnatis. Smooth, black; anterior part of the thorax
ferruginous ; wing-cafes brown with yellow lines. Fabr.

Inhabits fame country as the former.

TransversaLis. Deep black; anterior part of the
thorax ferrugisous; margin of the wing-cafes, and abbre-
viated ftreak at the bafe yellow. Mill.

Found in Northern Europe.

Cauipus. Deep black; wing-cafes as the bafe and ex-
terior margin ferruginous; fternum advanced 2nd com-
preffed. Fabr.

Native of South America, difcoyered by Smidt. The
head is black ; antenne and mouth dull ferruginous 3 wing-
cafes {peckled with yellowith.

Hermanni. Gibbous; head, thorax, and wing-cafes
ferruginous at the bafe; wing-cafes truncated. Fabr. Dye
tifeus tardus, A&. Berol,

The head is dull ferruginous, with the orbits’ of the eyes
black ; wing-cafes {mooth ; abdomen ferruginous with black
tip. Found in Alface.

Aspreyratus. Black; wing-cafes, with an abbreviated
ftreak at the bafe, and two dots yellow. abr.

Native of Germany.

Gissus. Gibbous, ferruginous; wing-cafes black with
poiited tips. Fabr.

Taken in ftagnant water in Kiel by Schedftedt. The
head is ferruginous, and rather blackifh at the bafe; the
thorax ferruginous, with the pofterior edge black; wing-
cafes fmooth, the bafe and margin obfcurely fpotted with
ferruginous ; body and legs ferruginous; and the abdomen
black at the tip. There is a variety with the head and
thorax entirely ferruginous. -

Uticinosus. Deep black and gloffy ; antenna, legs,
and exterior edge of the wing-cafes ferruginous. Linn.

Found in waters in Europe. A

Trroratus. ‘Teftaceous, fpeckled with black; head
and breaft black. Fabr. ;

Inhabits America. The head is black, with teftaceous
mouth ; thorax glofly, fmooth, and fhining ; abdomen and
legs teltaceous.

Aciuis. Black; mouth, thorax, margin of the wiag-
cafes, and the legs ferruginous. Fabr. *

Native of Germany.

Macurarus.
cafes black, fpotted with white. Marth. Linn. &c.

Found in waters in Europe.

ErytsrocerHatus. Oyate-oblong; head and legs ru-
fous. Linn.

Native of Sweden and Denmark.

Pranus. Ovate-oblong, flat, black ; the thanks entirely
rufous. Fabr. ‘

{nhabits waters in Denmark. Lund.

Varius.
reous and black. Fabr.

Difcovered in Patagonia. The head is black ; mouth
and antenne rufous; wing-cafes with numerous black
ftreaks, variegated with cinercous and black, and black fu-
ture. Cabinet of fir Jofeph Banks.

Noratus. Fufcous, with yellow hore and fout

black dots; wing-cafes with futural yellow ftrie. Fabre

Dytifcus notatus, Bergtty.
Native of waters in Germany.
Bricoror. Above deep black ; wing-cafes flriated ; be«

néath ferruginous. Fabr. :

Found in Guinea. :
Ruripes. Black ; head and anterior part of the thorax
fomipirens 3 wing-cafes black, with ferruginous ftrie.

Fabr.

A fmall fpecies. The body is black ; legs rufous.
Derressus. Thorax ferruginous, with two black dots
at the bale; wing-cafes fufcous, with ferruginous fpots.
Native of Sweden. ‘
Dorsaris. Head, margin of the thorax, fpot at the
bafe of the wing-cafes, and unequal margin, ferruginous,

Fabr.

Inhabits Kiel, and refembles the following fpecies.

Ssxpustutatus. Deep black; head ferruginous $
wea? with three. rufous {pots; that at the bafe larger,

abr.

AA minute f{pecies found in the waters of Sweden.

Pazustris. Smooth; wing-cafes with two lateral white
blotches. Linn. -

Native of Europe; the thorax is ferruginous. i

Ovarus. Ovate, fufcous ; head and thorax ferruginoug.
Linn. Dytifcus feces Degecr,

An European {pecies. :

PicirEsé

Black; thorax with pale band; wines:

Thorax rufous; wing-cafes ftriated with cines’

a

DYTISCUS.

. Picipzs, Black; anterior part of the thorax ferrugi~
nous ;_ wing-cafes lineated with yellow. Fabr.
. This is a native of Germany. The head is black ; the
mouth ferruginous ; body black ; legs pitchy.

Liruratys. Black; wing-cafes with a pale blotch at
the tip and bafe. Fabr.

An Italian infe&t. The body is {mall, deprefled, and
black; and the legs pitchy.

Curysometinus. Above cinereous, beneath black.
Fabr.

A {pecies of {mall fize, found in Germany.

Sisnatus. Black; head and thorax rufous, with black
marks. Fabr.

Native of Patagonia, defcribed by Fabricius from the
Bankfian cabinet.

12-PustuLtatus. Teflaceous; wing-cafes black, with
fix teftaceous {pots. Fabr.

The head and antenne are teftaceous; the thorax tefta-
ceous 3 with the front and pofterior margin black.

§-Pusrutatrus. Black; front, fides of the thorax, and
four marginal dots on the wing-cafes, ferruginous.

A fpecies of moderate fize, found in Sweden.

Havensis. Black; thorax rufous; the bafe black in
the middle, with arufous dot ; wing-cafes cinereous, ftriated
with black. Fabr. Hybner, &c.

A {mall infe&t, of a flattifh form; the head rufous, and
immaculate ; black ftreaks on the wing-cafes numerous,
confluent, and approximate. The fpecies inhabits Ger-
many.

eee Black ; head, thorax, and margin of the
wing-cafes, with a dot at the bafe ferruginous, Fabr.

Inhabits France.

Granuraris. Black; wing-cafes with two yellowifh
lines ; legs rufous. Linn, Dyti/cus minimus, Scop.

Native of Northern Europe.

Conriuens. Black; head and thorax ferruginous 3
wing-cafes pale, with four black lines on the difk. Fabr.

Inhabits Kiel in Germany. The legs in this {pecies are
yellowith.

Osriquus. Ferruginous; wing-cafes with five oblique
brown fpots. Fabr. Dytifcus laminatus, Schulz.

The head, thorax, and body, ferruginous; the exterior
fufcous fpot hamate ; legs ferruginous.

Impressus. Oblong, yellowifh; wing cafes cinereous,
with ftreaks of imprefled dots. Fabr. Dyti/cus impreffo-

= firiatus, A&. Hal.

Native of Europe. The body oblong, and tapering before.
SemipunctaTa. Oblong, ferruginous; head of the
bafe black ; wing-cafes dufky, at the tip pun@ured. Fabr.

Inhabits the Eaft Indies, and 18 of a {mall fize.

Crux. Oblong, deep black; the whole body ferrugi-
nous with a black crofs. Fabr.

Found in Italy. This fpecies is very fmall, and gloffy-
black.

Geminus. Oblong, deep black; two dots on the
thorax, two lines at the bafe, and dot at the tip white.

A minute fpecies, found in Saxony.

Lineatus. Ferruginous; wing-cafes brown, with yel-
lowith lines. Fabr.

_ Native of Alface.

Inwquauis. Ferruginous; wing-cales black, unequally
ferruginous at the fides. Tabr.

The head is ferruginous, with black orbits; thorax fer-
ruginous ; behind black; wing-cales fmooth and black ;
body beneath ferruginous,

Inhabits Sweden.

Pycmevus. Ferruginous, wing-cafes black ; margin
ferruginous. Tabr.

Native of Denmark. A fmall fpecies.

Reticuratus. Ferruginous; difk of the wing-cafes
black, reticulated with ferruginous. Fabr.

Small. Its native place unknown.

Crassicornis. Fufcous; head and thorax yellow ;
antennz thick in the middle. MiUill. Zool. Dan.

The antenne of this fpecies are curious; the colour
ycllow ; with the middle joints thickened, and apparently
cleft ; wing-cafes brown ; with the bafe yellowifh.

Fiavires. Flat, deep black; bafe of the wing-cafes,
and the legs ferruginous. Fabr.

A {mall fpecies found in the Eaft Indies.

Picrus. Ferruginous; thorax black ; wing-cafes pale ;
future and lateral {pot black. Fabr.

Native of Germany. Hybner. :

Nicrita. Deep black and immaculate ; antenne and
legs ferruginous. Fabr.

Inhabits Germany. This f{pecies is very minute, broad,
deep black, and immaculate ; antennz and legs large, and
ferruginous.

_Pusitrus. Deep black ; thorax and wing-cafes mar
gined with white. Fabr.

Native of Italy.

Parvutus. Gibbous, black ; thorax with a ferruginous
ee on the fore-part; wing-cafes with ferruginous fpots.

abr.

Inhabits Denmark, and is a fmall fpecies. The head is
dlack ; front and antenne ferruginous ; wing-cafes punc-
pad with numerous rufous fpots ; body black ; legs ru-
ous.

Ovaris. Wing-cafes fufcous, with pale lines; thorax
ferruginous ; abdomen deep black. Thunberg.

Native of Upfal. ;

Intricatus. Yellowifh; above black-green; wing
cafes with excavated ftrie, edged and tipped with yellow;
thovax yellow. Schall. Abh. Dytifcus femifulcatus, Miill.

Found in Saxony. In fize.and appearance refembles the
{pecies punulatus,

Versicotor. Fulvous; wing-cafes with oblong black
{pots. Schall.

Inhabits Saxony.

Scuatreri. Black; head, thorax, and legs, ferrugi-
nous; wing-cafes fulcous ; outer margin rufous. Schall.

Native of Saxony, where it appears to be not very un-
common.

Laminatus. Fulvous; wing-cafes ftriated with black
dots; abdomen wich two plates at the bafe. Schall.

A rare fpecies, found in Saxony.

Acicutatus. Margin of the thorax and wing-cafes,
and three {pots on the abdomen yellow; wing-cafes with
hollow decuffating ftrie. Herbf.

An inhabitant of India.

Fuscurus. Black ; wing-cafes {mooth and brown ; legs
dull tettaceous. Schranck.

Found in Upper Aultria by Schranck, and by Geoffroy
in France.

Ocuvatus. Head cinereous ; pofterior margin, and
two triangular fpots in front black; wing-cafes piceous,
edged with yellow. Herbit. ;

Inhabits the environs of Berlin, and meafures lefs than
half an inch in length.

Ornatus. Black, beneath piceous; mouth, {pots on
the wing-cafes, and two round ones between the eyes, with
the thorax and antenne ferruginous, Herbit.

Native

DY TIS CUS.

Native of the vicinity of Berlin, and rather fmaller than
the laft.

Unitineatus. Black; divided margin of the wing-
cafes, and line half-way down yellowifh. Schrank.

Inhabits Germany.

Disrar. Black, fmooth; mouth yellow; wing-cafes
variegated, and with the thorax piceous. Herbtt.

{nhabits Pruffia, and with the ten following {pecies has
been met with in the vicinity of Berlin.

Sorpipus. Black; antenne ferrvginovs, with black

“tips; legs picecus; wing cafes deep-black. Herbtft.

Aquaticus. Chefnut; eyes, wing-cafes, thorax, and
belly black ; margin of the thorax and band acrofs the middle
chefnut ; wing-cafes obfcurely.

Parvutus. Beneath piceous; head and thorax fulvous ;
wing-cafes black; the margin and two ftrie half-way down
yellow. Herbft.

Piceorvus. Beneath black ; head and thorax chefaut ;
wing-cales piceous, with an obfcure fulvous margin.
Herbtt.

Simerex. Black; head, margin of the thorax, and
wing-cafes, with the antennz and legs piceous. Herbft.

Capricornis. Yellowith; belly and eyes black; middle
joints of the antenne much broader; wing-cafes brown with
hollow dots. Herb‘.

Variotosus. Yellowifh; beneath brown-yellow; eyes
black ; wing-cafes yellowifh-green variegated. Herblt.

Orxsicucaris. Black, fmooth; antenne and legs fer-
rugimous; thorax and wing-cafes yellow-brown, pellucid
with obfolete black f{pots. Herbft.

Pepicurarius. Smooth; beneath, thorax, and wing-
cafes brown; head black; legs piceous. Herbft.

Marcinetius. Black; thorax edged with yellow;
wing-cafes yellowifh, regularly pun@ured with obfolete
blackifh fpots. Herbft.

Seminucum. Black, fmooth; wing-cafes pellucid,

hefnut tipt with red; legs ferruginous. Herbtt.
Ostoncus. Dull-black; head, antennz, and legs fer-
ruginous. Herbft.

Zeytonicus. Black: thorax and wing-cafes margined
with yellow; flernum unarmed. Gronov.
Inhabits Ceylon.

Grasre. Brown; wing-cafes glabrous; belly and legs
ferruginous. Fort.

Native of England.

Nesutosus. Livid clouded with black; antenne and
topo, Eeretgnons: belly black, edged with ferruginous.

ort.

Inhabits England, and is the fame fize as the {pecies uli-
ginofus.

Exsoretus. Livid; antennz, head, thorax, abdomen,
and legs pale. Fortt.

Inhabits England.

Danicus. Black; outer margin of the thorax, and the

wing-cafes yellow. Miuil.

This and the twenty following f{pecies are natives of Den-
mark.

Miverr. Wing-cafes pointed, glabrous, and marked
with two dots at the tip. :

Lacustris. Yellowifh; thorax edged with yellow;
wing-cafes {prinkled with dots.

Piceus. Black; body beneath, and margin of the tho-
rax, and wing-cafes ferruginous,

Fatiorus. Ferruginous; above black; exterior mar-

gin of the thorax and wing-cafes yellow.

Comma. Yellowith; above tbraffy-black ;
with the outer edge and line yellow.

4-Puncrarus. Ferruginous; wing-cafes black, with a
white band, f{pot, and four dots.

Biocerzatrus. Rufous; wing-cafes brafly, with white
{pots difpofed longitudinally.

EryTHROMELAS. Biack ; antenne and tarfi rufous.

Roripus. Yellow; thorax with a black {pot in the
middle; wing-cafes {peckled with black

Rupripes. Black bronzed, polifhed; antenne, and
legs, tip of the wing-cafes, and two dots ferruginous.

Quapaicoror. Ovate, rufous; middle of the thorax
black; wmg-cafes brown; the lower margin and dot at the
bafe yellow.

Cimicoipes. Greenifh ; wing-cafes with a white lower
margin, and a few white {pots.

wing-cafes

Vetox. Ovate, rufous; wing-cafes with eight brown
ftrie.
Nanus. Black; thorax ycllow on the fore-part; wing

cafes with an abbreviated groove; legs piccous.

Rurirrons. Black; thorax yellow each fide; wing-
cafes yellow at the bafe and fides ; head and legs rufous.

Tricotor. Rufous; wing-cafes yellow, with a coms
mon black finuate fpot on the difk.

Exiiis. Ovate, black; bafe of the antenne and legs
ferruginous; wing-cafes {mooth.

4-PusruLatus. Black; wing-cafes with four longi-
tudinal fpots; legs rufous.

Fravicaxs. Black; above yellowifh; thorax biack
behind ; wing-cafes with black ftriz and f{pots.

Nevius. Fulvous, with fceattered {pots of biack.
Geoffr.

Native of France.

Fimsrratus. Brown; wing-cafes yellow anteriorly,
and at the outer fide. Geoffr.
Same country as the former.

4-Macuratus. Black; thorax yellow; wing-cafes
{mooth, with yellow fpots and border. Geofir.

This and the following f{pecies are natives of Europe.

Unistreiatus. Black; {pots, border, and fingle ftria on
the wing-cafes yellow. Geoffr.

- Birineatus. Wing-cafes brown; body beneath fule
vous; thorax fulvous with a double black line.

Seminicer. Body beneath entirely black ; thorax and
wing-cafes dull-brown, edged with rufous. Degeer.

Nusitus. Black; above with grey {pots and ftreaks ;
legs reddifh-brown. Degeer.

Hyarinus. Greenifh; wing-cafes hyaline with lateral
whitifh fpots. Degeer.

Virescens. ‘Teftaceous, above greenifh; outer edge of
the thorax and wing-cafes yellow, the latter ftriated; pof-
terior legs thicker. Degeer.

Testaceus. Teltaceous, front and pofterior margin
of the thorax brown, the middle livid; wing-cafes with a
livid futural line and marginal fpecks. Linn.

Nicer. Biack; margin of the wing cafes livid and
longitudinally dotted with ferruginous.

Birozus. Oblong-ovate; black ; mouth bilobate; fpot
on the crown, thorax, futural line on the fhells, bafe, and
margin yellow.

TFerruGineus. Ferruginons; head and polterior mare
gin of the thorax black; anterior part of the two {pots be-
tween the eyes, thorax, futural line and margin of the
wing-cafes vellow.

Frayus. Yellow; mouth, two dots between the oe

2 ani

os

mY?

and outer margin of the thorax, and wing-cafes ferru-
ginous.

Tricovoratus. Ferruginous; head, thorax, and winge
cafes rufty-brown; between the eyes two ferruginous {pots ;
mouth and edges of the thorax and wing-cafes pale.

Denicratus. Black; mouth, two dots between the
eyes, and abdomen yellow; the fegments with a black {pot
each fide; wing-cafes brown, with fpecks, and exterior
edges livid.

Unipuncrarus. Black; antenne ferruginous; wing-
cafes with a teftaceous dot each fide behind the middle.

Bicutratus. Black; legs, tip of the abdomen, an-
tenne, mouth, two dots between the eyes, thorax, and
wing-cafes teftaceous ; wing-cafes {potted with brown; tho-
rax with two black dots in the middle.

8-Macuratus. Livid; thorax greenifh ; wing-cafes
brown-livid, each with four conneéted livid {pots ard ftreaks
behind the middle.

Livinus. Livid; bead narrow ; thorax narrower before;
wing-cales with brown dots difpofed in rows.

4-Lingatus. Black; wing-cafes deeply pun@tured ;
brownihh with four yellowith branched lines, and outer mar-
gins; legs ferruginous.

Denticuratus. Piceous; mouth and antennz ferru-
ginous; fhells glabrous, with pale bidentated band at the
bafe; three fpots and outer margin, with the anterior part
of the thorax and legs pale.

Pouitus. Piceous, glofly,
Marth. Ent. Brit,

Inhiabits England. The antenne are rufo-ferruginous ;
head and thorax piceous, the latter paler at the fides; legs
fame colour as the antenne.

Humeraris. Head and thorax black; wing-cafes with
an obfolete ferruginous {pot on the exterior margin at the
bale, Marth.

Found in England. The head and thorax deep-black and
opake; antennz filiform, black, and rufous at the bafe;
{pot at the bale of the wing-cafes variable in fize.

MevanocerHatus. Black, and very glabrous; an-
tennz and legs piceous. Marth.

Difcovered by the bifhop of Carlifle in a garden at Ealing.
The antenne are filiform, black, and at the bafe rufous;
kegs ruforpiceous,

with paler wing-cafes.

DZW

Ovatts. Ferruginous; wing-cafes fufcous with ferru«
ginous margin. Marth.

This and the remaining fpecies are natives of Britain.

Fronratis. Fufcous; margin of the wing-cafes yel-
lowifh; head and thorax yellow {potted with black. Marth.

Consrersus. Grifeous ; head black, with two red {pots
behind. Marth.

Parapreurus. Smooth, black; front and margin of
the thorax ferruginous; margin of the wing-cafes yellow
with black dots. Marth.

Nicro-/Zneus. Smooth, dull-braffy ; mouth and mer-
gin of the wing-cafes brown. Marth.

Assimitis. Rufous; wing cafes {triated yellow-grifeous,
with fix black fpots. Marth.

Inrerpunctratus. Rufo-ferruginous; wing-cafes with
numerous black fpots placed obiquely. Marth.

Fravicouris. Rufous; wing-cafes yellow, teftaceous,
clouded with black; potterior legs very long. Marth.

Sparsus. Oblong-convex, ferruginous, and nitid 5
back of the thorax, and common di‘k above dull; wing-
cafes with f{cattered impreffed dots. Marfh.

The antennz, head, and legs rufous-ferruginous ; thorax
fame colour, with fometimes a fufcous fpot on the back;
wing-cafes fufcous, with paler margin; body beneath fer-
ruginous.

DZAR Gurgsan, in Geography, a river of Ruffian Tar-
tary, which runs into the Irtifch, 2c miles E. of Semipo-
latnoi.

DZIEWIENISZKI, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Wilna; 30 miles S.S.E. of Wilna.

DZIWATOW, atown of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Wilna; 4 miles W. of Wilkomierz.

DZOHARA, in Mythology, an Arabian
pofed to be the fame with Venus.

DZOHL,, an Arabian deity, fuppofed to be Saturn.

DZONMUREN, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which
runs into Angara; 24 miles N. of Irkutfch.

DZURA, a Tartarian village of Ruffian Siberia, in the
government of Irkutfch. N. lat. 56°4’. E.long. 124° 24’.

DZWINGROD, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kaminiec ; 20 miles S.W. of Kaminiec,

goddefs, fup-

FE.

The fifth letter of the alphabet, and the fecond
vowel.

E is a letter that admits of fome variety in the pronuncia-
tion, in moft languages; whence grammarians ufuaily dif-
tinguifh feveral E’s, or kinds of E. In Enghifh, E has two
founds; long, as, feéne, and fhort, as men. It is always
fhort before a double confonant, or two confonants, as vex,
blefing, féll, debi, &c. E final has the peculiar quality of
lengthening the preceding vowel, as can, cane; yet there
are fome inftances in which it has not this effet; as gone,
give, live, &c. It ferves allo to modify the foregoing con-
fonants ; as fince, &c. It is alfo founded at the end of pro-
per names, as Penelope, and in monolyllables that have no
other vowel, as the; but in every other cafe it is mute. It
was formerly ufed much more generally at the end of words
than at prefent, and had probably a foft found like the
French E feminine; and afterwards was made vocal or
filent in poetry, as the verfe required, till at laft it became
univerfally filent. Camden callsit the filent E. Johnion.

The Greeks have their fhort and long E, viz. <and x,
epfilon and eta. The Greek », or H, eta, or ita, was no
original letter ; but was added to the alphabet in after times.
Of this we have proofs ftill extant in the ancient monu-
ments ; particularly the Farnefe columns, brought to Rome
from the Via Appia, where the epfilon, E, is ufed in lieu of
the H: e.gr. DEMETPOS KOPE®, for DHMHTPOS KOPHS.
This letter is faid to have been added by Simonides.

The pronunciation of the ~ feems to have been varied ;
it having been fometimes the fame with the Latin E, fome-
times with I. ‘Terentianus aflures us of the former; and
the Greeks themfelves for many ages have only ufed the
latter. Fram the name of an animal of the Lutra {pecies,
denominated ENHYAPIS, that occurs on the Preneftine pave-
ment, the », e/a, evidently ferves as an afpirate to the v, upfilon ;
and if this be authentic, the late learned profeffor Porfon
concluded, that this inf{cription affords an additional proof
that the », efa, was anciently ufed and pronounced as we do
our H. Inreference to this fubje@&, Mr. John Jones, author
of the Greek grammar, &c. obferves, that fuch letters were
formerly afpirates, as they derived their origin from the
ftrong gutturals, which the Greeks borrowed from the
Oriental tongues; and hence he traces the origin of the
Eoclic digamma. (See the letter F.) It is the tendency of
every guttural, fays this ingenious wiiter, when become ha-
bitua!, to foften down in the rapidity of utterance into a
mere afpirate; of this he has given feveral inftances. He
adds, that the guttural, when foftened into an afpirate, is
apt to be dilated intoa long vowel. Hence the reafon why
n, eta, in the ancient Greek, feems to have been accompanied
with an afpirate, as in yxxe, though formerly as in the

ENHYAPIE on the Praneftine pavement, it expreff-d the

full power of H, as profeffor Porfon has remarked. Qn the

fame principle that a guttural foftened into an afpirate, the

afpirate often melts into a gentle breathing, or becomes in

pronunciation quite quiefcent. See Dr. Adam Clarke’s

Narrative of the laft illnefs, &c. of profeffor Porfon,
» 12, ee:

The Latins have an opener E, called vaffius ; fuch was
the fecond E. in the word here, maffer ; and another clofer,
as that in the adverb here, yeflerday. This latter E they
frequently ufed promifcuoufly with I. Thus for ere, they
wrote Aeri ; and, in diverfe places, we meet with file, qua/e,
&ce. for fibi, quaf, &c. ‘

The Roman E was likewife fometimes written, by cor-
ruption, ¢3 for which reafon, F. Hardouin takes that
medal of Gallienus, GALLIENS AUGUST, not to be
any fatirical medal, as others have imagined ; nor to bea
dative feminine, but a vocative mafculine, Galliene Augufle,
wrote with the 2. 8 oe :

It has been much difputed how the Latins render the » in
their language. The common opinion is, that they render it
by an E; as in Anyuzpios, Buta, Hypo, Onztus, Oncavpss, Sc.
which they rendered Dewmetrius, Beta, Hemera, Thefeus,
Thefaurus, &c. Though there are perfons exceedingly well
verfed in antiquity, who hold that they pronounced it lke
ani. Lud. de Dieu, one of the moft learned grammarians
of his age, obferves as much in his animadverfions on Ge-
nefis, vi. 24. Adding, that itis for this reafon, that the
Hebrews, ¢. gr. the paraphraft Jonathan, expreffes it by a
Hhirek; pnsap, \tOD%. J. Rod. Wetltein proves the fame

in his learned oration on the true pronunciation of the Greek
tongue, from an infinity of inftances. To this purpofe he
cites a manufcript Pfalter of the eighth century, where all
the »’s are exprefled by #’s. In effet Wetftein fhews, not
only that the Latins pronounced and wrote it as an i, which
might happen from its being fo eafily confounded in writing
with ani; but alfo that they rendered it by an ¢, and ai;
that it was often uled for Y and EI; and that in the timeof
Plato this letter has a kind of intermediate found between
thes and:. See that author, and Vofiius de Idolol. lib. ii.
cap. 16.

The French have, at leaft, fix kinds of E; the firft pro-
nounced like a; as in emporter, orient, &c. The fecond, a
final mute, in the laft fyllable of divers words not pronounced
at all; as in Jonne, donne, &c. The third, an imperfe&
mute, pronounced fo much like the diphthong ea, &c. as in
Je, de, te. The fourth e ferme,or e¢ mafculine, marked at
the ends of the words witk an accent ¢. The Bithis e ouvert,
or Jong e, having the fame found with ai, asin mere, fefle,
&c. In the middle of words it is fomctimes marked with a

4 circumflex,

'

”
;

4

~

4

- "Timothy, &c.’’

EAC

seircumflex, and in the end, with anaccent @ The fixth is
an intermediate ¢, between the ouvert and ferme; as in
cabaret, lettre, &c. Some add a feventh kind of ¢, not re-
ducible to any of the former, as that in grammarien, hi/-
gorien, &c. And others admit of only three kinds, Vide
the mute, open, and fhut; bur they make variations therein,
which amounts to the fame thing. ;
» Asto the figure of the letter E, we borrow it from the
Latins, who had it from-the Greeks, and they from the
Pheenicians, by Cadmus, who firft brought it them. Now
the Phoenicians had the fame characters with the Hebrews.
Accordingly, the form of the ancient Hebrew He was the
fame with that of our E, as may be feen in the Hebrew
medals, and the Jefuit Souciet’s Differtation thereon, p. 143.
All the difference between them confitts in this, that the
Hebrews, reading from right to left, turn their letters that
way; whereas the moderns, reading from left’ to. right,
write their lettersaccordingly. bie

The little e was formed of the great one, by writing it
faft, and making the crofs ftrokes at top and bottom without
taking pen off paper, and then adding the flroke in the
amiddle. :

E, on the keys of an organ, or harpfichord, denotes the
tones, £, mi, la. :

On the compafs in fea-charts, &c. it makes the eaft
point, or wind. E.eait; E,S.£. ealt-fouth-eaft; N.E.

north-eaft, &c. ok
In the calendar, E makes the fifth of the Dominical

letters.

Among authors, e. gr. ftands for exempli gratia, for in-
flance. In feverat diétionaries we find it noted, that the
detter E, among the ancients, was a numcral letter, figni+
fying 250, according to the verfe.

¢ EF quoque ducentos & quinquaginta tenebit.”?

But it has already been obferved, that this ufe of numeral
letters was unknown among the earlieit people. Ifidore
Hifpalenfis, an author of the feventh century, fays as much
ia exprefs terms, in the firft book of his Origines, cap. 3.
Tn effe&, it was firft introduced in thé times of barbari{in
and ignorance.

EACHARD, Joun, in Biography, was dzfcended from
a refpeétable family in the county of Suffolk, and born about
the year 1636. He finifhed his ftudies at Catherine hall,
Cambridge, where he took his degrees, and was admitted
fellow of his college. This was in the year 1658, and in
2670 he publifhed, but without his name, a>treatife which
‘paffed through many editions, entitled, “ The Grounds and
reafons of the contempt of the Clergy and Religion enquired
into; in a letter to R.L.” his work was attacked by
Dr. John Owen, on account of the author’s reprefentations
and uncandid remarks levelled at difi-nting minifters. In
the following year he\publifhed ‘“ Mr. Hobbes’s State of
Nature confidered, in a dialogue between Philautus and
Ina fhort time afterwards he publithed
fome further remarks. on the writings of Mr. Hobbes, in
* A fecond Dialogue between Philautus and Timothy.”
Mr. Eachard was a powerful opponent when his weapons
“were thofe of wit and ra‘llery, but his talents were ill cai-
culated for ferious argument, which caufed the remark of
Dr. Swift, “ Lhave,” fays he, “ known men happy enough
at ridicule, who upon grave fubjets were periectly flupid ;
‘of which Dr. Eachard of Cambridge, who writ © "The con-
tempt of the Clergy,’ wasa great inftance.” Mr. Eachard
was chofen mafter of Catherine hall in the year 1675, and
in the following year he was created dottor of divinity by
a7 VOL. ML,

EAG

royal command. He died in the year 1697, baving twice
futained the honourable office of vice-chancellor of the
univerfity. A complete edition of his works was publifhed
in 1774, in three vols. 12m0. Biog. Britan. a

EADISH. See Eppisu.

EAGER Wine, See Wine.

EAGLE, in Architefure, is a figure of that bird an-
ciently ufed as an attribute, or cognizance of Jupiter, in the
capital and friezes of the columns of temples confecrated to
that god.

EAGLE, Aquila, in Afronomy, is a confteliation of the
northern hemifphere, having its right wing contiguous to
the equinoétial.

For the ftars in this conftellation, fee Aquiza and Cox-
STELLATION.

There are alfo three feveral ftars, particularly denomi-
nated among the Arab aftronom-rs; Na/r, i.e. eagle. The _
firft, Na/ Sohail, the Eagle of Canopus, called allo Sitareh
Femen, the fter of Arabia Felix, over which it is fuppofed
to prefide; the fecond Na/r Alihair, the Flying Eagle;
and the third Na/r Alvake, the Reiting Eagle.

Eacvt, in Heraldry, is the fymbol of royalty, as being,
according to Philoftratus, the king of birds; and for that
reafon dedicated, by the ancients, to Jupiter.

The eagle is the arms of the emperor, the king of Poland,
&c. It is accounted one of the moft noble bearings in
heraldry, and, according to the learned in that art, ought
never to be given, but in confideration of fingular bravery,
generofity, &c, On which occafions, either a whole eagle,
or an eagle naiffant, or, only the head, or other parts, agree-
able to the exploit, may be granted.

_ The eagle is fometimes reprefented with one head, and
fometimes with two, though never more than one body,
two legs, and two wings opened, or ftretched out, in which
potture it is faid to be /pread or difplayed: {uch is that of
the empire, which is blazoned.a {pread eagle, fable, diadem-
ed, langued,*beaked, and membered, gules.

‘The reafon why eagies are generally given in heraldry dif-
played, is partly, becaufe, in that polture, they fill up the
efcutcheon better, and partly, becaufe it is imagined a pof-
ture natural to the eagle, when it plumes its feathers, or
faces the fun. However, there are eagles borne in. other
poftures ; and fome monttrous ones, with human, or wolves,
heads, &c. The late authors only fay di/played to exprefs
the two heads; and fay an eagle, without any addition, when
it has but one. The kingdom of Poland bears gules, an
eagle argent, crowned and membered, or. ;

The eagle has been borne, by way of enfign, or ftandard,
by feveral nations. The firlt-who feem to have aflumed the
cagle, were the Perfians, according to the teftimony of
Xenophon. Afterwards it was taken by. the, Romans.;
who, after a great variety of flandards, at length fixed on
the eagle, in the fecond year of the confulate of C. Marius ;
till that time, they ufed, indifferently, wolves, leopards, and
eagles, according to the humour of the commander. ,

Several among the learned maintain, that the Romags
borrowed this cuftom from Jupiter, who had appropriated
the eagle as his own badge, in commemoration of its fup-
plying him with neétar, while he lay concealed in Crete,
for fear of being devoured by his father Saturn. Others
hold that they borrowed it from the Tufcans, and others
from the Epirots. "The Remaneagles, it. mult-be obferved,
were not painted on. a cloth,.or flag ;. but were. figures an
relievo, of filver or gold, borne on the tops of pikes; the
wings being difplayed, and frequently a thunderbolt in their
talons. Under the eagle, on the pike,.were piled bucklets,

+..3.C and

Ea G
and fometimes crowns. Thus much we learn from the
medaigy. See Fefchius in his Differt. de Infignibus. And
Lipfius, De Mihtia Romana, lib. iv. dial. 5.

Conftantine is {aid to have firft introduced the eagle with
two heads, to intimate, that though the empire feemed
divided, it was yet only one body. Others fay, that it was
Charlemagne, who, refuming the eagle as the Roman enlign,
added to it a fecond head; but that opinion is dcftroyed,
by aneagle with two heads, noted by Lipfius, on the An-
tonine column; as alfo by the cagle’s only having one head
on the feal of the golden bul', of the emperor Charles LV.
The conjecture, therefore, of F. Meneftrier appears more
probable, who maintains, that as the emperors of the Eaft,
when there were two on the throne at the fame time, ftruck
their coins with the impreflion of a crofs, with a double
traverfe, which each of them held in one hand, as being the
fymbol of the Chriftians ; the like they did with the eagle
in their enfigns ; and, initead of doubiing their eagles, they
joined them together, and reprefented them with two heads :

in which they were followed by the emperors of the
Wett.

I’. Papebroche wifhes, that this conjecture of Meneftrier
were confirmed by ancient coins ; without which, he rather
inclines to think the ufe of the eagle with two heads to be
merely arbitrary ; though he grants it probable that it was
firft introduced on occafion of two emperors in the fame
throne.

The eagle on medals, according to M. Spanheim, is a
fymbol of divinity and providence; and, according to all
other antiquaries, of empire. ‘The princes, on whofe medals
it is moft ufually found, are the Ptolemies and the Scleu-
cides of Syria. An eagle with the word ‘ con‘ecratio,” cx
preffes the apotheofis of an emperor.

Eacre, Aquila, Avzos, in Ornithology. See Farco.

Facus-Flower, in Botany. See BDarsamine.

Eacre, Black, in Heraldry, was an order of knighthood
inftituted in 1701, by the ele€tor of Brandenburgh, on his
being crowed king of Pruffia.

The enfign of this order is a gold crofa of eight points,
enamelled blue; in the centre of which arethe letters F. R.
in cypher ; and in the four angles the eagle of Pruflia,
enamelled black. On collar-days it is worn pendent to a
-rich collar of gold, compofed of round pieces of gold, cach
enamelled with four cyphers of the letters F. R.; in the
centre of the piece is fet a large diamond, and over each
eypher a regal crown, richly chafed, intermixed with. eagles
dilplayed, enamelled black alternately, and holding in their
claws thunderbolts of gold. The crofs is worn ca ordinary
days pendent to a broad orange-coloured ribbon, which is
pafled fcarf-wife from the left fhoulder to the under part
of the right arm. Fhe knights alfo have, embroidered on
‘the left breaft of their coats and upper garments, a flar of
filver, fhaped like that of the enfign of the order; and in

-its centre is an eagle difplayed black, holding in his dexter
claw a chaplet of laurel, and in the other a thunderbolt,
with this motto round it 3 Suum Cuigue.

Eacre, Red, a very ancient order in Bareith, of which
the margrave is fovereiga. It is eftablifhed bath for mili-

-tary and civil perfons, but is generally conferred on officers
whohave obtained:the rank of heutenants-general. The badge
isa medal of gold, of a quadrangular form, enamelled white,

.wpon which is.an eagle difolayed red. _ It is worn fcarf-
wife, pendent to.a broad red watered ribbon, edged with
yellow.

Eacre, White, an order of knighthood, inftituted in
Poland. by Uladiflaus V. furnamed Lokter, in the year

cod . 2. =

EA

1325, on occafion of the marriage of his fon Cafimir, tox

the princefs Ann, daughter of Gedimin, duke of Lithuania.
This order was revived in 1705, by Frederic Auguttus I,
king of Poland, in-oider to coneiliate the principal nobility,
feveral of whom inclined to Staniflaus. The badge of this
order, worn by the knights, 1s a gold crofs of cight points,
enamelled gules, bordered argent, cantoned with flames of
fire; charged in the middle with a white eagle, bearing on
his breatt a crofs of the fame, environed with the arms and
trophies of the electorate of Saxony ; and on the other fide
is a cypher of the king’s name, with this motto, Pro Fins,
Rect, Lece. The whole furmounted with a-{mall crown
of diamonds. he collar is compofed of golden eagles,
crowned and chained. On all days, befides itate-days, the
knights wear the cro(s at the extremity of a broad blue
ribbon fcarf-wife: They have it alfo embroidered on the
left fide of their cloaks and coats.

Eacre /fland, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlanticy..

near the weltern coait of Ireland, and county of Mayo.
N. lat. 54° 17’. We. long..9° 54!.

Eacue Jfland, an ifland on the N.E. coaft of New Hol-.

land, fo called by lieutenant Cook, in 1770. It is low and
fandy, and covered with trees; and abounds with birds,
chiefly fea-fowl. An eagle’s neft waa fourd upon it, and
alfo that-of another bird, of an enormous fize, built with
fticks upon the ground, and no lefs than 26 feet in circum-
ference, and two feet eight inches high. Tne Indians vifit

this ifland, probably to eat turtle, many of which were ob--

ferved upon the ifland.
30!. ‘

Eacre-Owl, in Ornithology. See Srrix.

Eacte, Sea, in Ichthyology. See Raya Aguila.

Eacue-Stone, in Natural Hifloxy. See ASTITES..

Eaves, in Coinage, a name fourd very frequently in the
ancient hittories cf Ireland, and ufed to exprefs a fort of
bafe money that was current in that kingdom in. the firft
years of the reign of Edward I., that 1s, about the year.
1272. There were, befides the eagles, lionines, rofades, and:
many other coins of the fame fort, named according to the
figuresthey were imprefled with. Simon’s Hilt. Coins.

The current coin of the kingdom was at that time a com-
pofition of copper and filver, in a determined proportion,
but thefe were fo much worle than the ftandard proportion
of that time, that they were not intrinfically worth quite
half fo much as the others. They were imported out of
France, and other foreign countries. When this prince
had been a few years eftablifhed on'the throne, he fet up
mirts in Ireland for the coining of fufficient quantities of good.
money, and then decried the ufe of thefe eagles, and other
the like kinds of bafe coins, and made it death, with con-
fifcation of cffe€ts, to import any more of them into the
kingdom. o

EAGLET, or Easton, a diminutive of eagle, properly
fiznifying a young eagle.

The eagle is faid to prove h's eaglets in the brightnefs of
the fun; and if they fhut their eye-lids, he difowns them.
In Heraldry, when there are feveral eagies on the fame ef-
cutcheon, they are called eazlets.

EAHEINOMAUWE, ta Geagrephy: the moft northern.
of the two iflands of which Staaten Land, or New Zealand,
confifts; the other being called Tovy Poenammoo.
iflands are fituated in the South fea, between the latitudes.
of 34° and 48° S,, and between the longitudes of 181° and
194° W.; and they are feparated from each other by a
{trait, or paffage, which is about four or five leagues broad.
Eaheinomauwe has a much better appearance than Tovy,

or,

N. lat. 14° 40’. W. long. 214°

Thefe

——

a

EA O

or Tavai, Poenammoo; for though it is not only hilly but
mountaipous, even the hills and mountains are covered with
wood, and every valley bas a rivulet of water. The foil in
thefe vallies, and in the plains, many of which are not over-
grown with wood, %s in general light, but fertile. Thofe
who vilited it. with lieutenant Cook in 1770, were of opinion,
that all kinds of European grain, plants, and fruit, would
flourith here in the utmoft luxuriance. The winters are fup-
poled, from the ftate of vegetation, to be milder than thofe
in England, and the fummer was experienced not to be
hotter, though it was more equally warm. “The country
appears to be capable of fupplyinsz, in great abundance, not
merely the neceflartes, but the luxuries of life. In Eazheino-
mauwe there were feen no quadrupeds but dogs and rats,
the latter of which are very {carce. ‘Ihe fpecies of birds
are not numerous ; avd of thefe no one kind, except, per-
haps, the gannet, is exactly the fame with thofe of Europe.
Infecis are not more plentiful than birds. But every creek
of the fea [warms with fifh, which are not only who!lcfome,
but equally delicious with thofe in our part of the world;
the higheft luxury cf this kind, with which the Englith
were gratified, was the loblter, or fea cray-fith. The forefts
in this ifland are of va‘t extent, and are full of the ftraighteft,
cleaneft, and largelt timber Mr. Cook and his friends had
ever feen. ‘he plants were very various, as well as nume-
rous. Of abovt 400 fpecies, there were not many which
have hitherto been defcribed by botanifts. There is one
plant, which ferves the natives inftead of hemp and flax, and
. which excels all tnat are applied to the fame purpofes in
other countries. Vor other particulars, we refer to the ar-
ticle New ZEALAND.

EALDERMAN, or Earpvoxman, among the Saxons,
was of like import with earl among the Danes. Camden’s
Gritan. p. 107.

The word was alfo ufed for an elder, fenator, or ftatef-
man. Hence, at this day, we call thofe aldermen, who
are affociates to the chief officer in the common-council of
a city, or corporate town. See ALDERMAN.

EA-OO-WEE, or Mippcesure, in Geography, one of
the Friendly iflands, in the South Pacific ocean, firlt dif-
covered by Tafraa in Januarv 1642-3, and by him called
Middleburg. his ifland, and Tor-ga-ta-bu, or Amfterdam,
are fituated between the latitude of 21°29’ and 21°3'S.,
and between the longitude of 174° 40’ and 175° 15’ W.
fEa-oo-wee, which is the fouthernmoft, is about ro leagues
in circuit, and of a height {efficient to be feen 12 leagues.
‘The fkirts of this ifle are moftly taken up in the plantations,
and efpecially the S.W. and N.W. fides. The interior
parts are but little cultivated, though, fays captain Cook,
very fit for cultivation. The want of it, however, greatly
added to the beauty of the ifle; for here are, agreeably dif-
perfed, groves of cocoa-nut and other trees, lawns covered
with thick grafs, here and there p!antations and paths lead-
ing to every part of the ifland, in fuch beautiful diforder, as
greatly enlivens the profpect. The anchorage, named by
Cook “ Englifh road,”’ (being the firlt who anchored there,)
is on the N.W. fide in S. lat. 21° 20’ 30”. The bank 15 a
coarfe fand, extending 2 miles from the land, on which are
from 20 to 40 fathoms water. The {mall creek before it
affords convenient landing for boats, at all times of the tide ;
which here, as well as at the other iflands, rifes about 4 or
5 feet, and is high water on the full and change days about

°7 o’clock. Van Diemen’s road, where captain Cook an-
_ chored, is under the N.W. part of the ifland, between the
mott northern and weftern parts. This ifland, as well as
_ Ton-ga-ta-bu, is guarded from the fea by a reef of coral
rocks, which extends from the fhore about 100 fathome.

FeA’R

The produce and cultivation of this ifle is the fame as at
Ton-ga-ta-bu or Amiterdam (which fee); with this differ-,
ence, that a part only of the former is cultivated, whereas
the whole of the latter is. The lanes or roads neceflary for
travelling are laid out in fo judicious a manner, as to open a
free and cafy communication from one part of the ifland to,
the other. Here are no towns or villages, the houfes being
moitly built in the plantations, which are neatly conftructed.
The floor is a little raifed, and covered with thick ftrong
mats; the fame fort of covering ferves to enclofe them ou
the windward fide, the other being open. Before moft of
them are little areas, which are generally planted round with
trees, or fhrubs of ornament, whofe fragrancy perfumes the
air w which they breathe. heir houfchold furniture con-
filts of a few wooden platters, cocoa nut fheils, and fome
neat wooden pillows, fhaped like four-footed {tools or forms.
Their common clothing, with the addition of a mat, ferves
them for bedding. For further particulars we refer to the
article Frrenpiy J/lands.

EAR, in Anatomy and Phyfology, the organ which, by
a feufation peculiar to itfelf, renders us capable of being
affected by found. By this term we underltand, therefore,
not only that part which is prominent from the head, bue
the whole of the organ of hearing. Adapted in an eminent
degree to the purpoles it is defizned to execute, it offers an
inviting fubje@ to fuch as are difpofced to invettigate the mi-
pute mechanifm of an organ, which contributes remark-
ably to fome of our moft exquifite and refined enjoyments.
Whoever has witneffed and attentively obf-rved the diltrefling
effets arifing from a lofs, or diminution of its fenfibility,
will readily acknowledge that fuch deprivation throws us at
a diftance from our fellow-creatwres, and, in the prefent ftate
of fociety, renders us more folitary beings than the lofs ot
fight itfelf. Though the rapid glance of the eye, the im-
menfe diltance to which it enables us to carry our perceptions,
and the extended circle it embraces, ‘have given rife to fome
of our mott pleafurable and magnificent fenfations ; though
it has brought us acquainted with objeét$ which feemed ever
placed far beyond cur reach; ftill the more humble fenfe
which we are now conlidering, the more confined dominion
of the ear, has contributed mott efficiently to the every-day
happinefs of life. It enables us to hold communication with
our fellow-creatures; to improve and exalt our upderftand-
ings by the mutual interchange of ideas ; and thus to increafe
the circle, not only of our phyfical, but of our moral rela-
tions. The charms of eloquence, the pleafure refulting
from the concord of {weet founds, inexplicable perhaps as 1t
remains, are other fources of intclleétual enjoyment, which
contribute to place this fenfe' among the mott delightful as
well as the mot important we poflefs. Whatever, therefore,
by explaining its ttruéture, or examining its funCtions, can
Jead us to improve its natural, or reftore its difordered fenti-
bility, cannot be a fubject of trivial. moment. Our more
immediate obje& is to confider the human ear, obferving
only, that the ttru@ture of the organ, being fuited to one
great end, is in all cafes fundamentally the fame; its dif-
ferent forms and varieties depending on the peculiar economy ~
and abode of each individual creature. here are fome
parts, eflential to the perception of found, which are always
prefent, be the fenfe of hearing delicate or imperfect ; there
are others which are found only in particular clafles of ani-
mals. In thofe which approach neareft to the hyman form,
it differs from that of men only in the relative fize of the
different parts. The fenfe of hearing is ftill perhaps the
fame, the propagation of found is fubje& to the fame laws ;
and we mutt look for the variety of effe@, not only to the
organs, but to the. centre to which all our fenfations tend.

3G2

EAR

> Tt will be found convenient to make fome leading ‘divifions
of the fubje&, under which we may arrange our ideas in
more diftinG order, and from which we may fet forth with
greater freedom, when about to examine tiie powers and
ftru@ure of the ear. The neceffity of fuch atrangement
will be obvious to any one who wifhes to diftinguifh between
pofitive truths, and the probable application of them, to the
elucidation of different phenomena. With this view, we
fhall; in the firft place, lay before the reader what'may be
regarded as demonftrable faGts, and then endeavour to ex-
plain the application of thefe, as far as it can be made out
by reafoning and probable conjecture. Whatever may be
thought of {uch inferences, the feries of fats will remain the
fame. They will ever form a folid bafe, however light-and
imperfeé&t the fuperitru€ture raifed on it by opinion; how-
ever rapidly it may vanifh before the illuminatmg glance of
fome happier genius, or fall at-the touch ‘of more patient
and inductive reafoning. Thefe facts confilt ina knowledge
of the ftruGure of the ear in different animals; in the power
pofleffed by them of perceiving founds; and further, in the
deyree of that power enjoyed by man. Of the manner in
which’ this faculty of diitinguifhing found is produced, we
know but little ;) and in our endeavour to account for it, we
muft in many inflances take our leave of pofitive truths, and
be contented to tru ourfelves to the more doubtful guidance
of analogical reafoning and rational conjeGture. ‘There is a
barrier placed in our road, beyond which nothing is cl-arly
feen if we pafs it, the chance is that we ftumble, if we do
not fall. We have very little knowledge of the impreflicns
which founds make on other animals. We know that they
hear; and in many inftances we {carcely know more. If we
could determine that there was a difference in the fenfibility,
and that this diverfity was dependant on one particular ftruc-
ture of the organ, as compared with another, we fhould gain
an important point, and beable to draw fome probable con-
clufions as to the part which each portion of the organ bears
in tran{mitting and modifying found.’ We know the degree
of perfe&tion in the organ aa it exifts in man; fo we know
that many animals; who come near him in its ftruéture, pof-
fefs powers of nearly equal extent. We are convinced,
Moreover, that ‘animals, with one part of the organ only
yut of many, are full capable of being affeéted by founds.
Tf, in addition to this, we knew the intermediate gradations
of the faculty, as enjoyed by fucceffive clafles, when more
and more parts are fuperadded to this fimple ftru€ture ; if
we could precifely determine the degree of perfection propor-
tional to each alteration, and improvement in the apparatus,
the path would be clear, the barrier thrown down: we
Should deduce known effeéts from demonttrable caufes; we
fhould go from what is known to what is unknown,
without the rifk of miffing our way; we fhould be enabled
‘to affign the pofitive importance of each picce of the appa-
ratus, and mark out clearly its relative fun€tions. As thefe,
‘however, are at prefent unknown, and, for the caufes men-
tioned, likely to remain fo, we muft becontented with the
endeavour to explain the phenomena, as we obferve them in
the more complicated ftre€ture, as they occur in creatures
who can give an account of their fenfations: in fhort, as we
‘notice them'in man. And if we confider the difliculty of
accounting for the endlefé variety of the effects of found on
“the human ear, where ovr knowledge ‘is the moft complete,
‘we fhall be the lefs difpofed to examine it in other animals,
where the variety may be equal,*but where our inductions
have nothing better to reft on than conjeétural fuppofition
We fhould have to inveltigate an obfeure fubje& in creatures,
who could not convey to us any ideas’of their fenfations, or,
at leaft, any fuch precile ideas as would lead us to well-

founded inferences. The refule of all that we can at laf
draw from our invefligation would be this, that in the dif.
ferent gradations we obferve a variety of organs, of which
fome parts are conitant, others found only in particular
clafles, and differing in their conformation even in thefe.
The obvious inference is, that the part univerfally found is
the effential means by which we perceive founds; that the
additional apparatus is intended to facilitate its tranfmiffion,
or to modify its action. Having gained this ftep, we again
are flopped, totally unable to explain the mode by which
this part fo conftantly met with is enabled to excite in us
the idea of a found. All that we know is this, that.there
are fome ideas, which haye admittance only through one
fenfe, which is peculiarly adapted to receive them; and if
the nerves, which convey them from without to the brain,
are fo difordered ag not to perform their functions, there is
no.other way in which they can be perceived by the under-
ftanding. In this paucity of faéts, we mult make the moft
of thofe we poffefs; and for the better underftanding them,
fhall regard them as they concern the ftruGture of the ear,
or as they are conneéted with its power of dillinguifhing the
properties of founds. ‘This arrangement leads ns to con-
fider the method we haye chofen to follow, in analyfing the
functions of theorgan. We-firft take the earto pieces, if I
may ufe the expreffion, and defcribe the delicate and ad-
mirable ftru€ture of it 10 man, beginning from without, and
proceeding till we arrive at the immediate feat of fenfation;
we neXt give the hiltory of its powers, as afcertained by ob-
fervable phenomena: and, laftly, we endeavour to conne&
thefe truths, to trace the progrefé of found as affeGting the
different portions of the ear, and to determine-the {um of its
action on each; to notice the manner in which the idea of
found is admitted to the brain, and explain the mode in
which it becomes modified, during its propagation from
without, by the mechanical ation of the tranfmitting parts ;
and to affign the relative importance of each part, by no-
ticing the effeéts produced by an alteration or deficiency of
them in man, and by confidering their conformation in other
avimals. This comparative view will extend, however, only
fo far as may be neceflary to affit us in explaining pheno-
mena, :

Before we can attempt to exp/ain the manner in which the
perception of found is accomplifhed in maa, it will be requi-
fite to give a defcription of all the parts deftined to colle@,
tranfmit, and modify the pulfes of it, as well as of thofe on
which they are finally imprefled. And in thus confidering
the ear as an organ of fenfe, we fhall include all the parts
which are in anywile fubfervient to its funétions, and which,
in conjunction with the ear, go to form the whole of the
organ of hearing. For the convenience, however, of ana-
tomical purpofes, it will be neceflary to make a divifion of
the ear into different portions; a divifion which, though
an arbitrary one, will greatly facilitate the defcription. Of
the divifions in common ufe, we fhall adopt, as the moft na-
tural, that which makes three portions of the ear: the firft
including the external ear, or auricle, and the parts exterior
to the membrara tympani; the fecond, the cawity of the
tympanum, and the parts connedted with it; and the lait, the
parts ufually comprehended under the general term of /aby~
rinth. ,
The ears are two in number, and, like all the organs de-
figned to receive the impreffions of furrounding agents, are
fymmetrical, or exaétiy refembling each other in ftru@ure.
The defcription of one, therefore, may with great facility
be applied to cither; and as the plates reprefent throughout
the formation of the left ear, we fhall fuppofe ourfelves to
be explaining the ftructure of the fame ear in the following

6 accounts

a i

a

EAR.

sécount, The defcription of that part of the ear, which is
formed in bone, will be found in the hiftory of the temporal
bone, under the article Cranrum; and as'a knowledge of
it is abfolutely neceflary in comprehending the following
view, we fhall, inftead of puzzling the reader by continual
references, fuppofe him to be fully acquainted with this pre-
vious defcription. As, in the account of the’bony parts of
the ear, no reference has been made to the plates defigned to
iiluftrate the anatomy of this organ; and as, in the follow-
ing defcription, the explanations are feattered, we have
thought it belt to colle& them under one view, that we
aight the more readily bring ourfelves acquainted with the
gnott important parts of its truGure. The firft plate begins
with figures of the external ear, and leads us gradually to
the mott isterior parts; the laft plate exhibiting all the parts
in their relative politions with regard to each other, and to
the reit of the fkull. .

The formation of the éar, as well as of the eye, is very
confiderably advanced during the foetal {tate ; fome of the
parts poflefling, even in the early months, a volume nearly
equal to that which they finally attain. After the deferip-
tions of the different portions of the ear in the adult, we
fhall introduce that of each part,-as it exilted before birth,
as weil as of the gradual alterations it undergoes before it
arrives at the form it is deftined at Jaft to maintain.

The organ of hearing, in its fimpleft form, conlifts of the
expaniion of a nerve, gifted with its peculiar fenfitive quali-
ties, over the furface of a delicate membrane. In man and
the more perfe& animals, there is an additional apparatus
connected with this, the defign of which is fuppofed to be
that of colleGting and modifying thofe pulfes of found
which are finally to be imprefled on the nervous pulp, In
man this apparatus confifts of a piece of cartilage, feated ex-
ternally to the head, which contraéts into a funnel leading
to the internal parts. ‘The bottom of this tube is truncated
obliquely, and its aperture clofed by a firm membrane
ftretched acrofs it, which feparates this external part of the
ear from the fucceeding, or middle portion of the organ.
Beyond, or on the oppofite fide of this membrane, we meet
with a fmall cavity, hollowed out in bone, which has been
termed the barrel of the tympanum. OF the feveral open-
ings into it, there is one more particularly demanding our
attention here. It is the internai aperture of ‘a tube, the
other extremity of which opens at the pofterior part of the
_ nofe, behind and above the palate. By means of this com-
munication, the external air 1s admitted into this barrel, and
equipoifes the weight of the atmofphere on the other fide of
the membrane. Accrofs the cavity there is extended, though
by no means in a ftraight line, a feries of little bones, the
exterior one of which is attached to the membrane we have
juft mentioned, the moft internal of the fet being firmly
conneGted with another membrane, which, in conjunéion
with it, fhuts up the entrance toa {till more deepened cavity,
‘called the labyrinth of the ear. This latt hollow, excavated
‘as it were in the folid bone, confifts of a middle portion of
irregular figure, and of different channels, which proceed
from it in various direGtions, and, finally, return, with the
exception of one only, to the fame chamber. All thefe
‘paflages are lined by a membrane, on which the fentient ex-
‘tremicy of the auditory nerve is expanded in different fhapes ;
from thefe it is colleted into one trunk, and go¢s on to jein
a particular part of the brain, and thus completes the com-
“munication between the external agent and the fenforium.

External Ear.

Under this name we comprehend that part which projects
fromthe head , and which, foldedin various directions, is known

by the namie of the auricle, or pinna, of the ear; and the
paflage leading from it to the tympanum.

The pinna, itfelf infenfible to founds, but adapted for the
colleGion of thofe which are to be tranfmitted to the tym-
panum, is placed at the fide of the head immediately behind
the articulation of the lower jaw. It is of a fize varying
much in different individuals, of an irregular, ovate, and
flattened form, with its broader part above, tapering below ;
loofe and detached from the head behind, and continuous
with the {kin of the furrounding parts before. Its external
furface, direéted more or lefs forward in different fubjeéts, is
marked by feveral eminences and depreffions, to each of
which a feparate name has been affixed.

Beginning our defcription from the external edge, we juft
notice the Helix, which is the elevated convex fold forming the
chief part of the outline of the ear. It rifes in the middle
of the pinna, out of a hollow, termed the concha, and,
palling forwards, immediately above the external meatus, it
makes a turn upwards and backwards, {weeping round to
form the circumference of the pinna. Below, the fold is
effaced, and gradually loft in the fmooth and flattened part
above the lobule, which completes the figure cf the ear in this
part. From this curling in of the external edge of the pinna
to conftitute the helix, a groove, or furrow, is formed, which
feparates it from the oppofite eminence, the ancihelix,
throughout its whole length. The anfihelix rifes gradually
from this depreffion, forming an elevated femi-circular fold,
with its concavity towards the meatus, running lengthwife
through the middle of the ear, furrounded nearly on ail
fides by the helix. Towards the upper end, as it turns
forwards, the fold divides into two crura, both of which
fink under the inverted edge of the helix, at its upper part :
the fuperior of thefe forms a lefs elevated and rounder con-
vexity than the lower, which is pinched up into a narrower
ridge. Below, the antihelix becomes gradually narrower,
and terminates juft above an eminence, called antitragus,
from which it is feparated by a flight notch. As the anti-
helix arifes in two feparate portions above, from under the
helix, there is left a fhallow depreflion between them, called
Soffa navicularis.

Anterior to, and below thefe folds, there are two emi-
nences, called ¢ragus and anti-tragus. ‘The firft of thefe,
continuous with the ficinof the face, juts out backwards, in
an oblique dire&tion, fo as to cover, in a great meafure, the
opening of the meatus. The projeGing edge, the line of
which is perpendicular, is nearly itraight, and flants off above
and below, fo as to leave a channel, which feparates it from
the helix above, and another deeper notch dividing it from
the anti-tragus, below and behind. ‘This lait eminence,
which may be regarded asa continuation of the lower end
of the antihelix, is placed oppofite to the tragus at the
lower part of the ear, forming the inferior wall of the
concha.

The concha is the large deepened excavation in the middle
of the pinna, and is furroundéd on all fides by the proje@-
ing folds we have been defcribing. Bounded before vy the
tragus, below by the anti-tragus, the chief partion of its cir-
cumference is made up by the femi-circular fweep of the
anti-helix, which fuddenly fhelves off into this hollow. It is
divided acrofs unequally by the commencement of the helix,
which thus makes a {mall part of its anterior boundary
above. That part of the concha above the beginning of the
helix is continued into the furrow which feparates this
eminence from the anti-helix: the lower divifion leads on
front into the meatus.

The portion of the ear fituated below thefe parts, is
termed the /odule : it ia flat, and terminates in a foft ene

cages

E A RR.

edze, varying much in figure in different individuals. It is
the part which we fee, in moft nations, pierced for the admil-
fion of ear-rings.

The internal furface of the pinna, facing the fide of the
head, is moulded into eminences and depreflions correfpond-
ing, in an inverfe fenfe, to thofe obferved on the oppofite
external furface, but not marked in fo ftriking a manner.
‘The line of its conneétion with the head is a {emi-circular
one, with its concavity forwards, formed by the fold of the
fin, as it pafics between thefe parts. ‘The convexity of the
pinna, behind this line, is caufled by-the bulging of the car-
tilage in the part which correfponds to the depreflion of the
concha on the external furface.

Whe textures, which enter into the compofition of the
piona, exclufive of thofe which we find almoft univerfally
dittnbuted, are, common-integument, cartilage, mufcles, and
ligaments. ‘I'he flcin covering the external ear is connected
very clofely to vhe parts it furrounds, by a denfe celiuar
tiflue, containing fcarcely any fat. It is mere delicate than
in the generalicy of parts; and is furnifhed with numerous
febaceous glands, di{pofed throughout its ftruéture. When
the cuticle has been removed by maceration in water, we
can diftin@ly fee a valt number of rounded foramina, of dif-
ferent fizes; thefe are the excretory dudts of glands, from
which the greafy fubftance that covers the ear is fecreted :
they are particulary large and diftinét in the concha. The
fin alone, covering a-c.ofe cellular tiffue, filled with a deli-
cate fat, compofes the lobule of the ear, which does not ap-
pear to fuffer any irritation from the continued preflure of
a foreign body, as an car-ring, in its fubftance. Onthe in-
ternal furface and edge of the tragus, thefkin is furnifhed
with a few fine hairs, which, project over the entrance of the
meatus.

The cartilage on which the figure of the whole. pinna, ex-
cepting the lobule, depends, has been neceflarily defcribed in
confidering the fhape of that parc, and we have only to no-
tice any alteration in its form, which may be obferved after
the removal ofthe integuments. When this has been efic&-
ed, we may perceive that the figure is broken in upon before
by a deep notch, occupied by a ligament, between the upper
edge of the tragus, and the oppolite portion of the helix.
Bebind, the united extremities of the helix and anti-helix,
inttead of forming a continued rounded outline, terminating
{moothly in the lobule, appear as a pointed projecting pro-
-cels, feparated from the body of the cartilage by a {mall in-
terval, which, when covered by fkin, appeared only as a
groove. Between this procefs and the anti-tragus, a tole-
ably {trong ligament is extended. In the difleCted cartilage,
we obferve, ina more ftriking manner, the eminences and de-
-preffions correfponding, in an inverfe fenfe, to thofe on the
external face, fome of which were {carccly perceptible before
the removal of the invetting parts. We fee now, alfo, the
cartilage fending in a procefs, which goes to form a part of
the comtsencement of the meatus exteraus, as we fhall have
occafion to mention hereafter. The texture of the cartilage
of the pinna refembles that of the nofe and trachea, and has,
by aneminent aud much tobe lamented enatomitt, been deferib-
.ed under the name of fibro-cartilage, as diftinguifhable, by its

firucture and properties, from the cartilages entering into
the comp fition of joints. itis flexible and exceedingly
elaftic, fo as to aflure, by conttantly preferving the car
open, a ready admiflion to all founds, the refle@tion of which
int the meatus is ttl further favoured by its form. f

Tne cartilage is fixed to the fide of the head by three liga-
ments: an anterior one, arifing from the root af the zygo-
matic procefs of the temporal bones, and terminating in the
bafe of the tragus, and the neighbouring part of the con-

vexity of the helix: a fuperior one, arifing from the aponette~
rofis covering the fkull, and fixed to the upper part of the
convexity of the concha: laftly, a pofterior ligament at-
tached by one extremity to the maftsid prosefs of the tem-
poral bone, by the other to the protuberance of the poferier
part of the concha. They wonld appear to be nothing,
perhaps, but a denfe cellular fubftance.

The mutcles of the external ear may be divided inte
thofe which move the whole pinna, and thole which act par-
tially only on the divifions obferved on its external furtace.
In the firlt of thefe claffes, which we shall confder here,
though it cannet be regarded as entering into the con-
ftru@tion .of the pisna, we enumerate fome fmail mnfclea,
which are, however, very manifeft ina mufcular fubjeét. and
which appear to have derived their names from their fitua-
tion, with regard to the ear. They are, the aéiollens auricu-
lam, the anterior auricule, and the retrahentes auriculam.

The attollens auriculam, temporo-auriculaire of Chaufficr,
is a thin flat mufcle, fituated on the fide of the head, im.
mediate.y above the external ear. It is the broadeit of
the mufcles of the ear, and of a triangular fhape: the upper
portions of its thin and fcattered fibres arile in a curved line
from the external furface of the aponeurolis of the occipitos
froncaiis, rather below the rounded origin of the temporal
mufcles; from thefe points they converge in their approach to
the ear, (not in correfponding lines, however, from all parts,
the anterior fibres being dire€ted more backwards than the
polterior ones are forward,) and terminate in a flat tendon,
which is fixed tothe eminence on the inner fide of the pinna,
anfwering to the foffa, which is obferved between the ctura
of the anthelix. This mufcle lies immediately under the
fkin, and over the temporal fatcia, from which it is feparated
by celiular tiffue. It will elevate the pinna, and, perhaps,
by ftretching the part to which it is attached, tend to open
the paflage of the external meatus.

Anterior auricule, zigomato auriculaire. This very delicate
mutcle, allied in form to the one we have been defcribing, but
much f{mallerin its dimenfions, is fituated on the temple, im-
mediate'y before the ear. It arifes from the fame furface
of the 2poneurofis as the former, in that part of it which
lies over the middle of thezygoma, Its ormgin is not always,
however, diltin, nor eafily determined. It proceeds from
thence backwards, and a little downwards, and becoming
tendinous as it reaches the ear, pafles ‘on under it to arrive at
the inner fide of that part of the helix, which has been
defcribed as dividing the concha into two unequal portions.
It is covered immediately by the fkin, and hes over the tem-
poral fafeia and artery. Its action will be to draw that part
of the helix forwards.

Retrahentes auriculam, maflvido-auriculaires, appear as {mail
narrow mutcles, affixed, by tendious origins, to the external
and hinder part of the root of the maitoid procefs, imme-
diately over the attachment of the fterno-maftoideus. From
thence they pafs tranverfely towards the ear, and become
fixed to the protuberance correfponding to the hollow of
theconcha. They are hardly to be reduced to any defcrip-
tion which fhall anfwer, in every inftance, as they vary in
number and origin in different fubjeéts. They are covered
by the fin, and feparated from the temporal bone by cellular
tiffue. They will ttretch the concha, and draw the pina
backwards.

From its conne@ion with thefe mufcles, the auricle can
be moved upwards, backwards, or forwards and by their
combined aGlions in any of the intermediate direGtions. It
is doubtful if they have much power over the tube of the
meatus, though they may exert their influence in opening
the hollow of the concha. In removwg the ‘kin, to gain a

view

>

~

, EAR.

view of thefe mufcles, confiderable caution is requifite; as
they are delicate in fome, and not in every cafe eafily dif
tinguifhed from the furrounding parts. To fee them more
dittinétly, the ear fhould be drawm in different direétions, fo
as to put them on the ftretch ; and they fhould be ftudied
immediately as they are difleGted, as they foon become con-
fufed and indiftin@. The mufcles we have mentioned as
acting on the different eminences ofthe pinna, are p'aced at
different points on its furface: they are extremely {mall, fo
that fome anatomifts have denied altogether their exiltence.
The tragicus derives its name from the tragus on which it
hes: placed on the external face of this eminence, which it
almott entircly covers, it may be defcribed as arifing at its
bafis and terminating at its fummit by tendinous extremities.
it is of a triangular fhape, with the bafe below. Where
the anti-tragus forms its greateit projection there is attached
to its exterior furface a {mall mufcle called anti tragicus : its
fibres proceed obliquely upwards and backwards, and ter-
minate at the lower and potterior edge of the anthelix, to
which they are fixed in the angle of that-flit which we have
deferibed as exilting in the cartilage between this la{t emi-
nence and the anti-tragus. It is broader below, and tapers
gradually to a tendinous point above. The ligament which
we have mentioned as filling up the interval noticed above,
lies externally to this mufcle, which is covered by ficin on its
internal furface. The major helicis, a narrow {trip of
mutcle, arifes from the edge of the projeGting helix imme-
diately above the tragus: it mounts a little forward, gra-
dually I:ffen'‘ng in fize, and is attached to the external edge
of this eminence juft where it begins to make its turn back-
wards, The minor helicis lies on the hex as it begins to
arife from the hollow of the concha, its fibres pafs forwards
and terminate on the edge of the helix oppofite the end of
-the inferior crus of the anthelix. Thefe mufcles lie on the
external furface of thé pinna: there is ftill another ariling
from the inner fide, called the tranver/us auricule. Itis
placed between the convexities anf{wering to the holiow of the
coucha and the groove between the helix and anthelix. Its
fibres are ihort, and can fcarcely be diftinguifhed as mufcular :
they occupy, nearly the whole length of the {pace corre-
{ponding to the rifing of the anthelix, fo that the perpendi-
cular meatfurement of this mutcle is confiderable, though its
tran{fverfe one is fhort. The more regular and more diitin®
of thefe mufcics are the tragicus and anti-tragicus. The
diftinét aétion of each of them has been deferibed by different
anatomilts, and may be colleéted by refleGting on their at-
tachments. ‘The motions they produce, however, are at
the belt extremely obfeure, and in mott inftances not dif-
cernible. ‘heir oniy adtions can be thofe of approximating,
or drawing afunder the different eminences of the ear, and
the extent of fuch movement we belicve to be extremely
minute. ‘nis has been fuppofed to arife from the oppoli-
tion made by the elaflicity of the cartilage to the actions of
thefe {mall mufcular powers, which, it will be readily feen,
do not exert their influence through the medium of moveable
articulations, but aét immediately on a refilting body, in
which there is a conftant tendency to preferve one cuftomary
form. The integral aétion of thefe mufcles feems to be
principally directed towards altcring the form and dimen-
tions of the concha, around which they are partially diltsi-
buted. We fhall have occafion to confider the ufes of both
the orders of mufcles we have been deferibing, when con-
didering the funétions of the external ear in their relation to
the {enfe of hearing. In the mean time it mutt be aliowed,
that in man the action of many of thefe mufcles is extremely
confined, and, in the majority of inkances, {carcely per-

t

ceptible, Whether this may arife from our habit of com-
preffing them by our mode of drefs, or trom being feldom
called into ation in the quiet and regulated intercourfe of
civilized life, is perhaps a matter of bat little moment: our
wants require accuracy, more than acutenels of fenfe. There
are, however, numerous recorded inftances, as well as
living examples of perfons in whom this power of moving the
external ear has been mani‘eft and decided. We are told
alfo, that among the more favage rations, whofe predatory
habits are fuch as to render a watchful caution alive to catch
every coming found neceflary both fer their prefervation and
fupport, there does exilt a confiderable power of moving
the ear in different directions. The rapid movements of it
in brutes, and the various directions of its opening in animals
of different habits, have been the fubjeét of frequent ob-
fervation. The minute form and palenefs of the proper
mu(cles of the human ear render the diffe¢tion of them ex-
ceedingiy troublefome, more efpecially if the fubjeét be not
ftrongly mufcular: indeed, unlefs in thefe favourable cir-
cumilances, our labour will be in vain; we fhall to no pur-
pole f-ek to diftinguifh them from the furrounding fubitance,
to which, by their palenefs, they are nearly allied.

‘The pinna in the foetus poffcfles nearly the fame external
charagters as in the adult. Its fize does not bear the
fame proportion. to the other parts of the ear as it after-
wards veaches; it being of all the organ the part which
is the ieail advanced before birth. In the adult male the
auricle is obferved to be more rounded and full, as well as
fomewhat thicker than it is in the female. The national
diltinGtions of the ears are derived chiefly from their fize and
fituation. hey are defcribed to be, in Europeans, {maller
than in the inhabitante of many other climates; amongit
whom we have accounts of their reaching a prodigious fize.
It is well known, that in favage nations they {tand off farther
from the fide of the head; and in the idols of ancient Egypt
they are conftantly figured as b<ing placed much higher than
we now obferve them. That fuch a reprefentation was not
the effeét of ignorance, but of defign, is deducible from the
finifhed workmanfhip we obferve in the reft of their conflruc-
von, Allowing then that it 1s taken from nature, it will be no
more remarkable than the variety we notice fo frequently 10
domettic animals, as to the fituation of the external ear. The
four-footed mammalia are the only animals befides man
who are provided: with a projecting pinna: itis not conftant,
however, even among thefe, being deficient in many of thofe
who live either in the water or under ground. Its varieties
of figure and pofition are familiar to all, and we have only
to add, that they are provided with ftrong mufcles adequate:
to move them in every neceflary direction.

Meatus Auditorius Externus.

Having completed our defcription of the pinna of the ex-
ternal ear, we proceed next to confider the paflape leading :
from it to the tympanum. ‘The external meatus extends
from the concha to the membrana tympani, -by which it is -
{cparated from the next cavity, or that of the middle ear.
It takes its courfe immediately between the maftoid procefs
and the glenoid cavity for the reception of the condyle of
the lower jaw. The general direétion is at firft upwards
and forwards, it then makes rather a fudden turn down-
wards and backwards, and is continued nearly in an hori-
zontal line till it reaches the membrana tympani. Confi-
dered in the whole of ,its courfe it would appear as forming
a convexity pointing upwards, and a correfponding con-
cavity directed downwards and forwards. A {edtion
carried at a right angle to ite axis prefents an oval oc

thao

é

EAR

thana rounded opening. It gradually diminithes in ffze ae it
proceeds from the concha, being narrowed for about the
middle third of its courfe, and enlarging again as it ap-
proaches the tympanum. Its ufual length is rather lefs
than an inch: and it is always fhorter above than below,
behind then before, on account of the oblique direction
of the membrana tympani, Jn confidering the parts which
enter into the conitrution of the fides of the meatus, our
attention will be called to a folid or bony portion, a cartila-
ginous plate, incomplete in parts, its vacancics being filled
up by the interpofition of a fibrous fru€ture, and, lattly, the
common lining ef the whole. ‘The bony portion has been
already deferibed with the tempora! bone, it occupies about
one-half of the length of the meatus. The cartilaginous part
of the tube is continuous with the bafe of the tragus, aud
the lower and antertor part of the concha as before men-
tioned. It is formed by a broad plate, proceeding inwards
from thefe points, gradually decreafing in breadth, and
eurling from below upwards and backwards in fuch a man-
ner as not to form a complete circle of cartilage, but to
leave a vacancy -between the circumvoluted edges towards
the upper and pofterior part, which is filled up and com-
pleted bya fibrous expanfion. "The cartilaginous tube thus
conftrued terminates in an oblique line, the lower part of
which proj:-&s inwards in a pointed form, and is fixed either
immediately or by the intervention of fibrous tiflue to the
rough edge obferved at the inferior part of the termination
of the bony meatus. When the membrane, which completes
the tube from above, has been cut through longitudinally,
fo as to give one the liberty of making the cartilaginous
plate flat, 1t appears of a triangular fhape, its bafe towards
the pinna, its apex towards the head, which, when folded
up, will form the obliquely truncated tube we have been
defcribing. It will be feen from this that the pinna and the
cartilaginous portion of the meatus are formed by a continuous
piece of cartilage, which in the pinna lies extended by the
fide of the head, and gradually contraéts into a tubular
meatus. Near to the tragus there is a confiderable cleft in
this cartilaginous plate, filled by a fibrous {ublitance: farther
in, we find it again divided tran{verfely by another cleft,
which does not however run to the full extent of its breadth.
Befides thefe two, we fometimes meet with a third vacancy ;
and they are all known by the name of incifures (inci/ure).
It is on this account, as well as from its being an incom-
plete tube, that it has been compared to the conftruGtion of
the trachea. The fibrous fubltance, which occupies the
interfpace of the fecond incifure, has been defcribed by San-
torini as being covered by mutcular fibres, which have re-
tained his name; the mufculus incifurse majoris Santorini,
muf{culus meatus auditorii of Douglas. Its ation would be
to contraé& the length of the tube. The fibrons portion, in
conjunétion with the fkin, forms the upper part of the tube,
where they complete the vacancy left between the edges of
the cartilage. The fibrous plate is not very apparent, but
may generally be diftinguifhed from the fkin which lines the
whole of the tube within. It is continued to the temporal
bone, ftretching itfelf on each fide as it advances inwards,
and ferves to conne& the oblique edge of the cartilage to
that part. Between this expanfion and the {kin lining the
meatus we meet with numerous blood-veffels enclofed in
ecllular tiffue. -The whole of the external meatus is covered
by a prodvétion of fkin, which dips into it after having in-
vefted the pinna, and becomes reflected over the membrana
tympani at the bottom of the conduit. It varies fomewhat
in appearance, as well as in ftruéture, in different portions of
its paflage ; and may be defcribed generally as being con-

fiderably thinner the nearer it approaches to:the tympanum,
It is covered, more efy ly towards the pinna, by a fine
down, interfperfed by a few longer hairs of an equally deli-
cate appearance. ’

Towards the commencement of the bony meatus, we obs
ferve, on removing the cuticle, the ‘kin to be pierced by
numerous {mall cpenings lying clofe to each other, which
are the outlets for the ceruminous fecretion we fhail prefently
notice. They are more particularly obfervable at the tere
mination of the cartilaginous portion, where they form a
zone of minute foramina. As we arrive at the membrana
tympani, we find the ikin become extremely delicate ; and
where it.is produced over that membrane, itds diaphanous:
whether it is only the cuticle which is thus produced, or
whether the true fkin alfo goes to form this external layer,
is not perhaps exactly afcertained. It adheres but loofely
to the cartilaginous portion ; as we proceed inwards, it be-
comes moft clofely and intimately united with the membrane
covering the bone, fo as not to be feparated from it. Sul
farther im, and wkere it covers the membrana tympani, it is
feparable without any difficulty, fo as to be detached m the
form of a bag accurately complete at its bottom, fo that if
the membrana could be removed from within, this fac would
ftill obftrn& the communication between the cavity of the
tympanum and the internal meatus in the moft perfe@ man-
ner. It is of great fenfibility, which has been afcribed to
the thinnefs of the cuticle in thefe parts.

In the cellular tiffue which intervenes between the fkin and
membranous parts of the meatus, we find a couliderable
number of fmall rounded and oval bodies, which are the
ceruminous glands of the meatus: we find them, alfo, but
not fo clofely ftudded, between the fkin and the cartilagi-
nous portion of the tube: they each open by a peculiar ex-
cretory duct into the meatus, and give the porous appear-
ance we before mentioned. They fernifh a yellow matter
of {ome confiftence, extremely bitter and of an oily nature:
it isknown by the name of cerumen, or the wax of the ear.
It acquires in many perfoas confiderable hardnefs 1i fuffered

to accumulate, and forms a folid body ob{tru&ting the meatus,

The ufe of this fecretion is fuppofed to be that of affording
fome defence to the fenfible covering of the meatus, as weil
as to bar the accefs and neftling of infeés.

In order to obtain a corre&t knowledge of the figure of
the meatus, we muft make fections of it in different direc-_
tions, or we may with cafe procure a caft of it in common
plafter. The fe€tions fhould be made tranfverfely in different
parts of the tube to. gain a view of its fhape and area, or
longitudinally in the perpendicular and horizontal directions,
to afcertain its extent and curvatures, It is by thefe latt
{-Gions alfo, that we are enabled to obferve the proportions
which the bony and cartilaginous portions bear in thé con-
ftre@ion of the meatus, its connexion with the concta, the
openings from the ceruminous glands, and, laflly, if the
fe&tion be carried on through the petrous part of the tem-
poral bone, the relative bearing of it to the internal part of
the organ. Such feGtions will be found eminently inftrudive,
are ealily executed, and re hig no particular direCtions for
their performance.

The meatus externus in the feetus poffeffes the fame
proportional length as in the adult. Its area alfo does
not materially differ, excepting that it is comparatively
larger towards its internal extremity from the magnitude of
the circle for the membrana tympani, to the circum‘erence
of which it is aflixed. The ftruGure of the tube, however,
offers fome more remarkable differences. The cartilaginous
portion: is nearly thefame, only the ineifures are larger.and

more

Ce TOA Li at put

EA R®.

ore apparent, and the fibrous part occupies perhaps a
greater part of the circle. The bony part, as has been al-
ready defcribed, is abfolutely wanting ; we have then only
to examine here what fupplies the deficiency. Above, the
internal lining alone is obfcrved, as forming the provifional
fides of the meatus ; below, in addition to this, we can plainly
perceive a peculiar membranous fheath formed of ttrong
parallel fibres which arife from the ring of the tympanum,
and terminate in the cartilaginous part of the meatus. It
is this expanfion of thick membrane which makea the divi-
fion between the meatus and the glenoid cavity, which in
the adult is formed in bone; as the formation of the bose
proceeds from within, it becomes gradually loft. The ani-
mals who have no external ear, and {till poflefs an external
meatus, are birds,and cetacea. In the former clafs the tube
is fhort and chiefly membranous, in the latter it is very long,
proportionably {mall, and infleéted in various directions.

The middle Ear, or cavity of the Tympanum.

Themiddle divifion of the ear is bounded externally by the
membrana tympani, which feparates it from the external
meatus, and internally, by the parts called the labyrinth: it lies
under the nnion of the fyuamous with the petrous portion of
the temporal bone, over the fofla jugularis, with the maftoid
procefs andits cells behind, part of the glenoid cavity and
the Euttachian tube before. ‘The irregularity of its form
will admit of no exaé& defcription of its figure, the walls of
which, it will be fufficient to obferve, are made up on both
fides by bone. Itis only towards the meatus that we ob-
ferve any confiderable deficiency in this bony cafe, where it
is interrupted by a large circular opening, which is, however,
fhut up by a membrane ftretched acrofs it, called, from its
fituation, the membrana tympani. In this cavity our notice
will be claimed by a variety of objects, which we believe to
be fubfervient to the tran{miffion and modification of thofe
founds which have impinged on the membrane from without.
Here, however, it will be neceflary again to refer the reader
to the defcription of the bony part of the organ, as, without
a correct knowledge of that part of the fubjeét, the fludy of
this will be at laft but incomplete and unintelligible. In the
prefent place, we have to notice the membranes clofing the
different openings, the Euftachian tube, the connections of
the officula, the mufcles employed in moving them, and,
laftly, the membrane which lines the whole of the cavity and
the parts conneéted with it.

- The membrana tympani is diftin& from the linings of the
“external meatus and the cavity of the tympanum, from both
of which, it may be feparated by maceration in water. It
has been already mentioned as clofing the internal end of the
meatus, where it lies inan oblique direétion, ftretched acrafs
the bony circle in the external fide of the tympanum. Its
obliquity is fuch, thatit forms a very acute angle with the
Jower portion, and an equally obtufe angle with the upper
fide of the bony external meatus, to which latter, indeed, it
is at firft nearly parallel. ‘The plane of its external furface,
however, does not lie exaétly oppofite to the lower half of
the meatus, butit is directed rather forwards, the internal
furface looking proportionably backwards. The dimenfions
of the membrane are rather larger than the circle to which it
fs fixed, which allows, therefore, of its relaxation, and of its
being drawn into a wide cone, the apex of which is direéted
towards the cavity of the tympanum, thus forming a_hol-
lowed furface towards the meatus, anda correfponding pro-
je@ing furface in thetympanum, which latter is ftrongly
united to the defcending handle of the malleus, the motions
of which it muftin all cafes follow. The membrana tym-
pani is clofely fixed round its circumference to the bony
Vor. Xil,

circle which embraces it, - It has, however, been a matter of °
difpute among anatomilts, whether there exifted, in a natural

ftate, any deficiency in this union, at any part which would

allow of the paffage of air or any other fluid from the meatus

to the cavity of thedrum. The moft exaét refearches of

later days have, we believe, afcertained, that no fuch open-

ing does exift inthenatural ftru€ture of the parts. There

can be no doubt, however, that there 1s occafionally a com-

municating foramen which allows of the paflage of air, or

{moke, through this intercepting membrane. ‘The exiltence

of it is proved beyond contradiction, in thofe perfons whe

have had ihe power of expelling, by the external meatus, the

{mcke of tobacco colle&ed in the mouth, which mutt have

pafled by the Eultachian tube into the cavity of the tympa-

num. We have been informed alfo, that in fome of the

northern Americans, this phenomenon has been obferved

pretty genera'ly. The foramen has beenparticularly defcribed

by Rivinus, whofe name itlong bore. Whether it exift,

however, or not, it would feem that the refleGion of the fkin

over its external, and the membrane of the cavity of the

tympanum over its internal furface, would effeétually clofe

any deficiency left between the membrana tympani and the

bone. “he membrane itfelf is dry, and when thefe refleGtions

are removed, totally tranfparent, It appears to poflefs no

vefleis carrying red blood in its healthy ftate in the adult,

though in cafes of inflammation, and in the foetus, it is fenfibly

vafcular. It differs in ftru€ure from any of the other mem-

branes with which weare acquainted, preferving its peculiar

appearance long after the other animal parts of the body are

diffolved by putrefaCtion. Joined to this firmnefs and tranf.

parency, Mr. Home has of late confidered it as poffefling muf.

cular fibres, which pafs in all direGtions from the bony rim to

the handle of the malleus. In the elephant this ftruéture, he

fays, ‘* is vifible to the naked eye, asit is even in the humaz

tympanum, when examined under favcurable circumftances.

When viewed ina microfcope, the mufcular fibres are beau-

tifully con{picuous, and appear uniformly the fame through-
out the whole furface ; the mufcular fibres appear only to

form the internal layer of the membrane, and are molt dif-
tinGly feen when viewed on that fide.” Its probable ufe
we fhall have to confider hereafter. ‘Ihe membrana tympani
thus formed, completely eftablifhes a barrier between the ex-
ternal meatus and the cavity of the tympanum; preventing the
entrance of air or other fluids. The membrana tympani of
the foctusis more flanting in its pofition than that of the
adult , and it is covered externally by a thin layer of white
febaceous fubftance, called by fome p/eudo membrana, by
others membrana or lamina mucofa. This feems to confilt

merely of the fecretion of the ceruminous glands, as the
whole meatusis more or lefs covered by a fimilar whitifh
fubftance. It maybe feparated from the outer furface of
the membrana ina diltinct circular piece.

The Luflachian tube, or trumpet, is a canal formed partly in
bone, and partly in cartilage and membrane, extending from
the cavity of the tympanum tothe upper part of the pharynx,
behind the pofterior opening of the nares; its direction, view-
ing it from the tympanum, is obliquely forwards, inwards,
and downwards: about two inches in length, contra¢ted and
of a circular form at its commencement in the tympanum ;
it becomes gradually larger, with its fides flattened intoan
elliptical canal, as it approaches the pharynx, into which it
opens by a tranfverfe mouth with an elevated margin around
it. The bony portion of the tube forms the -third next the
tympanum, the remaining two-thirds being made up of car-
tilage and membrane. The firft of thefe commences in the
anterior and fuperior part of the tympanum, and pafles on iu
the very fubftance of the temporal bone, to join the other

gH portion.

EAR.

portion. In this courfe it lies under the channel which con-
tains the tenfor tympani, and externally and above the canalis
carotideus, from both of which it is feparated only by a thin
bony plate. The other two-thirds, regarded as an whole,
refemble a flattened cone, whofe apex is continuous with
this bony portion, into the irregular edge of which it is
firmly implanted. From this origin, the tube pafles ob-
liquely forward, attaching itfelf to the neighbouring bones,
and when arrived oppofite the internal ala of the pterygoid
procefs, enlarges {uddenly juft before it terminates in an
open mouth. The cartilage, which enters into the compo-
fition of this part of the tube, forms its internal fide, or
that next the mefial plane. It is of atriangular fhape, and
conftitutes at firft not only the inner fide of the tube, but
alfo the {uperior part of its external fide. The tube has,
from this appearance, been defcribed asif made up by two
plates of cartilage united longitudinally at their fuperior
edges, of which the external plate is narrow, and the defici-
encies fupplied by membrane, whilit the internal plate is
continued from the fauces to the tympanum, forming
throughout the inner half of the wall. This external plate
is not always found, andin fuch cafe it is the membranous
portion which completes the circumference of the tube with-
out. It is conftruéted chiefly by the membrane lining the
tube ftrengthened by fome fibrous expanfions arifing from
the adjacent bones and enveloping it clofely. The Eufta-
chian tube is lined internally by a continuation of the mu-
cous membrane of tke pharynx, which gradually lofes its
rednefs as it approaches the cavity of the tympanum, becom-
ing alfo more evidently delicate in its texture. This tube
cflablifhes a communication between the tympanum and the
external air, which thereby gains accefs to the cells formed in
the fubftance of the maftoid procefs, and already defcribed
as opening intothe upper and pofterior part of the cavity.
This air, however, or any other fluid, cannot penetrate
into the internal ear, as the openings between them are
clofed by membranes in the living fubje&. The foramen
rotundum is {hut up by its peculiar membrane, which re-
fembles the. membrana tympani in appearance: its plane
is not parallel but oblique, in regard to the latter, as may
ealily be fuppofed if we confider the direétion of this open-
ing. The foramen ovale alfo is clofed by its membrane,
to which the ‘bafe of the ftapes is firmly affixed, the
latter not filling up tbe whole of the opening, but leav-
ing a narrow border in which the tranfparent membrane is
apparent. j

From the confideration of the barrel of the tympanum,
we proceed to that of: the parts which it contains. Thefe
confitt of three {mall bones, called the offcula audi‘us, fome
mufcles concerned in moving them, and a nervous cord
crofling the cavity tranfverfely.

The figure of the oflicula has been already the fubje&
of a particular defcription; and we have here to examine
the relations which they bear to the tympanum, and
to each other, as well as their modes of connedtion ;
we then obferve the poflible degree and extent of their
motions, as refulting from thefe conneGions. With an
accurate underitanding of thefe points, we proceed to ex-
amine the mufcles or moving powers which can be brought
to act on them, and attend more particularly to the {pots at
which they make their appearance in the tympanum, and
the relative fituation of thefe points with regard to the
bones; as it is from them alone that we can eltimate the
line of direG@tion in which they aét. Poffefling a correct
knowledge of thefe faéts, we may calculate the probable
effeéts of their combined or individual aétion on the bones,
and confequently on the parts conneéted with them, the

membrana tympani and the membrana feneflre ovalis. Thhe-
handle of the malleus is attached, throughout the whole of
its length, to a line in the upper half of the membrana tym-
pani; the lower point of it being fixed to the apex of the
cone we have defcribed in the centre of it, from whence the
attachment is continued to the circumference. Above, the
neck of the malleus is tied to the bony ring of the tym-
panum; its head lying in a hollow of the fuperjacent bone,
to which it is fixed by a ftrong ligament defcending from
above, and pafling to its inner furface. Anteriorly the long
procefe is admitted into a fiffure of the bone, from which it
cannot be removed in the adult. ‘The direétion of the long
axis of the malleus will be thus nearly perpendicular, and
that of its long procefs horizontal, In this fituation, its
double articular furface is dire€ted backwards and inwards,
the whole of its neck and head being above the frame fup-
porting the membrana tympani; fo that when viewed from
without that opening, we can fee its handle only. The ar-
ticular furfaces of the incus lie clofely embracing the corre-
{ponding furfaces of the malleus, to which it is attached by
a capfular ligament, allowing fome freedom of motion: its
fhort leg is direCted backwards and a little downwards, fo
that its point refts ina {mall hollow at the commencement of
the maltoid cells, in the fame horizontal line with the long
procefs of the malleus: it is further fixed in this {pet by two
diftin@ and ‘trong ligaments, which effectually prevent its
ftarting. The long leg defcends in a line nearly parallel to.
that of the handle of the malieus, but behind it, and re-
moved farther inwards from the membrana tympani; it does
not, however, extend fo far down into the cavity of the
tympanum. T'rom this pofition all that we can fee of the
incus below the circle of the tympanum is the inferior part
of its long leg, as it turns inwards to be conne¢ted with the
head of the ftapee, to which it is united by a loofe capfular
membrane. ‘T'his lait bone, as it lies in the feneftra ovalis,
has the long axis of its bafe nearly at right angles to the de-
{cending crus of the incus, and the manubrium of the malleusy.
and confequently parallel to the long procefs of that bone:
the bafe has its convex edge uppermott, and is fixed firmly
to the membrana feneltre ovalis: from the narrow ftrip of
membrane left between it and the rim of the feneftra, it can
have but a very circumfcribed and inconfiderable motion.
Such are the relative pofitions and connections of thefe bones 5.
and if we examine their poffible motions, we fhall find them
limited to very narrow bounds. It will be found that they
have but little a@ion among themfelves, their motions being:
chiefly reftrited to changes producible on the membranes of
the tympanum. Of their individual aétion we fhall fay no-
thing; as, from their conne&tions, we can hardly fuppofe
one bone to be moved, without influencing the mstions of
the whole, which we fhall therefore ‘confider in combination.
The axis of motion ef the integrant bones isin a line drawn.
from the point of the fhort leg of the incus to the commence-
ment of the long procefs of the malleus; fo that if the parts
of the bones lying below this line be drawn inwards, the
parts above mult be carried outwards, and vice vera. Trom
the conneGions, however, of tthe head of the malleus and
the bafe of the ftapes, their motions in thefe direCtions can
defcribe but very minute portions of acircle. ‘The incus,
having no muf{cles, would appear in this inftance to be per
feétly paffive, rotating on its fhort leg as the ftapes a&ts with
advantage on its long procefs, or the malleus on its articular
bafe. Befides this motion inwards and outwards, we are
difpofed to admit of a flight motion of the bones backwards.
and forwards, in which, however, they do not move in pas
rallel lines, there being two ceutres of motion, one in the
point of the fhort leg of the incus, the other in the head ae

€

EAR.

the malleus, the revolving points being the manubrium of
this bone and the long leg of the incus. But from the pe-
culiar obliquities of their articular furfaces, which may be
yeadily underftood by examining the bones, if the handle of
the ma'leus is drawn forwards, the long leg of the incus will
be carried backwards, and communicate its motion to the
head of the ftapes: if the ftapes be drawn backwards, it will
carry with it the long leg of the incus, confequently to
which the handle of the malleus will be carried forwards and
a little outwards. Thefe motions are, however, full more
limited than the former, in which the integrant bones are
carried on their axes either inward or outward, and even by
minute refearch fcarcely determinable.

The mufcies which can be brought to a@ on the officula
are four in number; three belonging to the malleus, the
tenfor tympani, exteraus mallet, and laxator tympani; and
one attached to the ftapes, the ftapideus.

The tenfor tympani ariles from the upper fide of the carti-
Jaginous portion of the Euflachian tube, juft under the
opening in the fphenoidal bone, for the paflage of the arteria
meningea media; from thence it runs backwards towards the
tympanum, forming a rounded fiefhy belly, terminating in a
tendon: during this part of its courfe, it lies enveloped ina
ftrong membrane, in a canal formed for its reception above
the bony portion of the Euftachian tube: arrived at the exe
tremity of this canal, its rounded tendon emerges into the
tympanum, pafiing through a contraéted circular opening
at the end of the bony channel. On coming through this
hole, it turns over its external edge, and goes towards the
membrana tympani, ina line directcd horizontally and a little
backwards, to be inferted into the fhort procefs of the mal-
deus, as it lies turned towards the internal part of the
tympanum.

The externus mallet, in fhape like the tenfor tympani,
arifes by a {mall origin from the exterior edge of the {pinous
procefs of the fphenoidal bone, from which it runs back-
wards and a little outwards towards the fiffure in the gkenoid
cavity, along which its tendon proceeds, and becomes fixed
to the whole length of the long procefs of the malleus, as it
lies in its particular groove at the anterior part of the cavity
of the tympanum.

Vhe /axator tympani is the fmalleft of the mufcles of the
malleus: it rifes from the fuperior ard po*erior margin of
the bony ring of the tympanum, from which point it de-
fcends to be fixed by a tendon into the handle of the malleus,
near the root of its fhort procefs. ‘The upper extremity of
this little mufcle lies in a fold of the membrane of the tym-
panum, jult where it begins to be reflected over the mem-
brana tympant, and as it defcends it pafles a little forwards.

Lhe /lapidens avifes in a {mail cavern in the petrous portion
of the temporal bone, near the aqueduét of Fallopius; pafl-
ing through this, its tendon emerges into the tympanum
through a {mall circular hole, over which it turns and paffes
forwards and a little downwards and outwards, to be in-
ferted into the pofterior part of the neck of the ftapes.

‘The ettion of this latt mufcle and the tenfor tympani is
not in the dire¢tion of their fibres, but in a line which forms
an obtufe argle with them, their powers aéting by the in-
tervention of a bony pulley. By obferving the fituation of
this point in its relation to infertion of the tendon of the
tenfor tympani into the malleus, and bearing in mind at the
fame time the conneétions of the officula, we fhall find that
the effect of its action will be to draw the membrana
tympani inward, by which means it becomes proportionably
tenfe. At the fame time, by the joint rotation of the
malleus and incus on their axes, the long leg of the latter
will be drawn inwards, and fomewhat forwards; and,

from its conne@ion with the ftapes, muft deprefs that bone,
but more particularly the anterior end of its bafe, in the
membrana feneftre ovalis. ‘Che ation of this mufcle is the
moft extended of any of the four, and the moft eafily deter-
mined by examination. ‘The point at which the tendon of
the ftapideus appears is fituated rather above a plane, which
fhould be drawn through the bafe of the flapes, and more:
internal than its neck; fo that it muft proceed a little down-
wards, as well as-forwards and outwards, to arrive at its in-
fertion. Its aGtion would appear to us to be that of drawing
the neck of the ftapes towards this pulley ; and in effeCting
this, it will neceffarily draw with it the long leg of the
incus, thereby carrying the handle of the malleus a little
forwards and outwards, and relaxing in a flight degree the
membrana tympani. The other effeG& of its aétion will be
the deprefling of the pofterior end of the bafis inwards, and
drawing its anterior end proportionally outwards, For rea~
fons, however, before mentioned, this can produce but little
vifible effe&t on the membrane of the feneftra ovalis, which
will allow but of little motion in the bafe of the ftapes. The
poffible effets of the a€tion of this mufcle has been a fertile
field of conje€tures, which we fear are not yet reduced to
truths.

The externus mallei will draw the handle of the malleus
forward and upward, and will confequently ftretch that half
of the membrane which lies beyond the malleus, and relax
that part which lies between the handle and its origin ; at the
fame time, it will caufe the long leg of the incus to rotate
backwards, and carry with it the head of the ftapes. It
may poftibly thus exert fome power over the membrane of
fencitra ovalis.

The axator tympani is defcribed as drawing the handle of
the malleas upwards and backwards, and thus relaxing that
part of the membrane which lies between its infertion into
the malleus and its origin. It will flretch the part of the
membrane lying on the anterior fide of the malleus, and be-
come in fome meafure the antagonift of the former mufcle.

The aGtion of the mufcular fibres of the tympanum, as
defcribed by Mr. Home, would be to bring the broad cone
of the membrana tympani into a plane furface, and thus an-
tagonize the tenfor tympani, if the handle of the mallcus
could be afleG&ted by their aGtion.

We have thus endeavoured to give the reader fome ac-
count of the motions of the oflicula, the greater part of
which are demonftrably evident on the recent ear of the
adult ; the others are fo flight, a3 to oblige us to calculate
rather on their probable, than affert their real degree. The
general conclufioa as to their a€tions will be, that they are
all to be referred to the poffible changes they can produce
on the membranes of the tympanum, which confift in their
being rendered tenfe or relaxed. ‘The degree to which this
is efleGed by their intervention does not appsar to be within
the reach of experiment in the living fubjeét; the examina-
tion of {uch points in the dead muft be neceffarily liable to
error The effects of different degrees of tenfion or relaxa-
tion, in modifying the pulfes of founds, will be confidered
hereafter.

An objz& met with in the cavity of the tympanum yet
remains to be noticed, which, though not fubfervient to any
purpofes perhaps immediately concerned with hearing, muft
not be paficd over. On looking into the tympanum, we
obferve a {mall nervous cord crofling it tranfyerfely, called
from its fituation chorda tympani. On tracing it from be-
hind, we find the nerve entering the tympanum at the bafe
of the {mall pyramidical eminence, whofe apex gives paflage
to the tendon of the ftapideus; from thence it 1 ob-
liquely acrofs between the long leg of the incus and the

3H manubrivn

EAR.

manubrium of the nmalleus, to which laft it is fo clofely at-
tached, that it cannot move without interefting the nerve at
the fame time. As it croffes it, however, near its upper
end, and not far from the axis of motion, it cannot be drawn
much in the motions of this bone. Having paffed it a little
above the infertion of the tenfor tympani, it increafes in
fize, takes an horizontal courfe forwards, and goes out of
the cavity in company with the tendon of the externus
mallei.

The facial nerve, in its paffage through the aqueduGus
Fallopii, gives off two {mall twigs, which fupply the tenfor
tympani and ttapideus: during its flay in the fame channel,
it fends off alfo the nerve we have been defcribing, which,
after its exit from the anterior fide of the tympanum, forms
a junction with the lingual branch of the inferior maxillary
nerve. .

The whole cavity of the tympanum is lined by a
mucous membrane, which we have :nentioned already as
gaining accefs to the ear through the Eultachian tube;
from the opening of which, it may be feen fpreading in
all direGtions. Internally, it covers the membranes of the
feneitre ; externally, it pafles over the membrana tympani,
forming its inner layer, and it 1s between thefe the handle
of the malleus is confined in its fizuation. Behind, it
enters the maftoid cells, which it lines throughout. Be-
fore, pafling from the Euftachian tube, it 1s refle@ted over
the glenoid fiffure, the opening of which it clofes towards
the tympanum, furrounding in this place the long procefs
of the malleus, and the chorda tympani. In the middle of
the tympanum it is feen paffing over the officula, forming
between them and the walls of the tympanum numerous
membranous proceflea of confiderable breadth. It thus
completely covers the cavity of the middle ear, and the parts
conneéted with it, having but one aperture of communi-
eatian with the external air by means of the Euftachian tube.
Tt appears to be a mucous membrane, analozous in flructure
tothe membranes lining the finufes, and like them, defends
the parts it covers from the immediate contact of the air.
When inflamed, or in the foetal flate, it is‘of a marked red,
and refembles precifcly the furface of other mucous mem-
branes, which it refembles likewife in its offices. It is ex-
tremely fenfible, by which charaéter it may-be ftill further
diftingvifhed from fibrous periofteum.

The membrana tympani is fo delicate in the fcetus, as not
to allow us to make any dittin@ion into layers. As it be-
comes firmer after birth, its direGtion js lefs oblique, and it
is removed toa greater diftance from the internal fide of the
tympanum. ‘The Euttachian tube increafes gradually alfo
in fize as well as length, as the dimenfions of the cranium are
enlarged. The officula and bony walls of the tympanum
undergo but trifling alterations, as the reader will have ob-
ferved in the defcription of thof> parts. "The mucous mem-
brane pours out lefs of its fecretion as the age advances: fo
that after the fecond year, we feldom fee in the healthy
flate any of that whiti{h mucus which fills the tympanum
in the fectus, at which period the membrane is vafcular and
fpongy.

The work of demonftrating on the adult ear the pofitions
and ftru@ture of the parts we have been defcribing, is one of
confiderable aicety and labour. The moft ufeful views,
perhaps, are thofe which thew the relative fituations of the
important parts, with regard not only to the tympanum, but
to the whole apparatus of the organ; and thefe may be ob-
‘tained by fettions of the cavity in various direGions. We
fhall mention only a few of the moft ufeful here, as when.by
‘means of thefe the inquirer has obtained acorreét knowledge
“of their relations, be will readily execute any further fec-

tion without the affiftance’ of written direGtions, We will
fir fuppofe him to have removed from the fkull, by two
tranfverfe {cGtions, the parts more immediately conne&ted
with this organ. If then a fine faw be carried in a plane,
which fhall extend horizontally from fome part of the lower
halfiof the external meatus to the lower edge of the inter-
nal meatus, he will obtain, in the upper feCtion, a view of all
the more important parts of the tympanum, without in any
way injuring the fituation of its contents, as he will have
paffed below the point of the handle of the malleus, and con-
{equently the bafe of the ftapes. He will be able to ob-
ferve the tendons of fome of the mufcles, and the points at
which they emerge, moft of the openings of the tympanum,
and the direétion of its membranes.
he will learn what is yet wanting to complete the view of
the fubjeét, and proceed either on the fame, or any feétions,
to remove fuch parts as obftruct his retearches. The moft
ufeful perpendicular {eétion, is one carried in the direction of
a plane pafling perpendicularly through fome part of the
interior half of the meatus, towards the middle of the fella
turcica. In this inftance the officula will efcape, and each
half of the feéticn contain parts of confiderable interett.
To obtain a view of the obliquity of the membrana tympani,
we remove longitudinally the anterior half of the meatus,
down to the bony circle which fupports it: in the fame
piece we may open into the tympanum from before, and by
dividing the Exttachian tube through the whole of its length,
fain a view of its general direction and ftruéture. "The of-
ficula fhould be ftudied in their fectal ftate, at the latter pe-
riod of which time they are perfect in form, ard can he res
moved without danger of breaking. Another method of
obtaining a knowledge of the relative fituations of the bony
parts of the ftru€ture of the internal, as well as middle car,
is by taking calts of them ineafily fufible metals. The bone
is encafed in a covering of plafter which furrounds every part
but the opening of the external meatus : it is then heated red,
and the heat continued till fmoke no longer iffues from the
meatus: at this period fome fluid metal, confifling of equal
parts of iead, tin, and b:{muth, is poured into the opening,
and the whole thrown into water. ‘The plafter aud furround-
ing bone are, after this calcination, eafily removeable by any
fharp inftrument, and the metallic caft expofed, reprefenting
accurately and completely, if the operation has been fuccefs-
ful, all the cavities of the ear in their relative fituations and
proportions. On account of the difficulties of the invefti-
gation arifing from the minutenefs and delicacy of {tru€ture,
we have thought it neceflary to give thefe few introduG@ory
hints as to the beft mode of profecuting the examination of
the ear: and although we may fail in our firlt attempts, the
fuccefsful execution of them will be afterwards readily ob-
tained, when dire€ted by the acquired {kill and corrected
knowledge of the inquirer.

In our fhort comparative notice of the external ear, we
found man pofleffed of parts which were deficient in fome
other claffes of animals: in the prefent cafe we fha!l find
fome of them approaching him more nearly in the flru@ure
of this organ, inafmuch as they have a tympanum exferior
to the part which receives the auditory nerve, though yary-
ing much in conltru@tion from that of the human ear. The
membrana tympani is found in fome of the reptiles, and more
particularly in thofe which inhabit chiefly the furface of the
earth. In birds it ig remarkably large: in the cetacea, and
other orders of mammalia, it refembles much that which we
have been defcribing in man. ‘The cavity of the tympanum
is wanting in all thofe creatures who poflefs no membrana
tympani; confequently, in the claffes of infeéts, worms,
fifhes, and moft of the ferpent tribe. We find it in thofe

reptiles

Having ftudied this,

EA K.

reptiles who are furnifhed with this membrane; in birds,
where the cavity ts increafed by its continuity with the cells
of the cranium; in cetacea and the other mammalia, in whom,
however. it is not fo large as it isin the human iebje&. The
Euttachian tubeis found only in thofe anima's who are pro-
vided with the cavity and membrane of the tympanum, to
Which it would appear, therefore, to be fubfervient. It has
no exiftence in the ferpent tribe, who are furnifhed, how-
ever, with an officulum. The officula are not found in the
three lower claff-s “or in fome of the aquatic reptiles. In
the other creatures belonging to this lait tribe, and in the
two upper clafles, they are always to be feen. Inthe more
perfec animals, as we call them, they are more in number,
have atticuiated junétions, and are provided with mulcles
which act by their intervention on the membrana tympani.
The feneftra ovalis is obfervable in all the animals in which
wecan diftinguifh an organ of hearing, with the exception
of the fpinons fifhes and the genus fepia. In thole who
have no officulum, it is clofed by a membranous or cartila-
finous operculum, whillt in the contrary cafe it is more or
lefs fhut up bya bone adapted to its opening. ‘The feneftra
rotunda ts deficient in all thofe creatures who do not poffefs
that part of the internal ear called cochlea. There is fome
appearance of it in birds who have the rudiments of the
cochlea: in the mammalia it is always confpicuous, but the
largelt in thofe animals who are furnifhed with the propor-
tionably largeit cochlea.

The internal Ear or Labyrinth.

We have now carried our refearches from without, to the
molt internal part of the organ of hearing, defigned for the
reception of the terminations of the auditory nerve. The
beft mode of profecuting our inquiries will be, firft, to bring
ourfelves acquainted with the bony labyrinth; then with
the membranous parts it contains, or the additional appara-
tus on which the nerve is fpread; and, laftly, to trace the
diftribution ofthe nerve to the intimate receffes of thefe moft
delicate parts. The bony cavities communicating with
each other, into which this nervé is admitted, are known al-
together by the name of /abyrinih, and have been divided into
three portions; a middle one, named veflibulum; the common
centre of the diferent cavities which compofe the labyrinth;
an anterior divifion communicating with it, called the cochlea ;
anda polterior one, confifting of the three femicircular canals.
The detatled defcription of thefe has been already given in that
of the temporal bone, to which the reader is referred before he
begins the fludy of the foft contents of the labyrinth. By
a careful attention to what is there defcribed, he will readily
inform himfelf of the relative fituation of the contained
parts, as well as their form and conneétions, as thefe deli-
cate parts are all exa€ily adapted to corref{ponding furfaces in
the furrounding bony cafe. It has been fourid that all the
cavities we have above-mentioned are lined by a fine mem-
brane differing in its nature from that which forms the
lining of the tympanum, and little known to us, until
of late years. Chis ignorance of its form and ftruéture
is the more to be wondered <t, if we recolleét but for
an inftant the acknowledged genius and induftry of
thofe eminent men who have made the ear the fubje&
of fo many elaborate refearches. ‘Till lately, all that we
knew of the contents of the bony labyrinth, confifted
in fome vague ideas refpeGting certain zone fonore, as
they were termed by Valfalva, connected with the femi-
circular canals, and a /eptumnerveum Gividing the vetti-
bulum into two halves. ‘The loofe defcriptions, however,
which were given by different anatomifts of thefe expanfions,
lead one to fufpe@ that they were far from poflefling any

thing like a corre knowledge of the membranous laby-
rinth, as it has been fince detcribed by Scarpa. Trom ree
peated inveftigations of the organ of hearing in diffcrent
claffes of animals, he was induced to fufpe@ that there ex-
ited in mana membranous Jabyrinth included in the offzous
one. He had afcertained the exiftence of it in fifhes, rep-
tiles, and birds; and was led by analogy to expect a finiiar
apparatus in the human ear. After numerous tals, he
fully confirmed his rational conjecture, and was enabled to
obferve the great fimilarity witich it bore to that he had
remarked in the former clafles. He dilcovered alfo an ad-
ditional part, confilting of a membranous f[acculus placed
in the cavity of the veltibulum, the probable ufe of which
we fhall have hereafter to confider. In examining the foft
contents of the labyrinth, we fhall begin with thofeé con-
tained in the bony femicircular canals. ach of thefe bony
channels enclofes another membranous tube, which is per-
fectly diftiné&t from the periofteum, and which fhould be
confideted as the proper femicircular canal. Thefe mem-
branous tubes are of lefs diameter than the bony cafe in
which they lie, from which they are feparated by a delicate
cellular tiflue, forming the mediam of conneétion between
them. Each of the canals, at the part from which it com-
mences in the veltibule, dilates into an oval:bag, which is
known by the name of ampulla, correfponding precifely in
form to the dilatation we have already defcribed in the be-
ginning of each bony canal. It contraéts again into a nar-
rower tube as it proceeds, {till accommodating itfelf to the
form of its bony cafe; and after making its femicircular
curve, returns again to the fame membranous fac in the
vellibule from which it commenced. ‘Thofe little canals are
cylindrical, and pellucid as well as their ampulke, which ap-
pear as {mall oval expanfions of the membrane, jult before
the canal communicates with the fac common to them all.
One of thefe ampuliz lies in the finus ellipticus of the ante-
rior or fuperior bony femicircular canal: another is con-
tained in the fovea orbicularis of the inferior bony canal.
The third ampulla is enclofed in the finus infundibuli-formis
of the exterior bony canal. The membranous canals pro-
ceeding from the two firlt of thefe ampullz, after making
their circuit, unite and form one common canal, com-
munjcating with the alveus communis in the veftibule.
The exterior membranous canal takes a folitary courfe
throughout, and returns as‘it departed, by its own proper
channel. We have now traced thefe canals irom their
ampullz, back again into the veltibule, and have to defcribe
the cavity which forms the common centre of communica.
tion between them.all. In the fovea szmielliptica, which
lies nearly oppofite the feneftra ovalis, there 1s placed an
oblong. tranfparent membranous bag, which eroffes the
veftibulum tranfverfely: the largeit end of this little fac
lies in the fovea we have juft mentioned; whillt the other
extremity, contracted a little in fize, ttretcaes towards the
pofterior canal. It is from this a/veus communis, as tt is
termed by its firft difcoverer, Scarpa, that the membranous
canals proceed, and it is back again into it that they open.
The ampulle of thie fuperior and external canals commence
from that part of the fac which lies in the fovea femicllip-
tica; the ampulla of the polterior canal having its origin ia
the {maller portion of the bag: from thele poiats the mem-
branous canals proceed in the manner we have deferibed, and
open again by two apertures into the middle portion of this
fac, thus completing the free communication which we ob-
ferve between each particular tube. ‘Thefe cavities are ail
filled by a limpid fluid, which encreafes fo much the natural
tranfparency of the membranous inveltment, that it may
efcape the eye of a perfon who was not prepared to Bag. it.

2 n

E AR.

On making an opening into the veltibule in therecent fub-
ject, if the fac is left entire and rurgid, it has the appearance
of a bubble of air, fo perfeétly pellucid are the membrane
and its contents. Independently of this, we find in the vef-
tibule another membranous fac of a rounded figure, which is
placedrin the fovea hemifpherica of this cavity. It isalfo
tranfparent, aod forms altogether a fphere, one half of which
is buried in the correfponding fovea, the other projecting
into the veflibule. The firft of thefe halves adheres fo
ftronzly to its contataing hollow, as not to be feparated
from it without laceration: the projeéting half is received
into a correfponding depreffion in the membranous alveus
communis, without, however, In any manner, communi-
cating with its internal cavity. ‘This fpherical fac is clofed on
every fide, and is diltiné from all. the other membranous res
ceptacles of the labyrinth, being filled with its proper limpid
fiuid. In the foetus, during the early months, the inveft-
ment is fo firm as not to collapfe, when the fluid has been
let out by a lancet.

We here finifh our account of the membranous-contents of
the canals and the veltibules; and to complete the defcrip-
tion mutt examine the foft parts which goto complete the
conftruétion of the cochlea. It hasalready been mentioned,
that the lamina fpiralis of the cochlea was compofed of dif-
ferent fubftances. One,a bony plate forming the part next
the central modiolus, requires no further defeription ; -it is
the part which completes the lamina fpiralis that we have
now toexamine. Itis found to confiftof two fubftances,
one of which approaches the nature of cartilage, the other
being perfectly membranous. The firft of thefe, which is
termed the zona coriacea, from the'firmnefs of its texture, 1s
attached to the edye of the bony lamina fpiralis which it ac+
companies in its circumvolutions, and where the offeous plate
ceates, this coriaceous part is {till continued round the me-
diolus to the apex of the cochlea. The margin of this cori-
aceous part, which is fixed to the bony lamina, is pierced by.
numeroustcanals, proceeding in a radiated direCtion through-
outits fubltance, which’ are continucus with thofe canals
which lie between the plates of the bony lamina, and which
have been already deferibed as adapted for the reception of
the auditory nerve, ‘he external edge of this part 1s fome-
what tranfparent, and when fubjeéted to the microfcope ex=
hibits’a feries of reticulated cel!s, filled with alimopid fluid,
in which we can perceive numerous white filaments, which
are the ultimate expanfions of the nerve. The other portion
of the feptum is membranous, and appears to be a duplica-
ture of the periolteum lining the fcale cf the cochlea re+
fleG&ed from the *des to complete the deficiency of the
Jamina {piralis, which it entlofes in its fold. In other words,
the periokeum, which covers the two piates of the bony
lamina {piralis, is continued from itsiedge over the zona co-
riacea, and meeting at the termination of this, coheres, and
proceeds to be refleG@ed over the internal parictes of the
cochlea. And as both the offcous and coriaceous parts
decreafe in breadth as they approach the apex of the mo-
diolue, it will follow that thismembranons portion forms
a greater part of the feptum in proportion as the lamiaa
{piralis advances to its termination.

We hereconclude our defcription of the labyrinth, but
before we proceed to confider the diftribution of the andi-
tory nerve, it will be proper to take notice of the fluid
contained in the different divifions we have been following,
and which, from the coaftancy of its appearance, would feem
to execute no trivial port in conveying founds to the nerve
with which it is inimmediate conta@. It has been afcer-
tained by numerous and indifputable examinations, that the
Jabyrinth is filled by a fluid, ‘as wellas the membranous re-

ceptacies which itenclofes, from which it will appear, that
the membranous labyrinth itfelf, with its contents, may be
faid to float in the water of the bony labyrinth; which will be
the more readily admitted, if we confider that the fame occurs
in the ear of fome other clafies of animals, as fifhes, rep<
tiles, and birds. . It is alfo very obfervable in the human car,
on account of the great difference between the diameters of
the membranous fem‘circular canals and their bony cafe. Ina
the veftibule it has been often demonttrated occupying-the.
{pace between the feneltra ovalis and the membranous facs,
long before thefe {acs were known to exilt in their prefent
form. With regard to the fcale of the cochlea, the fact
of their being turgid with fluid was long fince admitted,
and the lamina fpiralis has been deferibec as lying “ inter
duos aque rivulos demerfa.”?” The aqueducts, which com-
municate with the cavities containing this fluid, have been’
already defcribed ; we have here only to add, that they are
lined by a continuation of that delicate membrane which in«

velts the internal furface of the labyrinth, of which we de-~

ferred the mention till we had confidered all the parts which
it covered. We find it, if we begin from the veflibule,
lining the whole of that cavity, dipping into the femicircular
canals, entering into the veftibular fcala of the cochlea, and
pafling through the opening of the infundibulum at its ter-
mination, defcencing through the tympanic feala to the
foramen rotundum. It isthe fame membrane which lines
the aqueduéts, and terminates 12 an expanded fhape under
the dura mater, covering the’ petrous portion of the temporal
bone. Of the peculiar ftruciure of this membrane, as well
as of that which forms the membranous receptacles, we know
{carcely any thing. It fuppliestthe place of periofteum, and
we have throughout mentioned it under that vame: it would
feem, however, to differ from it materially in one character,
namely, that we fuppofe it to be the fecreting furface from
which the fluid of the jabyrinth is poured out.. The membra-
nous canals and their fac appear to be of a fimilar ftrudture,
though perfeGly diftin@ in fiiuation. ‘The only difference
obfervable between the ftru€ture of the membranous laby=
rinthin the feetus and the adult is, that in the former cafe
it is moft evidently vafcular, whiift, in the latter, it is too
delicately thinto allow of the exifence of red blood-veflelss
The early developement of the offzous labyrinth in the foetus,
and the perfe€tion which it reaches long before the ufual
period of birth, have been elfewhere noticed; we introduce
the mention of it here. only, as itisinthe fcetal ear, that
we muft feck with the beft chance of fuccefs to examine
the membranous and other foft parts which it contains,
Before we attempt this delicate invefligation, we mult obtain
a correct knowledge of the offeous labyrinth, and the relative
politions of its different cavities, in order to remove the bony
parietes, without injuring the fubjacent parts by randoms
orill-judged efforts. With fuch knowledge but few direc
tions are necellary, without it the moft minute would be
given invain. To.gain a view of the membranous f{lruGture,
we begin by laying open the veftibule from the foramen
ovale {o as to bring into fight the finus of the foramen ro-
tundum and the commencement of the cochlea. This is

eafily effected in a foetus of three or four months, where -

the labyrinth, is already evolved, and the removal of the
bony parts is neither a work of difficulty nor labour.
have this advantage, alfo, that at this early period the tunics
of the membranous receptacles are much more compact and
frm, than we obferve them at after, times ; and in addition

to this, we always find them involvedin amucous wrappings -

which adds much to their firmnefs, fo that the membranous
femicircular canals, when expofed to the air and cut tranf-
verfely, {uli preferve their truncated tube open. It is after

cautioufly

We -

EAR.

eautioufly removing the offeous covering, that the pipe of an
Anel’s {yringe has been intreduced into one of the ampullx,
and from thence the membranous canals and their common
fac have been filled by a coloured fluid, proving beyond
doubt the manner of their communication. This fac may
be preferved entire even in opening the veftibule of the adult
from the feneftra ovalis, or we obtain another view of it by
cautioufly cutting away the cochlea, fo as to gain an infight
into the velitbule from the part which it occupied. All
thefe inveftigations fhould be made in the moft recent fubjects,
as the membranes of their fluid foon lofe their tranfparency,
and become inextricably confufed. It is, perhaps, from ex-
amining them inthis ftate, that anatomilts, prior to Scarpa,
have given us fach vague and unintelligible accounts of their
ftruéture. The mode of obtaining a proof of the exiftence
ofa fluid in the labyrinth, has been moft exccllently de-
fcribed by Meckel in his * Differtatio de labyrinthiauris
contentis,’? to which we thall refer the reader who wifhes for
2 minute and particular account of his manner of proceeding.
He preferred the making a {mall opening into the cochlea,
from which a fluid immediately burit, and then by preffing
the bafe of the ftapes againft the feneftra ovalis, he was
enabled at will to force out more of its fluid contents; the
fame faét occurs if we make the opening into one of the
bony femicircular canals. By freezing alfo feveral recent
ears, he decidedly obferved an icy cake in the labyrinth
‘formed by the congelation of the water it contained. To
‘obtain a view of the zona mollis of the cochlea, we make
feGtions of this body in different direGtions, or carefully re-
move its fides, beginning at the feneftra rotunda, and followe
ing the feala to its termination in the infundibulum. It
need only be added, that from the tenuity of the parts to
be examined, the inveftigator fhould be provided with mag-
nifying glaffes of confiderable power.

Having thus ftudied the apparatus defigned for the re-
ception of the auditory nerve in man, we proceed, before
we complete our defcription of the organ, by tracing its
extreme diftributions on thefe foft parts, to give a fucciné&
account of them as they have been feen in other clafles of
‘animals. The cray-f/h and the /epia have been ‘ound to
poffefs only a-veftibule ; the animals of all the other clafles
have the additional apparatus of femi-circular canals. And
‘it may be worth our noticing that in all of thefe, the mem-
‘branous femi-circular canals regularly {weil into an am-
pulla, in the part at which the auditory nerve is admitted ;
‘that all of them are filled with their peculiar fluid; commu-
hicate freely with a common fac in the veilibule, and are im-
merfed in the water of the labyrinth. J*i/hes, however, and
repliles, have this peculiarity, that their membranous recep-
tacles are found to contain certain folid bodies, /api/li, or
efficula, as they have been termed, which are fufpended by a
‘great number of nervous fibrille. Again, the more perfect
animals are provided with the elaborately conftruéted cochlea,
and the feneltra rotunda.

We fhall take up our defcription of the auditory nerve at
ethat part of it where it enters the internal meatus ; its con-
neGion with the encephalon will be found in the hiftory of
the brain; the foramina, through which it penetrates to
“gain admiffion to the ear, are defcribed under the article Cra-
nium. The auditory nerve lies in the internal meatus, in
-a twifted form, and rolled up, as it were, in different bundles,
which, when unravelled, give the nerve the form of a flat.
tened band of fibres. At the commencement of this twilted
‘appearance, we obferve a ganglion-like {welling, which
i origin’ to three branches, differing confiderably in

ze.

The Jargef of thefe, ag it arrives at the macule cribrofe,

divides into numerous threads, which pierce the pyramid of
the veftibule, into which they eater, appearing, to ufe the
words of Scarpa, * barbule albidiffime quam fimiles.’?
Thefe divide into two portions, one of which is received into
the membranous fac of the alveus communis, over which it
firft expands in a fan-like form, occupying about two-thirds
of its length. Soon after this expanfion begins, we lofe
fight of the nervous fibres which penetrate the fac, and feem
to terminate in a delicate nervous pulp, {pread over the inner
furface of this membranousinveiment. ‘The other portions
of this darbula take their courfe towards the fuperior and
exterior canals, the ampullz of which they embrace with this
expanded furface: after which, they penetrate the mem-
brane, and appear as a foft nervons pulp on the inner fide.
The /efer branch penetrates through a fingle foramen in the
bone trom the meatus; which, however, is fubdivided into
numerous {mall canals, before it opens again at the bale of
the foffa orbicularis of the pofterior canal: in confequence
of this difpofition, we fee the nerve emerging in numerous
fibrille, remarkable for their whitenefs, which are f{pread
over the ampuila of this canal, which they fubfequently pene-
trate, and terminate, as the other branch, ima nervous pulp
on its inner fide. After minute inveftigation, Scarpa was
unable to trace this pulp beyond the ampulla into the mem-
branous canals. The middle branch of thefe three pafles
almoft immediately after its feparation from the others,
through a foramen, or macula foraminulofa, correfponding to
the bottom of the facculus f{phericus, into which it enters,
and the internal furface of whofe membrane it covers with a
nervous pulp, which is more oftenfible at the part by
which the nerve penetrates. This diftribution has been
compared, ard not unaptly, to the expanfion of the optic
nerve into the retina.
The auditory nerve having given off thefe branches, goes
dire& towards the bafe of the cochlea, where its fibrea be-
come untwilted a little, and penetrate the tractus /piralis fo-
raminulofus on every fide, in the direction of the axis of the
modiolus ; a tolerably large cord in the middle of the nerve
pafling into the hole in the bafe, and riinning through its
length, till it arrives at the infundibulum, and the lalt half
turn of the cochlea. The nervous fibres, which pafs through
the external circle of the traius fpiralis, penetrate the firft
turn of the fcale ; thofe which pats through the next circle
of the tra@tus arrive at the fecond turn of the feale, The
fibres having penetrated in this way through the {mall canals,
arrive at the external fupérficies of the modiolus contained in
the {cala tympan’,. and pafs on til! they arrive at the lamina
fpiralis: here they change their direction, which was before
parallel to the axis of the modiolus, and follow the p!ane of
the lamina fpiralis, which they penetrate, and between the
laminz of which they radiate im minute penicillous filaments,
extending on through the zona mollis, where they are finally
loft, as before noticed. ‘Thofe which pervade the fecond
circle of the tractus fpiralis have to take a lorger courfe
before they arrive at the {cala tympani of the fecond turn,
where they are diftributed in the manner above defcribed,
receding from the modiolus, and terminating in the moft
minute reticulated ‘filaments in the outer edge of the fub-
ftance of the zona mollis. This diftribution of the nerve
through the {piral lamina of the cochlea is very confpicuous,
when viewed through a microfcope, and {till more difting,.
if the cochlea be macerated for a few hours in a mixture of
fpirit of wine, and nitrous acid, which will be found to in-
creafe the tranfparency of the offeous Jamelle. ‘The nerve
which pafled through the centre of the modiolus, is found
to fupply the lait half turn in the fame manner as the other
branches did the turn below.
: We

EAR.

We have omitted the mention of the arteries, and other
veffels of the ear, as they pollefs no peculiarity of difpofition,
and will be better defcribed elfewhere. It is fufficient to
remark, that the whole cf the organ is well fupplied with
veffels and nerves from the mof contigucus trunks, the
vcins of the internal ear communicating with the lateral
ficufes,

We thus complete the firft great divifion of the fubje@,
having given a detailed hittory of the human ear, anda
brief account of it as it exilts in other animals. Before,
however, we (hall attempt to exhibit what is at prefent be-
lieved, with regard to the funétions of this apparatus, we
think it proper to give a fhort account of the powers of the
human ear in diftinguifhing the varietics of found ; after
which inquiry, we fhall be better prepared to take a {urvey
of its phyficlogy, as far as it is at prefent underftood.

Defcription of the Plates ‘in awhich the Anatomy of the Ear is
: reprefented.
Piate I.

Fiz. 1.—A welleformed left ear of a male, drawn from
life. © It has a more rounded fhape, is thicker, and is marked
by ftronger features than in the female.

a toe, the h-lix, forming the external circumference, or
fold of the auricle.—a, the upper end, or beginnicg of this
border, floping into the concha; 4, part of the edge which
is loit in the {kin of the tace; cd, that part which is pro-
minent from the head; e, the Jower end of the fold, which
terminates in the lobule of the ear.

ftom, the antihelix, forming a plait, or fold, in the ex-
terual ear.—fg, the upper end of itdividing intocrura, finking
under the edge of the helis ; 4, the junction of the crura, or
procefles fand 73 i k, the lower end of the antihelix, con-
tinued at i into the concha, and at & into the antitragus.

J, the tragus covering the entrance to the ¢xternal
meatus.

m, the antitragus.

n, the lobe of the ear.

o 0, the furrow between the helix and antihelix.

p; the oval, or boat-like depreffion between the crura of

the anthelix.

g, the concha.

7, the beginning of the meatus auditorius.

Fiz. 11.—A_ well-formed female ear, drawn from life.
In its moft perfect form it pofleffes a more lengthened and
delicate fhape than the male.

Fig, I11.—A reprefentation of the mufcles which move
the external ear, or auricle. They are exhibited as feen
from behind, or from that furface which is turned towards
the fkull, in order to obtain a more complete view of the
whole at one glance: there is lefs objection to this, 2
the mufcles are not attached immediately to the bone, but
to the aponeurotic and cellular fheath which covers it.

a de, the cartilage of the ear, as feen on that fide which
Jooks towards the cranium.

f to p, the attollens aurem.-—fg / 7, the upper end of this
flat and delicate mufcle, the fibres of which converge; /m,
and terminate in a tendinous expanfion ; of, attached to the
prominence correfponding to the hollow between the crura
of the anthelix. .

q to ¢, the anterior auris.—gr, the anterior portion at-
tached to the aponeurofis of the occipito frontalis: it grows
narrower at s, and is inferted tendinous into the prominence
at the back of the beginning of the helix ?.

uto z, two retrahentes alrem.— uv wx, the upper and
larger of thefe two; it confifts of two or three portions
ef muicular fibres, u,v, w, and is inferted by an evident

\

tendon into the bulging part of the pinna, correfponding
to the hollow of the concha; y 2, the inferior and fmaller
of thefe mufcles, dire€ted obliquely under the other.

Fig. 1V.—There was confiderable difficulty experienced
in executing this figure, both from giving the relative fitua-
tion of the parts clearly and correftly, and from the necef-
fity of choofing fuch a point of view as would enable on* to
gain a fufficiently perfpicuous view of the moft important
points, without giving any erroneous idea of them by the
{trong fore-fhortening of the pi@ure.

‘The external ear is {een fore-fhortened ftreight from before.

bto d—bc, the meatus externus, as it appears de
tached from the bone; 4, c, its two curvatures; the firlt,
2, upwards and forwards; the fecond, ¢, downwards, and
in fome degree-backwards; dd, the cblique direGion of its
internal end, which is feen as clofed by the membrana
tympani.

¢, the membrana tympani ftretched on its bony ring, and
bulging inwards, :

fg’ the malleus.—f, the handle or procefs attached
to the membrana tympani; g, the long procefs; 4, the
head. ‘

ik, the incus.—i, the fhort leg or procefs;. 4, the long

rocefs.

m, the ftapes.

VHA mn fp, the labyrinth. p, the cochlea ; m
its beginning, its termisation at p; m, the veltibulum.
V, the bony cafe of the anterior, or f{maller of the femi-
circular canals; H, the pofterior, or largeit femicircular
canal; A, the outer, or fmalleft canal.

This figure, exhibiting the molt important parts of the
ear in their feveral relations to each other, holds a middle
place between the figures of the external ear and the more
intricate ones of the internal parts, to which it naturally
leads us.

The remaining ficures of this plate, together with the
two firft of the following one, reprefent the parts contained
in the middle divifion of the ear, or the cavity of the tym-
panum: all thefe parts are fhewn in their natural con-
nections with each other, as well asindividually. It appear-
ing, however, fcarcely poflible to give the true form of thefe
fine and delicate parts, with fufficient fidelity and clearnefs,
of their natural fize, there are reprefentations of them as
magoified to four times their natural diameters. The figures
IV, 8, 9, 10, r1, XII, XIII, of this plate, and I, Il,
of the fecond, fhew them of their natural fize. In figures
V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, we fee them magnified
to four times their proper dimenfions. The form of thefle
parts varies from many caufes: we have chofen that which
appears the moft general and the molt perfect.

Fig. V.—The labyrinth and officula auditus, four times
their natural dimenfions. Although the labyrinth is net
fhewn fo completely in this fgure as in thofe of the fol-
lowing plate, it was reprefented here in order to fhew the
connection between the different bony. portions of the ear,
that when we meet with the views of the labyrinth, we may
be previoufly acquainted with the relations they bear to the
fyrrounding part». Independently of this cbjeét, the figure
before us exhibits the mutua! conneCiions of the officula,
the order in which they are placed, and the general line of
their directions. On thefe accounts it fhould be ftudied
before we proceed to the following figures.

a toe, the malleus in full view.—a, the long procefg;
b, the fhorter procefs; ¢, the handle, or pracefs attached
to the membrana tympani; 4, the neck; and ¢, the head of
the malleus.

jte

EAR.

_ ftoi, the incus—f, the body of the incus; g, the fhort
leg; /, the long leg, or procefa; #, the {mall epiphyfis of
this leg articulated with the ftapes.

& to n, the ftapes.—/, the {mall head of the ftapes; /, the
anterior crus; m, the potterior crus; n, the bafis, connected
with the membrane which clofes the feneftra ovalis.

oto M, the labyrinth.—o to r, the firft turn of the
cochlea; s¢uv, the fecond turn; wx, the half turn, or
third; y, the foramen rotundum, of a fomewhat triangular
form; 2%, the vefebulum; A BCD, the anterior, or
fuperior of the femicircular canals.—A, the ampulla, or
ficus ellipticus; BC, its curvature; and D, its junction
with the inferior or pofterior canal; E F GH, the infe-
rior canal.—E, its ampulla, or fovea orbicularis; F GH,
its peculiar curve, and the conneGtion of the united canal
D, with the exterior femicircular canal; I K L M, the
exterior canal.—I, the ampulla, or finus infundibuliformis ;
KX L, the direétion of its curve; M, its termination in the
veltibulum.

Tig. Vi.—The malleus, drawn in fuch a fituation as to
gain a view of the long procefs aa, and the fmooth cartila-
ginous furface *, for articulation with the body of the
incws.

Tig, VIL.—A longitudinal fe@tion of the malleus, being
the anterior half of the laft figure, reverfed fo as to thew
the greater and {maller medullary cclls.

fig. VIIL —The malleus, in the fame pofition as in

Jy. V+, but feparated from the incus; a,, c, d, ce, mark

out the fame {pots as in that figure; *, the articulating
furface.

fig. (X.—The incus, in the fame polition as in fy. V.,
its parts being noted by the fame letters; *, the articular
farface adapted to the head of the malleus.

Fig. X.—The ftapes: this fide of it is, when in its na-
tural pofition, direéted downwards; a2, the head of the
flapes; c, the neck; d, the anterior crus, ftraighter and
thinner than the pofterior e, which is thicker and more
curved; f, the bafis.

Fig. XI.—The ftapes feen from above; a, its cartila-
ginous furface, articulated with the {mall epiphyfis of the
jacus; 4, its anterior; c, its pofterior crus; d, the bafis,
with its floping fides. The view we have here of the {tapes
is a perpendicular ene, as in the line of its axis it will be
found to differ in form from that in jig. V., in the propor-
tion that the latter differs from a perpendicular afpeét.

- Figures 8, 9, 10, 11, fhew the bones of their natural
es

Fig. X11.—The temporal bone of an adult, from which
fo much of the bony meatus has been removed as to enablg
one to gain a view of the mufcle called externus mallei.

_ atod, the temporal bone.—a, the f{quamous portion ;
4%, the zygomatic procefs; c, the glenoid cavity for articu-
lation with the lower jaw; d, the mattoid procefs.

¢e, the circumference of the meatus broken off, in order
to obtain a plainer view of the cavity of the tympanum ¢ £i u.
- f, a portion of the petrous portion of the temporal bone.

g 4, a portion of the {phenoidal bone.

4, the foramen rotundum, clofed by its proper delicate
membrane, which feparates the cavity of the tympanum
¥rom the cochlea.

4, 1, m—~k, the malleus; /, the incus ; m, the ftapes,

nop, the laxator tympani.—n, the upper extremity
attached to the rim of the meatus, lying in a fold of the
internal lining of the membrana tympani; 0, its flefhy

_ portion; p, the tendon fixed to the handle of the malleus.

rg, the externus mallei,—g, its origin attached to the
Vou. SIL

fpinous procefs of the fphenoidal bone ; r, its flefhy portion;
s, its tendon ‘inferted into the long procefs of the malleus.

z, the tendon of the tenfor tympani as it is feen emerging
from its canal.

u, the tendon of the ftapideus as it paffes from out of its
bony cavity.

fig. XI1I.—A continuation of the former figure; but in
order to fhew the tenfor tympani and the ftapideus, fame
more of the bony parietes have been removed.

abc, the Euftachian tube.

def, the tenfor tympani—d, the tendinous origin
attached to the tube; ¢, the Acthy belly; f the tendon
affixed to the fhort procefs of the malleus.

A 4, the ftapideus.—g, its tendinous origin; 4, its
threaa-like belly, which lies in a bony canal ; /, its tendinous
end, attached to the pofterior part of the neck of the
ftapes.

Pirate II.

The figures in this plate, with the exception of the two
firft, are intended to reprefent the ftructure of the internal
ear, or labyrinth ; and are, as well as all the foregoing ones,
taken from the left ear, in order not to increafe the intricacy
of a delicate fubje& by the confufion which muft irife from
the change of fide.

Fig. 1.—The outline of the temporal bone of a child,
with the officula in their natural fize and fituation.

ato d, the temporal bone.—a, the f{quamous portion;
b, the zygomatic procefs; c, the petrous portion; d, the
maftoid procefs.

ec, the bony ring, in a groove of which the membrana
tympani is affixed.

The malleus, incus, and ftapes need not be marked, as
they have been already fufficiently diftinguifhed in the pre-
ceding figures in Plate I.

Fig. I1.—This figure reprefents the officula, from the op-
pofite fide to that in which they were {een io fg. I.

a, the {qnamous part of the temporal bone; 4, the zy-
gomatic procefs ; cd, the bony ring ; ¢, the malleus; f, the
incus; g, the ftapes feen from its bafis. ,

Fig. I11,.—The bony cafe of the labyrinth feen from below,
magnified four times. :

1 23 the cochlea.—11 1, the fir turn; 2 2 2, the fee
cond turn; 3, the incomplete third turn; a, a, a, {mall
canals for the nerve of the facculus fphericus; 644, the
traétus fpiralis foraminulofus for the paflage of nerves and
veflels ; c, the opening of a canal in the middle of the bafe of
the modiolus, through which a nerve pafics to the infundi-
bulum ; d, an opening in the beginning of the cochlea, for
the paflage of the membranous aqueduct.

e, maculz cribrof for the paffage of nerves to the am-
pullz ofthe fuperior and exterior canals, and the alvcus
communis.

jf an oval opening for the nerve of the ampulla of the
polterior canal.

*, opening of the aqueduétus veftibuli.

g to q, the bony cafe of the femicircular canals.—g 4 i, the
polterior canal ; 4/m, the fuperior canal; op q, the exterior
canal; g,4,0, the parts containing the membranous am-

ullz.
: Fig. 1V.—The bony cafe of the labyrinth, one half ¥
which has been regularly removed throughout, in order t
exhibit the internal charaéters of the bone.

a to /, the upper half of the cochlea.—a a, the thicknefe
of its external cruft in a foetus of eight months; dcd, the

lamina fpiralis; 2c, the fcala veltibuli; efg4s, the {cale
31 tympani,

tympani. In this figure we fee only the bony lamina {piralis.
&, its commencement, or broadeft part ; d, its termination
in the little hook, or Aamulus ; °k, the opening of the in-
Fundibulum, where the two feale communicate; /, the
opening for the aquedudius cochlee.

m to qg, the under half of the veftibulum.—m, the thick-
nefs of its cafe in the foetus; n, the fovea hemifpherica ;
o, the fovea femielliptica ; 4, the proje€ting ridge between
them, terminating in the pyramis veltibuli; g, the opening
for the aqueduéius veftibuli,

r, G, K, L, the canals divided each into half.—r, the
thicknefs of their cafe in the feetus; G, the pofterior; K,
the fuperior; L, the exterior femicircular canal; 1, the
opening of the large end of the pofterior canal; 2, the open-
ing of the large end of the fuperior canals 3, the opening
common to their conjoined tubes; 4, the larger end; 5, the
more contracted opening of the external canal.

Fig. V.—The labyrinth laid open in the fame way as the
laf{t figure, with the foft parts it contained.

atoe, the lamina fpiralis viewed from above.—We can
{carcely diftinguifh on this fide the diftribution of the nerve,
which is vifible on the under furface; aaa, the firft turn ;
&4, the fecond turn; ¢de, the third turn of the lamina;
de, its unconneGted edge, through which the two {calz com-
municate. Comparetti has defcribed the lamina as confitt-
ing of four different fubftances, or zones, as they are termed:
1, the bony zone, or ftrip; 2, the flexible coriaceous, or
leather-like zone; 3, its veficular zone; 4, the membranous
zone attached to the cupola.

fi the facculus {phericus, lying in the fovea hemifpherica
of the veftibule.

g, {pace between this laft and the alveus communis.

4, the alveus communis, or membranous fac, communi-
eating with all the canals, with the fan-like expantfion of the
Merve over it.

1 £7 3, the membranous pofterior canal —1 2, its ampulla ;
&, the radiated expanfion of the nerve over it.

21m, the fuperior membranous canal.—/, the ampulla.

4n5, the exterior canal communicating at each end with
fhe alveus communis, Soemmerring gives each of thefe canals
the name of cartilagino-membranous canal, ‘* knorpelig
haiitiges bogenrohr.””

Fig. VI —The foft contents of the labyrinth removed from
their bony cafe, of their natural fize, and in their natural
fituation ; aa, the fpiral plate of the cochlea; 4, the fac-
culus {phericus; ¢, the alveus communis; g, the pofterior ;
4, the fuperior; /, the exterior femicircular canal.

Fig. V\1.—Another view of the labyrinth laid open.

abc, the cochlea. In order to expofe the zona mollis,
the exterior bony cafe has been removed.

def, the veftibulum.

g to g, the femicircular canals.—g hi, the pofterior; 47m,
the fuperior, of g, the exterior canal.

1 2 3, the lamina fpiralis feen on its under furface; 3, the
two facs of the veftibule, which, viewed from this, appear
as one common bag.

tu, the membranous pofterior canal.

v wx, the fuperior membranous canal, uniting with the
“Tah at x.

yx, the exterior membranous-canal.

This figure exhibits the diftribution of the auditory nerve
on the labyrinth ; the large branch going to the cochlea, the
three lcfler branches to the veftibule and canals.

Fig. VIIIl.—The natural fize of the parts containing what
we fee exhibited in the Jatt figure.

Sig. LX.—The larger half of a recent cochlea of the left

ear, divided perpendicularly through the modiolus, and’
magnified to four times its lize,

a, the external fhell.

b, the *modiolus.—1 1, the firft turn; 11 11, the fecond
turn; 111 11, the third turn ending in the cupola. :

¢ to i, the lamina fpiralis.—<c d, the beginning of it; ¢, a
portion, which by its direGion is feen on its under furface ;
fr the lamina at the commencement of the fecond turn,
where we fee its upper furface; g, the lamina coming round ;
h, the beginning of the third turn; 7, its termination in the
infundibulum.

1 to 7, the under and fmaller fcala, or the feala tympani,
The arithmetical order of the figures denotes its progrefs
upwards.

dtoh, the larger fcala, or that of the veftibulum. The
alphabetical order of the letters points out its gradual rife to-
wards the top of the cochlea.

7, the point where the f{calz meet.

76, the infundibulum cut acrofs.

nn, the longeft diameter of the cochlea.

Fig. X.—A perpendicular feGion of the bony cochlea,
I, II, 111, its turns.

a to c.—a, the cupola of the cochlea; 5, the modiolus.

d, the bottom of the meatus auditorius internus.

efg hi, the bony lamina fpiralis; g 4, the hamulus.

12345, the fcala tympani.

Aimn, the feala vefibuli.

Fig. X1.—The ampulla’ of the pofterior femicircular canal
magnified to twenty times its natural fize, to fhew the ra=
diated expanfion of the nerve. ,

aa, the ampulla; 44, the portion joined to the alveus
communis; cc, the canal into which it contra&ts; d, its
opening; e, the point where the nerve appears as a white {pot,
from which it radiates in all direGions, f, f, f.

Fig, X11.—The fhape of the area of thefe tubes.

Fig. X1\11.—The fan-like expanfion of the nerve of the
alveus communis, magnified by a power of twenty; a; ds
two arterial twigs.

Prate III.

The relative fize and pofition of the organ of hearings
with regard to the {kull in the adult.

a, the right os nafi.

é to A, the frontal bone.

d toi, the cribriform plate of the ethmoidal bone.

& to o, the parietal bone.

p to u, the temporal bone.—s x, the fquamous portion $
p74, the petrous portion; g7, the maftoid part.

tvwsx 2, the fphenoidal bone.

1, the canal for the carotid artery.

2, the paffage for the auditory and facial nerves.

3, a fiflure for a communicating branch between the fee
cond branch of the fifth pair of nerves and the facial nerve.

5, the opening of the aquedutus veftibuli.

On the left fide, by the removal of fome of the petrous
portion of the temporal bone, we are enabled to diftinguihh
plainly the external meatus paffing under the membrana
tympani, the bony ring fupporting this membrane, and the
oblique dire&tion of the latter. We fee alfo the officula,
the cochlea, the veftibulum, and, laftly, the three femicire
cular canals. ;

The Powers of the human Ear in diflinguifhing Sounds.
In profecuting the fecond divifion of our fubjeet, we fhall

foon be {truck with the confideration, that the ear difcrimi- —
nates all the different qualities of founds, not only by its —

ftructureg

EAR.

firufture, but by a judgment corre@ed by experience,
affifting moft materially in forming our conclufions as to fome
of its qualities. We here then make a diltinGtion of powers,
and fhould firft examine thofe arifing from the mechanical
conftruGtion of the organ ; and afterwards, thofe depending
-on the correction of judgment: we fhould not, however,
inveltigate the latter, until we have examined what propor-
tion the fubordinate parts of the organ bear in producing
ahefe effeéts; fupporting our theory by the few fads we
can draw from the fource of comparative anatomy. After
fuch inquiry, obferving the difficulty of adapting phenomena
to mechanical ftru€ture only, we fhould be the better able
to determine what fhare judgment bears in their production.
As the live of diftin@lion between thefe powers is not, per-
haps, clearly afcertained, and as the degree of them, taken
conjointly, has been more frequently the fubje& of obferva-
tion and experiment, we fhall give the fimple hiftory. of the
~powers as deduced by obfervable phenomena, referving all
‘examination of caufes till we have gone through the received
opinions, as to functions of different parts of the organ.
We are not to enter here on the theory of found, which
will be confidered at length in another place, but briefly
mention the varieties diftinguifhable by the organ of hearing.
They may be claffed, fufiiciently for our prefent purpofe,
into thofe dependent on the greater or lefs frequency of the
‘vibrations ; on the quantity, force, or momentum of the
vibrating parts; and on the greater or lefs fimplicity of each
found: obferving that, in all thefe cafes, we are to include
the variations as to the duration of the found, the diftance
-at which it commences, and the direGtion in which it comes.
On the firft of thefe caufes depends the éone or pitch of a
found, as to its being grave or acute; and the degree of
-difcrimination which a good ear poffleffes in this refpe& has
been the. fubjeét ‘of frequent obfervation and experiment.
‘On the fecond caufe depends the /oudne/s or foftne/s of a
found, which the ear can accurately diltinguifh, as far as
intenfity is concerned; but the difference between a loud
found coming from a diltance, and a foft one pulfating from
a nearer point, is not perhaps to be determined with an equal
degree of correétnefs. As to fimplicity of found, the ear is
fo organifed as to feize readily on the differences between one
fimple found and another ; but it can determine only vaguely
the differential proportions between two noifes. If, at the
fame inilant, many noifes arrive at the ear, the loudeft will
drown the weakelt, and make of it but a fimple noife; but
“if they fucceed each other, the ear can difcriminate as to
their intenfity and duration, but not asto tone. Noife isa
multitude of fimple founds, which the ear cannot feparate
from each other, and which excite in this confufed jun@ion
the idea of one found only. But where fimple founds fuc-
«eed each other, the ear appears to partake of each feparate
vibration of the founding body, and difcriminates with great
accuracy: nay more, if fimultaneous fimple founds, arifin
from the vibration of different founding bodies, ftrike the
ear, it can perceive them all diftinéily, It has not, how-
ever, this power of difcernmeht to any very nice degree, ex-
* cepting in perfons exercifed in mufic: for although the ear
ean make the difference, founds are fo analogous, their
gradations fo imperceptible, that an ear not corrected by
judgment would ftill confound them. To purfue this at
prefent would lead us beyond our intention, which ste flate
the power, without entering into its canfe. Extremely
fenfible alfo is the faculty of the ear in diftinguifhing the
quality, as well as the degree of tone. We know from
experiment, that a mufical ear can diftinguifh nearly eight
octaves asto pitch; but it can alfo flill perceive any variety
e.

of quality in the fame note, or the difference arifing from the
Jaw which governs each feparate vibration, and which cenfti-
tutes the difference between inftruments of different kindes
or different inftruments of the fame kind, or even the fame
inftrument differently employed. It will thus diliinguith
clearly the charaéter of the fame note, given out by various
inftruments. The flute and the oboe may be in perfec&
unifon, as to the pitch of the note, and as to its frength ;
ftill there will be always fomething between thefe equel
founds, which will not allow the ear to confound them:
there will be a peculiar difference as to clearnefs, foftnefs,
and other qualities, which a difcriminating ear will infantiy
feize. Wecan diftinguith very accurately alfo the modula<
tions of voice and articulated founds; and fome nations dif.
tinguih in their pronunciation certain letters, between whion
an ear unufed to the found can perceive no difference.
Every articulate word is a different modification of found,
by which, when we reflect for an inftant on the varietics of lan-
guage, we fee that the mind may be furnifhed with diting&
ideas even toan infinite variety. ‘There is another difference in
the powers of the ear, which confiltsin itsbeing moft delicately
fulceptible of fome of the qualities of founds, whillt it is dull
in perceiving others. It has, for initance, been oblerved,
that a perfon capable of perceiving founds {fo low as to be to-
tally unperceived by avother in his company, has yet been
far from having a correét ear in difcriminating mufical founds.
And the converfe of this holds equally good: the mufician,
who can dillinguifh the flighte!t variation of tone, has been
infenfible to founds clearly percetved by a bye-ftander. As
an inftance of accuracy of judgment arifing from fenlibility
to founds, we fhall mention an anecdote, told by Dr.
Darwin, in his Zoonomia. ‘ The late blind jaftice Field-
ing walked for the firft time into my room, when he once
vifited me, and, after {peaking afew words, faid, this room
is about 22 feet long, 18 wide, and 12 high; all which he
gueffed by the ear with great accuracy.”

Having ftated thus fho:tly the power of the human ear
in diftinguifhing the qualities of founda, we fhall make a few
remarks as to its faculty of determining the di/fance and di-
redion from which they proceed. Its power of determining
the duration of a found is obvious; that of diftinguifhing
diftance and direGtion is not fo clearly defined, although
every one is fenfible of the exiftence of them. Firft, as to
diflance: it will appear from experiment, that a delicate car
will diftinguifh, with confiderable accuracy, the diltance
from which a particular note begins to vibrate. A found,
juft audible at 240 feet, was diftinguifhed as being nearer
at 40 feet than at 42, and at 38 than at 40; fuch a power
of difcrimination muft be allowed to be confiderable,
and to prove fufficiently that the human ear is a very de-
licate judge of diftance, as determivable by loudnels of
found. It cannot, however, always be depended on; and
perhaps the diflin€tion which the ear makes between the
roughnefs and {moothnefs of a found is the beft criterion by
which it judges of proximity or diftance; founds becoming
perceptibly {moother as they are remote, and proportional:
rougher as. the found commences at fome nearer pot. ‘Ihe
manner in which judgment influences this power wiil be con-
fidered further on. It has been found allo by a rough ex-
periment, that the ear can diflinguifh the diredion of two
fimilar founds, proceeding from points which fubtend aa
angle of about five degrees. Of {uch {paces there are more
thana thoufand in an hemifphere, fo that the ear can receive
an impreflion of about a thoufand different direGlions. By
other experiments it would appear, that an horizontal dif-
ference_of direction is not perceptible within the points fub-

giz tending

EAR.

tending an anzle of eight degrees, or the perpendicular
difference-within thofe fubtending ten degrees of elevation.
Even this depends in a great meafure om the force of a
found; for unlefs it be of fome ttrength, though we can
dittinguifh the general dire€tion, we can by no means bring
it within fuch nicety of meafurement.

The education of the ear to the nice difcrimination of
thefe differences, as well as to thofe of mutical founds, to-
gether with the effects of attention in increafing our fenfi-
bility of the pulfes of found, come to be confidered after we
have given the theory of hearing, es it is effected in the pe-
culiar organ allotted for its accomplifhment.

Fun&ions of the individual Parts of the Organ of Hearing.

In order to difcover what part of the ear is more immediate-
ly concerned in the perception of founds, we fhall exhibit a
very fhort comparative review of its {truGure in thofe animals
in whom an organ of hearing has hitherto been difcovered.

In cray-fifo, and the fepie, the organ is moft fimple, con-
fiting of a {mall cavity orveflibule and a fingle membranous
tube, and in the latter genus the fac includes a fmall folid
body or lapillus: in the interior of this receptacle the audi-
tory nerve is expanded. The /pinows /i/bes, in addition to the
hollow of the veftibule and membranous bag contalwing the
japilli, are provided with femicircular canals. The cartilagi-
nous fifbes have the veltibule, the facculus for the lapilli,
femicircular canals, and a feneftra ovalis, defended by an
operculum compofed of a membrane and the fin, whilft in
the offeous fifhes the whole organ isenclofed by bone. To
the labyrinth of the /erpent tribe, which is very fimilar to
the internal ear of the cartilaginons fifhes, there ts added an
officulum clofing the feneftra ovals. In one of this order,
the genus cecilta, and in almoft the whole of the four-footed
reptiles, a membrana tympani is conneéted with this ofliculum.
In the other claffes of dirds and mammalia, we find an ex-
ternal paflage leading to the membrane, and in the laft of thefe
an external cartilaginous auricle is annexed.

The obvious inference drawn from this view will be, that
the whole of the apparatus, external to the labyrinth, is not
abfolutely neceflary to the perceiving of founds, becaufe
many creatures we know are fufceptible of the impreffion,
who are entirely delticute of thefe partsof the organ. We
fuppofe, indeed, that the additional apparatus is intended to
colleé& and modify the pulles of found in their progrefs to-
wards thelabyrinth, to give force to the flightett tremors,
and to regulate the intenfity of the ftrongeft. Whatever
be their office, it is proved beyond a doubt, that for the
fimple perception of found a membranous tube, or bag con-
nected with the pulp of a nervous trunk, is fuily fufficient ;
and whatever be the variation in the fhape of thefe, we fhall
fod them in al! cafes fundamentally the fame. We fay
nothing of the manner in which the fenfation of found is
excited in the leffer infe&ts and worms, as we cannot perceive
any organ fet apart for this purpofe, though we know that
they are, for the mott part, fenfible to its impreflion. Among
thof> creatures which have been fubjeéts of repeated obfer-
vations, we may remark, that from the offeous fifhes up to
man, we always find the membranous femicircular canals
conne&ed with a common facin the veftibule. As to the
cochlea, itis clear, that from its being found in perfeétion
only in the clafs of mammalia, it is by no means requifite
forfimple hearing. —

We conclude then, that the /adyrinth, whatever be its
form, is the moft important part of the ear, inafmuch as it
contains thofe foft parts immediately conneéted with the
fenfe of hearing ; and by giving an Fah of the manner

in which found is fuppofed to be impreffed on thofe parts te
man, any one may readily deduce the effes it would have
in every other in{tance, ;

The pulfes of found, having arrived at the membranes of
the feneftve, are communicated to the aqueous contents of
the Jabyrinth, and from them fpread in every diretion to
the membranous receptacles fupporting the auditory nerve ;
and not only will the fluid external to the membranous facs
and their canals partake of the vibration, but alfo the whole
of their gelatinous fluid contents, and confequently the
nervous pulp which is immerfedinthem. ‘The nerves of the
ampulle, of the alveus communis, and the facculus f{phert-
cus, willvall be excited by the tremor, and convey to the
brain their peculiar fenfations. Asto the cochlea, we have
defcribed it as confilting of two {calz, or hollow fpiral cones
communicating wivh each other at their apices, the bafe of
one opening into the veltibule, the other being terminated
by the membrane of the feneftra rotunda: they are both
filled by the aqueous contents of the labyrinth, which will
communicate the vibration to the delicate filaments of that
portion of the nerve diftributed to the zona mollis. And
here-we cannot but curforily notice the care which nature
appears to have taken, that this nervous pulp fhould fuffer
no injury from rude and unexpected fhocks, by includirg it
in an ela{lic membranous receptacle floating in an aqueous
fluid, as well as containing one within itfelf. There has
been many an idle difpute concerning the immediate
feat of hearing, before the ftru€ture of the organ had
been the fubjc€t of fuccefsful as well as minute inveltiga-
tion. It has been placed exclufively in the canals, in thre
vetibule, and in the foiral lamina of the cochlea; the ine
feresces, however, furnifhed by a compafative review of this
organ, will prove that it can be attributed in preference to
no one particular divifion of the nerve, the whole of which is
fenfible of the impreffion. If we might hazard a conje&ture,
drawn from the fame fource, it would be, that the nervous pulp
of the membranous ampul!z, and the facsin the veltibule, zs
the moft immediately concerned in the fimple perception of
founds; as to this part of the itruiure there is an analo-
gous formation in all the clafles of animals.

It has been afcertained by common obfervatior, that
founds can be impreffed on the nerve, not only when propa=
gated through the medium of the air, but that they
effet it moft powerfully when conveyed by the medium
of the folid parts {furrounding it. In thofe animals, whofe
labyrinth is completely cafed in bone, this muft neceflarily
be the onty way in which founds can be communicated ;
the reafon why in man, as well as in other animals who
have a membranous opening, a¢ted on by external air,
the labyrinth fhould be hollowed out of moft compact
bene, is not eafily determinable. It has been conjec=
tured, that the founds rebound from the bony channels to
the nerves they furround ; alfo, that we judge of the direc-
tion of founds by means of tremors communicated to the
folid parts continuous with the labyrinth. This is rendered
the more probable, as we cannot but fuppofe, that animals,
who poflefs this organ in its moft fimple ftate, judge with
fome correGtnefs of the direétion of the point trom which
the found proceeds. Whatever be the direétion of the found
in the open air, whenit enters the winding meatus externas,
it mutt neceflarily follow the courfe of that channel, and will
in every inftance be propagated to the tympanum and laby-
rinth in the fame line of direftion. Howeveracute we may
fuppofe the fentibility of the ear to be, we cannot coneeive
that under fuch circumftances it could diftinguih the angular
difference of dire€tion, but that every found would appear

to

‘gree the quality of the found.

EAR.

to come from the fame peint ; which we know not to be the
cafe, How far the external ear is concerned in producing
this effeét, we fhall briefly notice in the fequel; and to
render ourfelves the better judges, fhall flate then what share
the folid parts bave been fuppofed to take. 1t appears fuf-
ficient here to obferve, that the nerve can be imprefled, and
ean diftiaguifh direGtion without the apparatusof the ex-
ternal ear.

Speculations as to the reafons of the particular form of
the femicircular canals, we conceive, in the prefent ftate of our
knowledge refpeéting this organ, to be but a walte of labour:
their ufe we believe to be perfectly unknown. One fa& we
fhall mention, which is, that in the ofleous fifhes, whofe laby-
ninth is enveloped wholly in bone, we obferve them to be
particularly capacious, and defcribing portions of large cir-
cles. With refpe&t tothe cochlea, the obvious point which
would firll trike usis, that by means of it the expanfion of
the auditory nerve is very confiderably increafed in the ani=
ma's who poffefs it: we obferve, alfo, that it is proporti-
onally larger in quadrupeds thanit is in man. _ Its relative
importance to the organ cannot be precifely determined, but
it would appear that its exiftence in the perfe&t ftate in
which we fee it in quadrupeds and man, is not neceffary for
any of the nicer perceptions of found. Birds, in whom it
is found of a fimple conftru@tion, in no wife approaching to
the claborate one of the other clafs, have a delicate feeling
of ail the qualities of found. This is proved by their learning
to ling with great corre€tnefs, and when their vocal organs
permit them, by their imitating very accurately the human
voice in all its tones and articulations. That the cochlea is
not neceflary for that corretnefs in hearing, which contti-
tutesa mufical ear, is thus fully afcertained. Whether it
increafes the fphere of the perception, enabling animals who
poffefs it, to hear thofe low and gentle tremors, which would
not affc& an ear without this part, has not been at prefent af.
certained, nor from the difficulty of the inveltigation do we
fee any probability of effecting it. We omit the different
opinions refpeéting the ule of the decreafing lamina fpiralis
of the cochlea in modulating founds, or its office of perceiv-
ing exclufively fome of their particular qualities, as we can
fee no foundation whatever on which to build them: and
fhall conclude this account of its negative properties by re-
marking, that although it is rational to fuppofe that fome
important purpofe is anfwered by the conftruétion, we have
as yet no data from which to draw a conclufion as to its
extent.

The fenefira rotunda, and its membrane, are found only in
animals who poflefs a cochlea, one of the feale of which
the membrane occludes, forming a feparatjon between it and
the cavity of the tympanum. Its ufe is neceffarily connected
with that of the cochlea, and we conclude that it is to tranf-
mit to the fluid in that part the tremors which have been
communicated to it through the air in the tympanum; we
fuppofe it to be perfectly paffive, influencing in no de-
We noticed, in the de-
{cription ot the nerve of the cochlea, that it was moft obferv-
able in the tympanic {cala, with which the feneftra ovalis im-
mediately communicates. It is not improbable, therefore,
that the impreffions conveyed to this portion of the nerve
pafs through the medium of the membrana feneftre rotund;
the fuppofition, though conjeCtural, carries with it no direct
abfurdity.

The fenefra ovalis is another road by which we fuppofe
founds to arrive at the labyrinth, and the importance of the
opening and its membrane would appear to be confiderable,
fince we find them in almoft all animals, though its imme-
diate office is not fo clear. In the cartilaginous fithes it has

been confidered as performing the part of a membrana tym-
pani, there being no parts exterior toit. In other animals
the veftibular feneftra is occupied by a bone, between which
and the rim of the opening there is apparent, more or lefs
of a membrane.

The cavity of the tympanum, we have found very gene-
rally, when comparing the varieties of ftru€ture, and co-
exilting with it, certain additional parts, the ufes of which
we fhall now attempt to invelligate. In adding this divifion
of the machine, which includes feveral fubordinate parts, it is
a matter of no confequence with which individual picce we
begin our examination. They are found exifting toge-
ther, and we conclude therefore that they are immediately
dependent on each other with regard to their funions,
which can fearcely be fuppofed to be executed unlefs in
mutual combination. Again, the configuratim) of the
different pieces is fo exceedingly different, chat we are to-
tally at a lofs to determine the value of any particular form
of parts. Confidered in its integral form, it appears as the
medium through which founds are communicated to the la-
byrinth ; and our objeé here is to afcertain what changes it
effets on them during their tranfmiffion.

The officula and the membranes are fo immediately con-
neéted with each other, that it imports but little with which
we next proceed: as, however, an officulum is found in
many animals, where the membrana tympani, (if indeed it de-
ferve the appellation,) appears immoyeable from its ftruc-
ture, we fhall firft examine the probable office of thefe {mail
bones, and afterwards that of the membranes to which they
are attached, and the mufcles which, by their aGtion, have
an evident effe&t in altering their exifting ftates.

There is fo ftriking a variety in the form of the cavity,
not only in different claffes of animals, but in the different
genera of the fame clafs, that we can draw no probable con-
clufion as to the utility of the particular fhape of it in man.
Its depth from without inwards is fuited to the length of
the conneéted chain of the officula, all of which are fituated
in its upper half in the human fubje@, fp that a plane drawa ,
parallel to the bafe of the ftapes is defcribed as dividing the
cavity into equal halves. The feneftra ovalis is thus piaced
in the middle of the interior wall, oppofite to the centre of
the membrana tympani, and immediately in the courfe of
coming founds. The feneltra rotunda is directed more
downwards, fo that the plane of its membrane forms an ob-
tufe angle with that of the feneftra ovalis. From this po-
fition it has been fuppofed to be more particularly defigned
to tranfmit thofe vibrations which have been refleted from
the oppofite bony hollow : and, as it is aéted on immediately
by the tremors of the air, it has been confidered by Scarpa
as a fecond membrana tympani. As the feneftre differ in
their proportional fize in different animals, we cannot fup-
pofe any thing very material as depesding on that circum:
{tance.

The cavity of the tympanum has communicating ‘with it
feveral cells hollowed out in the bony parietes of the full: .
in man we have defcribed thefe as exifting chiefly in the
maftoid procefs of the temporal bone. In other mammi-
ferous animals they are irregularly difpofed ; in the elephant,
whofe acutenefs of hearing is very great, they exift in great
numbers, the cells of one fide communicating with thole
of the other. In birds, but more particularly in the noc-
turnal birds of prey, thefe cells are extenfive, and particu-
larly large ; for inftance, in the common white owl. The in-
ference drawn from combining thefe faéts will be, that thefe
cells are in fome manner affiftant in the tranfmiffion of found,
and probably increafe its force, as we obferve them more

particularly enlarged in thofe creatures who are gifted te
the

E A R.

the power of percciving the loweft and moft effete pulfes of
found.

In every inftance where we meet with a cavity of the tym-
panum we find a fude of different diameter and length, com-
municating with fome other cavity in which the external air
is conttantly pafling, fo that the tube being pervious, the air
penetrates to the part in which it opens. The air thus ad-
mitted fills all the cavities we have juft now mentioned, as
well as that of the tympanum, where its prefence would
feem to be neceffary for the ready tranfmiffion of found.
Its importance is beft proved by obferving what occurs in
cafes where its tube is by fome means-clofed, and in which
the air can no longer gain an accefs to the tympanum.
Deafnefs always fucceeds to a greater or lefs degree, and the
canfe of it is afcertained by fome marks which we need not
dwell on Here: it is enough for our prefent purpofe to ob-
ferve, that where an opening has been again made for the
admiflion of air, the fenfe of hearing is at firft painfully
acute. The ear, having loft its habit of perceiving, is fo
fenfible to the fudden return of the fenfation as to feel much
‘diftrefs; The fenfibility diminifhes by degrees, and the ear
again accommodates itfelf to its former mode of adtiun.
The opening a new paflage for the air, by making a per-
foration through the membrana tympani, is not, however,
conftantly fuccefsful in reftoring the fun@ions of the organ
for any continuance; the cauie of failure is not to be ex-
amined here, our objeét being to prove the neceflity for air
being admitted into the cavity, and not to eftimate the
manner in which it fhould be effedted: the organ is not
nec flarily perfeét, becaufe air is found in the tympanum,
but it is always imperfeét if the accefs for it is barred.
Another ufe of the Euftachian tube has been fuppofed to
be that of giving admiflion to founds when the hearer is
anxioufly endeavouring to colle&t them. It had been ob-
ferved, that a man, attentively lhftening to any found, ge-
nerally keeps his mouth half open, and it was fuppofed that
this was to afford an additional channel for the arrival of
founds to the internal ear. In oppofition to this theory it
is faid, that although we generally open the mouth when in
the aét of liftening with attention, it is not for the purpofe
above ftated, but that in deprefling the lower jaw, we necef-
farily widen the aperture of the external meatus which is
clofely conneéted with it, and confequently, that by this ac-
tion, we facilitate the tranfmiffion of found 10 the tympanum.
Confidering the latter ufe of the Euftachian tube as rather
problematical, we fhall be contented with affigning to it its
more obvious and important office, or that of conveying air
to the cavity of the tympanum.

The offcula which ecrofs the tympanum have been fup-
pofed to act either as folid bodies, tranf{mitting fonorous vi-
‘rations, or merely as fubordinate pieces concerned in
giving different degrees of tenfion to the membranes with
which they are conne¢ted. ‘That they may execute in fome
extent both thefe funétions is not improbable; becaufe in
fome animals they are not furnifhed with mufcles, and con-
fequently can have no power over the membrane with which
they are conneéted, in which inftance we can only fuppofe
them to continue vibrations they have received. In other
inftances, however, where we obferve a delicate membrana
tympani, capable, from its conftruGtion, of undergoing ten-
fion and relaxation, we always find the bones furnifhed with
mufcles, which, aéting through their intervention, can pro-
duce confiderable alterations in the ftate of the membranes.
We know nothing as to the difference of perception arifing
from this different ftate of the officula, but from obferving
them to be provided with mufcles only in cafes where they
ean a& with effect, we believe, that, in the latter cafe, their

4

principal ufe is not that of tranfmitting founds, but of altering
the tenfion of the membranes with which they are connected.
In cafes of difeafe of the ear, thefe bones have been known
to fall out, without very materially injuring the delicacy of
the organ, provided they did not involve in their feparation
the deftruétion of the membrane of the feneftra ovalis. As
we fuppofe their principal office to be allicd to that of the
membrana tympani, we fhall confider the latter more parti-
cularly before we can draw any inference as to their com-
bined funétions.

The officula are provided with. mu/cles which can move
them in different directions: the moft powerful of thefe
would appear to produce the effe€&t of rendering more tenfe
the membrane of the drum, and by the tranfmitted motion
of the bones increafing the tenfion alfo of the membrane of
the veftibular, or oval feneftra. By their action they can
produce no immediate effeét on the membrane of the feneftra
rotunda, which they can only influence by the preflure given
to the fluid contents of the labyrinth. The importance of
their aéting thus on membranes occluding the openings to
the labyrinth, does not appear to be very great, as in birds,
whofe delicacy in the perception of found has been already
noticed, the plate of bone conneéted with the veftibular
feneltra, cannot produce any effeét of this kind: it is fitted
fo exaGily to the opening, as to be incapable of being in any
degree movedin its fituation. In thefe creatures, the mufcle
acting on their officulum, can only affe&, by its means, the
membrana tympani, to which we refer alfo the chief ufe of
the mufcles of the officulain man. ‘That they willalfo pro-
duce an alteration in the membranes of the fenettra is highly
probable ; but the effeéts will be comparatively flight, when
fet by the fide of thofe alterations they will caufe in the
membrana tympani. ‘The importance of their action on the
Jabyrinth is rendered ftill further of a doubtful nature, when
we confider the perfection of the organ, in cafes where the
bones on which they aét have been deftroyed. We have
obferved, that the moft powerful of thefe little mufcles will,
by their a€tion, increafe the conical form of the membrana
tympani, and render it more tenfe. It would appear to re-
turn, by its elafticity, in fome degree, to its former ftate, as
the relaxing power can be brought to aG on it but feebly.
We conjecture, from this circumftance, that the membrane
is always in a ftate to tran{mit the pulfes of found ; and that
it is only when our attention is particularly directed to alow
found, that the membraneis rendered tenfe : this fuppofition
is, in fome meafure, ftrengthened, by obferving, that in
birds, the mufcle which acts on their officulum can produce
the effect of tenfion only. Itis, again, fuppofed, that in
cafes of loud and impetuous founds, the membrana tympani
in man, at leaft, and animals fimilar to him in ftru@ure, can
be in fome meafure relaxed. Granting that fuch is the
cafe, we would obferve, that the membrana tympani and its
mufcles are fomewhat analagous in fun@tion to what we
know of the iris: they are'to be regarded as the regulators
of the intenfity of founds; damping the force of the power-
ful, and facilitating the tranfmiffion of the flight. This leads
us to notice fome further properties of thefe mufcles, as well
as to make fome obfervations on the ufe of the radiated
mufcle of the tympanum, as defcribed by Mr. Home. Are
the mufcles of the tympanum to be confidered as involuntary
in their ations, or are they dependent in any degree on the
will? We believe them to aé& independently of the will, and
to be ftimulated by the impulfe of found, in the fame
manner as the iris atts from the flimulus of light. It has
been objected, that in fuch cafe, their action would be too
late ; that the found would have pafled the membrana tym-
pani before it could be accommodated to its proper au

miffion,

-

EAR.

miffion. The fame obje&ion would hold good with regard
to the iris, where it may be faid that the retina would be
impreffed before the iris had time to alter the diameter of its
aperture, How far the membrane is <ffeGted, in the in-
ftance of voluntary ifcreafed attention, cannot be afcertained :
that the external ear is dire€ted more immediately towards
the point from which the fcund proceeds, is, in all cafes,
evident. With refpect to the ation of the radiated mufcle
of the tympzaum we can fay but little: it can be but trifling,
if we confider the nature of the membrane, and the acknow-
leded delicacy of the mufcle, which, in man, has hitherto
efcaped our eye. Mr. Home remarks, ‘ that the mem-
brana tympani is flretched, in order to bring the radiated
mufcle of the membrane itfelf into a ftate capable of a¢ting,
and of giving thofe different degrees of tenfion to the mem-
brane which empower it to correfpond with the varieties of
external tremors : when the membrane is relaxed, the radi-
ated mufcle cannot a& with any effe&t, and external tre-
mors makelefs accurateimpreflions. If the tenfion given by
the mufcle of the malleus be perfeét, all the variation pro-
duced by the ation of the radiated mufcle will be equally
correét, and the ear truly mufical: if the firft adjuftment be
imperfe&, none of the effects of the aGion of the radiated
mufcle will be correét.”’- Such is the theory as to the ufe
of the membrana tympani and its various mufcles, the offi-
cula being confidered as fecondary agents only, and their
articulations not defigned to regulate the intenfity of violent
impulfes, as communicated through themfelves to the fe-
neftra ovalis, but only to aét with more correftnefs and ac-
curacy on the membranes to which they are connedted.
We believe the tranfmiflion of founds to be performed
through the medium of the air in the tympanum, not wholly
certainly, but in a confiderable degree. my
In fuch a complicated machine as the organ of hearing in
man, it is difficult and hazardous to affix the precife power
of every individual piece, when we confider, that in no cafe
does it a&t fingly, or uncombined with feveral others. The
relative importarce of each is more eafily eftimated ; and we
hall conclude the examination of this part of the apparatus,
by obferving the effects which enfue on their lofs. It is,
we conceive, proved, by numerous obfervations, that the in-
tegrity of the membrana tympani is not neceflary for the
perfection of the mechanifm of this organ. Many perfons,
who have been able to drive {moke from the mouth in large
volumes through the external meatus, have, neverthelefs, re-
tained great accuracy of ear: and it would appear, from fome
later obfervations, that the total deftruGtion of the-membrane
does not neceflarily produce deafnefs, or even any very per=
ceivable defect in the organ. In an inftance recorded by
Mr. Aftley Cooper, in which the membrana tympani of one
ear was totally deftroyed, and that of the other nearly fo,
by difeafe, it appeared that the deafnefs was inconfiderable,
and that found was moft readily perceived by the ear in
which no trace of the membrane could be difcovered. This
proves that the membrana tympani may be deftroyed with-
out any great prejudice as to the power of catching low
founds. Another circumttance is, that, in the fame cafe, the
ear was nicely fufceptible of mufical tones, the individual
playing well on the flute, and finging perfeétly in tune,
The power of accommodating the car to differing intenfity
of found was loft for fome time after the deftruction of the
membrane: it, however, gradually returned ; and at the
period of examination there was no diftrefs arifing from that
deficiency. The inference drawn from thefe obfervations
would be, that the membrana tympani is not materially
concerned in giving either delicacy, or correétnefs of ear,
that it may be deftroyed without injuring effentially its

funGions, its principal ufe being to regulate ¢ the impref-
fions of found, and to proportion them to the expe@azion
and power of the organ.”? In cafes where deafnefs follows
the deftruGion of this membrane, it depends, moft probably, »
from the difeafe having injured, at the fame time, the mem-
branes of the fenettra, in which cafe, the fluid of the laby-
tinth would efcape, and the auditory nerve inevitably lofe its
power of perception,

The obvious ufe of the external meatus is to convey the
vibrations of found, propagated through air, to the mem-
brana tympani; and we find it, accordingly, only in thofe
animals who have a proper elaftic moveable membrane, as in
birds and mammalia. From the inflzAions and variations
in dimenfion, in different parts of its courfe, it is evident
that, from whatever point the found proceeds, it mutt ulti-
mately ftrike on the membrane in the dire€tion of this paf
fage, and be continued in the fame line to the auditory nerve.
The confequence of fuch formation would be, that the ear
would in no cafe be enabled to determine the direétion from
which the found proceeded. The fenfibility of its furface,
as it approaches the tympanum, is very confiderably aug-
mented; and it has been conjeCtured that, by the wave of
found acting on this part-during its paflage, notice is com-
municated to the mufcles of the membrana tympani, which
are immediately ftimulated to ation. The different direc=
tions of the meatus in animals, as well as the differences ia
the form and obliquity of the membrana tympani at the
bottom of it, are fo numerous, and, apparently, irregular, as
not to allow us to form any reafonable conjecture as to the
utility of their particular figure in the human fubjeét.

The finna, or that part of the external ear which lies
without the head, would appear to be in no wife neceflary
for the perfection of the organ, as far as the perception of
found is concerned, and it can be regarded as an acceflary
part only, fuperadded to the meatus in quadrupeds and man. .
In the generality of quadrupeds the auncle is of a conical
form, the apex of the cone terminating in the meatus, ap-
pearing thus calculated to colle& fonosous vibrations, and
tranfmit them with increafed energy to the internal parts.
In man we cannot obferve fo much of this conical form in
the concha, nor do we exattly perceive the utility of the
different eminences and the intervening hollows. ‘Khe pro-
bable fuppofition is, that they are concerned in directing
towards the meatus, as-towards a focus, all the waves of
found impinging on their different furfaces. In order to
favour the colleciing of founds, we have found the auricle
to be furnifhed with mu/cles capable of moving it in different <
directions. Jn animals, who have it of a larger form, thefe
mufcles are confiderable both in number and ftrength, and
empower them to direét it with ready execution towards
the point from which the pulfes proceed. Man, at lealt in
his civilized ftate, would appear to have much lefs power in
this refpeét. In the inftance mentioned above, where the
membranes of the drum were fo materially injured, the
mufcles of the external ear had acquired a dillinét power of
moving it upwards and backwards, which power was more
particularly exerted when the attention was direéted: to
catch an indiftin& found. When the external ear moves, it
is moft commonly to accommodate its pofition to.the*direc-
tion of the fonorous rays, to fix itfelt fteadily.in order to
reflect them, and to ftraighten the curved direétion of the car-
tilaginous meatus. It is for the latter reafon, perhaps, that
in man we find no mufcle capable of depreffing the pinna, as
fuch a movement would neceffarily increafe its curve, whilft
the motion, either upwards or backwards, would tend to’make
the paflage more dire&t. The!pinna has been removed in many
infances where no material injury to the power of the 7

E A Re

has been afterwards obfervable: for 3s few days-after-there
has been @ Bight deafnefs. but the ear has, 1m every cafe,
foon recovered all its finenefs of perception. Where the canal
of the meatus has been covered by acontinuation of the flin
over it, there being no auricle connected with it, obfervation
has proved alfo that the funtions of the organ were perfec.
Such is the apparatus deftined to convey to the fenforium
the impreffions of found. We have endeavoured to afcer-
tain the relative importance and funGions of the individual
parts, ard fhail now give the fum of their united powers in
man, tracing the progrefs of found from without. The
pulfes of found, which c»me in conta@ with the external
furface of the pinna, are refle&ced by its emincnces and de-
preflions, but more pofitively by the fides of the hollow of
the concha, and direéted into the external meatus, where
their energy is probably augmented. Arrived at the bottom
of this tube, they firike againit the membrana tympani,
which we fuppofe to alter its degree of tenfion in conformity
to their force. The vibration excited by the fonorous
waves is continued with them acrofs the tympanum, by
means of the air and the chain of officula to the feneftre of
the labyrinth, and the fluid it contains. The agitations of
this Auid are communiéated to the nervous remifications
immerfed in it, and the nerve conveys to the fenforium the
peculiar imprefiiun of the found. Further, that there are
paffages communicating with the labyrinth, and ending in
widened facs on the interior of the fkull, by means of which
the motion of the fluid is regulated, and its accumulation
to too great a degree prevented. We have obterved alfo,
that there remains ftili another medium by which founds
could be conveyed with fome accuracy and force to the
nerve, provided the communication was kept up by the vi-
brations of folid bodies: this we flated to refide in the folid
parts of the head. The concivfion, drawn from this review,
will be, that the internal ear is alone fufficient to perceive
the qualities of founds, and that the parts exterior to it can
only colleét, tranf{mity and regulate the intenfity of them.
Having examined the powers of the ear as refulting from
ftruGure, we muft fill look further for the explanation of
fome ather faculties which the perfcét organ poffefles. We
are not to eater here on the advantages which one fenfe de-
rives from the affittance of others, in correcting 1ts imper-
fections, or enlarging its powers: we fhall fuppofe fuch to
be proved with refpeét to the ear, and fhall therefore only
itate the inftances in which they may be obferved. Orne of
thefe is feen in the faculty we poffefs of determining the dif-
tance of the founding body. We mentioned before, that
when founds proceeded with equal forces from the fame
body, the ear was capable of diftinguifhing the alteration of
diftance by the difference of the flrength or weaknels of the
wave. This power we conceive to be acquired by expe-
rience, and that it is fo, may be rendered further probable
by obferving that loud founds coming from a diltance, and
fainter ones pulfating from a nearer point, provided the tone
is the fame, cannot be diftinguifhed unlefs by a judgment de-
rived from other fources. “Che fame may be faid of the
power of afcertaining direftion, which is a fecondary faculty
depending for its perfeGtion on the affiltance of the other
fenfes. It has been fuppofed by Mr. Gouzh, and the
theory has been fupported by fome ingenious and conclufive
experiments, that the folid parts of the head are the means
by which we judge of the point from which the found pro-
ceeds, Having proved, by experiment, that the head is a

" . fenfitive folid, and capable of perceiving impulfes made on

it by founds much more exquifitely than men generally ima-
gine, he makes fome obfervations on the relative degree of
its fealibility in different parts, and adds, * the fenfation in

quelion being but of little ufe, independently of its connece
tion with hearing, we, fer the moft part, miftake its true
fituation, and refer it to the organs of this fenfe. Seeing,
however, that we are cofvinced, by a delicate fort of touch,
what part of the head is affe@ted by the ftrokes of the fo-
norous object, and -at the fame time well acquainted with
the form of thig member of the human body, we judge ac-
curately what is the fituation of the excited portion of it,
relative to the centre of the axis of hearing :”? which he has
{uppofed to be in an imaginary ftraight line joining the two
ears. We are taught alfo, by experience, to judge of the
lateral direAion of founding bodies according as they ftrike
both the ears with equal or different degrees of force: the
perception which determines the pofition to be before or
behind the hearer, is determined in the manner above ex-
plained. ‘he difcernment of the ear, then, has its bounds,
becaufe the founding bodies are not fubjeé to the touch, and
we can determine diftance, as well as direction, by judg-
ment only. In the fame way we know alfo the pofition of
a body; and this can only be acquired by exercife. Ifa
deaf man was fuddenly to hear, he would be able to judge
with correétnefs of neither: he would be miftaken, if he has
not beforehand ftudied the nature of the founding obj-¢,
and the varieties of impreflion refulting from its different
fituations.

Although the organ of hearing is double, it does not
follow that we mué hear a fimple jound twice; the two im-
preflions which the fame tone makes on them both are
received by corre{ponding parts, and tran{mitted at the fame
initant to the fenforium: the two impreffions are thus res
garded as one, and excite, confequently, but a fimple fenfa-
tion: itis exa@tly the fame as in the cafe where the obje& is
painted at the fame inftant on both the organs of vifion,
The differences of power in the ears of different individual,
would appear to depend on ftructure as well a3 exercife.
The correct mufical ear arifes, in a great degree, from ori-
ginal formation, but its exquilite accuracy, a3 we obferve it
in perfons exercifed continually in the {cience of mufic, is
derived, beyond doubt, from education. The high ne
which the organ attains by this conftant attention to mufica
founds, appears in a moft ftriking light, when compared
with the undittinguifhing perceptions of the untutored ear,
An equality of power inthe two ears docs not appear to be
neceflary in order to complete the organ as aflccied by mn-
fical founds. Inftances are every day met with of perfons
with flight deafnefs of one ear, who are niccly correct in
perceiving every variation of tone. ‘l’o complete the per-
fe€tion of the fenfe in every initance, it feems neceflary that
the organ fhould difpofe and accommodate its action to the
impuife, that it fhould be on the alert to catch the low
tremor of a faint and indiftin® found. It isin fech cades
that we obferve the increafed encrgy of the car wheo the ate
tention is particularly called forth. Such are the circum-
ftances and conditions which influence, in a manner, more or
lefa direct, the perfeGion of the organ of hearing; aud
we fhall conclude by faying a few words on its peculier
pleafures.

The pleafures of the ear confilt, independently of thofe
of articulated language, in the fucceffion of founds accord-
ing to the laws of harmony. We are not fo well pleafed
with ope found, as with an entire air, which cavfes joy or
forrow, pleafure or pain, by fome unknown change which it
is fuppoled to produce onthe organ. Miutic pleafes more
as the ear is lefs exercifed to it: tunes fimple and unpoiifhed

leafe at firlt: if we accuftom the ear to their effects, we
oon feek for more finifhed and compounded airs, which,
at firlt, were far from pleafing. Mulic thus becomes a

' fource

EAR-

fouree of néw pleafures, ever varying her combinations to
fuit the educated organ, This can only occur to any high
degree in well organized ears; there are fome to whom
mufic is ever but a noife. The caufes of the pleafure re-

fulting from harmony and melody are very far from being
fatisfaGtorily explained, notwithftanding the fagacious con-
jeGtures and repeated attempts of the molt able metaphy-
ficians, as well as phyfiologifts: we know no more of them
than we do of the caufes of the pleafures and pains of all the
other fenfes. oats

The ear, then, is an organ of fenfe, fubjeéted but incom-
pletely to the will, and unable to withdraw itfelf from the
impreffion of every impulfe of found: it 1s on this account,
provided with a certain regulating apparatus, which modi-
fies the a€tion of the external agent, and is further aflifted
by judgment, as acquired from the other fenfes. Gifted
with thefe powers, and alive to all thefe pleafures, we once
more fee this beautiful organ perfect in all its parts, capable
of exciting in us, with immeafurable rapidity, that infinite
number of ideas which refults from the fenfe of hearing.

In the defcription of the ear, as far as it-is contained under
the article Cranium, we mentioned the comparative merits
of the different authors who had written on that fubject.
The reader will find fome further information as to its
funétions, in fome papers by Mr. Home and Mr. A. Cooper,
in the Philofophical ‘TranfaGtions for 1800, 1801, and 1805;
in an eflay by Mr. Gough, in Mancheft. Mem. vol. v.; and
in Haller Element. Phyfiol. vol. v. He will find alfoa com-
plete catalogue of authors on this fubjeét in the fecond vol.
of Dr. Young’s Natural Philofophy. See alfo the article
Acoustics for further references to fubjeéts connected
with this organ.

Several naturalifts and phyficians have held, that cutting
off the ear rendered perfons barren and unprolific; and this
idle notion was what firlt occafioned the legiflators to order
the ears of thieves, &c. to be cut off, left they fhould pro-
duce their like.

The ear has its beauties, which a good painter ought by
no means to difregard ; where it is well formed, it would be
an injury to the head to be hidden. Suetonius infifts, par-
ticularly on the beauties of Augultus’s ears; and /&lian,
defcribing the beauties of Afpalia, obferves fhe had fhort
ears.

Martial alfo ranks large ears among the number of de-
formitics. Felibien.

Among the Athenians, it was a mark of nobility to
have the ears bored, or perforated. And among the He-
brews and Romans, this was a mark of fervitude.

Lofs of one ear is a punifhment enacted by 5 and 6
Ed. VI. cap. 4. for fighting in 2 church-yard; and by 2 and
3 Ed. VI. cap. 15. for combinations to raife the price of

rovifions, labour, &c. if it be the third offence, befide pil-
el and perpetual infamy, or a fine of 4o/.

By a ftatute of Henry VIII. malicioufly cutting off the
ear of a perfon is made a trefpafs, for which treble damages
fhall be recovered; and the offender is to pay a fine of ten
pounds to the king. 37 Hen. VIII. cap. 6.§4. Inthe
index to the Statutes at large, it is faid, that this offence
may be punifhed as felony, by 22 and 23 Car. II. cap. 1.
§ 7. commonly called Coventry’s aét; but ear is not men-
tioned in that ftatute. ,

Ear, in Botany, is alfo applied to a long clufter of lowers,
or feeds, produced by certain plants: and ufually called, by
botanifts, /pica. The flowers and feeds of wheat, rye,
barley, &c. grow in cars. The fame holds of the flowers
of lavender, &c.

We fay, the {tem of the ear, i.¢, its tube, or ftraw; the

Vou, XII.

EAR

knot of the ear; the lobes, or cells, wherein the grains are
enclofed; the beard of the ear, &c. great numbers of eare
of wheat have been known to arife from the fame roof.

Ear, in Conchologye See Auris Dianz, &c.

Ear, in Gardening, a name given to the feminal leaves
of plants, or thofe two green and fucculent leaves which
firt appear from the feed, and are very different, in all re-
fpects, from thofe which follow. Thus in the melon plants,
the two firft leaves are called ears; and the leaves, with their
ftalks, which fhoot out afterwards, are called knots, and
denominated the firft, fecond, and third knot, according to
their place, and time of growing. The cutting off every
third knot in this plant, is the great means of procuring the
fineft and largeft fruit. Phil. Tranf. N° 45.

Ear, in Mujfic, denotes a kind of internal fenfe, whereby
we judge of mufical founds and harmony; they who pof-
fefs this fenfe are faid to havea good ear. And the like
diftinétion we fhould, probably, acknowledge in other af-
fairs, had we got diftin&® names to denote thofe powers of
perception by. :

Thus, a greater capacity of perceiving the beauties of
painting, architefiure, &c. is called a fine tafe. See
Taste.

Ear of Birds. See Anatomy of Bixns.

Ear of Fifhes. See Fisu.

Ear-ach, w Surgery. See OTAucia.

Ear, running of the,in infants. See Inrant,

Ean, tingling of the. See Tinnitus.

Ear, Jews, in Natural Hiflory. See Auricura Fude.

Ear of Corn, and Ermine, order of, in Heraldry, {o
called from the collar, an order of knighthood, inftituted
by Francis I. duke of Britany, for 25 knights of noble
defcent. The badge of the order was an ermine on a
mount enamelled proper; round the mount the following
motto, Amayiz. The collar was compofed of ears of corn
interlaced. ;

Ear-picks, are inftruments of ivory, filver, and other
metal, fomewhat in form of a probe, for cleaning the ear.
The Chinefe are particularly fond of entertaining themfelves
with picking and tickling their ears; this they do either
for themfelves, or interchangeably for one another, and have
a great number of inftruments of peculiar fhapes and ftruc-
ture, invented for this purpofe. But fir Hans Sloane very
judicioufly obferves, that the ufe of them fecms very pre-
judicial; for that, among many people in England who
had applied to him on account of deafnefs, the far greater
part were thrown into their complaints by too often picking
their ears, and thereby bringing humours, or ulcerous difpo-
fitions, on them. Phil, Tranf. N° 246. p. 406.

Ear-ring. See Penpant.

Ear-fhell.. See Auris Marina.
Ear-wax. See Wax.
Far-wig. See Forricura.

EARCH, in Geography, a river of North Wales, which
runs into the fea near Pwilhely, in Caernarvonhhire.

EARED Owt, in Ornithology. See Strix.

EARINZ Vests, from zag, /pring, among the ancient
Greeke, a habit worn in the {pring, which was made of
wool, and dyed green. The cultom of wearing green veft-
ments in this feafon has not been unknown in modern times.

Demplter fays, it was cuftomary, in his time, for the
king, and nobility of England, to go a hunting in the {pring,
dreffed in green, that they might be of a fimilar colour with
the feafon,

EARING, in a fhip, that part of the bolt-rope, which,
at the four corners of the fail, is left open, in the fhape of
ating. The two uppermoft are put over the ends “<4

< the

EAR

the yard-arms, end fo-the fail is made fat to the yard; and
into the lowermokt earings the fheet and tackles are feized,
or bent at the clew.

FEarinc, Third, in Hufbandry. See Turn.

EARL, au Englifh title of honour, or degree of nobility,
next below a marquis, and above a vifcount.

Earls were anciently attendants, or affociates of the king
im his councils, and martial expeditions; much as comites,
counts, were of. the magiftrates of Rome, in quality of de-
puties, to execute their offices for them.

Hence, alfo, earls are called, in Latin, comites; in French,
comtes, counts, &c. The Germans call them graves, a8
Jandgrave, marcgrave, palfgrave, &c. The Saxons, ealdor-
men; the Danes, eorlas; and the Englith earls.

_ Earl was aconfiderable title among the Saxons: it is ob-
ferved to be the molt ancient of any of the peerage; and
that there is no other title of honour in ufe among the pre-
fent nobility, which was likewife ufed among the Saxons,
befide it. The original titles of honour among the Saxors
were, edeling, ealderman, and degen, or decn. ‘The firft an-
propriated to thofe of the royal family; the other two to
the reft of the nobility ; only the thani were afterwards dif-
tingnifhed into majores and minores, Comes in Latin, aelder-
man in Saxcn, and ear! in Danc-Saxon, were fynonymous.
See ALDERMAN.

Originally the title earl always died with the man. Wil-
liam the Conqueror firft made it hereditary; giving it in fee
to his nobles, and annexing it to shires and counties; for the
fupport of the ftate thereof, he allotted the third penny out
of the fheriff’s court, iffluing out of all pleas of the fhire
from which the earl took his title. Accordingly, it became
ufual in creating an earl, to ereét a certaio territory into a
county or earldom, and to beftow it upon the perfen and his
family ; and alfo to give him a fixed falary, commonly about
20/. a year, in lieu of his third of the fines. The diminution
of his power kept pace with the retrenchment of his profit ;
and the dignity of earl, inftead of being territorial and offi-
cial, dwindled into perfonal and titular. But earls are now
created by patent, without any authority over, or particu-
lar relation to, their counties; and without any profit arifing
thence, except feme annual ftipend out of the exchequer,
for honour fake. The number of earls being of late much
encreafed, and no more counties being left for them, feveral
of them have made choice of fome eminent part of a county,
as Lindfey, Holland, Craven, &c. Others of fome town,
as Marlborough, Exeter, Briftol, &c. And others, of fome
village, or their own feat, park, &c. as Godolphin, Bolton,
Daaby, &e.

Some earls we have, who are not local, ¢. ¢. not dignified
from any places, but from noble families, wiz. earl Rivers,
and earl Paulet. A third is denominated from his office,
viz. earl Marthal.

Earls are created by cin@ure of {word, mantle, a cap, and
a coronet put on his head, and acharter in his hand. Their
title is, mof? potent and noble lord. Their coronet has the
pearls raifed on points, with leaves between.

Their place is next to a marquis, and before a vifcount ;
and asin very ancient times, thofe who were created counts,
or earls, were of the blood royal; our Britifh monarchs to
this day call them in all public wnitings “ trufty and well
beloved coufin;” an appellation as ancient as the reign of
Henry IV., who, being either by his wife, his mother, or his
fifters, actually related or allied to every earl then in the king-
dom, artfully and conftantly acknowledged that connexion
in all his letters and other public aG&s;-from whence the

wfage has defcended to his fucceflors, though the reafon has

iz EAR

long age failed. They alfo originally did, and ftill may,
ufe the ftyle of nos. :

Earu-marfhal is one of the great efficers of the crown ;
who takes cognizance of all matters relating to honour and
arms, determines contracts that refpeéts deeds of arms out
of the realm upon land, and matters concerning war within
the realm, which cannot be determined by common law, in
which he ufwally proceeds according to the civil law. He
had, anciently, feveral courts; under his jurifdi@ios, as the
court of chivalry, now almoft forgotten; and the court of
honour. See Court of Chivalry.

He has alfo fome pre-eminence in the court of marfhalfea,
where he may fit in judgment again{t criminals offending
within the verge of the court; whence-the chief officer
under him is called duight marfeal. Under him is alfo the
herald’s office, or college of arms. See Correce and
Court.

Mr. Camden, in his difcourfe concerning the etymology,
antiquity, and office of earl-marfhal of England, attributes
the firft ufe of the word “ marefcalius” in England to
Petrus Blefenfis, fecretary to king Henry II.; and he
fays, that the firft mention he could find of a marfhai on re-
cord is in the red book of the exchequer, written, as he
erroncoufly fuppofes, in the time cf that king, not havin
reference to the reign of Henry I., and that the fecon
mention of marfhal isin the firft year of king John, and
adds, thatthe marfhal had not any precedency in refpet of
his place, until king Henry VIII. in the 3rit year of his
reign, by aét of parliament, affizncd him piace next to the
lord conftable and before the lord admiral; and that kin
Richard If. created the earl of Noitingham (Thomas
Mowbray) “ ear! marfhal of England,”? whereas 1m for!
times they were flyled only ‘“‘ marfhals of England.””? Cam-
deu, however, in a fubfequent difcourfe, concerning the
original and fucceffion of the earl marfhal of Engiand, and
alfo in his Britannia, receded in part from his former opi-
nion, and allowed the inftitution of a marfhal in England to
have been coeval with the reign of William the Conqueror ;
and this is the generally received opinion. That the term
marthal was ufedias afurname in the time of the conqueror
is evideat from ** domefday,” where divers perfons under the
denomination of marfhal are found to ho’d lands: and, upon
the whole, there are fo many concurring teftimonies of the
office of marfhal being known in this kingdom almoft im-—
mediately after the Norman invafion, that there cannot re-
main the leait doubt of its having been brought hither by
William I. The earl marfhal appears to have been from the
firft eftablifhment of his office in this kingdom, an officer of
great authority and dignity both in war and peace. The office
of grand ferjeanty, and the inftirution of the high officer who
enjoys it, muit be alone the king’s, who creates him by letters.
patent under his great feal, and at the fametime, for his
better diftinGtion and greater ftate, delivers to him a rod,
which he is thenceforth conftantly to bear in his hand.
This rod was originally made of wood, and like the
tipftaff which is carried by the modern marfhalmen: but
when king Richard II., in the 20th year of his reign, re-
granted the office to Thomas, earl of Nottingham, and the
heirs of his body, that monarch, in order to enhance the
grandeur and honour of this new marshal, by the patent of his
creation, direGed that he and the heirs of his body “ earl
marfhals,”’ fhould, in the royal prefence, and at all other times,
bear and carry a rod of gold, tipped at each end with black
enamel, and haying the royal arms at the upper end, and
the arms of the fard earl on the lower; ever fince which
time the earls marfhal have borne the like official badge. It
is difficult to afcertain the refpeGtive periods in which —

olicer

i

‘and © earl marfhal of England.”

EA R

officer acquired the feveral ftyles of * marfhal of England”
a The earlielt patent by
which the appellation of “ earl’? was added to marthal ef
England, is that of the rath of January, in the gth year
of king Richard [T., granted t8 Thomas Mowbray, earl
of Nottingham, aud conttituting him earl marfhal of England,
to hold to him and his heirs male of his body; and yet the
ftyle of ‘comes marefcallus” was far more ancient, and
probably arofe from the perfons on whom the office of
marfhal was ufually conferred, being earls or comites, at or
before the time ‘of their inveititure; the word ** coms”
being ufed in thefe early azes a3 a ftyle of office and judi-
éature, and not asa title of dignity. This office. though
frequently hereditary, hath not been always fo; on the con-

_ trary, the limitations in the prantsthat have been made of

it vary fromi time totime, However the limitations in king
Edward [it’s re-grant of thé office to Roger Bigod, earl of
Norfolk, were more general, viz. to him and theheirs of
Bis body.”

Henry Howard, baron Howatd of Cafle-Rifing, and
éadl of Norwich, was, by letters patent, dated 19th October
1672, conftituted “ hereditary earl’marfhal of England,”
with limitation, in default of iffue male, to the heirs
male of his grandfather, Thomas earl of Arundel, &c. with
remainder to the late earl of Suffolk and his heirs male, re-
mainder to Charles Howard, earl of Nottingham, and his

“heirs male.” On the death of his elder brother, ‘Thomas,

duke of Norfolk, earl of Arundel, Sorry, &c. which hap-
pened in 1677, he fucceeded to the dukedom, and all other
his honours and eftates.

The office of earl-marfhal is hereditary in the family of
Howard, and enjoyed by the deke of Norfolk, the prin-
cipal branch thercof; though, till of late, on account of the
religion of the duke of Norfolk, which rendered him inca-
pable of adminittering it in perfon, it was dilcharged by de-
putation; but yet it is to be obferved, that it was not given
out of the name and family of Howard.

EARN, ia Geography, a river gf Scotland, which rifts
in’ Loch Earn, and joins the Tay a little below Perth.

EARNEST, cailed by the civil law Arrhe, and inter-
preted to be emptionis vendilionis contrafe argumentum, money
advanced, or any portion of goods delivered, to complete or
affure a verbal bargain, and bind the parties to the perform.
ance thereof. ;
’ By the civil law, he who recedes from his bargain, lofes

». his earneft; or, if the perfon who rece-ved the earneft give

back, he isto return the earneft double. But, with us,
the effe& of earneft {s more: the perfon who gave it is, in
ftrifiuefs, oblized thereby to abide by his bargain; and, ia
cafe he decline it, is not difcharged upon forfeiting his

' earneft ; but may be fued for the whole money ftipulated.

The property of the goods is abfolutely bound by it; and
the vendee may recover the goods by aétion, as well as the
vendor may the price of them. And by 29 Car. II. cap. 3.
nO contract for the fale of goods, to the value of so/. or
more, fhall be valid, unJefs the buyer receives part of the
goods fold by way of earncit on his part, or unlefs he gives
part of the price to the vendor by way of earneft, to bind
the batgain, or in part of payment; or unlefs fome note

in writing’ be made and figned by the party, or his agent,

who is to be charged with the contraét. With regard to
ds under the value of ro/. no contract or agreement for
the fale of them fhall be valid, unlefs the goods are to be

_ delivered within one year, or unlefs the contraé&t be made

in writing, and figned by the party, or his agent, who is
to be charged therewith. Anciently, among all the northern
Nations, fhaking of hands was held neceffary to bind the

AR

bargain; a cuftom which we ftill retain ia many verbal con-
traéts. A fale thus made wag called * Aand/ale,¥ ** vendi-
tio per muttiam manbum complexionem.’’ Iencein procefs
of time the fame word was ufed to fignify the price or carnelt,
which was given immediately after the fhaking of hands, or
inttead of it. Sce Contract and Sate.

EARNING, or Yearnina, a name ufcd in feveral parts
of the kingdom for rennet. See Runner.

EARSH. See Eppisu.

EARTH, in dfronomy, isa primary planet, belonging
to the folar fyftem. We fhall firft treat of. its various
motions, and afterwards of its figure and magnitude.

There are three princ'pal motions of the easth: a motion
of rotation on its own 2xis; a motion in an orbit round the
fun; anda motion of its exis round the poles of the ecliptic.
Thefe three motions are ail mathematically derived from one
fingie impuifion,.{uppofed to be given to the earth at its
origin, aid combined with the continued action of the
fur. ‘

The rotation of the earth om its axis, czl’ed tts diurnal
motion, is the mo& uniform we are acquainted with. It is
p:rformed in 23" 56! 4”.1 of mean folar time, or one fidcreal
day.

The eatth, or, more ftriGly fpeaking, the common centre
of gravity of the earth and moon, defcribe an orbit round
the fun, which orbit is of an clliptic form of {mall eccen-
tricity ; the {yn being placed in one of its foci. If we fup~
pofe the plane of this orbit extended to the fixed ftars, it
will trace in the heavens a circle called the ecliptic. The
plane of the earth’s equator, which remains very nearly
parallel to itfelf during the whole of this revolution, is in-
clined to the ecliptic in an angle of 23° 28’. The points in
the earth’s orbit, which are interfected by this plane, are
called the equinoétial points. See Ecuipric.

The motion of the earth in its orbit is very far from uvi-
form ; but it is fo far regular, that, with the exception of

-fome {mall inequalities caufed by the action of the moon and

planets, the radius vector, or line joining the centres of the
earth and fun, defcribes equal areas or fectors of the ellipfe
in equal times. See Evxripric Motion.

The third motion of the earth, we have to notice, is that
which produces the preceffion of the equinoxes. The mo-
tion of rotation having produced a protuberant form in the
equatorial regions of the earth, the continued ation of the
fun and moon on this furr: unding mafs or annulus produces
a rotatory motion in the axis of the earth round the axis of
the ecliptic ; the inclination of thefe axes remaining the fame,
This revolution is accomplifhed in 27,000 years. The
reader will find a farther inveltigation of this motion under
Preceffion of the Equinoxes.

Of the Phenomena canfed by the diurnal Motion of the Earth,

The diurnal motion of the earth from weft to eaft caufes
an apparent motion of the heavens from eaft to welt. A
very correct idea of this general motion of the {phere may be
formed by infpeG&ing a celcttial globe, previoufly rectified
for the latitude of the place; recollecting, however, that
the convexity of the one reprefenting the concavity of the
other, the conftellations are neceflanily reverfed, thofe ap-
pearing to the right on thé globe which are to the left in the
heavens. ; ;

_ If the axis of the earth be prolongedseach way till it inter-
cepts the heavens, it will there form the two points called
the poles, round which ftationary points the heavens will
appear to revolve. ith us the north pole is the elevated
pole ; and the flars near it will deferibe {mall cirles, increaf-
ing with their diftance from the pole, till they arrive at a

3K 2 certain

EARTH.

certain diftance, when a portion of the circle will be inter-
cepted by the horizon. As the polar diftance of the flars
ftill increafes, they wil! continue for a longer time above the
horizon; ftill, however, rifing and fetting north of the eaft
and weit points of the horizon, till they reach the equator.
At this diftance from the pole, they rife exa@ly in the eaft,
and fet exatly in the well; and at their greateft altitude, their
@iftance from the zenith is obferved to equal the elevation of
the pole above the horizon. As the ftars recede from the
equator towards the fouth, they deferibe flill {maller arcs,
continue for a lefs time above the horizon, and rife and fet
nearer the fouth point. When they approach this limit,
they continue vilible only for a few minutes, and no fooner
appear on the meridian than they are again carried down by
the general motion of the heavens below the boundary of
our view. The fun, moon, and planets, appear to partake
io great meafure of the diurnal motion of the heavens; they
efcribe nearly the fame courfe as a fxed ftar would do in
the fame fituation. The diurnal motion of the moon, from
its vicinity to the earth, differs a little from that of a ftar,
independently of its own proper motion in its monthly orbit.
This {mall difference is called its parallax. See Pararrax,

The change from day to night is caufed by the diurnal
motion of the earth on its axis; and the viciffitudes of the
feafons, by the combination of this motion with its annual
revolution round the fun.

Of the Phenomena which arife from the annual Motion of the
Earth in its Orbit.

The annual motion of the earth round the fun ts per-
formed in an orbit, the plane of which is inclined to the
equator at an angle of about 23° 28’. This orbit, being
extended to the heavens, traces there the great circle of the
fphere, called the ecliptic (which fee). The effect of the
earth’s motion in its orbit is to caufe the apparent annual
motion of the fun. When the earth is in any one point of
its orbit, the apparent place of the fua will be in the direc-
tion of the oppofite point ; and the apparent path of the fun
will be fimilar to that aGtually traced by the earth ; and thefe
two bodies will always be in oppofite pofitions to each
other. It was not till aftronomy had arrived at a {tate of
great perfection, that fufficient proofs could be collected to
afcertain with certainty which of thefe bodies was really in
motion. It appears by arguments which are incontro-
vertible, and which we fhall hereafter enumerate, that there
no longer remains any reafonable doubt upon this fubject.

The earth’s motion in its orbit is not uniform. ‘This is
inferred from the correfponding irregularity that takes place
ia the apparent motion of the fun. This irregularity, which
was firft difcovered by Hipparchus abeut 140 years before
the Chriitian era, perplexed aftronomers for many fucceeding
apes, The immediate effcG of this inequality in the fun’s
apparent motion is to caufe an unequal divifion of the fea-
fons. Various cycles and epicycles were invented to explain
thefe inequalities; but ther true caufe was not underftood,
till the great difcovery of Kepler explained it, by afligning
to the apparent folar orbit its true elliptic figure; and,
moreover, eftablifhing the curious law, obferved to prevail
likewife in the other planetary orbits, namely, that the re-
volving body alway: defcribes equal areas in equal times.
See Exxirtic Alorion. -

The difference of feafons, of climates, and the inequality
in the length of the days and nights, all arife from this cir-
eumttance, that the plane of the earth’s orbit is inclined to

that of the equator, which is the plane of its diurnal mo- —

sion.
Ifa ftraight line be fuppofed always to connec the centres

of the earth and fun, this ftraight line or radius veGor will
always trace the ecliptic in the heavens; and the point where
it intercepts the furface of the earth, (f{uppofing it a perfe&
{phere,) will be that over which the fun is vertical. Now it
is evident, that, in the upper or north part of the earth’s
orbit, this line will intercept fome point to the fouth of the
equator; and, on the contrary, when the earth is in the
lower or fouthern part of its orbit, this liae will intercept
fome point to the north of the equator: the circle bounding
light and darknefs being always perpendicular to this line,
the circles parallel to the equator wil be unequally divided
at different parts of the orbit, in the fame manner as we ob-
ferved them to be by the horizon, when we confidered the
phenomena of the diurnal revolution of the earth,

Fig. 68, Plate 1X. Affronomy, is intended to illuftrate
this. CSC is the earth’s orbit projected into a ftraight
line, the eye being fuppofed in the fame plane; the earth
being in the upper or moft northern part of “its orbit, the
line SC, joining the centres of the fun and earth, evidently
pafles through a point, p, whofe angular diftance from Jon
the equator, is equal to che inclination of the equator to the
ecliptic, or angle ECS, Onthe contrary, when the earth
is at its loweft part of the orbit, the point, £, falls to the north
of O, by the fame quantity.

‘Phe inequality in the diftribution of the feafors, (by
which at prefent the inhabitants of the northern hemifphere
of the globe enjoy a greater portion of the fun, by about
eight days in the year, than thofe of the fouthern hemi-
fphere,) arifes from a very different caufe, which we fhall
endeavour to explain.

The great circle in the heavens, called the ecliptic, is in
fact the perfpedtive reprefentation of the ellipfe in which the
earth performs its orbit: all the irregularities, therefore, of
the original will be transferred to the circle which reprefents
it; and the four portions intercepted by the equinoétial and
folfticial points, though reprefented each by an are of 90%,
will not be defcribed in equal times, becaufe they do not re-
prefent fuch portions of the ellipfe as are originally fo de-
{cribed. The point of the ecliptic, reprefenting that point
of the ellipfe in which the fun and earth are neareft to each
other, 1s called the perigee; and the fummer and winter
months never can be equal, but in the fingular inflance of the
coincidence of the perigee with one or other of the equi-
noétial points. The folar perigee does not remain fixed,
but has a progreflive motion in the ecliptic, which it pafles
over in about 20,000 years. Itisa remarkable circumfance,
that this curious coincidence of the perigee with the autum-
nal equinox took place about the time when chronologifts
fuppole the world to have been created, or about the year
4ooo A.C. At that time each hemifphere enjoyed an
equal portion of the fun’s light and heat; fince that time,
the northern hemifphere has had gradually the advantages
and the maximum of inequality took place in the year 1250:
fince that time the advantage has gradually diminifhed,
though it is ftill very confiderable. It wiil diminifh-uill the
year 6472, when the perigee, coinciding with the vernal
equinox, will again equally divide the fummer and winter
periods between the two hemifpheres: after which, the
fouthern inhabitants of the globe will enjoy the advantage
of having the greateft fhare of the fun for above 10,000
years. ;

The Egyptian aftronomers are faid by fome writers to
have been the firft that maintained the motion of the earth:
it was from them, at leaft, that the Greeks received the
idea. Among thefe latter people, Philolaus of Crotona, a

difciple of Pythagoras, was celebrated as being the firit

philofopher who eitablifhed the theory of the motion of the
earth

EARTH.

earth in a manner more diftin® than had been done-by any
other Pythagorean. He lived 450 years before Chrift. (Pla-
tarch, de Placit. Philof.) Ariftarchus the Samian, about
100 years after Philolaus, propofed the motion of the earth
in clearer and ftronger terms, as we are aflured by Archi-
medes, ia his Arenarium.

Philolaus was alfo followed by Nicetas of Syracufe, who
maintained likewife the diurnal motion of the earth, and has
been by fome regarded as the firft author of this part of the
Copernican fyftem. Cicero, in his Tufcul. Queit., thus
{peaks of him: ‘ Nicetas, according to Theophraftus, be-
lieved that neither the fun, the moon, nor the ftars revolved
about the earth; but that the earth, by a rapid motion
round its axis, produced the fame apparent effect as if it was
immoveable, and the motion exilting in the heavens,”

Thus the diurnal motion of the earth feems to have been
admitted into the philofophy of the Greeks about 500 years
before the Chriftian era, which was probably fome centuries
after the fame hypothefis had been adopted by the ealtern
nations. ;

The annual motion of the earth is faid to have been under-
ftood and taught by Pythagoras, who obtained his know-
ledge from the aftronomers of India and Egypt. This
fuppolition, which places the fun in the centre of the folar
fyitem, has been occafionally fuggelted by ancient philo-
fophers, but never univerfaliy received till after the revival of
fcience in modern times.

Notwithftanding Apollonius, a celebrated geometrician
of Alexandria in Egypt, mantained this hypothefis, yet we
find it afterwards abandoned even by the moft eminent
aftronomers; 2 circumftance that fhould the lefs furprife us,

when we refle&t how incapable they were of acquiring any
, jut knowledge of the diftances and magnitudes of the hea-
venly bodies. Befides, the religious opinions of the heathens
prevented the general reception of this doftrine of the
earth’s motion. For Ariftarchus, being accufed by Cleanthes
of facrilege, for moving Vetta and the tutelary deities of the
univerfe out of their places, the philofophers began to lay
afide fo perilous a pofition. Many ages afterward Vic.
Cafanus revived the ancient fyftem in his DoGr. de Pig-
norant.; but the doétrine gained little ground till the time of
Copernicus.

It was in the beginning of the fixteenth century that this
eminent aftronomer revived this do€trine, and gave per-
manence to a fyftem, which before his time had only been
tranficory and flu€tuating. The opinions of Copernicus,
however, (fee Copernicus and Copernican Sy/lem,) were
fot received without great oppofition; but the arguments
by which they were oppofed have gradually yiclded to the
force of reafon and experience; and, at prefent, we hardly
confider the plaineft propofition of Euclid more fatisfaQtorily
demonftrated than the diurnal and annual motion of the
earth. Yet it is not uninterefting to retrace thefe erroneous

opinions. There is reafon to think, that many of the op-
ponents of the motions of the earth would have changed
their fentiments, had they been acquainted with the dif-
coveries that have been made in the laft century. Tycho,
who was the great oppofer of this dotrine, feems to have

been influenced by religious motives alone, which at that

time deterred many devout individuals from embracing a
fyftem, which they thought fo diametrically oppofed to the
very words of {cripture. LaGantius, the preceptor to the
fon of Conftantine, difcuffes the queftion at great length, in
order to prove that there are no antipodes; and laments the
folly and impiety of thofe who affert the {phericity of the
earth, and maintains that the contrary opinion is ¢ftablifhed
both by philofophers and the facred writers.

Kepler, the contemporary of Copernicus, obferves at an
early period after the revival of this fyftem, ** Hodierno
tempore przftantiffimi quique philofophorum et a'trono-
morum Copernico aditipulantur: feéta eft hee glacies:
vincimus fuffragtis melioribus: ceeteris pene fola obitat fu-
perftitio, aut metus a Cleanthibus.”

Tycho and alfo Riccioli bring forward a great many texts
of {cripture, to prove the ftability of the carth; and the
miracle of Jofhua, which cauled the fun to ftand ftill, has
been thought by many to be decifive. But the molt ap-
proved divines of the prefent day admit a figurative con#ruc-
tion, or popular and accommodating ufe, of thefe paflages
of feripture, which, otherwife, it would be extremely diffie
cult to reconcile to the difcoveries of the prefent day.
Atronomers themfelves always {peak the languaze of fo-
ciety, fo far 2s to fay, the fun rifes, the fun fets, the fun
moves in the ecliptic, &c.; nor fhould we expe& that
prophets and infpired writers, if they were again to come
among us, would ufe any other language.

Accordingly we may obferve in this place, that the Jefuit
Riccicli, though he, at the pope’s command, oppofcd the
motion of the earth with all his might, as fomething con-
trary to holy fcripture; yet, to frame aftronomical tables,
which fhould tolerably agree with obfervation, he was
forced to have recourfe to the motion of the earth as his
only refuge.

This, De Chales, another of the fame fraternity, frankly
confeffes: * P. Ricciolus—* nullas tabulas aptare potuit,
quz vel mediocriter obfervationibus refponderent ; nifi fe-
cundum, fyftema terre mote ;’ notwithftanding that he
called in all the forcign and forced affiftances of moveable
epicycles, fo that in his Aftronomia Reformata, where he
undertakes to give accurate tables of the celeftial motions,
he gives into the hypothefis of the motion of the earth.’?
De Chales Aftron, Reformat. lib. x. cap. i. See Copzr-
NICAN.

As for thofe who oppofe the motion of the earth, as be-
ing contrary to f{cripture, and who allege thofe paflages
which mention the fun’s rifing and fetting, his ftanding itil]
in the time of Jofhua, and his going back in that of Heze-
kiah, we need only refer them to allowed laws of interpreta-
tion, applicable 'to the facred writings as well as to others,
and to the cuftomary ufe of vulgar Janguage in the defcrip-
tion of fenfible phenomena. By the fun’s rifing, therefore,
is meant no more than his re-appearance in the horizon, after
he had been hid below it; and, by his fetcing, an occultas
tion of the fun, which was before vifible in the horizon. .
When the preacher therefore fays, Ecclef.i. 5. “* The fun
alfo rifeth, and the fun goeth down, and halteth to his place
where he arofe,’? he means, doubtiefs, no more then that
the fun, which before was hid, is now feen in the horizon;
and after being there con{picuous, is hid again, and at leagth
re-appears in the eaft. For thus much only appears to a
perfon who views the fun; and therefore thus much, and no
more, is exprefled by the facred writers.

In like manner, when in Jofh. x. 12, 13. the fun and
moon are faid to have ftood ftill; all meant by ftation is,
that they did not change their place with refpe& to the
earth. For that general, by ‘¢ Sun, ftand thou {till upon
Gibeon, and thou moon in the valley of Ajalou,”’ required
no more, than that the fun which then appeared over that
city, fhould not change its fituation. And from his bidding
the fun to keep its fituation, it would be unjuit to infer,
that it moves round the earth at reft. Of the meaning of
this paflage the interpreters of {cripture have given diflerent
accounts. Some, without fufficient authority, have thought
it to be an interpolation from the book of Jafher, long ak

= %

EARTH,

1o8.s Others have confidered it as a rea! miracutous event,

withost prefuminz to 2ccownt for the manner in which it
was performed; and Dr. Watfon, bifhop of Liandaff, in
his * Apology for the Bible,”? thinks the relation in fome
meafure confirmed by a paflage, which he cites from Heros
dotus. Others agaia, both in ancient and modern times,
have {uppofed thac the paflage is capable of a rational ex-
phleation, without recurring to a miracle. The book of
Jether, here referred to, they have confidered as‘a colleGtion
of poctic fongs, in ceicbration of the extraordinary atchieve-
meiits of the armies of Lfracl: and that the paflage is a fub-
lime exaggeration of an enthufialtic poet, indulging thofe
fervours of rapturous invention conceded to his art. (See
Wakefield’s Reply to the Age of Reafon.) Similar expref-
fions of a bold figurative kind occur in Homer. "The learned
Bryant, in bis “ Obdfervations on fome Paflages of Scrip-
ture, &c.” fuggefts that the invocation of the Ifraelitifh
enicf did not relate to the laminaries in the heavens, but to
two idolatrous aud probably oracular temples of the fun and
moon, for which the two places mentioned were celebrated.
Accordingly he renders the paflage in the following manner ;
s* May the fun, whofe oracuiar temple is on mount Gibeon,
be dumb; and the moon, whofe fhrine is in the valley of
Ajalon, be equally filent.2? May their oracles ceafe for
ever: their worfhippers have been miraculoufly defeated ;
and thofe who joined the ftandard of Ifrael have been as
wonderfuly preferved. This interpretation of the two
Hebrew terms, he fays, is countenanced by the verfion of
Aquila and Symmachus, and by Arias Montanus, who ex-
hibits. the whole paflaze in the following manner: * Et
dixit in oculis Tirael, fol in Gibeon file, et luna in valle
Ajalon”? <

After all, thefe and fimilar expreffions, are true and pro-
per dcferiptions of the phenomene, as they appear to us;
but as the feriptures were never intended to inttru® us in
pnilofophy and atronomy, they do not at all determine by
what motions thefe phenemena are occafioned. And it has
been ja'tly obferved, that part of the account recorded in
the book of Jofhua is merely a defcription of the appear-
ance; Gibeon and Ajalon, and the whole land of Canaan
lying ia too northern a latitude for the fun or moon ever to
be vertical to any part of it; and yet ‘this was a jult de-
{eription of the phenomena as it appeared to Jofhua in the
place where he then was; and if one part of the account
merily defcribe the phenomena, the other ma& likewife be
underttood in the fame mauner..

Gaffeudus, very pertinently to the fame purpofe, diftin-
guilhes, ‘‘two facred volumes, the ene written, called the
ible; the other, Nature, or the IVorld: God having mani-
fefted himfelf by two lights, the one of revelation, and the
other of demonttration; accordingly the interpreters of the
former are divincs; of the latter mathematicians. As to
matters of natural knowledge, the mathematicians are to be
confulted; and as to the objcets of faith, the propheta;
the former being no lefs interpretérs, or apottles, from God
to men, than the latter. And 2s the mathematician would
be judged to wander out of his province, if he fhould pre-
tend to controvert, or fet afide any article of faith from
principles of geometry; fo it mult be granted, the divines
are no lefs out of their limits, when they venture to pro-
nounce on a point of natural knowledge, beyond the reach
of any not verfed in geometry and optics, merely from holy
feripture, which does not pretend to teach any thing of the
matter. } .

“For inftances, we may quote LaGantius and Auguttine ;
the Grit of whom readered himfelf ridiculous by difputiog

from feripture againft the roundnefs of the earth; and the
latter, againft the antipodes.” See Antiropes.

But to return from this digreffion ; it ee fo long fince
the motion of the earth has ceafed to be a difputed queftion,
that the arguments on each fide are nearly forgotten, and
thofe who do not feruple to adopt the hypothefis of the”
earth’s motion, are often lefs acquainted with the arguments
on which it is fupported, than they would have been in
former times, when their opinions would have often been
difputed. Of all authors who have written on this fubje&,
La Place feems to have collected thefe arguments together
in the moft popular and perfpicuous form. We fnall pre-
fent the fubftance of them to the reader in as concife a man-
ner as poffible, introducing at the fame time fome additional
obfervations, for the further elucidation of this iatereiting”
fubject.

When we refle& on the diurnal motion to which all the

heavenly bodies are fubje&%, we cannot but recognize the

exiftence of one general caufe which moves them, or which
feems to move them, round the axis of the earth. If we
confider thac thefe bodies are infulated, with refpe& to each
other, and placed at very different diftances from the earth ;

that the fun and the ftars areata much greater d:flance from ~

it than the moon ; and that the variations in the apparent

diameters of the planets indicate great alterations in their

diftances; and, moreover, that the comets traverfe the

heavens freely, in all directions, it will be difficult to conceive

that it is the fame caufe which impreffes on all thefe bodiesa —
common motion of rotation. But fince the heavenly bodies

prefent the fame appearances to us, whether the firmament

carries them round the earth, confidered as immoveable, or

whether the earth itfelf revolves in a contrary direGion, it

feems much more natural to admit this latter motion, and”
to regard that of the heavens as only apparent.

The earth is a globe, whofe radius is only about four
thoufand Engiith miles; the fun, as we have feeb, is incom-
parably larger ; if its centre coincided with that of the earth
its volume would embrace the orbit of the moon, and extend
ds far again, from which we may judge of its immeafe magni-
tude; befides, its dillance from us 1s 23,000 times the femi-
diameter of theearth. Is it not infiaitely more fimple to ate
tribute to the globe we inhabit a motion cf rotation on its
own axis, than to fuppofe in a mats fo confiderable, and fo
remote as the fun, fuch an extreme rapid motion as would
be requifite to revolve in one day round the earth? What
immenfe power would it not require to contain it, and coun-
ter-balance its centrifugal force? Every one of the ftars
prefents fimilar difficultics, which are all removed by the
rotation of the earth. ?

We have feen, that the pole of the equator feems to move
flowly round that of the ecliptic, from whence refults the
preceflion of the equinoxes. If the earth is immoveable,
the pole of the equator 18 equally fo, fince it always corre-
{ponds to the fame point of the terreftrial furface; the
ecliptic, therefore, moves round thefe poles; and in this
motion carries all the heavenly bodies with it. Thus, the
whole fyltem, compofed of fo many bodies, differing from
each other fo much in their magnitudes, motions, and ;
tances, would be again fubje& to a general motion, which —
difappears, and is reduced to a fimple appearance, if we fup-
pofe the terreftrial axis to move round the poles of the
ecliptic. -

Carried on with a velocity which is common to every
thing that furrounds us, we are in the cafe of a fpectator
placed in a fhip that is in motion. He fancies himfelf at_
reft, and the fhore, the hills, and all the obje&s placed out a

7 ~ ee

erie ated Cee

—"

| EARTH.

the veflel appear to him to move. But on comparing the
extentiof the fhore, the plains, and the height of the moun-
tains, with the {malinefs of his veffel, he recognizes, that
the apparent motion of thefe objets arifes, from the real
motion of himfelf. The numberlefs ftars which fill the
celeftial regions are, relatively to the earth, what the fhores
and the hills are to the veffel; and the fame reafons which
convince the navigator of the reality of his own motion,
prove to us the motion of the earth.

We may here obferve, that in all the works of nature
with which we are acquainted, the Creator appears to a&t
by the fhorteft, eafielt, and fimplef means. Now, if the

earth be at relt, and the ftars move, the velocity of thefe
latter muft be immenfe; and yet all the purpofes thereof
might have been anfwered by a moderate motion of the
earth alone.

For the moon’s diftance from the earth amounts to
240000 miles. Hence, the circumference of the moon’s
dwrnal circle being 1507968 {uch miles, the moon’s ho-
rary motion muft be 62832 miles, inftead of 22g0 miles,

hich is really the cafe; confequently, in each fecond, a
face lefs than that of the pulfe of an artery, the moon,
though the floweft of all the heavenly bodies, mut move
more than 17 miles. Again, the fun’s mean diftance from
the earth is 23750 femidiameters of the earth, or 95000000
miles; confequently, the fun’s diurnal path, when in the
equator, muft be 596904000 miles ; and, therefore, in the
{pace of one fecond, i. e, in the twinkliag of an eye, he mu
move more than 6908 miles.

Again, the diflance -of the fun from the earth, is to
that of Mars, fuppofing the earth, and not the fu,
to be the centre of the fyitem, nearly as one to one and
a half; to that of Jupiter, as one to five and a quarter;
and to that of Saturn, as one to nine: wherefore, as the
diurnal fpace, and all other things defcribed in the fame
time, arein the fame ratio, Mars, in one twinkling of aneye,
muft fly 10362, Jupiter 36266, and Saturn 62172 miles.
Laftly, the fixed ftars being yet vaftly more remote from
the earth than Saturn, their motion in or near the equator
mutt be vaitly fwifter than that of Saturn.

Befides, if the earth be at reft, and the ftars move by any
common motion, the feveral planets muft each day de-
feribe feveral fpirals running forth to a certain term towards
the north, and thence returniug to the oppofite term to-
wards the fouth, fometimes narrower, and fometimes
broader.

For the diftances of the feveral planets from the zenith
alter every day; increafing to a certain point towards the
_ north, and thence decreafing again towards the fouth ; con-

fequently, the altitude of the pole being always found the

fame, and the planets not returning to the fame point of the
meridian, they do not defcribe circles, but fpirals. Add,
that as the feveral planets do not retain the fame diltance

from the earth, but are fometimes nearer, and fometimes
recede farther from it, at a greater diltance, a greater fpiral,
~~ and at a lefs, a lefs is defcribed. ;

Farther, as their motion is flower when the planet is far-

BY ther from the earth, the greater {pirals are defcribed in leffer

times than the leffer ; and, as the greateft and leaft diftance
of the planets from the earth is not affixed to the fame

” point of the heavens, the planets have moved in different

traéts every day from the beginning.

_ Befides, the force by which the ftars and planets revolve
in their orbits are not direfted to the centre of the-earth,
but to the centres of the feveral orbits which they defcribe,

er to innumerable imaginary points in the axis of the earth ;

- and thefe forces, tending to ere ir and continually varying

~ round its axis in lefs than twelve hours.

centres, muft likewife inereafe exaGly in proporticn to the
diftances from the axis ; whereas the force of attra&tion is
found to decreafe. ‘

Thefe arguments are, likewile, ftrengthened by analogy.
A rotatery motion has been obferved in feveral planets, and
always from weft to eaft, fimilar to that which the diurnal
motion of the heavens feems to indicate in the earth. Ju-
piter, greatly exceeding the earth in magnitude, moves
An obferver on
its furface would fee the heavens revolve round him in that
time ; yet, that motion would enly be apparent. Is it not,
therefore, reafonable to think, that it is the fame with that
which we obferve on the earth 2? What confirms, in a very
ftriking manner, this analogy, is, that both the earth and
Jupiter are flattened at the poles. We comprehend, in faét,
that the centrifugal force which tends to remove every par-
ticle of a body from its axis of rotation, fhould flatten the
earth at its poles, and elevate it at the equator. This force
fhould likewife diminifh that of gravity ac the equator; and
that this diminution docs take place, is proved by experi-
ments which have been made on the lengths of pendulums.
Every thing, then, leads usto conclude, that the earth has
really a motion of rotation, and the diurnal motion of the
heayens is merely an illufion which is produced by it, an
illufion fimilar to that which reprefents the heavens as a blue
vault, to which all the ftars are fixed, and the earth a3 a
plane on which it retts.

Thus, aftronomy has furmounted the illufions of the fenfes
and it is not til they have been diffivated by a great number
of obfervations and calculations, that man has at laft recog
mized the motion of the globe which he inhabits, and its
true pofition in the univerfe.

Moreover, bodies let fall from any confiderable height,
are found, by experiment, not to fall upon the {pot perpen-
dicularly under them, but to the fouth-eaft thereof.

The experiment was propofed to Dr. Hook in the year
1679, by a perfon who fuggelted, that, if the earth had any
diurnal motion, the body would fall to the eaft of the per-
pendicular, Dr. Hook, on that occafion, read a difcourfe
before the Royal Society, wherein he endeavoured, a priori,
to affign what curve a falling body would defcribe ; aflerting,
particularly, that the fall of the body would not be dire&tly
eaft, but fouth-eaf’; which was confirmed by divers aftual
trials. The objection, which fuppofes, that ¢. ¢. a ball fired
perpendicularly upward in the air fhould fall wettward of the
place from which it was projected, on the fuppofition of the
earth’s revolution eaftward, can have no weight, when it is
confidered that the gun and ball partake of the earth’s mo-
tion; and, therefore, being carried forward with the air as
quick as the earth and air turn, it mu(t fell down on the
fame place, defcribing, in its defcent, the diagonal of a pa-
rallelogram, whofe two fides are proportional to the forces
acquired from the earth’s motion and the gravity of the
bali. Thus, a ftone let fall from the top of a main-matt, if
it meets with no obltacle, falls on the deck as near the foot
of the maft when the hip fails, as when it does not.

Shall we now fuppofe the fun, accompanied by the planets
and fatellites in motion round the earth, or fhail we imagine
the earth and other planets to revolve round the fun? The
appearances of the heavenly motions are the fame in the two
hypotheles ; but the fecond fhould be preferred, for the
following confideratiors :

The fun will equally appear in motion, and the earth a3
ftanding-ttill, to a {pectator on the earth, whether the fun
really move round the earth at reft, or the earth move round
the fun at reft.

For, fuppofe the earth in T ( Plate LX. dffronomy, fe. 69)»

an

EARTH, >

and the fun ing; the fun will then appearin 9p. And, fup-
pole the fun to proceed in an orbit furrounding the earth
from I to 2, he will then appear in & ; and, if he proceed
farther to 3, he will feem to bein 1 : and thus will he appear
to go on, according to the order of the figns in the ecliptic.
Suppofe, again, the earthin 1, and the funia T, the fun will
now be feen in = ; let the earth go on from 1 to 2, the fun
will appear to the inhabitants of the earth to have proceeded
from < to 1; and if the earth proceed to 3, the fun will
appear to have advanced farther from 11] to f ; and fo on,
according to the fucceffion of the figns of the ecliptic.

Thus, does the fun appear alike to move, whether he
really move or ftand ftill; fo that the objeétién from fenfe
is of no force. But again,

If one of the planets be fuppofed to have moved a certain
{pace from weft to eaft, the fun, earth, and other planets,
together with the fixed ftars, will all feem to an inhabitant
of that planet to have moved juft fo far round in the con-
trary way. :

For, fuppofe a ftar M (fg. 70.) in the zenith of an in-
habitant of a planet placed in Tf; and fuppofe the planet
to have revolved on its axis from weft to calt; in acertain
{pace of time, the fun S will have arrived at the zenith of T,
then the ftar I, then N, then the earth L, and, at length,
the ffar M again. To the inhabitants of the planet, there-
fore, the fun S, with the earth L, and the ftars I, N, M,
&c. will appear to have moved round the planet a contrary
way.

Thus, to the inhabitants of the planets (if any fuch there
be) the mundane fphere, with the fun, tars, and ail the
other planets, will, as to us, appear to move round them
from eaft to weft ; and accordingly, the inhabitants of our
planet, the earth, are only liable to the fame delufive ap-
pearance with thofe of the reft. Moreover, the orbits of
the planets include the fun as the common centre of them
all; but it is only the orbits of the fuperior planets that in-
clude the earth ; which, however, is not in the centre of
any of them, as will be fhewn under Sun and Praner.
Again, the earth’s orbit being proved to be between thofe
of Venus and Mars, it follows, that the ea¥th mui turn
round the fun; for, as itlies within the orbits of the fupe-
rior planets, their motion would appear unequal and irre-
gular; but they would never either be ftationary, or retro-
grade, without this fuppofition. Befides, from the orbits
and periods of the feveral planets about the fun, and of the
moon and fatellites round the earth, Jupiter and Saturn, it
is evident, ‘that the law of gravitation is the fame towards
the earth, Jupiter, and Saturn, as towards the fun ; and the
periodical times “of the feveral bodies moving round each,
are in the fame ratio to their feveral diftances from them.

Now, it is certain, that, on the hypothefis of the earth’s
annual motion, .her periodical time exaétly futts this law,
bearing fuch a proportion between thofe ot Mars and Venus
as the feveral other bodies dire&ted by the fame law do bear 5
i.e. the {quares of the periods are, in all, as the cubes of the
diftances from the centre of their orbits. But, fuppofing
the earth too at reft, this law is broken moft exorbitantly.

For, if the carth does not move round the fun, the fun
muft move with the moon round the earth: now, the di-
flance of the fun to that of the moon being as 23750 femi-
diameters of the earth to 60, or nearly as 396 to 13 and
the moon’s period being Jefs than 28 days, the fun’s period
fhould be found no lefg than 212775 days, or 583 years;
whereas, in fact, it is but one year. Which fingle confider-
ation Mr. Whifton thinks of weight enough to determine
the controverly between the two fyftems, and to eftablifh
the motion of the earth for ever.

*

Whereas, fuppofing our earth to have once ser

about the fun in a circular Pbiigaphole femidiameter were
equal to the earth’s original diftance from the fun fix degrees —
paft its perihelion, the annual period would be found exa@ly
and furprifingly equal to the lunar, or the ancient folar years
which were exaGly commenfurate, containing 12 fynodical,
or 13 periodical months, & e. 305 days, 4 hours, 19
minutes.

The maffes of the fun, and of feveral of-the planets, are
confiderably greater than that of the carth ; it is much more
fimple to make the latter revolve round the fun, than to put
the whole folar fyftem in motion roundthe earth. What
a complication in the heavenly motions would the immos

bility of the earth fuppofe? What a rapidity of motion

mutt be given to Jupiter; to Saturn, which is ten times
farther from the fun than we are, and to Urenus, which is
{till more remote, to make them every year revolve round us,
at the fame time they are revolving round the fun.

This complication and this rapidity of motion difappear,
by transferring the motion tothe earth; a motion corfor-
mable to the general law, by which the {mail cel {tial bodies
revolve round the large ones which are placed in ¢ cir
vicinity .

The following isaw aGual demonftration of the earth’s
motion, drawn from phyfical caufes, for which we are in-
debted to the difcoverics of fir Ifaac Newton, and which
Dr. Keil takes for conclufive and unan{werable.

All planets, it is demonftrated, gravitate towards the fun ; .
and obfervationsteftify to us, either that the earth turns
round the fun, or the fus round the earth, in fuch a manner
as to defcribe equal areasin equal times. But it is demon-
ftrated farther, that whenever bodies turn round each other,
and regulate their motions by {ucha law, the one muft of
neceffity gravitate to the other: confequently, if the fun in
its motion doth gravitate to the earth, aGlion and re-aétion
being equal and contrary, the earth muit likewile gravitate
towards the fun.

Again, the fame author has demonftrated, that when
two bodies gravitate to one another, without direétly ap-
proaching one another in right lines, they mutt both of
them turn round their common centre of gravity ; the fun
and earth, therefore, do both turn round their common
centre of gravity; but the fun is fo great a body in refpeét
of ourearth, whtch is as it were buta point; that the com-
mon centre of gravity of thetwo bodies will lie within the
body of the fun itfelf, and not far from the centre of the
fun. The earth, therefore, turns round a point, which
i in the body of the fun, and therefore it turns round the .
un.

Befides, if the fun moves about the earth, the earth’s
attractive power muft draw the fun towards it from the line
of projection, fo as to bend its motion inte a curve; but
the fun being at leaft 227000 times as heavy as the earth,
it muft move 227000 times as flowly towards the earth as
the earth does toward the fun; and confequently the earth
would fall to the fun in a fhort time, if it had not a very
ftrong projectile motion to carry it off. There is, indeed, no
fuch thing in nature as a heavy body moving round a light
one as its centre of motion. A pebble, as Mr. Fergufon fa«
miliarly illuftrates this matter, faltened to a mill-ftone by a
ftring, may, by an eafy impulfe, be made tocirculate round
the mill-ftone; but no impulfe can make a mill-ftone cireu-
jate round a loofe pebble, for the mill-itone would go off
and carry the pebble along with it. ‘ +,

The analogy of the earth, with the planets, confirms this
hypothelis: like Jupiter, it revolves on its axis, and is ac~
companied by a fatellite. An obferver, on the furface of

7 Japiter, .

EARTH.

Jupiter, would conclude, that the folar fyitem wasin motion
round him, and the magnitude of that planet would render
this illufion lefs improbable than for the carth. Is it not,
therefore, reafonable to imagine, that the motion of the folar
fyftem round us is likewife only an illufion ?

Let us tranfport ourfelves in imagination to the furface
of the fun, and from thence let us confider the earth and
the planets. All thefe bodies will appear to move from welt
toea{t, already this identity in the dire€tion indicates a
motion of the earth, but that which demonftrates it evi-
dently is the law which exifts between the timesof the re-
volutions of the planets, and their diftances from the fun.
They revolve round it flower, as their diftances are greater,
and in fuch a manner, that the fquares of the periodic times
are in proportion to the cubes of their mean diftances.
According to this remarkable law, the length of a revolution
of the earth, fuppofingit in motion round the fun, fhould
be exaétly a fidereal year. Isnot this an incontettible proof,
that the earth moves like the other planets, and is fubject
to the fame laws? For would it not be very ftrange to fup-
pofe the terreftrial globe, which hardly fubtends a vifible
angle at the fun, immoveable amidft the other planets which
are revolving round it, and that the fun fhould be carried
with them about the earth ?

_ The force, which fervesto retain the planets in their re-
fpective orbits round the fun, balances the centrifugal force.
Ought it not likewife to a& upon the earth ? And muft not
the earth oppofe to this a¢tion the fame centrifugal
force ? Thus the confideration of the celeftial motions, a3 ob-
ferved from the fun, leave no doubt of the real motion of
the earth.

The principal argument againft the annual motion of the
earth, has been the want of an annual parallax in the fixed
flars. For let TA+# (Plate X. Affronomy, jig. 71.) repre-
fent the earth’s orbit about the fun S, TX the axis of the
earth, and ¢ x parallel to T X, will reprefent the pofition
of the fame axis at the oppofite point¢. Suppofe T X to
be direAed towards the ftar P; and it is manifeft, that the
axis of the earth will not be direéted to the fame ftar, when
it comes to the fituation ¢x, but will contain an angle #¢P
with the line# P, joining the earth and ftar, equal to the
angle¢ PT, under which the diameter, T'#, of the earth’s
orbit, appears to a {peétator, viewed: from the ftar P. It
might be expected, therefore, that by obferving the fixed
ftar P, from the different parts of the earth’s orbit, we
might judge of the angle T’ P #, and confequently of the pro-

“ portion of TP, the diftance of the ftar, to T's, the dia-
meter of the earth’s orbit, or double diftance of the fun.
_ Yet it is certain that aflronomers have not hitherto been able
to difcover any difference in the apparent fituation of the
fixed ftars with refpeé to the axis of the earth, or to one
another, that can arife from the motion of the earth: though,
fince the reftoration of the Pythagorean doétrine of the
earth’s motion, they have taken great pains to examine the
matter. ,
Thefeeming motion of the pole-ftar, obferved by Mr.
Flamfteed, was by fome miftaken for a proof of its annual
parallax; but this phenomenon has fince been accounted for
in the moft ingenious manner by Mr. Bradley, from the
motion of light combined with that of the earth in its orbit.
See Paravvax, and the fequel-of this article. ‘
’ The objection to the earth’s motion, from there being no
difcernible parallax of the fixed tars, is anfwered by ob-
ferving, that the diftance of the fixed ftars is fo great, that
the diameter of the earth’s orbit bears no fenfible propor-
tion to it; fo that the parallax is not to be difcovered by our
exacteft inftruments, Nor is this immenfe diltance of the
Vor. XII,

fixed ftars advanced by the Copernicans merely as an hype-
thefis for the fake of folving the objection. For there feems
great reafon to fuppofe the fixed ttars hke to our fun, and
hence to conclude their diftance to be valtly great, fince they
appear to us of fo faint a light, and of no fenfible diameter,
even in the largeft telefcopes.

But from the diligence and accuracy of Jate altronomers,
we learn feveral curious things in confirmation of the motion
of the earth about the fun, and ferving to folve this only
material obje€tion againft it. Accordingly, an obferver on the
furface of the earth has another evident proof of its motion
in the phenomenon of the Aberration, (fee AsERRaTion)
which is a neceflary confequence’of it, as we shall now ex-
plain. About the end of the 17th century, Roemer ob-
ferved, that the eclipfes of the fatellites of Jupiter happened
fooner about the oppofitions of this planet, and later toe
wards the conjunGtions. This led him to fufpe& that light
was not tran{mitted inftantaneoufly from thofe bodies to the
earth, but that it employed a fenfible interval of time to
traverfe the diameter of the orbit of the fun. In fa,
Jupiter being in his oppofitions nearer to us than in the cone
junGtions by aquantity equal to this diameter, the eclipfes
ought to happen fooner to us in the firft cafe, than in the latter,
by the time which the light takes to traverfe this orbit.
The law of retardation, obferved in thefe eclipfes, anfwers fo
exactly to this hypothefis, that it is impoffible to refufe
affent toit. Itappears that light employs 8’ 5” in coming
from the fun to the earth.

Now, an obferver at reft would fee the ftars according to
the direGtions of their rays, but this will not be the cafe, on
the fuppofition that he partakes of the motion of the earth.
To reduce this cafe to that of the obferver at reft, it is fuffi-
cient to affign, in a contrary direétion, both to the ftars, te
the light, and to the obferver himfelf, a motion equal to
that by which he is impelled, which would not change the
apparent pofition of the ftars: for it is a general law of
optics, thatif all the bodies of a fyftem are impelled by
a common motion, there will refult no change in their
re{pective fituations, Let us imagine then, that a mo-
tion, equal and contrary to that of the obferver, be
given to the rays of light, and. generally to all the other
bodies, and let us fee what phenomena fhould refult in
the apparent pofition of the ftars. We may leave out of
the queftion the diurnal motion of the earth, which is not,
even at the equator, sth part of that inits orbit round the
fun. We may here fuppofe, alfo, without fenfible error,
that all the rays which each point of the difc of a heavenly
body tranfmits to us, are parallel toeach other, and to that
ray which would come from the centre of the ftar to the
centre of the earth if it were tranfparent. ‘Thus the phe-
nomena which the ftars would prefent to an obferver, placed
at the centre of the earth, and which depend onthe motion
of light combined with that of the earth, are nearly the
fame for every obferver on its furface. Moreover, we may
neglect the fmall excentricity of the terreftrial orbit.

In the interval of 8’ 5”, which the light employs to
traverfe the terreftrial orbit, the earth defcribes a {mall
arc of this orbit, equal to 20,”2; now it follows, from
the law of the compofition of motion, that if through the
centre of a ftar, we imagine a {mall circle parallel to the
ecliptic, and whofe diameter fubtends in the heavens an
angle of 40.5, the direétion of the motion of light, com-
bined with the motion of the earth, and applied in a contrary
direGtion, will meet this circumference in a point where it
is interfected by a plane drawn through the centre of the
{tar tangentially to the terreftrial orbit. ‘The ftar, there-

fore, fhould move upon this circumference, and defcribe

3L it

EARTH. :

it every year in fuch a manner, that it fhould conftantly
‘be lefs advanced by 1co degrees, than the fun in ita ap-
parent orbit.

This phenomenon is exaftly that which we have ex-
plained, after the obfervations of Bradley, to whom we
are indebted both for the difcovery and its caufe. (See
Aserration.) Toreduce thele ftars to their true pofi-
tion, it is {ufficient to place them in the centre of the {mall
circle they appear to us to d-fertbe,

. Their annual motion, therefore, is only an illufion pro-
duced by the combination of the motiea of light with that
of the earth. The relation of this motion, with the pofition
of thefun, would lead toa fufpicion, that it was only ap-
parent, but the foregoing explanation proves it. beyonda
doubt. It affords a fenfible demonftration of the motion
ofthe earth round the fur, in the fame manner as the in-
creafe of degrees, and of the force of grayity.in going
from the equator to the poles, prevesats. revolution on its
axis.

The aberration of light :afie&s the pofitions.of the fun, the
planets and their fatellites, and comets, but,ina different
manner, according to their particular motions. » To, divelt
them of this, and to, have the true, pofition of. the ftars, let
us fuppofe, at every inftant, a motion imprefled on all thefe
hodies equal and contrary to that of the: earths, which thus
may be fuppofed at-reft :, this, as obferved above, neither
alters their pofitions, nes appearances... ‘Then it is evident,
that a heavenly body, the moment we obferve it, is no longer
in the direGion of the!luminops ray which firikes our fight ;
it has left it inconfequence of its reaLmotion combined with
that of the earth, which we fuppoied -impreffed ina con-
trary direGtion. The combination of thefe two motions, as.
{een from the earth, forms the apparent, or, as it is termed,
the geocentric motion, We fhall have then the true pofition
of the obje&, by adding, to the obferved. geocentric longi-
tude and iatituge its geocentric motion in, longitude and
latitude, for the interval of time which light employs to
come from the heavenly body, to the earth. Thus, the
centre of the fun feems conttantly, lefs advanced by 62.5,
in its orhit, than if its light was tran{mitted to us inftan-
taneoufly.

The aberration of light changes the relations of celeStial
phenomena, both as to {pace and as to duration. At the
moment we fee them, they no longer exit. We do notfee
the termination of Jupiter’s eclipfes, till twenty-five on thirty
minutes after they have recovered their light, andy the vari-
atjons of light of fome of the changeable, ftars, precede. by
many years the inftant of their obfervations. But the:canie
of, thefe iliufions being well underflood, we can always refer
the phenomenaof the foiar {yftem to their true place and
epoch, :

The, confideration of the ccleftial motions leads us then
to. difplace the earth from the centre of the world where wei
had placed it, deceived by eppearances, and: by che natural,
propenfity of) man to regard himfelé as. the principal abject
in.nature., -The,globe, which we inhabit, is 2: planctin mo-
tion on itfelf, and rouad;the fun.
paint, of, view, jallithe phenomena are explaingdiin the moit

fimple manner, ell.the celeftial motions become uniform, and: :

the analogies. are. preferved. » Like Jupiter, Saturn, and.

Uranus, the earth is accompanied: by adatellite, it turns, on,

itfelf like Venus; Mars. Jupiter, and.Saturn, and-probably:

the other, planets ; it. like them borrows.its. light from the;

fun, moves round it inthe: fame direCtion, and according
to the fame laws... Finally, the. bypothefis, ofi the earth’s
motion unites. in, its favour fimplicity, analogy, :andrevery:
thing. which charaGterizes.she.true dyitem of natare. We

In confidering it. inithis:

-fe&s the. terreftrial-forface, will fee the fun saben

Thus, whether the fun turnaround! the earth, or the earth

”

fhall fee that, following it in its confequences, the celeltiat
phenomena are brought even in their minuteft details to one’
fingle law, of which they are only the neceflary developements.’ ~
The motion of the earth will thus acquire all thecertainty
of which phyfical truths are fufceptible. And it may refult
either fromthe great number and variety of phenomena
which it explains, or from the fimplicity of the laws on”
which itis made to depend. Noneof the branches of na-
tural knowledge unite thefe advantages ina higherdegree!
than .the theory, of the -fyftem of) the world, founded! ;
onthe motion of the earth. This motion ennoblesourcons
ceptions of the univerfe, by affording, for a meafure of the”
diftances of the heavenly bodies, an immenfe bafe, the dia-
meter of theterreftrialorbit. By thisw2 have aceurately
determined the dimenfions of the planetary orbs. 2
Thus the motion of the earth, after having’ by illufions,.
of which itis itfelf the caufe, retarded our knowledge of
the planetary motions for a great length of time, at *laft
conduGed us to them, and that in’a’ more accurate manner’
than if we had been placed in the centre of their fyftem. | ©!
From the point of view in which the comparifon of the
celeftial obfervations has placed us, let us confider the heae
venly bodies, and fhew the perieG identity of their appears) 4
ances with thofe which we obferve. Whether the heavens’
reyolve round the axis of the world, or the earth moves
itfelf ina confrary direG@ion to the heavens, fuppofed at
reft, it isclear that the ftars will prefent themfelves to us in
the fame manner. There -will be no other difference, but
that in the firft cafe they will come and place themfelves fue- = -
ceflively over the different terreftrial meridians, which, ia
the fecond, will place themfelves under the ftars. The mo-"
tion of the earth being common to. all bodies fituated on ite
furface, and to the fluids which cover it, their relative mo=
tions are the fame asif the earth was at ret. Thus, ina
veflel whofe motion is uniform, every thing moves as if
the veffel were at reft. A projeGile, thrown dire&ly up="
wards, falls on the fame {pot from which it was projeGed; 1t®
feems to defcribe a vertical line to thofe in the veflel, but
feen from the fhore, it really defcribes a parabolic curve.”
Thus, the rotation of the earth cannot be fenfible on its
furface, except by the effe€ts of the centrifugal force, which”
flattens the terreftrial {pheroid at the poles, and dimiarfhes”
the force of gravity at the equator; two phenomena, with
which the meafure of the degrees at the meridian, and of
the-pendulum, have made us acquainted.
-In;the revolution of the earth round:the fun, its centre;*
and all the points of its axis of rotation, being moved with®
velocities equal-and parallel, this axis remains always parallel:
to itfelf; on imprefiing then, at every inftant, roail the parte
of thé earth, a motion equal and contrary to that of ite’
centre, It would: reft immoveable, like its axis of rotation.”
This.imprefled: motion does not’ change at all the appears
ances of that. of the funy, it only tran{ports, in a contrary”
direGtion:to:the fun, the'realymotion ‘of the earth: “Phe ap=*
pearances are confequently the fame in the hypothefis ef the™
earth at teft, and im that ef itsmotion:round'the fun. To fol-
low more particularly thefe appearances; let us imagine a ra-
dius drawn:from the centre/of the fun:to that of the earth) _
this radins will be-perpendicular to the plane which fepa=
rates the hemifphere, which is enlightened from that whieh *
isin ob{curity. . AcfpeGator, at the point where this inter=-

oe

above him, and every point of the terreftrial parallel through ~
which this radius fucceffively pafles; in confequence of? its’”
diurnal motion, will have, at) noon; the fun in its zenith. ”

round the fun, and on.its own axis, this axis pean >
parallel —

Ea Boe T

‘parallel pofition, it is evident that this radius will trace the
fame curve on the furface of the earth; it. will in each cafe
cut the fame parallels to the equator, when the fun has the
fame apparent longitude. This luminary will be equally
elevated above the horizon, and the days wil be of the
fame length. Thus the feafons and the days are the
fame in the hypothefis of the immobility of the fun, or of
its motion round the earth; and the explanation of the
feafons will be equally intelligible by either hypothefis.

The planets all move in the fame direQion round the fun,
but with different velocities: but the length of their revo-
lutions increafe in a greater ratio than their diftances from
the fun. Jupiter, for inflance, employs nearly twelve years
to perform its revolution ; but the radius of his orbit is only
five times lefs than that of the earth; its real velocity. is,
therefore, lefs than that of the earth. . This diminution of
velocity in the planets, as they recede from the fun, applies
generally to all the planets, from Mercury, which is the
neareft, to Uranus, which is the moft remote; and it refults
from the laws which we fhall hereafter demonttrate, that
the mean: velocities of the) planets are reciprocally as the
fquare roots of their mean diftances from the fun.

_ Letus confidera planet, whole orbit is furrounded by that
of the earth, and follow it from its fuperior to its inferior con-
junction; its apparent or geocentric motion is the refult of
its real motion, combined with that. of the earth, conhdered
28 moving in.a contrary direCtion. In the fuperior conjunc.
tion, the real motion of the planet is. contrary to that of the
earth ; its geocentric motion is then the fum of the two mo-
tions; and it has then the fame dire€tion as the geocentric
motion of the fun, which refults from the real motion of the
earth transferred ina contrary direétion to the fun, and thus
the apparent motion of the pianet is dire@.

In the inferior conjundtion, the motion of the planet has

the fame direGtion as that of the earth, and as it is greater,

_ - the geocentric motion preferyes the fame dire€tion; but it
‘is only the excefs of the real motion of the planet above that
of the earth: it has, therefore, a motion, contrary to that of
the fun, and confequently it is retrograde. Nite
It is eafy to conceive, that in the interval from the direc
to the retrograde motion, the planet fhould appear without
motion, or {tationary, and that this will happen between the
greatelt elongation and the inferior, conjunGtion, when the
geocentric motion of the planet, refulting from its real mo-

~ tion, and that of the earth applied ia a contrary direétion,
"Fe dire&ted in the fame line as the vernal ray to the planet.
Thefe phenomena are entirely conformable ta the motions
. that are obferved to take place in the planets Mercury and
— Venus, é-yjibilo} et: { o2 i
~The motion of the planets, whofe orbits cothptehend thofe
of the earth, has the fame direction in their oppolitions as
~ the motion‘of the earth, but it 1s lefs; and being combined
with this laft motion, applied in a contrary direction, it takes
“ a:motion contrary to its primitive direction, the Reocentric
_ motion of the planet is then retrograde: in. the conjumGions
“itis direé&t. the fame as in the fuperior conjun€tions of Mer-
~ eury and Venus. Oe w suds ee
a od transferring to the ftars (but in a contrary dire&tion ).the
motion of the earth, they fhould deferibe exery year a cir:
~ gumference equal and parallel.to the terrellrial orbit, and of
which the diameter fhould fubtend an angl= equal to that
i" hich this orbit fubtends at. the ciltance of the thar. Dhis
pparent motion has.a great refemblance to that which. ree
ts from the combination of that of the,carth with that ot
ty and by which the ftars feem annually to déferibe a cir,
ele parallel to the ecliptic, the angle of which fubtends an
“roof 125"; but it differs in this, that thefe Tare Wave the

fame polition as the fun on the firft circumference; whereas,
in the feeond, they are lefs, advanced than the fun, by 100”,
By this circumftance, the two motions may be diftinzuithed
from each other, and it appears that the firft is infenfible,
the immenfe diftance of the ftara from us rendering infen-
fible the angle which the terreftrial orb fubtends when viewed
fromthem. The axis of the world being nothing more
than the prolongation of the earth’s axis of rotation, we
fhould refer to this axis the motion of the poles of the ces
leftial equator, indicated by the phenomena of precofion
and nutation, which {ce. Thus, at the fame time, that the
earth moves on its own axis, and round the fun, its axis of
rotation moves very flowly round the poles of the ecliptic,
but fubjeé to fmall ofcillations, of which the period is the

fame as that of the motion of the nodes of the lunar orbit.
The figure of the earth is a, fubjety which has never
ceafed, to, intereft the cyriofity of the {peculative part of
mankind from the earlie(t dawn, of feicnce to, the prefentidays
To its firft inhabitants it muit have appeared a. wide ex-,
tended plain, on the extremities of which the valt dome of
the heavens. would appear ta reff. ‘Lhe ancients, however,
had various, opinions with, regard to the fgure.of the earth.
Some, as Anaximander, held it to be cylindrical ;, others, as
Leucippus, gave it the form of a drum. _ But the principal
opinion was, that it was flat ; and the vifible horizon was,
the boundary of the,earth, aud the ocean the boundary, of
the horizon ; that the heavens and earth above this ocean
were the whole vifible univerfe, and that all beneath the
ocean was Hades; and of this opinion were not only feyeral
of the ancient poets and philofophers, but alfo fome of the
Chriftian fathers, as LaCtantius, St. Auguiftine, &e. 4-1
The progrefs of. the ference of aftrgnomy, is.,the, con‘i-
nued triumph of the powers of intelleG over the firk erro.
neous conceptions of the fenfes; ard its hiltory is fo-con-
nefted with that of the human. mind, that we, cannot help,
feeling a {trong inclination to know at what time, end by
what, people, the hypothefis of the fpherical figure of the
earth was firlt received. \
If, in natural philofophy, the value of an hypothefis may
be eftimated by: the number of difficult phenomena it fud-
denly explains, few difcoyeries will he found to have been
more important than that which aflizned to the earth its
true magnitude and figure. But it isin vain that, we nowy
attempt to tracé its hiitory; it took placs in thole dark
ages of antiquity, when, the revolutions of empires were but
imperfectly recorded, much lels the calm fpeculations of a
few quiet and thoughtful men. ee p ads '
The idea of) the earth being a glohe is now fo familiar
to,us, that arguments in proof of it are alot yngeceflary.
We: may everyday meet, with peopie who have been round
it, and the, moft uninformed. feaman cap eality, comprehend
that he is.failing on a glodvlar furface, when be finds that
by proceeding forward in any, direction, he ultimately arrives
atithe pointfrom which hedcparted, Yet, fam:liar as, is thig
fact.to us; many ages mult have clapfed before it. could have
been univesfally received, So dificult was.it to conceive
how the habitants ot the oppofite hemilphere. conld-exitt
with their, heads downwards without great, inconycnicace,
that we find St. Anguitine, jn the sth century, vehemently
contending again{t the molt buity of the, exiftence of aun
tipodes,, The earhtelt altronomical records, which can be
received.as authentic, do not ga back farther. thau abqut
800 years..before the Chriftiah cra, asat that time ecliples
feein to have sbeen, both oblerved and regiltered by more
than one of the ealtern nations. Aflropomy mut then haye
been cultivated asa {cience-at featt for fome Centuries, and
therefore, we taay condlude with certainty, that the {pheri-
3L2 cal

EARTH.

eal figure of the earth was known above one thonfand
years before our era, and, probably, by fome of the eaftern
nations many centuries earlier. The obfervations which led
to the difcovery were, doubtlefs, thofe of the phenomena
caufed by the diurnal motion of the earth, combined with
thofe produced by change of fituation, in removing towards
the north or fouth.

We may fuppofe the fpherical figure of the heavens to
have been firft eftablifhed, by obferving that thofe ftars, fuf-
ficiently elevated towards the North pole, performed their
entire revolution round the poles without interruption, from
which it might by an eafy inference be concluded, that the
other ftars purfued their courfe in the fame manner when
concealed from view.

The arguments for the nearly fpherical or globular
figure of the earth may be fummed up in the following
particulars: 1. When you ftand upon the fhore, the
{pherical form of the fea is evident to the eye. 2. Whena
fhip Icaves the fhore, and goes out to fea, you firft lofe fight
of the hull, and then of the matt, gradually from the bottom
to the top: and when a fhip approaches the fhore, you firft
fee the top of the maft, and then the lower parts gradually
appear, till at laft the whole fhip becomes vifible. Thefe
appearances could not take place if the fea were a plane, for
in that cafe every part of the fhip would difappear at
once, after quitting the fhore, and appear together on its
approach to the fhore; or rather, the hull, being the
largeft and moft confpicuous part of the fhip, would laft
difappear, and appear firft, which is contrary to the well-
known fa&. But the appearances exactly correfpond to
the fpherical or fpheroidical figure of the fea, in which cafe
the convexity of the water would produce the phenomena
that are a@tually obferved. 3. From the voyages of the
navigators Maghellan, fir Francis Drake, lord Anfon,
captain Cook, and many others, who have failed round the
earth, fetting off in one direction, and after continuing their
courfe, returning to the fame place in an oppofite direCtion ;
or failing towards the eaft and returning weit, or vice ver/é,
we may infer that the earth is nearly oft a globular figure.
4. Thefe circumnavigators, in the eourfe of their voyage,
have obferved all the phenomena, both of the hea-
vens and the earth, tocorrrefpond to, and to evince this
{pherical figure. 5.'The moon is frequently feen eclipfed
by the fhadow of the earth; and in all eclipfes that fhadow
appears circular, what way foever it be projected, whe-
ther tewards the eaft, weft, north, or fouth, and howfoever
its diameter vary, according to the greater or lefs diftance
from the earth; hence it follows, that the fhadow of the
earth, in all fituations, is really conical, and cenfequently,
the body that projeéts it, that is, the earth, is nearly
{pherical. 6. In travelling towards the fouth, the northern
ftars are depreffed, and we lofe fight of them, and the fouthern
ftars are elevated and brought to view, and vice verfa ; and
the fun arrives at the meridian of places that are more
eafterly fooner than to the meridian of, thofe towards the
weit, in proportion to the diftance of the meridians mea-
fured upon the equator; which phenomena are owlag to
the fphericity of the earth. 7. The fame globular figure is

likewife inferred from the opeiation of /evelling (which fee);

in which it is found neceffary to make an allowance for the
difference between the apparent and true level. In fhort,
all the appearances, both upon the earth and in the heavens,
are fuch ae they fhould be, upon the fuppofition that the
figure of the earth is globular, but none of them will cor-
yefpond to that of a plane furface. As for the inequalities
en its furface, owing to mountains and vallies, they are of
no moment in the elimation of its general figure, being of

no greater account, with refpeét to relative proportions than
the afperities on the furface of a lemon with regard to the
lemon itfelf; or the fmalleft grain of fand to a common
globe. Indeed the change of figure, arifing from the diurnal
rotation of the earth, and appearing in an elevation of the
equatorial and a flattening of the polar parts, is more
fenfible; but this does not materially aff the popular
phenomena ; though the {cientific aftronomer knows how to
make a due allowance for them. See the fequel of this
article, and the article DEGREE.

When the f{pherical hypothefis of the earth was once ad-
mitted, atolerable conception would foon be formed of itsmag-
nitude. A perfon travelling northward, and obferving the pole
elevated one degree more than at the place of his departure,
would eafily conclude he had travelled over =4.th part of the
whole circumference of the earth. The firlt approximation
that was made by a method of this kind, however inac-
curate, muft (compared with the ftate of ignorance that
preceded it) have been, at that time, a moft important
addition to the ftock of natural knowledge; and, indeed,
except with a view to fome very refined {cientific invettiga-
tions, the general idea which the ancients had of the mag=
nitude of the earth, differs but little from that of the moe
derns: for we are fo entirely incapable of forming any accu-
rate idea of number or magnitude, when either exceeds a cere
tain limit, that a traveller who is told that the diftance from
London to York is about 200 miles, forms, perhaps, in one
fenfe, a more accurate idea of its diltance than the philo-
fopher in his clofet, who has computed the exa&t number of
inches by trigonometrical calculation.

The magnitude of the earth may be ealily eftimated by
the meafure of a meridional degree; but the refult will be
different, according to the meafure that is aflumed. Accord«
ing to Caflini, who adopted Picard’s meafure of a degree,
the ambit or circumference of the earth is 123750720 Paris
feet, or 134650777 Englith feet; whence, fuppofing the
earth f{pherical, its diameter muft be 7967 ftatute miles ;
and multiplying the fquare of the diameter by 3.1416, its
furface will be 199407056 miles; and multiplying the cube
of the diameter by ,the decimal .5236, we fhall have
264779426393 cubic miles for the folid content of the globe
of the earth. But if we take 364546 feet for the length of
a degree in latitude 45° (fee the table under DEGREE), we
may confider this as a mean length: hence, 364546 x 360
(= 131236560 feet) will be the circumference of the earth,
confidered as a fphere; and fince the circumference of every
circle is to its radius as 6.28318 to 1, we have 6.28318: 1

: 131236500 : 20886964 feet, or 3955 miles, the radius
of the earth ; and, confequently, its diameter is 7910 miles ;
its furface 196563942 miles, and its folidity 212600665536
cubic miles.

Dalby makes the earth’s equatorial radius 3489932 fae
thoms, and its femi-axis 3473656 fathoms. (Phil. ‘Tranf.
vol. for 1791.) Subfequent meafurements make the fame
refpetively equal to 3491420 and 3468007 fathoms, or to
7935 and 7882 miles. (Phil. Tranf. vol. for 1795.) See the
article Degree. As an approximation to the beft efti-
mation, but without laying much ftrefs upon it, we fhall
reckon the two axes of the earth refpectively equal to 7977
and 7940 Englifh miles. Thefe are commonly called the
equatorial and polar diameters of the earth. Hence we
may deduce the folid contents of the earth. One of the
rules for finding the folid contents of a {pheroid, according
to the doGrine of menfuration, is to multiply two-thirds of
the revolving axis by the area of the generating ellipfe, (vis.

the ellipfe, by the revolution of which the {pheroid is ge —

nerated,) and the produ& will be the content of the
Spheroid.

,

.
Ee

EFARTH.

fpheroid. (See Sprerorp.) The axes, then, being affumed,
as above ftated, 7940 and 7977 miles refpeétively, the area
of the generating ellipfe 1s (7940 x 7977 X 0.7854 =)
49745178,252; and its area multiplied by two-thirds of the
longer axis, gives the folidity equal to (49745178.252 x 3
* 7977 =) 264544857944.136 cubic miles. This determi-
nation evidently refts upon the fuppofition that no confider-
able vacuity exilts within the body of the earth, But there
are reafons for fuppofing that the earth is more denfe towards
the centre than towards the furface. (See Dela Lande’s
Atftron, vol. ii. art. 3589.) And independently of this, all
the mineralogical and geological obfervations fhew, that the
earth is not homogeneous. For the method of eftimating
the mean denfity of the earth, fee the article Density.

It is not exaétly known to whom we are indebted for the
firft fuggeftion of the oblate figure of the earth.

Picard, in his meafure of the earth, publifhed in 1671,
{peaks of a conjeGture propofed to the academy, that fup-
pofing the diurnal motion of the earth, heavy bodies fhould
defcend with lefs force at the equator than at the poles, and
obferves, that for the fame reafon, there fhould be a dif-
ference in the-length of the pendulum vibrating feconds in
different latitudes.

It wasin this fame year that Richer was fent to Cayenne,
and among other objects of his voyaze, he was charged by
the academy to obferve the length of the pendulum vibrating
feconds. He returned in 1672, and mentions his ob{fervation
of the pendulum as the moft important he had made. The
fame meafure which had been marked at Cayenne ona rod
of iron, according to the length which had been found ne-
ceflary to make the pendulum vibrate feconds, being brought
back, and compared with that marked at Paris, the difference
was found to be a line anda quarter, that at Cayenne being
the fhorteft. The vibrations of the pendulum on which the
experiment was made were very {mall, and continued fen-
fible for 52 minutes of time, and were compared with an
excellent clock which vibrated feconds. Moreover, the
clock which Richer took to Cayenne having been adjutted
_ to beat feconds at Paris, retarded two minutes a day at
Cayenne, fo that no doubt remained of the diminution of
the force of gravity at the equator.

This was the firft dire€&t proof of the diurnal motion of the
earth. Huygens was then led to fufpeét that the fame
caufe might produce a protuberance of the equatorial parts
of the earth, and a correfponding depreffion of the poles.
Caffini had already obferved the oblate figure of Jupiter,
which analogy ftrongly favoured the fuppofition of a fimilar
phenomenon on the earth. The moft obvious method of
afcertaining the fact being by direét meafurement, altro-
nomers were fent to various parts of the world to meafure
the value of different degrees: of the refult of their la-
bours we have given a moft ample detail under Duaresg.

Huygens was certainly the firlt perfon who attempted to
determine the figure of the earth by dire calculation ;
but he afflumed an hypothefis, which, fince the difcovery of
the law of univerfal gravitation, has been found to be inad-
miffible: this hypothefis fuppefes that the whole of the
attractive force refides in the centre of the earth, and that
its power varies as the fquare of the diftance. Upon this
f{uppofition Huyens computes the ellipticity of the earth
to be zy, the centrifugal force at the equator being 775
of the force of gravity.

Newton, upon the fuppofition of the earth’s having been
an homogencous fluid, eftimates the ellipticity at .3,.

But Clairaut was the firft mathematician who gave a ge-
nerat folution of this problem, adapted to the hypothefis of
a variable denfity, The refule whieh he obtaiaed from his

inveftigation was aa curious as unexpected ; it appeared that
if the denfity of the ftrata, of which the earth is compofed,
increafea towards the centre, the ellipticity will be lefs than
in the hypothefis of Newton, and greater than in that of
Huygens; and moreover, that the fraGion exprefling the
ellipticity being added to the fraétion expreffing the aug-
mentation of gravity at the poles, wil! together always make
a conftant quantity, which is equalto $ of the fracion
which exprefles the proportion which the centrifugal force
at the equator bears to that of gravity. We hall find that
it is by means of this theorem thet we are enabled to af»
certain the true figure of the earth by experiments on pene
dulums, in a more accurate manner than can be done by
the meafurement of degrees.

We thall now fubjoin the whole theory of this fubje& as
given by La Place, and for his calculations fhall fub{titute
thofe which are derived from taking into confideration the
meafurements that have been made in England and Sweden,
which bring the refult much nearer to the true fpheroidicak
figure than the degrees that had been taken by La Place, in
the fecond volume of La Mechanique Celefte.

The force of gravity towards the planets is compofed of
the attra¢tions of all their particles. If their mz fs was fluid,
and without motion, their {trata wonld be fpherical, thofe
nearer the centre being the more denfe. The force of gravity
at their exterior furface, and at any diftance whatever with-
out the fphere, would be exa&tly the fame, as if the whole
mafs of the planet was compreffed into the centre of gravity.
It is in confequence of this remarkable property, that the
fun, the planets, comets, and fatellites, at upon each others
very nearly, as if they were fo many material points. At
very great diftances the attraétion of the particles of a body
of any figure, which are the moft remote, and thofe which
are neareft the particle attrafted, compenfate each other
in-nearly the fame manner as if they were united in the cen=
tre of gravity, and if the ratio of the dimenfions of the body
be confidered as a very {mall quantity of the firft order, this
refult will be exa€t to a quantity of the fecond order. But
ina {phere, it is rigoroufly true, and in a {pheroid differing bue
little from a {phere, it is of the fame order as the produ& of its
excentricity, by the fquare of the ratio of its radius to the
diftance of the point attra&ted. This property of the {phere
of attra€iing, as if its mafs was concentrated in its centres
contributes greatly to the fimplicity of the motions of the
heavenly bodies. It does not belong exclufively to the law
of nature ; it equally appertains to the law of the attra&tion
varying proportionally to the fimple diltance, and cannot
belong to any other law,. but thofe formed by the addi-
tion of thefe two. And of all the laws which render
the force of gravity nothing, at an infinite diftance, that of
nature is the only one in which the {phere poffeiles this pro=

erty.

i According to this law, a body placed within a fpherical
flratum of uniform thicknefs, iz equally attrafted by all ite
parts, fo as to remain at reft in the midit of the various ate
tra€tions which a&t upon it. The fame circumftance takes
place in an elliptic ftratum, when the exterior and interior
furfaces are fimilar and fimilarly fituated. Suppofing,
therefore, the planets to be {pheres of homogeneous matter,
the force of gravity in their interior muft diminifh as the
diftance from the centre, for the exterior part relatively to
the attraéied particle contributes nothing to its gravity,
which entirely confilts of the attra€tion of the1nternal {phere,
whole radius is equal to the diftance of this point from the
centre. But this attraction is equal to the mafe of the
{phere divided by the fquare of the radius, and the mafs.io
as the cube of thig fame radius. ‘The force of gravity oa the

attracted:

EARTH

a

3
attra&ted particle is therefore equal = or, fimply, to the ra-

dius. But if, (as is probably the cafe,) the ftrata are more
denfe as they approach the centre, the force of gravity will
diminith in a lefs ratio than in the cafe of homogeneity.
But the rotatory motion of the planets caufes them to differ
a little from the fpherical figure, the centrifugal force
arifing from this motion caufing the particles fituated at the
equator to recede from the centre, and produce a flattening
of the poles.

Let us confider, firft, the effe&s of this circumftance in the
mott fimple cafe of the earth’s being’ an homogeneous fluid ;
and the whole force of gravity refiding in its centre, and vary-
ing reciprocally as the {quare of the diftance from this point.
It will then be ealy to prove that the terreftrial {pheroid is an
ellipfuid of revolution, for if we carceive two columns of finids
communicating with each other at the centre, (Plate X. Aftron.

Jig. 72-) ong terminating at the pole, the other at any

int in the fwrface, thefe two columns ought to be in
equilibrio. The centrifugal force alters nothiag of the weight
of the column direéted to the pole, but diminifhes the weight
of the other c:lumn. This force is nothing at the centre of
the earth, and at the furface is proportionai to the radius of
the terreftrial parallel or very nearly as the cofine of the la-
titude, but the whole of this force is not entirely employed
jn diminifhing the force of gravity: for thefe two forces,
‘making an angle with each other cqual to the latitude, the
‘centrifugal force decompofed according to the direGion of
gravity is weakencd in the ratio of the cofine of this angle
to radius. At the furface of the earth the centrifugal force
diminifhes the force of the gravity by the produdt of the cen-
trifugal force at the equator by the fquare of the cofine of
the latitude, thus, the mean value of this denomination in
the length of a fluid column is the half of this produ&t, and
fince the centrifugal force is 4, of the force of gravity at
the equator, this value is <4, of the force of the gravity
multiplied by the {quare of the cofine of the latitude. And

“fince it is neceflary, for the maintenance of the equlibrium,
that the column by its length fell compenfate the dimi-
- “nation of its weight, it fhould furpafs the polar column by
sig of its length multiplied by the above cofine. And
the augmentation of the radii from the pole to the equator,
‘being proportional to the {quares of thefe cofines, we conclude
“that the earth would be an ellipfoid of revolution, the equa-

torial and polar axis of which were in the proportion of 578
to 577-

To determine the law of gravity at the furface of the
earth in this cafe, we fhould obferve that the force:of gravity
at-any point on this furtace is lefs than that at the pole,
from its being fituated farther from the centre, this dimiaution
is nearly equal to the double of the augmentation of the terref-
trial radius; itis equal, therefore, to the produ of the xyyth
_part of the force of gravity by the {quare of the cofine of the
jatitude. The centrifugal force diminifhes hkewile the force
of gravity by the fame quantity ; thus, by the union of thefe

“two caufes, the diminution of gravity from the pole to the

equator is equal = 0.00694 multiplied by the fquare

1444
of the cofine of the latitude.

But it is found by experience, both. from the meafures of
various degrees, and determination of the lengths of pendu-
lums, that the ellipticity is greater than z+y, and the dimi-
nution of the force of gravicy icfs than 0.09694, for we fhall
find the diminution of the force of gravity experimentally
determined to be about 0.005.

We may therefore conclude, that the force of gravity is

not direéted to a fingle point, but is compofed of the joint ,

attraGtions of all particles of the earth.

This being the cafe, the law of gravity depends on the
figure of the terreftrial {pheroid, which depends itfelf on the
law of gravity. It is this mutual dependence of the two une
known quantities on each other, that renders the inveitiga-
tion of the figure of the earth very difficult. But, fors
tunately, the elliptic figure, the moft fimple next to the
fyhere, fatisfies the condition of equilibrium of a fluid mafs,
{ubje& to a motion of rotation, and of which ail the particles
attraét each other reciprocally as the fquares of the diftance.

Newton, upon this hypothefis, and fuppofing the earth
a homogeneous fluid, found the ratio of the equatorial to the
polar axis to be 230 to 229.

_ To dctermine the law of the variation of the force of gra-
vity upon this hypothefis, we may confder two different
points fituated on the fame radius drawn from the centre to
the furface of an homogencous fluid in equilibrio. It has
been before obferved, that.all the elliptic ftrata, Htuated with=
out a point, contribute nothing to its gravity; the refult-
ing force of all: the attraétions which aét on it, 1s derived
entirely from the attraction of the interior {pheroid, fimilar
to the entire {pheroid, and whofe forface pafles through the
point in queftion. The:fimilar and fimilarly fituated parti.
cles of thefe two fpheroidsattraé the interior point, and the
correfponding point of the exterior ferface, proportionally
to their maffes divided. by the fquares of their diftances.
Thefe mafles are in the two {pheroids as the cubes of their
fimilar dimenfions, and the fquares of their diltances are as
the {quares- of thefe dimenfions. The attractions, then, on
fimilar particles, are proportional therefore to thefe dimen-
fions. From which it follows, that the entire: attraGion of
the two {pheroids are in the fame ratio, and the directions
parallel. The centrifugal forces of the two points now un-
der confideration are likewife-proportional to the: fame di=
menfions., Thercfore the force.of gravity in each of them
being. the refult of thefetwo forces, will hkewife be propor=
tionate to their diftances from the centre-of the fluid mafs

Now, if we conceive-two fluid columns dire&ted, as before,
to the centre of the {pheroid, one from the pole, the other
from any point on the furface, it isevident, that if the ellip=
ticity of the {pheroid is very {mall, that is, if it differs but
little from.af{phere, that.the force: of gravity, decompofed
according to. the-directions.of thefe co;umus will be nearly
the fame.as the total gravity.

Dividing, therefore; thefe columns intoan equal nuniber
of parts infinitely {mall and proportional toy theirilengths,
the weight of the correfponding. parts will be to each other
as the produéts of the lengths of the columns’ by’ the force
of gravity.at the poiats of their furface where they termi-
nate. The whole weight of thefe columns will» therefore
be.to each other in this ratio., And as thefe weights mutt
berequal to be in equilibrio, the force of gravity at their fur.
face mutt confequently be.reciprocaily as the length of thefe
columns. Thus.the length of the radius of the equator
furpafling, the radius at. the pole a-23oth part, the force of
gravity at the pole fhould likewife excced that 2t the equa~
tor az3oth part./, This fuppofes the eliiptic figure fufficient
for the equiltbrium.of a fluid homogencousimals. » This Mac-
laurin has demonftrated ia a beautiful manner, from’ which
it refults, that the cquilibrium is rigoroufly puffible, and that

if the ellipfoid differs little from a {phere; the ellipticity’ will -

be equal. ths of the quantity which expreffes the proportion
of the centrifugal force to that of gravity under the equator.
To the fame motion of rotation, there may exift two cors
refpondiag figures of equilibium. Bat the >equihbriom
cannot exift with every motion of rotation. The thortett

7 period

period of rotation of an homogeneous fluid in equilibrio of
the fame denfity as the earth is 0.10089 of a day, and this
limit varies reciprocally as the {qnare root of the denfity.
When the rotation becomes more rapid, the fluid mafs
becoming more flattened at the poles, its period of rotation
becomes lefs, and ultimately falls within the appropriate limits
of a ftate of equilibrium. After a great many ofciilations,
the fluid, in confequence of the frition and refiftances which
it experiences, fixes itfelfat laft in that late which is unigue,
and determined by the primitive motion of rotation.
_ ~The preceding refults afford us an eafy method of very-
4 fying the hypothelis of the homogeneity of the earth. The
irregularity of the meafured dégrées may be fuppofed to
_ leave too much uncertainty, aay to ‘the ellipticity, to
enable us to decide if it really is fuch as the above hypo-
thefis requires. But the regular increafe of the force of
gravity from the equator to the pole, as determined by ex-
periments on the pendulum, is fuflicient to throw great light
the fubjeat. Initaking;as unity, the force of gravity
equator, its increafe at the pole, according to the
efis of homogeneity, fhould be €qual',4. = 0.00435.
@bfervation (as will hereafter be fhewn;) this increale
3 the earth; 'therefore,jis not homogeneous. And,
indéed, it'78 natural to fuppofe, that the denfity of the ftrata
increafe as they apprdach the centre; it.is even’neceflary for
the ftability of the equilibrium of the waters of the ocean,
that their denfity fhou!d be lefs thanthe mean denifity of the
earth ; otherwife, when agitated by the winds and other
eaufes, they would overflow. their limits; and inundateé the
adjoining continents. The homogene'ty of the earth being
, thus excluded, by obfervation, we mut, to determine its
figure, fuppofe the fea covering a nucleus compofed of differ-
ent flrata, diminifhing in denfity from the centre to the
furface., Clairaut has demoniftrated, that the equilibrium is

Rill poffible, in the fuppofition of an elliptic figure at the fur- -

face, and of the ftrata of the interior nucleus. In the moft
probable hypothefis, relative to the law of the denfities and
ellipticitics of thefe ftrata, the ellipticity of the carth is lefs
than in the cafe of homogeneity, and greater than if the force
of gravity was dire&ted to a fingle central point ; but the
increafe of the force is greater than in the firlt cafe, and lefs
than in the fecond. But there exifts, between the increafe
of the force of gravity, taken as unity at the equator and
the ellipticity of the earthy this remarkable analogy, that in
all the hypothefes relative to the cenftitution of the internal
nucleus whicti.the fea inclofes, the ellipticity of the earth is
jut fo much lefs than that. which, would take place in the
cafe of homogeneity, as the augmentation of the force of
gravity exceeds that which fhould exilt, according gy the
_ fame fuppofition, and reciprocally ; fo that thevfiggttions
_ expreffing the ellipticity and the augmentation cf the force
_ of gravity. always, together, make a conitant quantity equal
- 3ds of the fra&tion..4,, which expreffes the ratio of the force
of gravity to the centrifugal force at the equator. This, on
the earth, is equal o.0086500.
In fuppofing an elliptic figure to the ftrata of the terref-
"trial fpheroid, the increafe of its radii, the increafe of the
~ force of gravity,:and the diminution of the degrees from the
"pole to the equator, will vary as the fquares of the cofine of
the latitude ; and thefe are connetted with the ellipticity of
the earth in fuch a manner, that the total increafe of the
radii is equal to the ellipticity ; and the total diminution of
the degree is equal to the ellipticity, multiplied by three
times the degree at the equator, (fee Decrees, where this
’ has been demonftrated); and the total increafe of the force
‘of gravity is equal to the force of gravity at the equator,

ieee!

EARTH.

multiplied by the excels of 6.008650 above the ellipticity.
Thus, the ellipticity of the earth may be determined, cither

by direé&t meafurement of degrees, or by obfervations on the

length of the penculum. ;
The obfervations of the pendulum give 0.005 for the in-

creafe of the force of gravity, which, taken from ,,4 ,, fives

zis for the ellipticity of the earth. 1 this hypothefis of
the ellipfe be conformable to nature, it fhould agree with
the various meafurements that have been made in 4:fferene
ccuntries to afcertain the value of the meridional degrees.
We have feen how difcordant many of thefe meafures are,
when compared with the above hypothefis; neverthelefs,
fince La Place was occupied with thefe inveftigations, tke
late meaiurements in England and Sweden appear to give
the general refult of the earth’s figure nearer to a regular
ellipfe, than could be at that time inferred from the meafure
of Maupertuis.

To embrace, in the moft general manner pofible, the
theory of the figure of the earth and planets, it is neceflary
to determine the attra€tion of {pheroids differing fittle from
{pheres, and formed cf {trata variable both in figure and
denfity, according to any law whatever. It will remain,
then, to determine the figure which will agree With the
equilibriam of a fluid expanded over its furface; for we
mult imagine the planets covered with a fluid Gimilar to the
earth, or their figure would be entirely arbitrary.

A remarkable equation of partial differences, relative to the
attraction of {pheroids, lead the author, without the aid of
integrations, to general. expreflions for the radii of the
{fpheroids; for the attraGticns upon any pbints whatever,.
either within, on the furface, or without it ; for the condi-
tion of the equilibrium of the fluids that furround them ;
for the law of gravity, and for the variation of the degrees
at the furface.

All thefe quantities are conne&ted with each other by
analogies extremely fimple ; from which refults an eafy me-
thod of verifying all the hypothefes that may be formed to
reprefent either the variation of the force of gravity,.or that
of the values of different degrees of the meridian.

Thus Bouguer, with a view of reconciling the degrees
meafured at the equator in France and in Lapland, fuppofed
the earth to be a f{pheroid of revolution, in which the. in-
creafe of the degrees, from the equator to the pole, was pros
portional to the fourth power of the fine of the latitude.
This hypothefis is fhewn tobe defedtive.

The above-mentioned exprefiions give a cire& and genes
ral folution of the problem, which confilts in determining
the figure of a fluid mafs in equilibrio, fuppofing it fubjeGted
to a movement of rotation, compofed of an infinity of
fluids of different denfities, whofe particles attract cach other
direGtly as their maffs, and inverfely as the fquares of their
diftances. Jn this general {uppofition, the fluid néceflarily
takes the form of an ellipfoid of revolution, of which all
the ftrata are elliptic, whofe denfities diminifh, at the fame
time that their ellipticities increafe from the centre to the
furface.

The limits of ellipticity, of the whole ellip{oid, are $ and £
of the ratio of the centrifugal force, of the force of gravity
at the equator.

The firtt limit is relative to the hypothes of homogeneity,
and the fecond to the fuppofition of the ttrata, infinitely
near the centre being infinitely denfe; and, confequently;
the whole mafs of the {fpheroid ating as if concentrated in
that point. In the latter cafe, the force of gravity being.
dire&ted to a fingle point, and varying: inverfely as the
{quare of the diftance, the figure of the earth ae Es

uch.

EARTH, ae “Jf

fuch as has been above determined; but, in the general
hypothefis, the line which determines the direGtion of the
force of gravity, from the cenire to the furface of the {phe-
roid, is a curve, every element of which is perpendicular to
the ftratum through which it paffes.

It is remarkable, that the variations obferved in the
length of the pendulum, follow, pretty correéily, the law of
the fquares of the cofines of the latitudes ; at the fame time
that the variations in the meafured degrees differ very fen-
fibly from this law. ‘The gencral theory of the attractions
of {pheroids afford a fimple explanation of this phenomenon ;
it fhews us that the terms which, in the value of the terref-
trial radius, differ from this law, become more fenfible in the
expreffion of the force of gravity, and ftill more fenfible in
the expreffion of degrees, where they may acquire a value fuf-
ficiently great to produce the phenomenon under confideration.

This theory likewife fhews us, that the limits of the total
increafe of the force of gravity, taken at the equator as
unity, are the produéts of 2 and 3, the ratio of the centri-
fugal force, to the force of gravity under the equator ; the
firft limit referring to the cafe of an infinite denfity at the
centre; the fecond to the cafe of homogeneity. The in-
creafe, as derived from obfervation, being between thefe
limits, indicates that the ftrata are more denfe, as they ap-

roach the centre, conformable to the laws of hydroftatics.

“hus, the theory feems to accord with obfervation, as far as
could be expeéted, confidering our ignorance of the internal
sonftitution of the earth.

To determine the’ Figure of the Earth from the following
Obfervations of the Length of the Pendulum.
SS a ne

Length of the

Lat. in pet te
Place of Obfervation. desital pat es Peay Error *.
*8° | of Mean Time.

1. Peru 0.°00 | 0."99669 ‘}0.99676|4 0.00007
2. Porto-Bello 10.61 0.99689 0.99692 a ee
3+ Pondicherry [13.25] 0.99710 |0.99700|— Satie
bs ae 20:00} 0.99745 |9:99730|\— 0.00015
. Petit-Goare |20.50] 0.99728 [0.99732 )
z Capeof Good z cae PATSE ik OOOO
Hope 37-69} 0.99877 |0-99852|— 0.00025
7. Touloufe {48.44} 0.99950 fo. 99945|— 0.00005
8. Vienna 53°57| 999987 }9.99991|+ 0.00004
oars 54-26] 1.00000 |9.99997|— 0.00003
10. Gotha 50.63] 1.0006 |o.00002!— 0.00004
tr. London 57.221 1.00018 |1.00023|+ 0.00008
12. Peterfburg ~ |64.72| 1.00074 Toookblalacs re
13- Ponoi 66.60} 1.00101 |1.0010c]|— 0.00001
14. Avengfberg |74.22| 1.00137 |1.00155]4+- 0.00018
15, Pello 74:53] 1.00148 \1.00157| + 9.00009

* The fum of the pofitive errors will nearly be equal to
the fum of the negative, according to the required condition
of the problem.

_ Mr. La Place’s method of finding the moft prebable el-
lipfis, correfponding to a fet of obfervations fimilar to the
above, or that which ‘hall fatisfy the following conditions ;
namely, that the fum of all the errors fhall = 0, and the
fum of all the errors taken pofitively, a minimuni. :

Let al’, 2, a, be the obferved lengths of the pens
dulam ; &", £%, £%, the fquares of the fines of the corres
Spending latitudes.

V2 - .

Suppofe thefe lengths to be expreffed by this formula,
z+ ky. And let x‘, x, x), be the errors of obferva-
tion. Then we fhall have the following equations :

aM — 2 — ky = xO)
a? — 2% — £2) y = xl)

a? — x — Ay = KO SA,
a —%2— Ry = nat

Add thefe equations, and divide their fam by 2, making
the quotient equal to zero; the condition being, that the
fum of the errors = 0 ; then,

A—z—ky=o. B.
Subtra& this equation from each of the equations A,

feparately, and new equations will be obtained of the fol-
lowing form ;

FAO) SAC irae) ;
b) gy = x) +O,
68) — gy = x } a
&e. &e. :
Bo b2 Be)

Compute the quotients —, —>, —» &c. and arrange

them according to their magnitudes, negleGting their figns.
Let the quotients thus arranged be denoted thus:

BO, BO, BP,

And obferve the order of the firft terms of equations O,
which correfpond to them.

Then to find that value of y, which fhall render the fum
of all the errors taken pofitively a minimum ; add the quan-
tities 4), 4, AM, till their fum begins to furpafs half the
fum of all thefe quantities added together; and calling this
fum F, a quantity + may be fo determined, that

AO 4 72) 458) 2 4 SO 72F
7x) ae VAG) = 53 Ste mead 08

Then y = 4", becaufe, according to the prefent method,
that error is to be {uppofed zero, which correfponds to that
length in the equations O, which gives this value of y.
The value of Z may then be obtained by the following
equation :

Z=A— Ky.

Application of this Method to the above Obfervations,

The obferved lengths of the pendulum, with the fquares
of the fines of the latitude of the places of obfervation, give
the following equations: :

* Obf. Length. Sin.? L.
0.99669 — z — ¥ 0.00000 = x")
-99689 — = — y 0.02752 = x")
-99710 — 3 — 9 0.04270 = x)
“99745 — 2 — ¥ 0.09549 = x
99725 — z — y 0.10016 = «5
99877 —2—y 0.31142 = x
99950 — = — ¥ 0.47551 = xl)
‘99987 — % — y 0.55596 = x")
1.00060 — % — y 0.56672 = x)
1.00006 -—~ z — y 0.57624 = x")
1.00018 — x — y 0.61244 = x‘)
1.00074 — & — y 0.72307 = x(™)
I.COIOI — 2 — y 0.74909 = x13)
1.00137-— & — y 0.84478 = x")
Z.00148 — & — y 0.84829 = x") J

A.

——— a aeioman

Thefe

aN

i

© @.0029776 =

EARTH.

Thefe added together, and divided by 15, give
0.99923 —%—yo43529=0. B.
This equation, taken fucceffively from every one of the
€guations A, gives O as follows:
— 0.00254 + y 0.43529 = x)
— 0.00234 + y 0.40777 = x)
— 0.06213 +.y0.39259 = x)
— 0.00178 + 9 0.33980 = x")
— 0.00195 + ¥ 0.33513 = x)
— 0.00046 + 9 0.12387 = x")
0.00027 — ¥0,04022 = x!)
0.00064. — y 0.12067 = x
0.06077 — y 0.13143 = x)
0.00083 — y 0.14095 = x")
0.00095 — y 0.17715 = xi")
0.00151 — y 0.28778 = x")
0.00178 — y 0.31380 = x!"4)
0.00214 — y 0.40949 = x"

(15)

0.00225 — y 0.41300 =

G) Bel
The quotients c. e arranged as above directed,
wwii] ftand thus:
0.0067131
0.0058386
©.00585386
0.0058352

0.0058186
0.0057355
0.0056724.
0-0054479
D095 4255)
0.0053627
0.005 30347
0,0052471
0.0052384.
0.0052260
9.0037136

oO
The firft term of which, 4", correfponds to at the fe-

’ (to)
gond term, 4", correfponds to aa The whole corre-
fpond in the following order:
Fy 1s 9» Ly 5, 2) 133 15s 3y II, 8, 12, 4, 14, 6.
The fum of the firft fix is lefs than half the fum of all the
terms: therefore r, in equation Q, is equal to 7.
Now the 7th term correfponds to the 13th, in the equa-

tions O. :
The value of y is therefore to be* found from this equa-

‘tion, where x“) = o.

§
Therefore y = — = 0.0056724.

And from equation B; z = 0.99676 = the length of the
pendulum at the equator.

But this value of y is the fra&tion fought, which, accord-
ing tothe theory of Clairaut, fhould, with another fraction
expreffing the ellipticity, make together the conitant quan-
tity 0.0086500,

Therefore, the ellipticity = 0.00865 — 0.0056724 =

I
33 5°7

Such is the determination of La Place; in which it ap-
pears to us that a miftake has been committed in employing

Vou. XII,

yas found by the above equations, inflead of its value,
found by making the pendulum at the equator equal unity.
The rule of La Place, in his own words, is as foilows:
Let «+ be the excefs of the length of the pendulum at
the pole above that at the equator, divided by the length of
the latter; then,
tr ( o— h),
Andat+ah= = ad = .00865.

To apply this rule:
% = 0.9967600 = pendulum at the equator.

@ + x fin.?g0° = 1.0024324 = pendulum at the pole.

Excefs = .0056724, which, divided by.996760e,
gives at = 0.0056908.
And the ellipticity a4 = @.00865 — «: = o.co89592
I

=

307-93,
Table of the Length of the Pendulum to every 1° of Latitude,
ealculated by the above Formule.

°° 110000000
10° 1.0001716
20° 1.0006657
Zoe 1.00] 4227
40° ¥.0023513
59° —- 1: 0033395
60? 1.0042681
70° T.005025t
80° 1.0055 192

go? 1.0056908
In the following calculation, we have introduced the
value of the degree meafured in England by colonel Mudge,
and fubftituted the northern degree of Swanberg, inftead of
that of Maupertuis, which was taken by La Place. The
reader will fee that the refult is much more fatisfaCtory.

To determine the moft probable Ellipfe from adual Mea/urement
of Degrees.

Latitude. Toifes. Pen panne

ee ee

t. ‘Peru o° of = [56753 11 3 | 0.5
2. India 12° 32! 156763 |r |—14
3- Cape of Good Hope |33° 18’ = [57037 | 1 | +137:
4. Pennfylvania 39° 12’ 156888 |} r |—70
5. Italy, Bofcovich 43° 1’ = |56979 | 1 |—12
6. France 46° 12’ = 157018.5}10 | —o.5
7. Auftria 47°47" 157074 | 165] +42
8, England 52° 2! 2057008 | 3

166° 20! 105 I

I. 170259 — 32% — y 0.00000")
2. 56763 — x — y 0.04709")
B+ 57937 — -& — y 0.30156
4. 56888 — 2z — y 0.39946
5 50979 = — y 0.46541) PAL
6. 570185 — Ioz — y 5.20930!)

7. 85611 — 1.5% — y 0.82275"

8. 171204 — 32% — y 1.86486

9: 85794 — 14% — y 1.258350)
1310720 — 23% — y 10.36878, which, divided
by 23, gives sauation A—2z—Py =e
5988 — z= — y0.45081 =O
cs 3M rics This

EARTH.

This equation, taken from equations A, gives the equa-
tions O, thus:

I. — 235 + y 0.45081 = x") 521
2. — 225 + y 0.40372 = x 557
3. + 49 + 9 0.14925 = x 328
4. — 100 + y 0.05135 = x) 194.
5. + Gg —y 0.01460 = x) $0. 616
6. + 30 —y 0.07012 = xO 435
9. + 86 — y 0.09769 = x 880
8. + 80 — y0.17081 = x) 468
g. — 208 — y 0.38809 = x) 536

880 (7) y 0.14653

616 | 5 | y 0.01460

557 | 2 | ¥ 0.40372

53019 | y¥ 0.58213

5214 1 PY 1.35243

468 | 8 | ¥ 0.51243

435 | 6|y 0.70120

328 | 3 | y 0614925

194 (4J y 0.05135
The fifth term of the above co-efficients is the firft that
begins to furpafs the half fum of the whole, and it corre-
{ponds to N° 1, from which term in equations O, y is to
be deduced.
Since — 235 + y 0.45081 = 0,
y = G21.
Subftituting this value in equation
56985 — z — y 0.45081
% = 56753.

And the ellipticity, which is equal to = -

3X 56753 327,
The ellipticity obtained by La Place, in his * Mecanique

Celefte,” is =
312

Calculation repeated with only the five meafures that feem
soolt deferving of confidence.

Toifes.

56753
56763
57018.5
57068
57196

. Peru
. India

Coe)
14-32
46 12
52, 82.20
66 20 10

. Franee
. England
. Sweden

56753 — z= — y 0.00000 = x")
56763 —z% — y 0.04709 = =|
57018.5—z —y 0.52093 = x >A,
57008 —z —y 0.62162 = a
57190 — z= — y 0.83890 = x

113506 — 2% — y 0.00000
50763 — %—y 0.4709
570185 — 10% —y 5.20930
I7I204— 32%—y 1.86486
85794 —3.5%—y 1.25835
Thefe equations, added together, and divided by the fum
ef the multiphers, give

56097 — % — y 0.47883

This, fubtra&ted from each of the equations A, gives the
equations O. ;

244 — y 0.47883 = xt}
234 — y 0.43174 = x© |
21.5-+ y 0.04210 = x) 60,

— 71_+y 0.14279 = oy ri
—199 + y 0.g6007 = x"

552 519 54010

542 [2 | 9 43174

510.74 3 py 42100

510 | 1] y 95766

497 L4J 9 42837

The third term is the firft that furpaffes the half fum of
the fiveterms, which anfwers to N° 3, therefore the value
of y is to be deduced from its correfponding equation, and is
equal to 510.7, which number exprefles the excefs in
toifes of the polar above the equatorial degree; z, the equa-
torial degree, is deduced from equation 56997 -=—y 47883,
by fubttituting the value of y= 510.7. Hence 2 =
56758-5-

The ellipticity, which is equal

510.7

—, (fee De-
3X 56752.5 (

GREE,) is thus found equal

2

Obfervations

Obferratens. eorreGied

56752.5

India
France
England
Sweden

56776
57018.5
57970
57181.8

If we take the ellipticity a mean between this laft deter-
mination, and that given by the pendulum, it will be s4.,
and nearer than this, it will probably never he known.

Inveftigation of Clairaut’s theorem, on which the above
calculations are founded. ’

Let us fuppofe a {phere of folid matter, equally denfe at
equal diftances from the centre, and covered witha lefs
denfe fluid, and let us fappofe that the whole has a form
fuitable to the velocity of its rotation. It is this form that
weare to findout. With this view, let us fuppofe, that
all the matter by which the folid globe or nucleus is denfer
than the fluid is colle&tedin the centre. Wehave feen that

this will make no change in the gravitation of any particle _

of the recumbent fluid.

Thus we havea folid globe covered witha fluid of the
fame denfity, and befides the mutual gravitation of the
particles of the fluid, we have a force of the fame nature,
acting on every one of them direCted to the central reduns
Gant matter.

Now let the globe liquefy or diffolve. This can in-
duce no change of force on any particle of the fluid.
Let us then determine the form of the new fluid fpheroid,
which will maintain itfelf in rotation. This being deter«
mined, let the globe again become folid. The remaining
fluid will not change its form, becaufe no change is in-

duced on the force ating on any particle of the fluid. Call

this hypothefis A.
In onder to determine the ftate of equilibrium, or the

form which infures it, which is the chief difficulty, let us

form another hypothefis B, differing from A only in this cir-
cumftance, that the matter colleGted in the centre, inftead
of attracting the particles of the incumbent fluid, with a
force decreafing in the inverfeduplicate ratio of theicdifeasess

attracts

EARTH,

attraéts them with a forceincreafing in the dire& ratio of their
diftances, keeping the fame intenfity at thediftance of the pole
as in hypothefis A. This fictitious hypothefis, fimilar to
Hermann’s, 1s chofen, becaufe a mefs fo conftituted will
maintain the form of an accurate elliptical {pheroid, by a
proper adjutment of the proportion of itsaxis to the velo-
city of its rotation. This will eafily appear, for we have
feen that the mutual gravitation of the particles of the
elliptical fluid {pheroid produces in each particle a force
which may be refolved into two forces,one of them perpen-
dicular to the axis, and propgrtionate to the diftance from it,
and the ether nerpendicular to the equator, and proportional
to the diftance from its plane. Thereis now, by hypothefis
B, fuperadded on each particle a force proportional to its dif-
tance from the centre, and direéted to thecentre. This may alfo
be refolved into a force perpendicular to the axis, and another
perpendicular to the equator, and proportional to their dif-
tances from them: Therefore, the whole combined forces at-
ing oa each particle, may be thus refolved into two forces in
thofe dire€tions and thofe proportions. Therefore, a mafs fo
conilituted, will maintain its elliptical form, provided the velo-
city of its rotation be fuch that the whole force at the pole and
the equator are inverfely as the axis of the generating ellipfe.
Weare to afcertain this form, or this required magnitude,
of the centrifugal force. Eiaving done this, we fhall reftore
to the accumulated central matter its natural gravitation, or
its aQion on the fluid in theinverfe duplicate ratio of the
diftances, and then fee what change muft be made on the
form of the {pheroid in order to reftore the equilibrium.
Let BA da (fg. 73.) be the fidiitious elliptical {pheroid
of hypothefis B. Let BE de bethe infcribed {phere. Take
EG perpendicular to CE, to reprefent the force of gra-
vitation of a particle in E tothe central matter correfpond-
ing to the diftance CE orC B. Draw CG: draw alfo
AI perpendicular to C A, meeting CG in I. Defcribe
the curve G LR, whofe ordinates GE, LA, RM, &c.

T I I
are proportional to CE CAP wae & Thefe
erdinates will exprefs the gravitations of the particles E,
A, M, &c, to the central matter by hypothefis A.

In hypothelis A the gravitation of A is reprefented by
AL, but in hypothefis B it is reprefented by Al.
For in hypothefis B, the gravitations to this matter
are ag the diftances, LE Gis the gravitation of E in both
hypothefess Now EG: AL =CA*:CE’; tut EC:
AI=CE:CA. Inhypothefis A the weight of the
column A Eis reprefented by the fpace A L GE, but by
AIGE inhypothefis B. If, therefore, the fpheroid of
hypothetis B was in equilibrio, while turning round its axis,
the equilibrium is deftroyed by merely changing the force
acting on thecolumn E A,

There is a lofs of preflure or weight fuftained by the co-
lumn EA. ‘This may be exprefled by the fpace L GI,
the difference between the two areas EGI A and EGLA.
But the equilibrium may be reitored, by adding a column
of fluid A M, whofe weight AL RM hall be equal to

Tn x<AvEE

L GI, which is very nearly equal

In order to find the height of this column, produce G E
on the other fide of E, and make E IF to EG as the denfity
of the fluid to the denfity by which the nucleus exceeded it.
EF will be ta EG as the gravitation of a particle in E to
the globe (now of the fame denfity with the fluid) is to its
gravitation to the redundant matter collected in the centre,
Now, take D E to reprefent the gravitation of E to the fluid
contained inthe concentric fpheroid E Ge, which is fome-

what lefs than its gravitation to the {phere EBes, Draw
CDN. Then AN reprefents the gravitation of A to the
whole fluid fpheroid. In like manner, N I is the united gravi-
tation of A to both the fluid and the certral matter, in the
fame hypothefis. But in hypothefis A, this gravitation is
reprefented by NL.

Let NO reprefent the centrifugal force affe@ing the par-
ticle A, taken in due proportion to N A or NJ, its whole
Gravitation in hypothefis A. Draw CKO. DK will be
the centrifugal force at E. The fpace OK GI wiil ex-
prefs the whole fenfible weizht of the fluid in A E, accord-
ing to hypothelis B, and OK GL will exprefs the fame,
according to hypothefis A. LG is the difference, to be
compenfated by means of a due addition A M,

This addition may be defined by the quadrature of the
[paces GEAL and GLI. But it will be abundandy
exa@t to fuppofe that GLR fenfibly coincides with a
ftraight line, and then to proceed in this manner. We haves
by the nature of the curve GLR,

AL: EG=EC: AC
Alo HA,orEG: AI =EC:AC
Therefore AL) Al E:C2 : AC.

Now, when a line changes by a very {mall quantity, the
variation of a line proportional to ita cube is thrice as great
as that of the line proportional to the root. HJ is the
quantity proportional to EA the increment of the root EC.
I Lis proportional to the variation of the cube, and is there-
fore very nearly equal to thrice HI.

EG:H1=>EC:AE, we may
EG al = Ce AVE,
3E.Gs+LE = EC a ARe

Now, QOLR may be confidered as equal to QR x
AM, or as equal to KG x A M, and LGI may be con-
fidered as equal to LI x JAE, and 2KG x AM=
Dix AUB.

Therefore fince
ftate
or

Therefore 2KG:AE=LI:AM
but BiG e? Aer — 3G silent
therefore 2KGxEC:AEF? =3EG:AM
JO
and 2KG:55=3EG:AM
=o aint
and 2KG:3EG= >> :AM

That is, twice the fenfible gravity at the equator is te
thrice the gravitation to the central matter as a third pro-
portional to radius and the elevation of the equator is to the
addition neceflary for producing the equilibrium required in
hypothefis A.

This addition may be more readily conceived by means of
a conftruétion. Make AE: Ee=2KG:3EG. Draw
ea parallel to EA, and draw Cem, cutting AN in m.
Then am is the addition that mult be made to the column
AC. A fimilar addition muft be made to every. diameter

CT, making PRIZE G

CV

will be in equilibrio. :

This determination of the ellipticity will equély fuit
thofe cafes where the fluid is fuppofed denfer than the folid
nucleus, or where there is a central hollow. For EG may
be taken negatively, as if a quantity of matter were placed
in the centre ating with a repelling or centrifugal force on
the fluid. This is reprefented:on the other fide of the axis
Bb. The {pace gil in this cafe is negative, and indicates
a diminution of the column ae, in order to reftore the egut-

librium,
3Ma Te

:T 4, and the whole

EARTH.

Tc is evident that the figure refulting from this conftruc-
tion is not. an accurate ellipfe. Tor, in the ellipfe, T¢
would beina.con{tant ratio to V T, whereas it isas V'T? by
our contruction. But it is alfo evident that in the cafes of
fmall deviation from perfect fphericity, the change of figure
from the accurate ellipfe of hyporncs B is very {mall. The
greateft deviation happens when Ee is @ maximum. | It can
never be fenfibly greater in proportion to A E read 2 of
A E is in. proportion to EC, unlefs the centrifugal forcé
F D be very great in comparifon of the gravity DE. In
the cafe of the earth, where EA is nearly ,3, of EC, if
we fuppofe the mean denfity of the earth to be five times
that of fea water, am will not exceed ,,¥,;5 of EC, or
soot eA.

_ Weare not to imagine that, fince central matter requires an

addition A M to the fpheroid, a greater denfity in the interior
parts of this globe requires a greater equatorial protuberancy
than if all were homogeneous; for it is juit the contrary.
The {pheroid to which the addition muft be made Is not the
figure fuited to a homogeneous mafs, but a fictitious figure
employed as a ftep to facilitate inveftigation. We mutt
therefore define its ellipticity, that we may know the fhape
refulting from the final adiuftment.

Let f be the denfity of the fluid, and 2 the denfity of
the nucleus, and let n — f be = gq, fo that g correfponds
with EG of our conftrution, and expreffes the redundant
central matter (or the central deficiency of matter, when the
fluid is denfer than the nucleus). Let BC or EC ber,
AE be x, and let g be the mean gravity (primitive), and
«the centrifugal force at A. Latftly, let + be the circum-
ference when the radius of the circle is 1.

The gravitation of B to the fluid {pheroid is 4 x fr, and
fits gravitation to the central matter is 3 rgr. The fum of
thefe, or the whole gravitation of B,is2 ar. This may
be taken for the mean gravitation on every point of the
4pheroidal furface.

But the whole gravitation of B differs confiderably from
that of A.

CA, or CE, is tot A FE as the primitive gravity of B
to the fpheroid is to its excefs above the gravitation (primi-
tive) of A tosthefame., iPhatis,.r: = et Daf
jx, and $, x f x expreffes this excels.

In hypothelis B; we have C E to C A as the gravitation
of B or Eto the central matter is-to the gravitation of A to
the fame. Therefore C E is to E A as the gravitation of
E to this matter is to the excefs of A’s gravitation to the
fame. This excefs of A’s gravitation is expreffed by 4+

x, for r: ox SU Gr: ET Xe

Without any fenfible error, we may: ftate the ratio of ¢ to
as the ratio of the whole gravitation of A to the centri-
fugal tendency excited in A. by the rotation.

o 2unre
£0 = Fens. ——,
38
2anre

2

15

Therefore

the particle A is

- This is-what is expreffed by

N O in our conftruétion.
The whole difference between the gravitations of Band

: 5 20anre ,
A is therefore 2 x fix — 4a qg0-+ meet The gravita-
gs
So \

tion of Bis to this diflerenceas fxn rtofpox fx —irgx

-f See (dividing all by 3 zn) as tes eet!
38 ag ;

or

oe

and this centrifugal tendency of:

Now the equilibrium of rotation requires that the whole
polar force be to the fenfible gravitation at the equator as
the radius of the equator to the femiaxis. Therefore we
mult make the radius of the equator to its excefs above the
femiaxis as the polar gravitation to its excels above the

fenfible equatorial gravitation, That is,r: x =r: & ~
5
& + ik and therefore x = hee = +) Hence we
n g Ss
have“! = ex I* LE. Duegoa—/f Therefore
n gn
. ‘ P 3g 6
IAG ope x 8 eee
g nm the: 52 5a
Of x ( =t)
= XK CO C2
5n 5)
5c :
Wherefore x = —-—— = —s which
gx (2-24) §xX1lon—6f
5 nl

- « : OR
is more conyeniently expreffed ‘in this form x = sat x

; "—. The fpecies, or ellipticity of the {pheraid, is .
n—3

x ke . n

Far 2¢° Sa—3f

Such then is the elliptical {pheroid of ‘hypothefi: B; and
we faw that, in refpect of form, it is {earcely diltinguifhable
from the figure which the mafs will have when the fictitious
force of the central matter gives place to the natural force
of the denfe fpherical nucleus. This is true at leaft in alt
the cafes where the centrifugal force is very {mall in compa-
rifon with the mean gravitation.

We mutt therefore take fome notice of the influence -
which the variations of denfity may have on the form of
this {pheroid.. We may learn this by attending to the
formula

x 5¢ n

Re OMe. ec lh
The value of this formula depends .chiefly on the fraGion

a

Sei —

If the denfity of the interior parts be immenfely greater
than that of the furrounding fluid, the value of this frac-

: x c
tion becomes nearly 2, and — becomes nearly = —, and
r 2

the ellipfe nearly the fame with what Hermann affigned to
a homogeneous fiuid {pheroid.

Lens a73 then

a
- = —;andinthecale of the
Katou, 22

earth, - would be nearly = aR’ making an equatorial

elevation of nearly feven miles.

If n= f, the fra&ion envi.
f jm) if

= which we have already fhewn to be fuitable to a homo-

6
geneous fpheroid, with which this is equivalent. ‘The pro-
tuberance or ellipticity in this cafe is to that when the nu-
cleus is incomparably denfer than the fluid in the propor
tion of 5 to 2. This.is the greateit ellipticity that can
obtain when the fluid is not denfer than the nucleus.
Between thefe two extremes, ‘all other values of the
X formula

becomes 3, and

31k
|

EARTH.

formula are competent to homozeneous fpheroids of gravi-
tating fluids, covering a {pherical nucleus of greater denfity,
either uniformly denfe or confifting of ‘concentric {pherical
firata, each of which is uniformly denfe.

From this view of the extreme cafes, we may infer in ge-
peral, that as the incumbent fluid becomes rarer in propor-
tion to the nucleus, the ellipticity diminifhes. M. Bernouilli
(Daniel), mifled by a gratuitous afflumption, fays in his
theory of the tides, that the ellipticity produced in the aérial
fluid which furrounds this globe will be Soo times greater
than that of the folid nucleus; but this is a miftake,
which a jufter affumption of data would have prevented.
The arial {pheroid sill be fenfibly Jefs oblate than the
nucleus. ;

It was faid that the value of the formsl!2 depended chiefly

On the fraion ——"_,_ Butt depends alfo on the frac-

asf
tion af increafing or diminifhing as cincreafes or dimi-
2

nifhes, or as g diminifhes orincreafes. It muft alfo be re-

marked that the theorem = = ae for a homogeneous fphe-
F

roid was deduced from the fepafitiac that the eccentricity
is very fmall. When the rotation is very rapid, there is an-
other form of an elliptical fpheroid, which is in that kind of
equilibrium, which, if ic be ditturbed, will mot be recovered,
but the eccentricity will increafe with great rapidity, till the
whole diflipates in a round flat fheet. But within this limit,
there is a kind of ftability in the equilibrium, hy which it is
recovered when it is difturbed. If the rotation be too rapid,
the {pheroid becomes more oblate, and the fluids which ac-
cumulate about the equator, having lefs velocity than that
circle, retard the motion. This goes on however fome time,
till the true fhape is overpafled, and then the accumulation
relaxes. The motion is now too flow for this accumulation,
and the waters flow back again towards the po’es. ‘Pinus an
ofcillation is produced by the difturbance, and this is gra-
dually diminifhed by the mutual adhefion of the waters, and

. by fri€tion, and things foon terminate in the refumption of

the proper form.

When the denfity of the nucleus js lefs than that of the
fluid, the varieties which refult in the form from a variation
in the denfity of the fluid are much greater, and more re-
markable. Some of them are even paradoxical, Cafes, for
example, may be put, (when the ratio of a to f differs
but very little from that of 3 to 5,) where a very {mall cen-
trifugal force, or very flow rotation, fhall produce a very
great protuberance, and, on the contrary, a very rapid rota-
tion may confift with an oblong form like an egg. But
thefe are very fingular cafes, and of little ufe in the expla-
nation of the phenomena actually exhibited in the folar
fyftem. The equilibrium which obtains in fuch cafes may be
called a tottering equilibrium, which, when once difturbed,
will not be again recovered, but the diffipation of the fluid
will immediately follow with accelerated fpeed. Some
cafes may be imagined, where there is a deficiency of matter
in the centre, or even a hollow.

The chief diftin@ion between the cafes of a nucleus co-
vered with an equally denfe fluid, and a denfe nucleus
covered with a rarer fluid, confilts in the difference be-
tween the polar and equatorial gravities; for we fee that
the difference in fhape is inconfiderable. It has been fhewn
already that, in the homogeneous fpheroid of {mall eccen-
tricity, the excefs of the polar gravity above the fenfible

equatorial gravity is nearly equal to re (forr:tx og:

gx
ae

the diminution c, produced by rotation, we have == Tig

3 When, in addition to this, we take into account

Gyr"
for the whole difference between the pelar and the fenfible
equatorial gravity. But, in a homogeneous {pheroid, we have
saxo oe
+8

Therefore the excefs of polar gravity in a hoe

mogeneous revolving {pheroid is ba + eor We may

diftinguifh this excefs in the homogeneous {pheroid by the
fymbol E.
But, in hypothefis B, theequilibrium of rotation requires

x
that r be to x as g to ue and the excels of polar gravity »
Tr

- b - Fx = +
in this hypothefis is ~. “But we have alfo feen that in this
r

hypothefis cle ts x —-——.. Therefore the excels.
r 2 Ss ti a7
of polar gravity in this hypothefis is 56 x Let

iy eh SOs
this excefs be diftinguifhed by the fymbol «.

The excefs of polar gravity muft be greater than this in
hypothefis A. For, in that hypothefis the equatorial gra-
vity to the fluid part of the {pheroid is already {maller.
And this fmaller gravity is not fo much increafed by the na-
tural gravitation to the central matter, in the inverfe dupli-
eate ratio of the diftance, as it was increaled by the fi@i-
tious gravity to the fame matter, in the dire ratio of thedif-
tances. he fecond of the three diftinétions, between the

gravitations of Band A, was — re. This muft now be

changed into + <1, where — 2% is reprefented by HI
a

in fig. 72; and the excefs, forming the compenfation for hy-
pothefis A, is reprefented by H L, nearly double of HI,
and in the oppofite direétion, diminifhing the gravitation of

A. The difference of thefe two ftates is a by which

the tendency of A to the central matter in tiy pottiefis A
falls fhort of what it was in hypothefis B.. Therefore, as
Ci Figs Lay te BAS

5 a n n
tity «’, which mult be added to«, in order to produce the dif-
ference of gravitics e, conformable to the ftatement of hypo-
thefisAA. Now, in hypothefia B, we had x = fe ae

a

n

is to » fo is the excels e to a quan-

<, and we may, without feruple, fuppofe x the fame in .
&

hypothefis A. Therefores: = x: = ade a one and :

39 ote Or SegC Eb iee (6)

>=

n
armas:
5a 3f

» and we obtain for the excefs e of

4n— 3f

LE Root kg

Let us now compare this excels of polar gravity seh
the

Add to this s, which is

n
ave
polar gravity in hypothefis A = a x

Se eee
eee

EARTH.

the fenfible equatorial gravity in the three hypothefes:
rit, A, fuited to the fluid furrounding a fpherical nucleus
of greater denfity: 2d, B, fuited tothe fame fluid, furround-
ing a céntral nucleus which attraéts with a force prepor-
tional to the diftance: aud 3d, C, fuited to a homogencous
Quid fpheroid, or enclofing a {pherical nucleus of equal den-
fity. Thefe exceffcs are

A Bt aa af
— xX —_——..
2 Rin 3:7
B Oe cg eee
2 5nu—3f
5¢ Sian tab liver By
© (== 0r = XS
4” fo a8 F
ene n—3
Te is evident that the fum of A and B is = x vr
which is double of C, or 2 x 3 : — - J and therefore C
3) am ee)
Ys the arithmetical mean between them.
Now we have feen that 2* x 4a 3S exprefles the
28 Lt See)
ratio of the excefs of polar gravity to the mean gravity
in the hypothefis A. We have alfo feen that 5 x

4

—_ may fafely be taken as the value of the ellip-
5 Big cide
ticity in the fame hypothelis. It is not perfectly exa@,
but the deviation is altogether infenfible in a cafe like that
-of the earth, where the rotation and the eccentricity are fo
moderate. Andlaftly, we have feen that the fame fraction
that expreffes the ratio of the excefs of polar gravity to mean
gravity, in a homogeneous {pheroid, alfo expreffes its ellip-
¢icity, and that twice this fraction is equal to the fum of
the other two. i
Hence may be derived a beautiful theorem, firfl given by
M. Clairaut, that ‘the fraction exprefling twice the ellip-
ticity of a homogeneous revolving fpheroid is the fum of
two fraGtiens, one of which expreffes the ratio of the ex-
cefs of polar gravity to mean gravity, and the other ex-
prefs the ellipticity of any {pheroid of {mall eccentricity,
which confifts of a fluid covering a denfer fpherical nucleus.”
It therefore any other phenomena give us, ia the cafe of
a revolving fpheroid, the proportion of polar and equatorial
gravities, we can find its ellipticity, by fubtracting the
Sra@tion expreffing the ratio of the excefs of polar gravity to
the mean gravity from twice the ellipticity of a homogeneous
{pheroid. Thus, in the cafe of the earth, twice the ellip-
ticity of the homogeneous fpheroid is ;};. A medium of
feven comparifons of the rate of pendulums gives the pro-
portion of the excels of polar gravity above the mean gravity
= 1. If this fraction be fubcracted from -1., it leaves
sis ‘or the medium ellipticity of the earth. Of thefe feven
exp riments, five are {carcely different in the refult. Of
the other two, one gives an ellipticity not exceeding +45.
The azrcement in general is incomparably greater than in
the forms deduced from the comparifons of degrees of the
meridian. Ali the comparifons that have been publifhed
concur in giving a confiderably {maller eccentricity to the
terraqueous fpheroid than fuits a homogeneous mals, and
wich 1s ufually called Newton’s determination. Its in-
deed h s determination, on the fuppofition of homogeneity ;
but he exprefsly fays, thata different denfity in the interior
parts will induce @ different form, and he points out fome

{uppolititious cafes, not indeed very probable, where the
form will be different. Newton has not conceived this fub-
je& with his ufual fagacity, and has made fome inferences
that are certainly inconfiftent with his law of gravitation.
That the protuberancy of the terreftrial equator is cer-
tainly lefs than .$, proves the interior parts to be of a
greater mean deniicy than the exterior, and even gives us
{ome means for determining how much they exceed in den=

Bree ELT ater ona a ee
fity. For by making the fra@tion Spin aig Aniee
as indicated by the experiments with pendulums, we can
find the value of 7.

The length of the feconds pendulam is the meafure of
the accelerating force of gravity. Therefore let / be this
length at the equator, and/ -+ dthe length at the pole.

se 4n—3f _d 4n—=3f 29d

We have —- x =-—, whence — = —.
i) ee = Bf ati ee

This equation, when properly treated, gives = = sis ee

6ed :

$= , &ev &e.

logd

We have information very lately of the meafurement of
a degree, by major Lambton in the Myfore in India, with
excellent inftruments. It lies in lat. 12° 32’, and its length
is 60494 Britifh fathoms, * We are alfo informed by Mr.
Melanderhielm of the Swedifh academy, that the meafure
of the degree in Lapland, by Maupertuis, is found to be
208 toifestoo great. This was fufpeéted.

The fame principles may be applied to any other planet
as well as to this earth. Thus, we can tell what portion
of the equatorial gravity of Jupiter is expended in keeping
bodies on his furface, by comparing the time of his rotation
with the period of one of his fatellites. We find that the
centrifugal force at his equator is ,8- of the whole gravity,

ee ; é
and from the equation ~ = x, we fhould infer that if
4

Jupiter be a homogeneous fluid or flexible fpheroid, his
equatorial diameter will exceed his polar axis nearly 10
parts in 113, which is not very different from what we ob-
ferve ; fo much however as to authorize us to conclude that
his denfity is greater near the centre than on his furface.

Thefe obfervations muft fuffice as an account of this fub-
jet. .Many circumttances, of great effe&, are omitted,
that the confideration might be reduced to fuch fimplicity as
to be difcuffed without the aid of the higher geometry.
The ftudent who wifhes for more complete information mult
confult the elaborate performances of Euler, Clairaut,
D’Alembert, and La Place. The differtation of Thomas
Simpfon on the fame fubje& is excellent. The differtation
of F. Bofcovich will be of great fervice to thofe who are lefs
verfant in the fluxionary calculus, that author having every
where endeavoured to reduce things to a geometrical con-
ftrection. To thefe we would add the Cofmographia of
Frifius, as a very mafterly performance on this part of the
fubject.

Under the article Decree we gave a very ample extra
from the account which Col. Mudge had publifhed in the
Philofophical Tranfaétions. This great operation has been
fince concluded by a continuation of the former arc, as far
as Burleigh-moor, near the mouth of the Tees in the north
of Yorkihire. The whole amplitude meafured. is now
3° 57' 13.4. The particulars of this continuation have not
yet been laid before the public, but they will foon be pub-
lifhed by the Board of Ordnance. But the writer of this

5 article

EARTH.

article having, through the politenefs of Col. Mudge, been
favoured with the moft important refults relating to it, we
have the fatisfaQtion of being able to prefent them to our
readers. ;

The bearings of the fides of the triangles ufed in finding
the meridional diftance from Burleigh-moor to Dunnofe,
from the feveral parallels to the meridian of Burleigh-moor,
will be as follows:

Greenhoe-moor from Burleigh moor — 9° 7! 2" S.W-
ae aaa hea front orsuarep Rugsir4siGeEs
ee from Bea a 24 50 42 S,W.
Hatherfedge from Clifton-beacon - 62 0 S.W.
Orpit from Hatherfedge - - Reto. Ons Pi.
Bardon-hill from Orpit - - Dts, 23 Seely.
Arbury-hill from Bardon-hill = G pie sCiah 5s UR Cod Oe
Brill from Arbury-hill - - apo aede yg ate Bd
Whitehorfe-hill from Brill - =" SOl2s 0 Saw.
Highclerc from Whitehorfe-hill - 27 39 53.5S.E.
Butfer-hill from Highclere - - 34. 12 3005 Os i
Dunnofe from Butfer-hill - 21 626 S.W

Thefe bearings give the diftances from the meridian of,
and perpendicular at Burleigh-moor, as follows ;

Greenhoe-moor from the meridian 9658.8 W. 60186.4
Hemingbrough-fpire - 13145 E.t »293404.2
Clifton-beacon . - 39203.2 W. 406462.9
Hatherfedge-beacon = - 120635.6 W. 449759.8
Orpit - - - 711242.2 W. 550982.9
Bardon-hill - - 62048.2 W. 677661.5
_ Arbury-hill — - - 38228.2 W. 856508.2
Brill - - - 6822.8 W. 999633.1
Whitehorfe-bill - - 119782.4 W. 1093081.4
Highclere - - 69376.7 W. 1189233.3
Butfer-hill . - 13547 E. 1311654.3
Dunnofe - - - 36778 W. 1442802.9

In the Philofophical TranfaGtions of the Royal Society
for the year 1793, the diftance of Clifton-beacon ( Beacon-
hill) from the perpendicular to the meridian of Dunnofe, is
fhewn to be 1036334.4 feet, and its diftance from the fame
meridian is ftated in the following page as being 4770 feet.
If the calculation there fpecified be carried from Clifton-
beacon to Burleigh-moor, through the fame triangles as ufed
in determining the diflance from Burleigh-moor to the point

~ where a line from Dunnofe parallel to the perpendicular cuts
the meridian of that ftation, we fhall have the following
bearings for computation, viz.

Clifton-beacon from Hatherfedge -

Hemingbrough-fpire from Ciena

Or goers ON: BW.
24 42 56 N.E.

beacon : a
Greenhoe-moor from eming-
brough-fpire és = 5 42 50.5 N.W.

Burleigh-moor from Greenhoe-moor 8 5915 N.E.
Affuming the diftance of Clifton-beacon from the meri-
dian of Dunnofe as above-mentioned to be 4470 feet, and
from the perpendicular at that ftationas 1036334.4 feet, we

fhall get
Feet. Feet.
Hemingbrough-fpire
from the meridian
Greenhoe-moor fromdo. 23992.6 E. 1382676,

And Burleigh-moor 335148 1442884.7

Now the latitude of Dunnofe is -7," greater than the lati-
tude of the point where the parallel from that ftation cuts

47323-7 E.1149511.1 from the
6 Perpend:,

“the meridian of Burleigh-moor 57,’ of a fecond in the heavens, ~

correfponds to 42 feet en the furface of the earth. Hence
1442892.9 + 42 = 1442845 feet may be taken for the dif.
tance between the parallels of Burleigh-moor and Dunnofe,
as derived from the firft mode of calculations

In like manner the latitude of Burleigh-moor being 214
lefg than the latitude of the point where a line from that
ftation parallel to the perpendicular at Dunnofe cuts its me-
ridiau, we fhall have 1442884.7 — 37.4 = 1442847.3 feet,
for the diftance between the parallels as determined by car-
rying up the calculations with the direétion of the meridian
obferved at Dunnofe in the year1797. Thefe refults differ
fomething more than two feet, and at a mean may be taken
as 1442846 feet, to which, adding 6.5 feet, the diftance of
the ftation from the point where the feétor was fet up at
Dunnofe, we get 1442853.8 feet for the true meridional
diftance.

In the paper prefented to the Royal Society, and printed
in the Philofophical 'Tranfaétions for the year 1803, giving
an account of the meafurement of an arc of the meridian,
the difference of latitude between the parallels of Dunnofe
and Clifton, in Yorkfhire, is fhewn to be 2° 50! 23!.38s
the terreftrial fubftance of the arc being 1036337 feet. (See
page 487 of the fame volume.)

If the former operation as well as the prefent one be fup»
pofed corre&t, their refults mult be confiftent, unlefs we
fuppofe the plumb line of the fe@tor at Burleigh-moor to
have been affected by attraction, ariling from the earth’s
wnequal denfity, in a greater or lefs degree than at Clifton-
beacon. Setting afide the confideration of elliptical arce
not being proportional to angles formed by the meeting of
the verticals or interfections of the radii of curvatures at
their extremities, yet, in the prefent cafe, the total are
not exceeding two degrees, we may ufe a ftatement of
fimple proportion. ‘J'aking, therefore, the terreftrial arc
between Dunnofe and Clifton as 1036337, and its fubtenfe
in the heavens as 2° 50! 23.38 5 and alfo the total meri-
dional diftance: between the parallels of Dunnofe and Bur-
leigh-moor as 1442853.8 feet, we fhall have 1036337 feet
2 2° 50’ 23!.38 (10223''.38) +: 1442847.8 feet: 14233.6
= 3° 57! 13.6, the fubtenfe of that arc, or the diifer-
ence ot latitude between thofe parallels; but this arc has
been found, by obfervation, to be 3° 57! 13.4, almoit
exadtly the fame as the computed refult.

The length of the degree on the meridian at the middle
point between Dunnofe and Burleigh-moor, of which the
latitude is 52° 34' 45", is 60822.6 fathoms. Inthe account
of the former meafurement, the length of the degree in 52° 2?
is flated to be 60820 fathoms, which is nearly the fame.
Were the earth an ellipfoid, and the diameter of its polar
and equatorial axis in the ratio of 229 to 230, the degree
in 52° 34! fhould be nearly 60830 fathoms, it the length of
that in 52 be taken 60820.

From this paragraph commences the account of the
meafurement between the parallels of Blackdown, in Dor-
fetfhire, and Delamere-foreft, in Chefhire, the itation on
Delamere-foreft being nearly 10 miles eaft from Chefter.

When the great circular initrument was placed over the
point at Delamere-foreft, the dire€tion of the meridian was
obferved. The bearing of the ftaff at Kilfare, from the
north meridian, was found, as may be feen from the ob-
fervations made at that ftation, to be 138° 1/31. The
angle between Afhley-heath and the fame ttafl was alfo
taken and feen to be 73° 24’ 7.5. Thefe two angles give ’
31° 25’ 38".5 for the fouth-eaft bearing of Afbley-heath
from the meridian of Delamere-foreft with Blackdown, a
principal ftation in Dorfetthire, gives the bearings of the
following fides from that meridian, via.

Atleys

FA:
“Aifhley-heath from Delamere foref’ 31725! 35!.5 S. E.
Brown-clay-bill from Afhley-heath 16 35 10 S.W.
Maivern-hill from Brown-clay-hill 23 25 42 Ss. E.
Trele&-beacon from Malvern-hill 32-14 58.5 S.W.
Dundry-beacon from Trelcét-beacon 6 37 9:75 S.E.
Mendip-hill from Dundry-bzacon 19 4 46 S.E£.
Ath beacon from Mendip-hill + 3 28 51.75 5S,E.
Mintern from Ath-beacon : 5 22 58 Si EB.
Blackdown from Mintera @) eee IO H302 5925 29 We

Thefe bearings, with their refpective fides, give,
Abhley-heath from QV

the meridian Jj
Browncilay-hill from do. 19203.2 E.
Malvern-hill from do. 77902.2 E.
"Trelect-beacon 5975-3 W.

67472.1-E. :110418,2 from the

279161.0 perpend®

49747005
538989.9

* “Dundry-beacon 9628.2 E, 665692.9
Mendip-hill 32246.2 E. 7310859
Ath-beacon 368962.2 TE. 897525:7
Mintern 42446.6 E. §66431.5
Blackdown. 31546.3 E. 925158.5

The parallel of Blackdown cuts the meridian of Dela-

mere foreft 30 feet farther fouthward than the parallel to the
. perpendicular, therefore 925158-+-30=925185.5 feet, is the

correct ‘diflance between the parallels of latitude of the two
ftations.

The bearings of Minfter, Ath-beacon, Mendip, and Dur-
dry-beacon, from the parallels to the meridian and perpen-
dicular at Blackdown, are given in the Philofophical Tranf-
ations for the year: 1800.

If the calculation be carried on from the fide of Dundry-
beacon.and Mendip, through the fame feries of triangles as
-before ufed, we fhall have,

Trele&t-beacon from Dundry-beacon 6° 1'26” N.W.

Malvern-hill from Treleét. beacon 92°20 43. No E.
Brownclay-hill from Malvern-hiil 23 19 27 N.W.
Afhley-heath from Brownclay-hill 16 43 55 N.E.
Delamere-foreft from Afhtey-heath gr 1g 53 N.W.

Thefe bearings, with their refpe€tive fides, and the dif-
-tance from-Dundry-beacow to the meridian and perpendicu-
ilar, viz. 2148S feet W. and 259503 feet, give

Trele&@t-beacon from

the meridian.

Malvern-hill

“Brownclay-hill

{ 35980.2 W. 386230.2 feet from
47221.4 E. §17612.2 the perp:
11250.8 W.653225.7

Athizy-heath 37288.9 E. 814689.7

Delamere-foreft 30000.7 W.925214-7

From the meridional diftance thus found (925214.7 feet)
34 feet mult be fubtraéted, the perpendicular at Dunnofe
cutting the meridian 34 feet north of the parallel of Dela-
mere foreft, therefore, 925214.7 — 34 =925180.7 feet for
‘the corrected diftance. By calculating with the bearings
‘from Delamere-foreit downwards, the diftance has been found
to be 925188.5 feet, giving a difference of 9 feet nearly,
between the two refults ; the mean, 925154.6 feet, may be
-taken for the true meridional diftance between the two fta-
‘tions.

The diftance between the parallels of Blackdown and
‘Dunnofe is accurately 25005.3 feet, as proved in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaétions for 1800. ‘Therefore, 925 184.6
+ 25005.3 = 950189.9 feet, is the true diltance between
ithe parallels of thofe {tations. ,

Now we have portions of two meridians, {pringing from
the fame fouthern parallel, and running up the extent of
3° 57’ 13".4, and the. other of 2°36’ 12,2. If the furface

R/T.

of the earth, in the feat of our operations, be uniform in ite
metidional figure, the fubtenfe of the arc, between Dunnofe
and Delamere-forett, fhouid be nearly in the ratio of their
amplitudes ; ‘this being the cafe, we fhall have 1442853.8
feet (the meridional diftance between Dunnofe and Burleigh-
moor) 3° 57/ 13.6, its amplitude :: 950189.9 feet (the me-
ridional diftance between Dunnofe and Delamere-foreft)
2 2° 36' 13.38 the amplitude of its arc. From the obfer-
vations made at Delamere-foreft, with the zenith feétor, in
1806, combined with thofe at Dunnofe in 1802, with the
fame in{trument, it is found that the difference in latitude of
thofe is 2° 36’ 12.2, making a difference of 1’ nearly be-
tween the calculated and obferved amplitudes, conftituting a
difference, fetting afide the confideration of the {pheroidal
figure of the earth, of 4,ths of a fecond in one degree.
Perhaps, under the confideration of each meridional line
being obtained independently of each other, and ad-
mitting that neither of them can be meafurcd with perfec
accuracy together with the chance of the amplitudes being,
in fome {mail degree, either in excels or defect, we may con-
fider the refult as fufficiently confiftent and fatisfaGtory, and
take. 60823 fathoms, in the latitude of 52° 34’ (or the
centre of England) as the length of one degree.

Amplitude of the arc comprifed by the parallels of lati-
tude of Dunnofe and Burleigh-moor, near the mouth of the
Tees, in the north of York(hire = 3°57’ 13/4.

Amplitude of the arc comprifed by the parallels of lati-
tude of Dunnofe and Delamere-forett ftation= 2° 36’ 12”.2,

N. B. The obfervations made with the zenith fe&tor at
Burleigh-moor and -Delamere-foreft were numerous, and
when reduced agreed well with each other.

Since writing the article Decree, we have beeh favoured
by Mr. Troughton with a rule for placing the repeating
circle exaétly in the plane of two given objets, and which
will be found extremely ufeful to fuch of our readers as may
have occafion to ufe that excellent inftrument.

Rule.—For placing the reflecting circle in the plane which
pafles through the eye of the obferver, and the two objedis
whofe angular diftance 1s about to be taken.

Firft, fet the tripod of the inttrument with one of its
feet-{crews as near as you can guefs in a line with that ob-
je@t, which of the two, you judge to be neareft the horizon ¢,
and with the plane of the circle vertical, and the lower tele-
{cope horizontal (both to the exaétnefs of two or three mie
nutes), bring the telefcope to the object, partly by turning
in azimuth, and partly by {crewing or propping the foot
{crew,

Next, turn the circle round upon the crofs-axis of the
ftand, until it feems by the eye to occupy the proper pofi-
tion ; and then, a fecond time bring the telefcope to the ob-
ject by the foot ferew and turning in azimuth.

Laftly, complete the operation, by bringing the upper
telefcope to the other objeci, by its own proper motion, in
conjunction with that of turning round the crofs-axis.

The principle of the above rule is this ; the crofs-axis of
the ftand and lower telefcope being made parailel, and
pointed to the object ; the cirele may be turned round that
axis without changing the angular pofition of the telefcope.

Eartu, Magneti/m of. All the obfervations, and all the
experiments that have been made, concerning this grand
natural agent, tend to prove, that all magnetifm is derived
from the earth; or, that the earth is the great and original
magnet. Iron, which, if not the only one, is at leaft by
far the principal metallic fubftance with which magnetifm is
concerned, has been libera!ly fcattered by the hand of nature
amongit its works. In ali the intermediate ftates, from its
moft oxydated to.its beft metallic form, iron is to be Las

wil

=

EARTH.

with in greater or lefs quantity in every part of the earth,
from the furface to as great a depth as mankind has been able
to penetrate. In great many places, valt maffes of iron are
found, which are in great meafure magnetic; and out of
which the natural magnets are obtained.

It can hardly be doubted, that the colleéted magnetical
ation of all thefe maffes of iron, and of ferruginous bodies,
forms the magnetic power of the earth; and that of courfe
the earth, taking it altogether, muft be confidered as a com-
plete, though heterogeneous, magnet.

If we compare the phenomena of this grand terreftrial
magnet with thofe which are ufually exhibited by fuch fmail
magnets as are in ufe amongft philofophers, the fimilarity
will be found fo very great and ftriking, as to leave no farther
doubt with refpect to their being exaétly the fame in kind,
though vaftly different in fize. A fmall magnetic needle,
laid pretty near a larger magnet, difpofes itfeif in the direc-
tion of the poles of the latter; and alters its inclination, ac-
cording as it is fituated nearer to, or farther from, any one
of thofe poles. The compafles commonly ufed in naviga-
tion, and the dipping needles, which are nothing more than
{mall magnets laid near a large one (viz. the earth), thew
exatly the fame phenomena. The progreffive variation of
the magnetic needle upon the furface of the earth has been
alleged as a peculiar phenomenon, which could rot be imi-
tated by laying a {mall magnetic needle near a common
magnet. But the caufe of this is, that the fmall magnets,
which are ufually employed in philofophical experiments,
are not liable to thofe alterations to which the earth is necef-
farily fubje&t ; and to which alterations the variation of the
magnetic needle is moft evidently owing. In faét, if a {mall
compals be laid within a moderate diftance of a pretty large
magnet, be it natural or artificial, and this magnet be fub-
jected to the fame alterations as the earth is fubjeét to, the
needle of the {mall compa{s will be found to alter its dire€tion
accordingly. Thefe alterations principally are the action of
one magnet upon another, the aétion of heat and cold, the
effets of chemical compofition and decompofition, and a
local derangement. The approximation of two or more
magnets towards each other, or their feparation, produces
a very confiderable alteration in the powers of any one of
‘them: and fuch feparation or approximation may be eafily
‘conceived to be produced within the earth by the action of
volcanoes, of earthquakes, &c. Mr. Canton fhewed, ina
moft decifive manner, that the aGtion of a magnet is di-
‘minifhed by heat, and increafed by cold; upon which faés,
Dr. Lorimer eftablifhed his rational hypothefis of the varia-
tion. (See Dectination.). Mr. Cavallo’s experiments,
defcribed in the fourth part of his ‘* Treatife on Magnetifm,”
fhew that the aétion of acids, and particularly of the ful-
phuric acid, upon iron, produces a remarkable alteration,
with refpeét to its magnetic attraction. See Magnetism.

Reafoning then upon thefe fa&ts, we muft naturally con-
clude, that fince the body of the earth contains ferruginous
bodies in various ftates, fituations, and fizes; the magnetic
needle muft be directed by the united aétions of all thofe
bodies. But as thofe bodies are undergoing a continual al-
teration, arifing from the viciffitudes of heat and cold, from
chemical ation, and other caufes, their united effets mult
a& differently upon the needle at different times: whence
the variation of its direétion is derived. At Naples, the
Magnetic needle is generally agitated during an eruption of
Mount Vefuvius, ‘T'o all thefe, we may add another caufe
of alteration in the direction of the magnetic needle, which
is the aurora borealis ; for, though we are as yet ignorant of
the caufe of that {urprifing phenomenon, yet is is certain

Vou. XII.

that the magnetic needle is frequently difturbed duriag the
appearance of the aurora borealis, B

Following the analogy between the phenomena of the
earth and thofe of {mall magnets, it is well known, that
when a piece of iron is brought within a certain diftance of
a magnet, the tron itfelf becomes inftantly a magnet. The
very fame thing takes place when the earth is confidered as
the magnet. Thus, take a bar of foft iron, about two or
three feet in length, and about an inch or two in thickneds,
(a common kitchen poker is very fit for the experiment, )
and place it ftraight up; or, which is much better, place it
in the dire€tion of the magnetical line, which is indicated by
the dipping needie. Put a magnetic needle upon a pin,
and, bsiding the pin in your hand, prefent the needle fuc-
ceflively to the various parts of the bar, from top to bottom,
and you will find, that, in this ifland, the lower half of the
bar is poffcfled of the north polarity, capable of repelling
the north, and of attra¢ting the fouth, pole of the needle ;
and the upper half is poficfled of the fouth polarity, capable
of repelling the fouth, and of attraéting the north, pole of
the needle. The attraGion is ftrongeft at the very ex-
tremities of the bar, where, if the bar be pretty long, it
will even attract {mall iron filings. It diminifhes from the
extremities towards the middle; and it vanifhes at about the
middle, where no one pole of the needle is attraéted in pre-
ference to the other. In fhort, in that fituation, the iron
bar is as much a magnet as any piece of iron that ftands
within the influence ot acommon magnet. If you turn the
bar upfide down, that extremity of it which was pofleffed
of a fouth magnetic polarity, when it flood uppermott, will
now become poffeffed of a north polarity ; and the other ex-
tremity will become poffeffed of the fouth polarity., In the
fouthern parts of the world, the lower part of the iron bar
fhews a fouth polarity ; or, in general, when in any part of
the world the iron bar is fituated in the magnetic line, each
extremity of the bar will acquire the polarity correfpondent
to the pole of the earth neareft to it. When iron bars re«
main for a number of years in a fituatiof nearly parallel to
the magnetical line, they generally acquire a permanent
magnetifm ; and fuch is the cafe with curtain-irons, iron
croffes on the tops of churches, fteeples, &c.

The only phenomenon, which has not been obferved to
take place with refpeét to the earth, and which is the moft
ftriking property of a common magnet, is the attra@tion of
a piece of iron. For inftance, if a piece of iron be prefented
to cither of the poles of acommon magnet, it will be power-
fully attraGted by it; but if it be prefented to the middle of
the furface of the magnet, the attraction will be hardly per-
ceptible, or next to nothing. Now, in conformity to this,
it might be expeéted, that a piece of iron would be attracted
more powerfully downwards, when near the poles of the
earth, than when near the equator; and this attra¢tion, be=
ing combined with the aitra¢tion of gravitation, ought to be
manifefted by the difference of the weights of the fame piece
of iron, when weighed near the poles, and when weighed
near the equator: for, if the magnetic attraGtion of the
earth upon it be at all fenfible, the piece of iron ovght to
weigh more in the former cafe than in the latter. We are
inclined to believe, that if this experiment were tried, with
all the precautions which may be deemed neceflary, it would
be found to anfwer; viz. that the fame piece of iron would
be found to weigh more near the poles, and Iefs near the
equator.

‘The magnetic poles of the earth do not coincide with its
aftronomical poles, nor are they direétly oppofite to each
other. But this is likewile the cafe with the common na-

3 N tural

EARTH.

tural magnets, and even with moft of the artifictal ones;
though, in the latter, the uniformity of the fubftance and
of the fhape may be carefully attended to. This difpofition
of the poles evidently arifes from the heterogeneous nature
of the materials in the {mall magnets, and efpecially in the
earth. It is owing to the {ame irregular difpofition of ma-
terials, that the lincs of declination follow feveral odd and
circuitous directions, as is fhewn under the article Decrina-
TION of the Magnetic Needle. ‘The hypothefis of an internal
magnet, or of two internal magnets, which were fuppofed
to exilt, and to move in a peculiar manner, within the body
of the earth, and to which the variation of the needle was
attributed, cannot poffibly demand a formal refutation at the
prefent time, when the concurrence of various feéts and
obfervations evidently fhew its abfurdity.

The great queftion is, whether the earth has only two
magnetic poles, or more than two, as is the cafe with feveral
irregular {mall magnets; and, likewife, where are -thofe
poles aQtually fituated? But it is much to be regretted,
that, in anfwer to this queition, we can offer nothing be-
fides conjectures.

With refpeét to the number of the poles, we may pretty
well judge, (from the remarkable circumftance that the
lines of declination do not crofs each other,) that the earth
has only two; viz. that on its northern parts there muft be
a magnetic polarity, which attraéts the north pole of the
magnetic needle; and on its fouthern parts there mult bea
magnetic polarity, which attraéts the fouth pole of the
needle. It is generaily fuppofed, that thofe magnetic poles
lie on the furface of the globe; but if we attentively con-
fider the fituation which they may more likely have, it will
appear that, in all probability, they are not fituated near
the furface of this globe, but at fome depth below it: at
Jeaft, this muft be the cafe with the fouth pole; for, fince
the water of the fea is incapable of magnetifm, and the
fouthern hemiiphere, efpecially about the iouth pole, con-
tains a great deal more water than land, it i2 plain that the
fouth magnetic pole muft be fituated at leaft near the bot-
tom of the fea: in confequence of which, the variation of
the needle in that hemifphere mutt be different from what it
would be, if the magnetic pole werg fituated on the furface
of the terraqueous globe. The fame obfervation may be
made with refpeét to the fituation of the north magnetic
pole. Befides this, we mutt alfo confider the irregularities
arifing from the unequal and irregular fituation of land and
fea; it being natural to conceive, that large traéts of land
on one fide of the magnetic needle will draw it away from
the real meridian: whereas, a large ocean cannot produce
any fuch effect. This, however, is fubje& to a great deal
of variety, arifing from the nature of the land, the depth of
the fea, the nature of the ground at the bottom of the
fea, &c.

With refpect to the latitudes and longitudes of the mag-
netic poles of the earth, we are ftill lefs fatisfatorily in-
formed. Mr. Euler, in the ‘* Memoirs of the Academy of
Berlin,” places the north magnetic pole in lat. 75°; Le-
monnier, in his “* Lois du Magnetifme,”’ places it in Jat.
73°; Buffon places it in lat. 71°; La Lande places it in lat.
77 4/; and Churchman of America places it in lat. 60°.
‘The longitude of the above-mentioned pole, La Lande fup-
pofes to be 110° 35! W. of Paris. But from the obferva-
tions made at Hludfon’s bay, the longitude of the fame from
Paris feems to be 86°, (a mean of the two is 98°). Euler
makes it 115°; Buffon makes it 100°; and Lemonnier
makes it only 50°.

The fituation of the fouth magnetic pole is ftill more

doubtful. Dr, Lorimer fays, §¢ Tt is very remarkable,. tha€
when captain Cook, in his fecond voyage, crofied the line
of no declination, which pafles through the continent of
New Holland, the declination of his compafs altered about
14° in two days’ run: again, in his laft voyage, though not
fo far fouth, the alteration of the declination, in proportion
to the difance, was greater than ufual near to that line,
The dipping needle likewife fhewe a confiderable degree of _
inclination upon this line. In fhort, from various confiderae
tions, it would appear, that if this earth has the common
properties of a natural magnet with only two. poles, qne of
them muik be fituated in this line; and, though not within
the 60° of latitude, as Mr. Euler imagined, yet it may pofs
fibly be found not far from the 70°. If, therefore, it ap-
pears praGticable to fail to the 7e° of fouth latitude, or be-
yond it, about the meridian of Botany Bay, keeping in eaft
declination ; and then to run weftward, till the welt de.
clination becomes evident; if, at the fame time, they have a
dipping needle on board, that without much trouble could
give the magnetic inclination at fea with a tolerable degree
of accuracy, and about a hundred weight of foft iron, with
a good balance, 1 cannot help thinking that fome curious
difcovery might be made.

‘© Tbe ingenious Mr. Maupertuis, in his letter to the
king of Pruffia, on the advancement of the fciences, among
other curious articles, having mentioned a northern voyage,
adds, ‘‘ to obferve the phenomena of the load-ftone, on the
very {pot from whence it is f{uppofed to draw its original ins
fluence.’? But fuch voyages were not in the power of
Frederick the Great. It 1s to our prefent gracious fo-
vereign, George IIL., that the world will ever be indebted
for fuch noble, extenfive, and difinterefted undertakings.
All accefs to the north pole having been proved impracti-
cable, by the voyages of lord Mulgrave and captain Cook,
it now only remains to be determined, whether it 1s poflible
to come at the fouth magnetic pole ; which, for the reafons
already mentioned, feems at leaft more probable, if it be
judicionfly attempted.” Cavallo’s Magnetifm, p. 262, &c.

The la{t obfervations which need be added to this article
relate to the various magnetic force in different parts of the
earth, and at fome height above it.

In thefe northern parts of the world, it has been obferved
that, ceteris paribus, the north end of a magnet is the
ftrongeft; and the contrary is faid to be the cafe in the
fouthern parts of the earth. Thus, in the above-mentioned
experiment of the bar of foft iron, which acquires magneti{m
from the earth, its lower extremity generally fhews the
ftrongeft power. Mr. Humboldt found, that the intenfity
of the magnetic force increafes from the equator to the poles,
excepting trifling local irregularities. He found that the
fame compafs, which at Paris performed 245 olcillations in
10 minutes, performed not more than 211 in Peru; and it
conitantly varied in the fame direGtion; viz. the number of
the ofcillations always decreafed in approaching the equator,
and it always increafed in advancing towards the north,
(Journal de Phyfique, an. 13.) In an aeroftatic voyage of
Mefirs. Guy Lufac, and Biot, performed in Augult, 180.45
when they afcended to the height of 13,124 Englifh feet, st
was obferved that the magnetic property fhewed no ap-
preciable diminution from the furface of the earth to the
above-mentioned height. Its a€tion. within thofe limits was
con{tantly manifefted by the fame effects, and according to
the fame Jaws. This was determined by the ofcillation of a
magnetic needle. -

Eartu, Theory of the. Under the article Cosmocony
we have given a concife abftraét of the opinions of the

ancient

EARTH.

ancient philofophers concérning the univerfe, the bodies of
which it confifts, and the time and manner of their formation.
Thefe particulars are.alfo detailed, with fome variety and
amplification, under the biographical articles of the molt
eminent philofophcrs of antiquity and the denominations by
which their refpeétive fyitems are diftinguified. Under the
article Cuaos, we have briefly recited the fentiments of
{everal ancient and modern philofophers, concerning the
primitive flate of the earth, and under the article Creation,
we have given the f{criptural account of its formation into an
habitable globe. We propofed in this place to detail the
modero theories of the earth, commencing with that of
Des Cartes ; but we.have already, in fome degree, anticipated
cur intention by the ttatements, which we were underane-
ceffity of introducing under the article Dexuce, for the
purpofe of illuftrating the caufes and effects of that me-
morable cataltrophe. It now remains that we fhould fup-
ply what is wanting, in orderto render our account of the
different theories of the earth as complete as the nature and
limits of this work will allow, -

In the terraqueous globe fome writers have diftinguifhed
three parts or regions, viz. 1. The external part or cruft,
whichis that from which vegetables arife, and animals are
nourifhed. 2. The middle, orintermediate part, which is
pollefled by foflils, extending farther than human labour has
ever yet penetrated. 3. The internal, or central, part,
which is unknown to us, though many authors have fup-
poted it to be of a magnetic nature; by others, it has been
conjectured to bea mals, or {phere of fire; by others, an
abyfs, or colleé&tion of waters, furrounded by the ftrata of
earth ; and by others, a holiow, empty fpace, inhabited by
animals, who have their fun, moon, planets, and other
eonveniencies within the fame. Others divide the body of
the globe into two parts, viz. the external part, which they
call the cortex, including the whole depthor mafs of the
ftrata of the earth; and the internal, which they call the
nucleus, being of a different nature from the former, and pof-
feffed of fire, water, orthe like; but itis heedlefs to dwell
on thefe fanciful conjectures.

The figure of the earth has been already afcertained. and
defcribed under a preceding article (fee Kartu, in Afro-
nomy ); and here it will be fufficient to obferve, that the
natural caufe of this figure is, according to fir Ifzac Newton,
the great principle of attraction, which the Creator has
affigned to all the matter of the univerfe ; and by which,
-whatever be its precife origin or the intermediate inftruments
of its operation in fubordination to the energy of the Deity,
all bodies, and all the parts of bodies, mutually attraét one
another. In conformity to the operation of this principle
of gravity combined with the diurnal rotation of the earth
onits axis, our globe, like other planetary bodies, fimilarly
circumftanced, is higher under the equator than at the
poles; fo that its figure is nearly that of an oblate {pheroid,
{welling out towards the equatorial parts, and flattened, or
contracted, towards the poles. If the earth was originally
in a fluid ftate, or compofed of yielding materials, its re-
volution round its axis would neceflarily make it affume
fych a figure; becaufe the centrifugal force being greatelt
towards the equator, the parallels of diurnal rotation in-
creafing towards this limit, the fluid, or yielding matter,

would there rife and fwell molt: and that its figure really
_ fhould be fo now, feems neceflary, in order to keep the fea
in the cquinoétial regions, from overflowing the earth about
thefe parts,
_ The external part of the globe either exhibits inequalities,
88 mountains or vallics;. or it 1s plain and level ; or dug in
ghannele, fiffures, beds, &c. for rivers, lakes, fers, &c,

Thefe inequalities in the face of the earth are fuppofed, by
molt naturalifts, to have arifen from a rupture or {ubverfion
of the earth by the force either of the fubterraneous fires or
waters. The earth, in its natural and original ftate, Des
Cartes, and after him Burnet, &c. (fee the fequel of this
article) {uppofe to have been perfeéily round,, {mooth, and
equable ; and they account for its prefent rude and irregular
form principally fromthe great deluge. In the external, or
cortical part of the earth, we difcover various ftrata, which
are {uppofed by fome to have exifted in the primitive earth,
and which others have afcribed to the fediments of various
floods ; the waters of which being replete with materials of
different kinds, as they dried up cr oozed through, depo-
fited thefe various matters, which in time hardened into {trata
of ftone, fand, coal, clay, &c.

The Ariftotelian philofophy, with regard to the univerfe
(for an account of which, fee Arisrotie, PeripaTrErics,
and alfoCosmoGony ) was {uperfeded by that of DesCartes,
which was, in faét, arevival of the Atomic (fee Aromic,) or
that of Democrirusand Epicurus, with fome correGions-
andemendations. (See Cartes and Carresran.) This of
courfe was fupplanted by the Newronian fyltem, (See
Newron and Newrontan.) It is hardly neceflary to
obferve, that the Cartefian coimogony was fomewhat modi-
fied by Mr. Hutchinfon, who attempted to graft his on
the authority of revelation, literally interpreted. The fubor-
dinate agents in his cofmogony were fire, light, and air; the
operations of which he and his followers have unfuccéfsfully
endeavoured to explain and to accommodate to the fy tem of
nature,

Some of the principal difficulties that occur in forming a
fatisfactory theory of the earth are thofe that relate to its
figure, the diftribution of its water, the origin and perma-
nence of its mountains, the difpofition of its internal itrata,
and the introduétion of vegetable and marine productions,
fuch as leaves, &c.and fhells into the moft folid rocks of
marble and limetftone.

The fir? theory we fhall mention, is that of Mr. Thomas
Burnet, who was a man of genius and tafte, and who was
the firft who treated of this fubje& in a fy{tematic manner,
in his * Telluris Theoria facra, &c.’’ publifhed at London
in the year 1680. Under the {plendour of his conceptions
and the elegance of his ityle, he has had the art to conceal
feeble arguments, and erroneous principles of philofophy-.
His work, though it acquired great reputation, was criticifed
by many of the learned, and particularly by Keill, in a trea-
tife, entitled ‘* An Examination of the Theory of the
Earth.”? Burnet fuppofes that the primeval earth was a fluid
ma{s, compofed of heterogeneous materials, the heavielt of
which defcended to the centre, and there formeda hard and
folid body. The water was colleéted round this body, and
all lighter fluids, particularly the air, afcended above the
water or encompafled the whole. Between the orbs of
water and air was interpofed an oily matter, upon which the
impure earthy particles, blended with the air, defcended,
and formed with it a cruft of earth and oil, This cruft was
the firlt habitable part of the earth, and the abode of men
and other animals. The earth in this ftate had no vatiety of
feafons, becaufe its equator was fuppofed to be coincident
with the plane of the ecliptie. ‘The foil, formed in the
manner above ftated, was light and rich, and adapted to the
various purpofes of vegetation, The furface of the earth
was level and uniform, without mountains, feas, or other
inequalities. In this ftate it remained about 16 centurics;
till by degrees the heat of the fun dricd the forementioned
eruft, and produced at firft fuperficial and afterwards deeper
fiffures, fo as thoroughly to penetrate it. The carth at

3N2 lengtle

EARTH,

fength was rent in pieces, and the waters gufhed out,
with fuch force and in fuch abundance, as to overwhelm the
dry land and occafion the univerfal deluge. After a certain
period the water fubfided into the cavities that were left
between the folid mafles of earth ; and as thefe cavities were
filled with water, the earth appeared in the moft elevated
parts, and the lower parts or valleys were occupied by the
water, which formed the ocean. See DELUGE.

This theory, announced in England by Burnet, is faid to
have been firft communicated by Francefco Patriz‘o, a pro-
f-ffor at Ferrara and Rome, above a century before, in a dia-
logue, entitled ** IL Lamberto.” M. Buffon has not un-
aptly ftyled this theory an clegant romance; the produ& of
mere imagination, and unfupported by any obferved pheno-
mena.

About the fame time the celebrated Leibnitz publifhed, in
the Leipfic TranfaGtions, a fetch of an oppofite fyftem,
under the title of *¢ Protogea.’? According to this writer,
the earth, and alfo the other planets, were originally fixed
and luminous fters, which, after burning for many ages, were
extinguifhed from a deficiency of combuftible matter, and
beeame opake bodies. The fire, by fufion of the matter com-
pofing the earth, produced a vitrified eruft; fothat the bafis of
all terreftrial bodies is glafs, of which fand and gravel are the
fragments. The other f{pecies of earth refulted from a mix-
ture of fand with water and fixed falts ; and, when the cruft
had cooled, the moift particles, which had been elevated in
the form of vapour, fe!l down and formed the ocean. Thefe
waters at firll covered the whole furface, and even over-
topped the higheft mountains: and the author alleges that
the fhells and other fpoils of the ocean, which every where
abound, are indelible proofs of the fea’s having formerly co-
vered the earth. ‘This theory, though ingenious, is altoge-
ps a and inapplicable to the prefent ftate of the
earth.

The fignal changes that have taken place on the furface of
the earth were long ago afcribed by Kanthus, the Lydian, to
earthquakes and fubterraneous fires, which have from time
to time elevated and deprefled the bed of the fea, which is
thus rendered very unequal; and thus he accounted for the
immenfe quantities of fhells and foffils, found on the fum-
mits of the higheft mountains. Our countryman, Ray, re-
vived this opinion, in his ¢* Phyfico-Theological Difcourfes,”
publifhed in the year 1692. This author fuppofes that the
waters, which originally overflowed the earth, gradually
fubfided, that dry land firft appeared in the territories that
are adjacent to the {pots inhabited by the progenitors of
our race immediately after their creation: and that, as it
extended itfelf by degrees, a confiderable time elapfed before
the waters had retired to their proper beds. During this
interval, the fhell-fifh having multiplied, were univerfally dif.
tributed by the agitation of the waters; and when the
bottom of the fea was railed by the earthquakes which ac-
companied the deluge, and formed the mountains, beds of
marine productions were thrown up aloug with it.

For an account of Dr. Woodward’s theory, we refer to
the article DeLuGs.

Mr. Whitton, who publifhed his «* New Theory of the
Earth,” at London, in 1708, begins with an account of the
creation of the world; and he alleges, probably not with-
out reafon, (fee Creation,) that the defcription of Mo-
fes, in the firlt chapter of Genefis, is not an exaét, or
philofophical account of the creation and origin of the
univerfe ; but only an hiftorical narrative of the forma-
tion of the terreftrial globe. The earth, in his eftima-
tion, formerly exifted in a chaotic ftate; and at the time
mentioned by Mofes, it merely received a form, fituation,

and confiftence, fuitable to the habitation of mankind.
Accordingly, he fays, that the primitive earth was an uvin-
habitble comet, fubje& to fuch alternations of heat and
cold, that its conftituent matter, being fometimes liquefied
and fometimes frozen, was in the form of a chaos, or an
aby{s, furrounded with utter darknefs ; fo that as the facred
writer fays, darkne/s covered the face of the deep. This chaos
(fee Caos) was the atmofphere of the comet, a body
compofed of heterogeneous materials, in the centre of which»
was a globular, folid, hot nucleus, about 2000 leagues in
diameter. This was an extenfive mafs of a denfe fluid,
the various materials of which were agitated and blended in
the utmoft confufion. Such he conceives to have been the
condition of the earth at the era of the creation, But in
proportion as the eccentricity of the comet’s orbit decreafed,
and it became more nearly circular, the materials of the cir«
cumambient fluid arranged themfelves according to their
fpecific gravities, and formed the earth, the water, and the
air. Thus the immenfe volume of chaos was reduced to a
{phere of moderate magnitude, including the unchanged
central nucleus, which retained its primeval heat, which the
author calculates may continue 6000 years. An earthy
fubftance, confifting of the heavier parts of the chaotic at=
mofphere, mixed with aqueous’ particles, encompafled the
central globe of fire, and was enclofed by a body of watery.
round which was formed the cruft of earth deftined to be
the habitation of mankind. On this crufted furface there
were irregularities, compofed of the heavieft parts of the
earth, which funk deeply into the fubjacent fluid, and formed
plains and valleys; whilft thofe of lefs weight remained at 2
greater elevation, and conftituted mountains.. We fhall here
obferve, that, according to Mr. Whilton, the annual motion
of the earth commenced when it received its new form; but
that its diurnal motion was not given to it till the fall of
Adam ; that the ecliptic interfeGted the tropic of Cancer in
a point precifely oppofite to the fituation of Paradife, which
lay on the N.W. frontier of Affyria; that, before- the de-
luge, the year began at the autumnal equinox, and that the
orbits of the earth and planets were then perfeét circles ;
that the deluge commenced in the manner related under
that article, on the 18th of November, in the year of
the Julian period 2365, or 2349 B. C., and that before the
deluge, the folar and lunar year were the fame, and con-
filted of exaétly 360 days, but that the figure of the earth
was changed from that of a fphere into a {pheroid.
This latter effe€&t was produced by the centrifugal force
refulting from the diurnal motion of the earth, and by the
attraction of the comet}; for the earth, when pafling through
the tail of the comet, was fo fituated, that its equatorial
parts were neareft to it; and, of courfe, the comet’s attrac-
tion, concurring with the earth’s centrifugal force, elevated
the equatorial regions with the greater facility; becaufe the
cruft was broken in an infinite number of places, and
becaufe the flux and reflux of the aby{s pufhed more violently

again{ the equator than any where elfe. In accounting

for the changes, which the earth has undergone in confe-
quence of the deluge, Mr. Whifton adopts Woodward’s
theory, and coincides with him in his remarks on the prefent
{late of the earth.

In 1729, M. Bourguet projeéted a theory of the earth,
but did not live to execute the fyftem which he had planned.

The fundamental propofitions of his theory were the follows

ing: that the earth was formed at once, and not fuccef-
fiveky ;—that its figure and difpofition demonftrate, that it
was formerly in a fluid ftate ;—that the prefent condition of
the earth is very different from what it was for fome ages
after its frit foymatian ;—that the matter of the globe was

7 originally

é
-

L'a

i

EARTH.

originally fofter than after its furface was changed ; —that
the condenfation of its folid parts diminithed gradually with
its velocity ; fo that after a certain number of revolutions
round its axis, and round the fun, its original ftruCture was
fuddenly diffolved ;—that this happened at the vernal equi-
nox ;—that the fea-fhells infinuated themfelves into the
diffolved matters ;—that the earth, after this diffolutior,
affumed its prefent form ;—and that, as foun as the fire,. or
heat, operated upon it, its confumption gradually begun, and,
at fome future period, it will be blown up with a dreadful
explofion, accompanied with a general conflagration, which
will augment the atmofphere, and diminifh the diameter of
the globe ;—and then the earth, inftead of ftrata of fand, or
clay, will confift only of beds of calcined materials, and
mountains compofed of amalgams of different metals.

In r740, Lazaro Moro, an Italian geologift, publifhed a
work at Venice, in which he partially adopts the hypothefis
of Ray, His profeffed defign was to account for the re-
mains of marine animals found in mountains at a diftance
from the fea. With this view, he conjectured, that the
earth, in general, and its mountains in particular, were ele-
vated from the bottom of the fea by the force of fubter-
raneous fires, which began to burn foon after the creation.
At firft @ portion of land was raifed up, in which no fhells
are found, as the ocean had not then been ftocked with fith.
Afterwards, large quantities of fhells and other marine fub-
ftances were thrown up with the foil, and difpofed in ftrata,
according to their fpecific gravity. But how the ftrata
were confolidated, andthe fhells were found in the ftrata
mineralized, he has not informed us. Mr. Rafpe, in his
s Specimen Hiftorie Naturalis Globi Terraquei,” pub-
- at Leipzic, A. D. 1763, inclines to the hypothefis of

oro.

For other theories by Scheuchzer, Steno, Hooke, De La
Pryme, &c. &c. we refer to the article DetuGe,

The theory of M. Buffon next claims our particular no-
tice. The author has embellifhed it with the beauties of
language, and rendered it plaufible and interefting, by an
elaborate difcuffion of the arguments, which he alleges in
fupport of it, and of the obje&tions which he conceived
might be urged againft it. We can only prefent to view
fome of its moft prominent features, and refer thofe, who
with for further fatisfaG@tion and amufement, to his own ac-
count of it. The earth, and alfo the other planets, were,
according to the hypothefis of M. Buffon, portions of the
“body of the fun, which were detached from it by the ob-
lique ftroke of acomet. Thefe maffes of igneous particles,
ifluing from the fun in the form of torrents and not of globes,
and afterwards afluming a globular figure by the mutual
attraGtion of their parts, receded from it with an accelerated
motion to fuch a diftance, as to admit of their acquiring a
circular, or elliptical movement round the fun. Their revo-
Jutions on their axes he afcribes to the obliquity of the
original ftroke impreffed by the comet. By means of the
rotatory motion of the earth, on its axis, and of the fluidity
of the matter, of which it confifted at its firft formation, it
acquired the figure of an oblate fpheroid. The earth, being
removed to a confiderable diftance from the fun, gradually
cooled; and the vapours, which in their expanded ftate re-
fembled the tail of a comet, condenfed by degrees, and fell
down in the form of water upon the-furface. ‘The water
depofited a flimy fubftance, mixed with fulphur and falts, part
of which was carried, by the motion of the waters, into the
perpendicular fiffures of the fbrata, and produced metals,
and the reft remaining on the furface gave rife to the vege-
table mould, which abounds. in different places, with more
or lefs of animal or vegetable particles, the organization of

which is not obvious to the fenfes. ‘The interior partsof
the globe were originally compofed of vitrified matter, which
the author apprehends to be their prefent ftate. Above this
vitrified matter were placed thofe bodies, whieh the fire had
reducéd to the fmalleft particles, as fands, which are merely
portions of glafs ; and above thefe pumice ftones and the
{coriz of melted matter, which produced the different clays.
The whole was covered with water to the depth of 500 or
600 feet, which originated from the condesfation of the va-
pours, when the earth begantocool. This water depolited
a ftratum of mud, mixed with all thofe matters, which are
capable of being fublimed, or exhaled by fire; and the air
was formed of the molt fubtle vapours, which, from their
levity, rofe above the water. ‘* Such,’’ fays our author,
“* was the condition of the earth, when the tides, the winds,
and the heat of the fun, began to introduce changes on its
furface. The diurnal motion of the earth, and that of the
tides, elevated the waters in the equatorial regions, and
neceffarily tranf{ported thither great quantities of flime, clay,
and fand; and, by thus elevating thofe parts of the earth,
they, perhaps, funk thofe under the poles about two leagues,
or the agcth part of the whole: for the waters would eafily
reduce into powder pumice ltones, and other fpongy parts
of the vitrified matter upon the furface ; and thus excavate
fome places and elevate ochers, which, in time, would pro-
duce iflands and continents, and all thofe inequalities on the
furface, which are more confiderable towards the equator,
than towards the poles. Indeed, both the land and fea
have moit inequalities between the tropics, as is evident from
the incredible number of iflands peculiar to thofe regions.”

In order to accommodate his theory to the prefent ftate
of the globe, he furveys and recounts the phenomena which
it exhibits, and the parts of which it confifts, in their va-
rious difpofitions and arrangements, as far as our obfervation
is capable of being extended.

The furface of this immenfe globe exhibits to our obfer-
vation, heights, depths, plains, feas, marfhes, rivers, caverns,
gulfs, and. volcanoes, ** without’ any apparent order in the
difpofition of them.?? Upon penetrating into the bowels of
the earth, we difcover metals, minerals, ftones, bitumens,
fands, earth, waters, and every kind of matter, placed, as it
were, by accident, and without any obvious defign. After a:
more accurate infpe¢tion, we find funk mountains, caverns
filled: up, fhattered rocks, whole countries {wallowed up,
new iflands emerged: from the ocean, heavy fubftances
placed above light ones, and hard bodies inclofed in foft
ones; all of them blended in confufion, and forming @
chaos, that refembles the ruins of a world.

In examining the bottom of the fea, this author fays,
we perceive it to be equally irregular with the furface of the
dry land, prefenting to our notice hills and valleys, plains
and hollows, rocks and earths of every kind. Iflands are
obferved to be the fummits of vaft mountains ; and other
mountains have their tops nearly on a level with the furface
of the ocean. Inthe fea are likewife-difcovered currentas
which flow rapidly in various direétions. We likewile per-
ceive numerous agitations and convulfions in the ocean,
which are owing to volcanoes, whofe mouths, though
fituated many fathoms below the furface, vomit forth tor-
rents of fire. In other parts we difcern fmooth and calm:
regions, which, neverthelefs, are equally dangerous to the
mariner. The bottom ot the ocean, and the fhelving fides
of rocks, produce many fpecies of plants in great abundanee
as wellas variety. Its foil confilts of fand, gravel, rocks, and
fhells ; in fome places a fine clay, in others a compact earth.
Upon the whole, the bottom of the fea exactly refembles
the dry land which we inhabit.. :
aS

FARA.

Ina furvey of the dry land our author finds, that the
freat chains of mountains Jie nearer to the equator than to
the poles; that thofe of the old continent tend more f i
to weit than ftom fouth to north, and in the new <
they have a contrary direction. He obferves, that th
minent angles of one mountain afe conftantly oppolit
the concave angles of the neighbouring mourtains
they are of equal dimerfions; whether they be fepz }
zn extenfive plain or a {mall valley. Oppofite hiils, he ob-
ferves, are nearly of the fame height ; and mountains gene-

ae

rally occupy the middie of centinents, iflands and pro-
montories dividing them by their greate lenpths. The
dire€tion of the principal rivers is nearly perpencicylar to
the coaits of the {eas. «nto which they difcharge themfeives;
and during the greateit part of their courfe they follow the
dircétion of the mountains from which they ipriag. The
fea-coatts are generally bordered with rocks or marble and
other hard ftones; or, rather, with earth and fand accn-

mulated by the waters of the fea, or depe
On oppofite coafis, feparated by {mall ivt
Giflerest itrataor beds of earth are compeled of the fame
materials. | Volcanoes, fays our author, never exilt but in
very high mountains ; fome are extinguiihed; and fome are
connected with others by fubterraneous: paflages, and their
eruptions frequently happen at the iame time. Lakes and
feas communicate with one another ina fimilar manner.
‘Mediterranean or inland feas receive large fupplies of water
from many larg¢ rivers without any augmentation of their
bounds; and, therefore, probably difcharge part of their
fupply by fubterraneous paflages.

In the profecution of his inquiryand examination. our author
findsthat the upper ftratum of the carth 1s univerfallythe fame
fubftance ; that this fuo{tance, from which ail animal and vege-
table {ubitances derive their nourifhment, is merely a com-
polition of the decayed parts of ammal and vegetable bodies,
reduced into particles fo fmall, that their former organic
ftate is not diitinguifhable. Upona deeper penetration he
finds the real earth, beds of {and, brimttone, clay, fhells,
marble, gravel, chalk, &c, Thefe beds are parallel to one
aaother, and of the fame thicknefs. In neighbouring hills,
beds or ftrata of the fame materials are uniformly found at
the fame levels, however the hills may be feparated. Strata
of every kind, even of the mott folid rocks, are uniformly
divided by perpendicular fiflures. Shells, fkeletons of fifhes,
marine plants, &c. are often found in the bowels of the
éarth, andon the tops of mountains, even at the greatcit
diltance from the fea: and thefe thelis, fifhes, and plants,
are exaGtly fimilar to thofe which ex:{t in the ocean. Petri-
fied fhells are found every where in great quantities, not
only included in rocks of marble and lime-ftone, as wellas
in earths and clays, but aétually incorporated and filled
with the fubftacces in which they are inclofed. Upon
the whole he concludes, from repeated obfervations, that
marbles, lime-ftones, chalks, marles, clays, and fands, and
almoft all terreftrial fub{tances, wherever fituated, are full
of fhelis and other fpoils of the ocean,

From this furvey, all the particulars of which we cannot
enumerate, Mr. Buffon deduces the following conclufions,
Diz.

The changes which the earth has undergone during the
lafi two or three thoufand years are inconfiderable, when
compared with the great revolutions which muft -have hap-
pened in thofe ages that immediately fucceeded the creation.
For, as terreftrial fubftances could only acquire folidity by
thecontinued aGion of gravity, it is ealy to demonftrate,
that the furface of the earth was at firft much fofter than it
is now; and, confequently, that the fame cauies, which at

ed by rivers,
Is of fea, the

prefent produce but flight and almo& imperceptible alters
ations during the courfe of many centuries, were then cae
pable of producing very great revolutions ina few years. It
appears, indeed, tobe an incontrovertible fact, that the dry
Jand which we now inhabit, and even the fummits of the
hizheft mountains, were formerly covered with the waters
of the fea; for fhells, and other marine bodies, are itill found
upon the very tops of mountains. It Jikewife appears, that
the waters cf the fea have remained fora long feries of years
upon the furface of the earth; becaufe, in many places,
fuch immenfe banks of flrells have been difecovered, that it is

impoflible fo great a multitude of animals couid exilt at the”

fame time. This circumf{tance feems likewife to prove, that,
although the materia!s on the furface of the earth were then
foft, and, of courfe, eafily difunited, moved, and tranf{.
ported, by the waters; yet thefe tranfportations could not
he fuddenly cffeed. They mult have been gradual and
fucceflive. as fea-bodies are fometimes found more than
1oco fect below the furface. Such a thicknefs of earth or
of fone could not be accumulated ana fhort pericd. Al.
though it fhould be fuppofed, that, at the deluge, all the
fhelis were tranfported from the bottom of the ocean, and
depofited uponthe dry land; yet, beiide the difficulty of
eftablifhing this fuppofition, it is clear, that, as fhells are
found incorporated in marble and in the rocks of the highelt
mountains, we mutt likewife fuppofe, that all thefe marbles
and rocks were formed at the fame time, and at the very
inftant when the deluge took place; and that, before this
grand revolution, there were neither mountains, nor marbles,
nor rocks, nor clays, nor matter of any kind, fimilar to
what we are now acquainted with, as they all, with few ex-
ceptions, contain fheils, and other productions of the ocean.
Befides, at the time of the univerfal deluge, the earth mutt
have acquired a confiderable degree of folidity, by the ac-
tion of gravity for more than fixtcen centuries. During
the fhort time the deluge laited, therefore, it is impofflible
that the waters fhould have overturned and diffolved the
whole furface of the earth, to the greateft depths that man-
kind have been able to penetrate.

It is certain, that the waters of the fea have, at fome
period or other, remained for a fucceffion of ages upon what
we now know to be dry land; and, confequently, that the
vaft continents of Afia, Europe, Africa, and America, were
then the bottom of an immenfe ocean, replete with every
thing which the prefent ocean preduces. _It is likewife cer-
tain, that the different ftrata of the earth are horizontal
and parallel to each other. This parallel fituation muft,
therefore, be owing to the operation of the waters, which
have gradually accumulated the different materials, and
given them the fame pofition that water itfeif invariably af-
fumes. The horizontal pofition of ftrata is almoft univerfal:
in plains, the {trata are exactly horizontal. Itis only ia
the mountains that they are inclined to the horizon; be-
caufe they have originally been formed by fediments depofited
upon an inclined bafe. Thefe ftrata mutt have been gradually
formed, and they are not the effe& of any fudden revolytion;
becaufe nothing is more frequent than ftrata compofed of
heavy materials placed above light ones, which never could
have happened, if, according to fome authors, the whole
had been blended and diflolved by the dcluge, and afterwards
precipitated. Onthis fuppofition every thing fhould have
had a different afpect from what now appears. The heavieft
bodies fhould have defcended firft, and every ftratum fhould
have had a fituation correfponding to its fpecific gravity,
In this cafe, we fhould not have feen folid rocks or metals
placed above light fand, nor clay under coal.

Ancther circumftance demands our attention. No caufe

4 but

EARTH.

but the motion and fediments of water could poffibly pro-
duce the regular pofition of the various ftrata of which the
fuperficial part of this earth is compofed. The highef
mountains confift of parallel ftrata, as well as} the loweft
valleys. OF courfe, the formation of mountains cannot be
imputed to the fhocks of earthquakes, or to the eruptions of
volcanoes. Such fmall eminences, as have been raifed by vol-
canoes or convulfions of the earth, inftead of being com-
pofed of parallel ftrata, are mere mafles of weighty mate-
rials blended together in the utmoft confufion. But this
parallel and horizontal pofition of ftrata muft neceflarily be
the operation of a uniform and conftant caufe,

Weare, therefore, authorifed to conclude, fays our au-
thor, from repeated and incontrovertible fats and obferva-
tions, that the dry and habitable part of the earth has for
a long time remained under the waters of the fea, and mutt
have undergone the fame changes which are at prefent going
on at the bottom of the ocean,

The ocean, from the creation of the folar fy{tem, has
been conttantly fubje@ to a regular flux and reflux. Thefe
motions, which happen twice in twenty-four hours, are
principally oceafioned by the aétion of the moon, and are
greater in the equatorial regions than in other climates. The
earth likewife performs a rapid motion round its axis, and,
confequently, has a centrifugal force, which is alfo greatett
at the equator. ‘This laft circum{tance, independent of ac-
tual obfervations, proves, that the earth is not a perfect
{phere, but that it muft be more elevated under the equator
than at the poles. From thefe two combined caufes, the
tides, and the motion of theearth, it may be fairly con-
cluded, that although this globe had been originally a per-
fe€i {phere, its diurnal motion, and the ebbing and flowing
of the tides, mutt neceffarily, ina fucceflion of time, have
elevated the equatorial parts, by gradually carrying mud,
earth, fand, fheils, &c. from other climates, and depofiting
them at the equator. On this fuppofition, the greateit
inequalities on the furface of the earth onght to be, and, in
fa&, are found in the neighbourhood of the equator. Be-
fides, as the alternate motion of the tides has been conftant
and regular fince the exiftence of the world, is it not evident,
that, at each tide, the water carries from one place to an-
other a fmall quantity of matter which falls to the bottom as
a fediment, and forms thofe horizontal and parallel flrata
that every where appear? The motion of. the waters, in the
flux and reflux, being always horizontal, the matter tranf-

- ported by them mutt neceflarily take the fame parallel di-
reGtion after it is depofited.

To this reafoning, it may be objeéted, that, as the flux is
equal to, and regularly fucceeded by, the reflux, the two
motions will balance each other; or, that the matter brought

by the flux will be carried back by the reflux; and, confe-
quently, that this caufe of the formation of ftrata mutt be
chimerical, asthe bottom of the ocean can never be aflected
by auniform alternate motion of the waters; far lefs could
this motion change its original {tructure, by creating heights,
and other inequalities.
But, in the firit place, as the author replies, the alter-
_ Date motion of the waters is by no means equal; for the fea
has a continual motion from eaft to welt: belides, the agita~
tions occafioned by the winds produce great inequalities in
the tides. It will likewife be acknowledged, that, by every
Motion in the fea, particles of earth, and other materials,
mult be carried from one place, and depofited in another ;
and that thefe colleGions of matter muft aflume the form of
parallel and horizontal ftrata. Farther, a well-known fa&
will entirely obviate this-objeGtion. On all coafts, where
_ the ebbing and flowing are difcernible, numberlefs materials

x

are brought in by the flux, which are not carried back by
the reflux. The fea gradually increafes.on fome places, and
recedes from others, narrowing its limits, by depofiting earth,
fand, fhells, &c. which naturally take a horizontal pofition.
Thefe materiais, when accumulated and elevated to a certain
degree, gradually fhut out the water, and remain for ever in
the form of dry land.

But, to remove every doubt concerning this important
point, let us examine more clofely the praéticability of a
mountain’s being formed at the bottem of the fea, by the
motion and fediments of the water. Ona high coalt which
the fea wafhes with violence during the flow, fome part of
the earth mult be carried off by every ftroke of the waves.
Even where the fea is bounded by rock, it is a known fa@,
that the {tone is gradually walted by the water; and, confe-
quently, that {mall particles are carried off by the retreat
of every wave. Thefe particles of earth or ftone are ne-
ceflarily tranfported to fome diftance. Whenever the agi-
tation of the wateris abated, the particles are precipitated
in the form of a fediment, and lay the foundation of a firft
ftratum, which is either horizontal, or inclined, according
to the fituation of the furface upon which they fall. ‘This
ftratum will foon be fucceeded by a fimilar one, produced by
the fame caufe; and thus a confiderable quantity of matter
will be gradually amafled, and difpofed in parallel beds. In
procefs of time, this gradually accumulating mafs will be-
come a mountain in the bottom of the fea, exaéily refem-
bling, both in external and internal ftruGture, thofe moun-
tains which we feeon the dry land. If there happened .to
be fhells in that part of the bottom of the fea where we have
fuppofed the fediments to be depolited, they would be co-
vered, filled, and incorporated, with the depofited matter,
and form a part of the general mafs. Thefe fhells would be
lodged indifferent partsof the mountains, correfponding. tothe
times they were depofited. Thofe which lay at the bottom,
before the firft ftratum was formed, would occupy the lowelk
{tation ; and thofe which were afterwards depofited, would
be found in the more elevated parts. -

It has been conceived, that the agitation produced by the
winds and tides is only fuperficial, and affects not the bot-
tom, efpecially when it is very deep. But it ought to be
remembered, that, whatever be the depth, the whole mafs
is put in motion by the tidesat the fame time; and that,
in a fluid globe, this motion would be communicated even
tothe centre. The power which occafions the flux and re-
flux is penetrating ; it aéts equally upon every particle of
the mafs. Hence the quantity of its force, at different
depths, may be determined by calculation. Indeed, this
point is fo certain, that it edmits not of difpute.

We cannot, therefore, hefitatein pronouncing, that the tides,
the winds, and every other caufe of motion in the fea, mutt
produce heights and inequalities in its bottom; and that thefe
eminencesmuft uniformly be compofed of regular ftrata, either
horizontal orinclined. Thefeheights will gradually augment ;
like the waves which formedthem, they will mutually re-
f{peé& each other; and if the extent of the bafe be great, in a
feries of years they will form a vaft chain of mountains.
Whenever eminences are formed, they interrupt the uniform
motion of the waters, and produce new motions, known by
the name of currents. Between two neighbouring heights
in the bottom of the ocean, there muft be a current, which
will follow their common direGion, and, likea river, cut a
channel, the angles of which will be alternately oppofite
through the whole extent of its courfe. ‘Thefe heights
mutt continually increafe; for, during the flow, the water
will depofite its ordinary fediment upon their ridges, and the

waters which are impelled by the current will force along
rom

EARTH.

from great diftances, quantities of matter, which will fubfide
between thehills, and, at the fame time, fcoop outa valley
with correfponding angles at their foundation. Now, by
means of thefe diferent motions and fediments, the bottom
of the ocean, though formerly fmooth, muft foon be furrowed
and interfperfed with hills and chains of mountains, as we
aGtually findit at prefent. The foft materials of which the
eminences were originally compofed, would gradually harden
by their own gravity. Such of them as confifted of fandy
and cryftalline particles, would produce thofe ¢normous
mafies of rock and fiintin which we find cryétals and other
precious ftones. Others, compofed of ftony particles mixed
with fhells, give rife tothofe beds of lime-ftone and marble,
in which vaft quantities of fea fhells are {till found mcorpo-
rated. Laaitly, all our beds of marble and chalk have de-
rived their origin from particles of fhells mixed with a pure
earth, colle&ed and depofited at particular places in the
bottom of the fea. All thefe fubftances are difpofed in re+
gular ftrata; they all contain heterogeneous matter, and
valt quantities of fea-bodies fituated nearly in proportion to
their {pecitic gravities. The lighter fheils are found in chalk;
the heavier in clay and lime-ftone. ‘Uhefe fhells are uniformly
filled with the matter in which they are found, whether it
be ftone or earth. Thisis aninconteitible proof, that they
have been tranfported along wich the matter that fills and
furrounds them, and that this matter was then in the form
of an impalpable powder. Ina word, all thofe fubftances,
the horizontal fituatioa of which has arifen from the waters
of the fea, invariably preferve their original pofition,

If we inveftigate more minutely the fituation of thofe ma-
terials which compofe the fuperficial part of the globe, we
fhall tind that the different firata of ftones in quarries are al-
moft all horizontal, or regularlyinclined. Thofe founded upon
hard clay, or other {clid matter, are evidently horizontal, ef-
‘pecially m plains. ‘The difpofition of quarries, where flint
or brownifh free-ftone is found in detached portions, is in-
decd lefs regular. But even here the uniformity of nature
is not interrupted ; for the horizontal or regularly. inclining
pofition of the ftrata is apparent in granite and brown free-
Stone, wherever they exilt inlarge conne@ed mafles. This
pofition is univerfal, except in flint and brown free-ftone in
{mall detached portions, fubftances the formation of which
was pofterior to thofe juft now mentioned. The ftrata of
granite, vitrifiable fand, clays, marbles, calcareous ftones,
chalk, and marles, are always parallel or equally inclined. In
thefe the original formation is eafily difcoverable ; for the
ftrata are exaétly horizontal, and very thin, being placed
above each other like the leaves of a ‘book. | Beds of
fand, of foft and hard clay, of chalk, and of fhells, are
likewife either horizontal or uniformly inclined. Strata of
every ‘kind preferve the fame thicknefs through their whole
extent, which is often many leagues, and might, by proper
obfervations, be traced ftill farther. Ina-word, the difpo-
fition of ftrata, as deep as mankind have hitherto penetrated,
is the fame.

Thofe beds of fand and gravel which are wafhed down
from mountains, mutt, in fome meafure, be excepted from
the generalrule. ‘The ftrata formed by rivers are not very
ancient; they are eafily diftinguifhed by their frequent in-
terruptions, and the inequality of their thicknefs. But the
ancient {trata uniformly preferve the fame dimenfions through
their whole extent. Befides, thefe modern ftrata may be
diftinguifhed, with certainty, by the form of the ttones and
gravel they contain, which bear evident marks of having
been rolled, {moothed, and rounded, by the motion of water.
The fame obfervation may be made with regard ‘to thofe
beds of turf, and corrupted vegetables, which are found is

marthy grounds, immediately below the foil: they have no
claim to antiquity, but have derived their exiftence from
fucceflive accumulations of decayed trees and other plants.
The ftrata of flime, or mud, which occur in many places,
are alfo recent produCtions, formed by ftagnating waters, or
the inundations of rivers. They are not fo exaétly horizon=
tal, nor fo uniformly inclined, as the more ancient ftrata,
produced by the regular motions of the fea. In ftrata formed
by rivers, we meet with river, but feldom with fea-fhells 5
and the few which occur are broken, detached, and placed
without order. But, in the ancient ftrata, there are ne
river-fhells ; the fea-fhells are numerous, well preferved, and
all placed in the fame manner, having been tranfported and
depofited at the fame time, and by the fame caufe. From
whence could this beautiful regularity proceed? Inftead of
regular ftrata, why do we not find the matters compofing
the earth huddled together without order? Why are not
rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. fcattered promifcuonfly,
or joined by irregular or vertical ftrata ?) Why are not heavy
bodies uniformly found in a lower fituation than light ones ?
It is eafy to perceive, that this uniformity of nature, this
{pecies of organization, this union of different materials by
parallel trata, without regard to their weights, could only
proceed from a caufe equally powerful and uniform as the
motions of the fea, produced by regular winds, by the
tides, &c.

Thefe canfes at with fyperior force under the equator
than in other climates ; for there the tides are higher, and
the winds‘more uniform. The moft extenfive chains of
mountains are likewife in the neighbourhood of the equator.
‘The mountains of Africa and Peru are the higheft in the
world, often extending through whole continents, and
ftretching to great dittances under the waters of the ocean.
The mountains of Europe and Afia, which extend from
Spain to China, are not fo clevated as thofe of Africa and
South America. According to the relations of voyagers,
the mountains of the horth are but {mall bills, when comes
pared with the mountains of the equatorial regions. Befides,
in the northern feas, there are few iflands; but, in the torrid
zone, they are innumerable. Now, as iflands are only the
fummits of mountains, it is apparent, that there are -more
inequalities on the furface of the earth near the equator,
than in northerly climates..

Thofe prodigious chains of mountains which run from weft
to eaft in the Old Continent, and from north to fouth in
the New, muft have been formed byithe general motion of
the tides. But the origin of the lefs confiderable mountains
and hills muft be afcribed to particular motions, occafioned
by winds, currents, and other irregular agitations of the
fea.

Our author next proceeds to anfwer fome queftions, which
require folution, in coufequence of the theory which he has
advanced. How, e.g. isthat earth, which hes been inha-
bited by us and our anceftors for ages, become an immenfe
continent, dry, compaét, and removed from the reach of
the water, and exalted to fucha height above the waters, if
‘it was formerly the bottom of an ocean? In reply to this,
and fimilar enquiries, the author fays, we daily obferve the
fea gaining- ground on certain coafts, and lofing it on others.
We know, that the ocean has a general and uniform motion
from eaft to weft; that it makes violent efforts again{t the
rocks and the low grounds which encircle it; that there are
whole provinces which human induitry can hardly defend
from the fury of the waves; and that there are inftances of
iflands which have but lately emerged from the waters, and
of regular inundations.
and deluges of amore extenfive ‘nature. Should oo

thefe

Hiftory informs ws of inundations ~

EARTH.

‘thefe circumitances convince us, that the furface of the earth
thas experienced very great revolutions, and that the fea may
‘have actually given up poffeffion of the greateft part of the
ground which it formerly occupied? For example, Jet us
duppofe, that the Old and New Worlds were formerly but
one continent, and that by a violent earthquake, the ancient
Atalantis of Plato was funk. What. would be the confe-
quence of fucha mighty revolution? The fea would necef-
farily ruth in from all quarters, and form what is now called
the Atlantic ocean; and vaft continents, perhaps thofe
which we now inhabit, would, of courfe, be left dry. This
great revolution might be effeéted by the fudden failure of
fome immenfe cavern in the interior part of the globe, and
an univerfal deluge would infalliby fucceed. Such a revolu-
tion, however, has happened, and in the opinion of the au-
thor, happened naturally ; for, if ajudgment of the future
is to be formed from the paft, we have only to attend care-
fuily to what daily paffes before oureyes. It isa faét, ef-
tablifhed by the repeated obfervation of voyagers, that the
-ocean has aconftant motion from eaft to weft. This motion,
like the trade-winds, is not only perceived between the tro-
pics, but through the whole temperate climates, and as near
the poles as navigators have beenable to approach. Asa
neceffary confequence of this motion, the Pacific ocean mut
make continual efforts again{t the coafts of Tartary, China,
and India; the Indian ocean muft a& againft the eaft coaft
of Africa; and the Atlantic muft a& in a fimilar manner
againit all the eaftern coafts of America. Hence the fea
mutt have gained, and will always continue to gain, on the
eait, and to lofe on the weft. This circumftance alone
would be fufficient to prove the poflibility of the change of
fea into land, and of land intofea. If fuchis the natural
effe& of the fea’s motion from eaft to weft, may it not rea-
fonably be fuppofed, that Afia, and all the eaftern continent,
is the moft ancient country in the world? and that Europe,
and part of Africa, efpecially the weft parts of thefe con-
tinents, as Britain, France, Spain, &c. are countries of a
more recent date ?

But, befide the conflant motion of the fea from eaft to
svelt, other caufes concur in producing the effe& juft men-
tioned. There are many lands lower than the level of the fea,
and are defended by a narrow ifthmus of rock only, or by
tanks of {till weaker materials. The aétion of the waters
mutt gradually -deftroy thefe barriers; and, confequently,
4nch lands muft then become part of the ocean. Befides,
-the mountains are daily diminifhing, part of them being con-
ftantly carried down to thevalleys by rains. It is likewife well
known, that every little brook carries earth, and other
foatters, from the high grounds into the rivers, by which
they are at laft tranfportedto the ocean. By thefe means
the bottom of the fea is gradually filling up, the furface of
the earth is approaching to a level, and nothing but time is
wanting for the fea’s fucceflively changing places with the
and.

. We hall give. fays our author, fome certain and recent ex-
amples of the changes of fea into land, and of land into fea.
At Venice, the bottom of the fea is conftantly rifing: if
the canals had not been carefully kept clean, the moats and
erty would, long ere now, have formeda part of the continent.
‘The fame thing may be faid of moit harbours, bays, and
mouibs of rivers. In Holland the bottom of the fea ie ele-
vated in many places; the gulf of Zuderzee and the ftraits
of the Texel cannot receive fuch large vefiels as formerly.
At the mouth of almoft every river, we find {mall iflands,
and banks of earth and fand brought down from the higher
grounds; and it is incontrovertible, thatthe fea is conftantly
4ammed up, wherever great nvcre empty themfelves. The
Vite XIL.

Rhine is loft in the fands which itfelf has accumulated. Thé
Danube, the Nile, and all large rivers, after having tranf-
ported great quantities of flime, fand, &c. never more ar-
rive at the fea by a fingle channel; they fplit into branches,
the intervals of which confift of the materials which they
themfelves have tranfported. Marfhes are daily drained;
lands, abandoned by the fea, are now plowed and fown;
we navigate whole countries now covered by the waters; in
a word we fee fo many inftances of land changed into water,
and water into land, that we mult be comvinced of the con-
tinual, though flow, progrefs of fuch changes in all places.
Hence the gulfs of the ocean will in time become continents;
the ifthmufes will be changed inte ftraits; and the tops of
the mountains will be metamorphofed into fhoaly rocks in
the fea.

The waters, therefore, have covered, and may ftill cover,
every part of the earth which is nowdry. In the inveltiga-
tion of the caufes of thofe perpendicular fiffures with which
the earth abounds, ourauthor’s reafoning is as follows.

As the various materials which conftitute the different
ftrata were tran{ported by the waters, and depofited in the
form of fediments, they would at firft be in avery diluted
tlate, and would gradually hardenand part with the fuper-
fluous quantity of water they contained. In the procefs of
drying, they would naturally contra@, and of courfe fplit
at irregular diltances. hefe fiffures neceffarily afflumed a
perpendicular dire@ion; becaufe, in this direction, the ation
of gravity of one particle upon another is equal to nothing ;
but it aéts dire&tly oppofite in a horizontal fituation: the
diminution in bulk could have no fentible effe& but in a ver-
tical line. ‘The contraétion of the parts in drying, not the
contained water forcing an iffue, as has been alleged, is the
caufe of perpendicular fiffures ; for it has often been re-
marked, that the fides of thefe fiflures, through their whole
extent, correfpond as exaétly as the two fides of a fplit
piece of wood. Their furfacesare rude and irregular. But,
if they had taken their rife from the motion of water, they
would have been {mooth and polifhed.

Perpendicular fiffures vary greatly as to the extent of
their openings. Some are about half an inch, or an inch,
others a foot or two feet; fome extend {everal fathoms, and
give rife to thofe vait precipices which fo frequently occur
between oppofite parts of the fame rocks inthe Alps and
other high mountains. It is plain, that the fiffures, the
openings of which are {mall, have been occafioned folely by
drying. Butthofe which extend feveral feet are partly owing:
toanother caufe; namely, the'finking of the feundatior
upon one fide, while that of the other remained firm. IJ€
the bafe finks but a line or two, when the height of the rock
is confiderable, an opening of feveralfeet, or even fathoms,
will be the confequence. When rocks are founded on clay
or fand, they fometimes flip alittle toa fide; and the fif-
fures are of courfe augmented by this motion. ‘Thofe large
openings, thofe prodigious cuts, which are to be met with
in rocks and mountains, could not be produced by any other
means than the finking of immenfe fubterraneous caverns
which were unablelonger to fultain their incumbent load.
But thefe cuts or intervals in mountains are not of the fame
nature with perpendicular fiffures: they appear to have been
ports opened by the hand of nature for the communication
of nations. This feems to be the intention of all large
openings in chains of mountains, and of thofe ftraits by
which different parts of the ocean are connected; as the
firaits of Thermopylx, of Gibraltar, &c.; the gaps or
ports in Mount Caucafus, the Cordeliers, &c. A fimple
feparation, by the drying of the matter, could not produce
this «fle : large portions of earth mult have been funk,

30 {wallowed

EARTH.

fwallowed up, or thrown down. See Esrruouaxe and
Voicano.

The greateft changes upon the furface of the earth are oc-
cafioned by rains, rivers, and torrents from the mountains.
Thefe derive their origin from vapours raifed by the {un from
the furfaceof the ocean, and are tranfported by the winds
through every climate. The progrefs of thefe vapours,
which are fupported by theair, and tran{ported at the plea-
fure of the winds, is interrupted by the tops of the moun-
tains, where they accumulate into clouds, and fall down in
the form of rain, dew, or fnow. At firft, thefe waters de-
{cended into the plains without any fixed courfe; but they
gradually hollowed out proper channels for themfelves. By
the power ef gravity, they ran to the bottom of the moun-
tains, and, penetrating or diflolving the lower grounds, they
carried along with them fand and gravel, cut deep furrows
in the plains, and thus opened paflages to the fea, which
always receives as much water by rivers as it lofes by evapo-
ration. Thewindings in the channels of rivers have uni-
formly correfponding angles on their oppofite banks; and as
mountains and hills, which may be regarded as the banks of
the yaileys by which they are feparated, have likewife finu-
ofities with correfponding angles, this circumftance feems to
Gemonitrate, that the valleys have been gradually formed by
currents of the ccean, in the fame manner as the channels of
rivers have been produced.

Our author concludes from previous reafoning, that the
flux and reflux of the ocean have produced all the mountains,
valleys, and other inequalities on the furface of the earth ;
that currents of the fea have fcooped out the valleys, elevated
the hills, and beltowed on them their correfponding direc-
tions ; that the fame waters of the ocean, by tran{porting and
depofiting earth, &c. have given rife to the parallel ftrata;
that the waters from the heavens gradually deftroy the effeGs
of the fea, by continually diminifhing the height -of the
mountains, filling up the valleys, and choaking the mouths
of rivers; and, by reducing every thing to its former level;
they will, in time, reltore the earth to the fea, which, by its
natural operations, willagain create new continents, inter-
{perfed with mountains and valleys, every way fimilar to
thofe which we new inhabit. See Buifen’s Nat. Hitt. vol. i.
Eng. Tranfl. by Smellie. .

To this theory, however elegantly difplayed and plaufibly
fupported by its ingenious author, feveral obje€tions have.
been fuggefted by thofe who are converfant with fubjeés of
this nature. The original formation of the earth has been
thought hypothetical by all, and by many fanciful. That
a torrent of igneous particles fhouid recede from the fun,
with an accelerated motion, acquire at a certain diftance a
globular figure, an elliptic motion, and a rotation round its
axis, 1s very improbable, not to fay unphilofophical. The
formation of mountains by winds and tides, the previous dif
folution of terreftrial fubftances after vitrification by the

fun’s heat, the analogy between mountains on dry Jand and,

iflands in the fea, and the confufed difpofition of the earth’s
ftrata, are circumftances pertaining to our author’s theory,
which, with all his ingenuity, he has not been able fatif-,
faétorily to explain and to eftablifh, Indeed, it is alto-
gether incredible that the cavities! of the earth fhould con-,
tain a body of water equal in height to the moft elevated.
mountains; nor is it conceivable, how the caverns of the fea,
after having railed upa quantity of fand, earth, and fhells,
fhould depofit them again in parallel and horizontal beds 5
nor how torrents fhould have exilted at the bottom of the
ocean capable of producing thefe effects, and of penetrating
the ftrata of mountains, and of dividing them into hills and

vallics. Of thie theory it has been juitly obferved, that the

author introduces the a&ion of water to deftroy mineral
bodies, and afterwards to give them a new arrangement into
ftrata; but that he makes no provifion for the confolidation
of thefe ftrata, nor for their angular elevation; nor has he
any adequate means for explaining the unttratified rocks,
and the irregularities of the furface of the earth.

Profeffor Pallas, in a ** Differtation on the Origin and
Stru@ure of Mountains,’ publifhed A.D. 1779. refutes
the opinion that they were formed in the ocean. From une
doubted faéis he attempts to prove, that the great chain of
primitive mountains, that binds together the various parts of
the globe, could not have been the prodv@ion of waters,
This chain is granite, wiha bafis of quartz, mixed with
{pars, mica, and fmall portions of bafalt, feattered without
order, and in irregular fragments. This rocky fubitence,
and the fand produced by its decompotition, form the bafis
ef all: the continents. Granite, fays this author, is never
found in firata, or beds, but in blocks, or maffes, which
exhibit no vellige of organic imprefficn. .The fecondary

“and tertiary mountains he fuppofes to be of a more’ recent

origin :—the former having been produced by the decom-
pofition of granite; and the latter kaving arifen from the
wrecks of the fea, clevated and tranfported by volcanic
eruptions and confcquent jnundations. See Mounrain. .
OF the theory of Mr. Whitehurft, as far as it concerns
the deluge, we have already given fome account under that
article. We fhall here introduce fome further particulars.
This author agrees with many others, in fuppofing that the
earth was originally.in a ftate of fluidity ; and hence be con-
cludes, that it has not exilted from eternity, as fome perfons
have imagined. Its fluidity he infers from its oblate
fpheroidical form. In this fluid ftate, its component parts
were uniformly blended together, without any difference of
weight, and formed a mafs of uniform confiitence from the
furface to the centre; fo that the globe, at its firft formas
tion, was unfit for the fupport of animal or vegetable life,
The component parts of this chaos, being heterogeneous,
or endued with peculiar laws of eleGtive attraGtion, fimilar
bodies were difpofed to-uaite and to: form fele& fubftances
of various denominations, as air, water, eartn, &c.; and
then the chaos was progreffively formed into a’ habitable
world. As foon as the oblate {pheroidical figure of the
earth was completed, the component parts began to a&
more freely, accordivg to their affinities; that is, the pars
ticles of air united to thofe of air, thofe of water to water;
and thofe of earth to earth; and from this union refulted
their f{pecific gravities- Accordingly, thofe parts that were
the moft denfe approached towards the centre of gravity,
and thofe of the greateft levity alcended towards the furs
face ; and as airis about 800 times {pecifically lighter than
water, the former was fooner freed from the general mafs
than the latter, and formed a’ kind of muddy impure atmoe«
fphere, which furrounded the newly formed globe. Water
fucceeded the air, and encompaffed the earth in one immenfe
ocean.
and became fit for animal life. From this feparation of the
component parts, and their aggregation into folid bodies,
the following confequences enfued: as the fun’ and moon
were coeval with the chaos, the folids could not uniformly
fublide from every part of the furface, and become equally
covered by water; for as the feparation of the folids and
fluids proceeded, the tides increafed, and removed the former
from one place: to another without any precife order.
Hence the fea became unequally deep ; and whilft thefe in=
equalities were gradually advanced, dry land at length ape
peared, and feparated the waters which had univerfally
covered the earth, The primitive iflands, being thus
formed,

ee a

In procefs of time, thefe elements were purified, ©

”

EARTH.

formed, became firm and dry, and fit for the reception of
animals and vegetables. In this progreffion of things, fe-
‘yeral days and nights muft have preceded the fun’s firit ap-
pearance in the heavens, or its becoming vifible on the fourth
day, agreeably to the account of feripture. Previovfly to
the formation of the primitive iflands, the ocean was puri-
fied and ftocked with marine animals; which became en-
veloped and buried in the mud, by the continual action of
the tides: and this was more efpecially the cafe with fhell-
fifh, which were leaft able to difentangle themfelves. Thefe
marine animals, being thus imbedded in the earth at various
depths, bear fufficient teltimony, that they were interred
at fucceflive periods of time; and that they were created
before the formation of the primitive iflands and terreflrial
aiiimals. The beds occupied by marine fhells, the remains
of thofe animals that perifhed on the fpot where they were
depofited, were originally the bottom of the ocean. As to
‘the mountains and continents, Mr. Whitehurft apprehends,
that they are the effects of fubterraneous fire, and produced
at a period of time very diftant from that of the creation of
the world, when the ftrata had acquired firmnefs and co-
hefion, and the teftaceous matter had aflumed a fiony hard-
nefs. For further particulars, fee DELuGeE.

Mr. Kirwan (Irifh Tranf, vol. vi.) agrees with many other
writers, in fuppofing that the primeval earth, at lealt as far
as refpects its fuperficial parts, to a certain depth, was ina

foft or liquid flate. ‘This he infers from its prefent fphero-
idical fhape, and alfo from fome geological obfervations,
which he has adduced. Its interior and more central parts,
he conceives, contained, at the time of its creation, and for
many fubfequent centuries, immenfe empty caverns, which
confifted of materials of fufficient folidity to refift the preffure
of the enormous mais of liquid fubftance that refted upon
them. The liquidity of the fuperficial parts muft have pro-
ceeded cither from igneous fufion or folution in water. The
former caufe he rejeéts, and adopts the latter, which he en-
deavours to eftablifh. The aqueous fluid, which ferved as a
ment{truum for this folution, was heated, as he imagines, to
at leaft 33 degrees, and poflibly much higher; and it con-
tained the eight generic earths, all the metallic and femi-
metallic fubftances now known, the various fimple faline
fubftances, and the whole tribe of inflammables, folid and
liquid, varioufly diftributed. Hence he concludes, that ele-
mentary fire, or the principle of heat, muft have been co-
eval with the creation of matter; and that the general pro-
-perties of gravitation and elective attraGtion may be fup-
pofed of equal date. The proportion, as he fuppofes, of the
different materials contained in the chaotic fluid, to each
other, was nearly the fame as thet which they at prefent
bear to each other; the filiceous earth being by far the moft

copious, next to that the ferruginous, thea the argillaceous

and calcareous, and, la{tly, the magnefian, barytic, Scottith,
and Jargonic, in the order now named, the metallic fub-
ftances (except iron) moft {paringly. M. Bvffon and Dr.
Hutton, however, have excluded calcareous earth from the
number of the primzval, afferting that the maffes of it
which we now obferve proceed from fhell-fifhh. Mr, Kirwan
» replies, that the fuppofition of fhell-fifh, or any animals,
_pofleffing the power of producing any fimple earth is un-
7 Doust and that before the exiltence of any fifh, the tony
_maffes that enclofe the bafon of the fea mult have exifted,
and among thefe there is not any one in which calcareous
‘earth is not found. .In a fluid conftituted ‘like that jut
\ mentioned, it is evident, fays our author, from the laws of
_ eleGive attraGion, that the various folids diffufed through
» it mutt foon have coalefced in various proportions, according
» to,the lawsof this attraction, and the prefence Ok proximity

le

of the ingredients, and thus have cryftallized into different
groups, which defcended to and were, depofited upon the
inferior folid kernel of the globe. In thofe tra&s, in which
the filiceous, and next to it the argillaceous, earth molt
abounded, (fuch tra¢ts being the moft extenfive, ) granite and
gneifs feem to have been firft formed, in the manner which
the author has explained. The high degree of heat, arifing
from different concurring caufes which exifted in the earth,
difengaged all the oxygen contained in the contiguous chaotic

‘fluid; and this uniting partly with more metallic iron, partly

wich the fulphurated and partly with the carbonic and bitu-
minous fubftances, muft have occafioned a ftupendous con-
flagration, the effe&ts of which may well be fuppofed to
have extended even to the folid bafis on which the chaotic
fluid repofed, and to have fplit it to an unknown extent.
Thefe volcanic eruptions were attended with important con-
fequences: the firlt muft have been the diffufion of a con-
liderable heat through the whole mafs of the chaotic fluid,
by which means the oxygen and mephitic airs difperfed
through it muft have been extricated, and thus gradually
formed the atmofphere, The fecond prodution was that
of fixed air from the union of oxygen with the ignited car-
bon; and this at firlt rofe into and diffufed itfelf through the
atmofphere ; but in proportion as the chaotic fluid cooled,
it was gradually abforbed by it. This abforption occafioned
the precipitation, and more or lefs regular cryftallization of
the calcareous earth; the greater part of which, being much
more foluble than the other earths, ftill remained in folution,
after the others had been for the moft part depofited.

The immenfe maffes conereted and depofited on the in-
terior nucleus of the earth formed the “ primitive moun-
tains.” ‘The’ formation of ‘ plains” is eafily underitood :
for in the wide intervals of diftant mountains, after the firlt
cryftallized maffes had been depofited, the folid particles fill
contained in the chaotic fluid, but too ciftant from each
other’s fphere of attra¢tion to concrete into cryttals; and
particularly thofe that are known to be lealt difpofed to
cryftallize, and alfo to have leaft affinity to water, were
gradually and uniformly depofited. Of this nature argil!a-
ceous particles are known to be, intermixed, as we may
well imagine, with a large proportion of filiceous and ferru-
ginous particles, of all the moft abundant, and fome par-
ticles of the other earths: and by thefe compound and
flightly concreted earths, the furface of plains was originally
covered. In procefs of time, thefe earths received an in-
creafe from the decompofition of primitive mountains, which
was an event of much potterior date.

The next important event, neceffary to fit the globe for
the reception of land animals, was the diminution and recefs
of the chaotic fluid, in the bofom of which the mountaing
were formed, and the confequent difclofure of the dry land.
By the operation of the preceding volcanoes, the bed of the
ocean was fcooped, molt probably in the fouthern hemi-
fphere: but no change or tranfpofition of the folid materiale
depofited from the chaotic fluid could lower its level, unlefe
the inferior nucleus of the globe could receive it within its
hollow and empty caverns. This admittance it gained
through the numerous rifts occafioned by the antecedent
fires: at firft rapidly, afterwards more flowly, in proportion
as the perpendicular height of the fluid was diminifhed ; and
thus the emerged continent, confifting of mountains and
plains, was gradually laid bare and dicd, and, by drying,
confolidated. The difclofure of the actual continents ap-
pears to have been gradual. The traéts at firlt uncovered
were thofe whofe height over the prefent feas amounts ta
850c or gooo feet, or more. This height comprehends
moft of the ealtern fummits of Siberia, between latitude 49°

302 and

EAR

and 55°, and of the extenfive regions of Great Tartary,
Tibet, the defert of Coby or Chamo, and China, reachins
10 fome piaces to latitude 35°, and extending im the northern
parts from the fources of the Irtifa, long. 95°, and in the
more fouthern from the heads of the Ganges and Burram-
pooter, long, 80°, Hoanho and Porenttho to long. 190° at
the leaft, and perhaps ftill tarther into the unknown parts of
Eaftern America. In Europe, only the fummits of the
Alps, Pyrenees, and of a few other mountains, were un-
covered ; but in America, the narrow but long chain of the
Cordeliers malt have raifed its fummits far above the
ocean.

When the level of the ancient ocean was lowered to the
height of 8500 or gooo feet, and not before, it began to be
ftocked with fifh. That the creation of the fifh, fays Mr.
Kirwan, was fubfequent to the emerfion of the. traéts jut
mentioned, and to the reduction of the waters to the height
now ftated, is proved by the obfervations of all who have
vifited thofe countries. In thefe elevated tra&ts, no marine
fhells or petrifaGtions are found in the body of any mountain,
nor in any ftone, not even in lime-ftone, though it abounds
particularly about the fources of the Amour. Hence our
author concludes, that thefe tras, which, like all others,
were formed in the bofom of the primitive ocean, were un-
covered before the creation of fifh ; and fince they contain
lime-ftone, that this ftone does not neceffarily and univerfally
originate from comminuted shells, as Buffon and others have
advanced. No prtrifaGtions or thells are incorporated in the
rocks or ftrata, that form feveral other lofty mountains.
This is attefted by De la Peroufe with refpe& to the Py-
renées, which, neverthelefs, are moftly calcareous. Nor
are any found in Santo Velino, the highett of the Appen-
nines, the height of which is 8300 feet; whereas they
abound in thofe that are lower. In the Savoyan Alps,
Salenche, Saleve Mole, the Dole, all of which are cal-
careous, but below the height of 7000 feet, contain petri-
factions; but the Buet, which is alfo for the greater part
calcareous, but whofe height exceeds 10,000 feet, contains
none. (Sauflure, paflim.) After this elevated traét of the
giobe had been uncovered, there is no reafon to fuppofe that
it long remained divefted of vegetables or unftocked with
animals, as it was fitted te receive them. The author pro-
ceeds to adduce feveral reafons, which, in his opinion, prove,
that the retreat of the fea from the lower parts of our pre-
fent continents was gradual, and not fully effeéted till after
the lapfe of feveral eenturies. (Sse Conrinent and Moun-
tain ) This retreat of the fea continued, as our author
imagines, until a few centuries before the deluge. Its cef-
fation, long before this cataftrophe took place, he infers from
the hardnefs which the mountains mutt have acquired, to
withitand the fhocks they muft then have undergone. To
acquire this hardnefs a long period of time was neceflary,
both for their deficcation and the infiltration of thofe par-
ticles, to which the ftrata of fecondary mountains owe their
folidity. Our author clofes his theory of the primitive earth
with an attempt to accommodate it to the Mofaic account
of the creation. For his application of it to the deluge,
we refer to that article.

We now proceed to give an account of two other theories
of the earth, which have fuperfeded moft of the others
already recounted, and each of which has had its learned
and zealous advocates. The firlt of thefe is that of Dr.
James Hutton, the detail of which occupies a confiderable
part of the firlt volume of the Edinburgh Tranfa@ions.
The author begins an elaborate developement and explica-
tion of his theory by obferving, that in order to acquire a
comprehenfive view of the mechanifm of the globe, by

lt H.

which it is adapted to the purpofe of being a habitable
world, it is neceffary to diltinguifh three different bodies,
which compofe the whole, viz. a folid body of earth, an-
aqueous body of fca, and an elaftic fluid of air. i The cen-
tral body of the globe is fuppofed, without fufficient reafony.
as our author imagines, to be folid and inert ; the fluid body
of water, which by gravitation is reduced to a {pherical
form, and by the centrifugal force of the earth’s rotation to
an oblate figure, is efiential to the conftitution of the world,
as it affords the means of life and motion to animals of va-
rious kinds, as it is the fource of growth and circulation to»
the organized bodies of the earth, and as it is the receptacle
of our rivers, and the fountain of our vapours; the irregular
body of land raifed above the level of the ocean, although
it be the {malleft part of our globe, is the moft interetting,
az_plants grow on its furface, and animal life, and alfo.
vegetation, are fuftained by it. The furround:ng body of
atmofphere is no lefs neceflary than the other parts, in a
variety of refpeGs fufficiently obvious, and which it is-
needlefs for usto recite. Having thus defcribed the me-
chanifm of the globe, our author proceeds to enumerate
fome of thofe powers by which motion is produced and
adtivity imparted to the mere machine.

Thefe are the projeGtile or progreffive power, that of
gravitation, whence it derives its rotatory motions ; the in-
fluence of light and heat, of cold and condenfation ; and
the powers of ele€tricity and magnetifm. Moreover, 2.
folid body of land, our author obferves, could not have
antwered the purpofe of a habitable world, without a foil.
adapted to the growth of plants: and this foil confilts.
merely of the materials tbat are colleéted from the deflruc-
tion of the folid land. The furface of this land, inhabited
by man, and covered with plants and animals, 1s made by
nature to decay, in diffolving from that hard and compact
{tate in which it 1s found below the foil; and the foil itfelf
is neceffarily wafhed away by the continual circulation of
the water running from the fummits of the mountains-
towards the general receptacle of that fluid; thus the
heights of our land are levelled with the fhores; our fertile
plains are formed from the ruins of the mountains; and the
moveable materials, after previous migration, are carried
forwards to the unfathomable regions of the ocean, As the
vegetable foil is thus conftantly removed frem the furface of
the land, whatever may be the fupply which it receives from
the diffolution of the folid earth, the land gradually tends.
to deftruétion, which, in a courfe of ages, is inevitable. In
order to countera& this deitructibility, our author fuggeits,
that in the conftitution of this world there may be a repro-
dutive operation, by which a ruined conttitution may be.
again repaired, and a duration and ftability procured to the
machine, confidered as a world [uftaining plants and animals..
although, according to Dr. Hutton, the Mofaic account
places the commencement of the exiltence of man upon the
earth at no great diftance; and we have no document in
natural hiftory which attributes a high antiquity to the
human race; yet this is not the cafe with regard to the in-
ferior {pecies of animals, particularly thofe which inhabit the
ocean and its fhores. Accordingly we find alfo in the relics
of fea animals that are difcovered in the fold body of our
earth evidences of an earlier exiftenee than that to which the
Mofaic hiftory feems to trace the origin of our earth. We
are thus led to reprefent our author’s fentiments, with regard
to the formation of the terrefirial globe. The folid parts of
the globe, he fays, are, in general, compofed of fand, of
gravel, of argillaceous and calcareous ftrata; or of the va-
rious compofitions of thefe, with other fubitances. Sand is
feparated and fized by ftreams and currents; gravel is vi

¥

EARTH.

By the mutual attrition of flenes agitated im water; and
marley or argillaceous {trata have been colle&ted, by fubfiding
in water with which thofe earthy fubftances had been
floated. Hence he is led to infer, that fo far as the earth is
formed of thefe materials, the folid body would appear to
have been the production of water, winds, and tides. But
that which renders the original of our land clear and certain,
in his opinion, is the immenfe quantity of calcareous bodies,
which had belonged to animals, and the intimate connection
of thefe maffes of animal produétion with the other ftrata of
the land. Accordingly he proceeds to prove, that all thofe
calcareous bodies, from the colle&tion of which the ftrata
were formed, have belonged to the fea, and were produced
by it. For which purpofe he alleges, that we find the
traces of marine animals in the moft folid parts of the earth ;
and, therefore, thefe folid parts mult have been formed after
the ocean was inhabited by thofe animals, which belong to
that fluid medium. Before he inveftigates the natural
hiftory of thefe folid parts, and the manner in which they
were formed, he undertakes to fhew that all the mafles of
marble and limeftone are compofed of the calcareous matter
of marine bodies. ‘T'o this purpofe, he obferves, that there
are few maffes of marble or limeftone in which we may not
find fome of thofe obje&ts, which indicate the marine origin of
the mafs. Befides, in thefe calcareous ftrata, which are
evidently of marine origin, there are many parts that are of
a fparry ftruGture, or, in other words, the original texture of
thefe beds, in fuch places, has been diffolved, and a new
ftruGture has been aflumed, which is peculiar to a certain
ftate of the calcareous earth. This change is produced by
eryftallization, in confequence of a previous ftate of fluidity,
which has fo difperfed the concreting parts, as to allow
them to aflume a regular fhape and ftructure proper to that
fubftance. Moreover, in all the regions of the earth there
are huge maffes of calcareous matter, in that cryftalline form
or fparry ftate, in which, perhaps, no veltige can be formed
ofany organized body, nor any indication that fuch calcareous
matter had belonged to animals: but, as in other mailes,
this fparry fructure, or cryftalline ftate, is evidently aflumed
by the marine calcareous fubitances, in operations which
are natural to the globe, and which are neceflary to the
confolidation of the {trata, it does not appear that the {parry
mafles, in whieh no figured body is formed, have been ori-
givally different from other mafles, which being only cryf-
tallized in part, and in part itill retaining their original
form, bear ample evidence of their marine origin. From
this kind of reafoning he concludes, that all the {trata of the
earth, both thofe confifting of hard calcareous mafles, and
others fuperincumbent upon thefe, have had their origin
at the botcom of the fea, by the colleétion of fand and
gravel, of fhelis, of coralline and cruftaceous bodies, and
of earths and clays, varioufly mixed, or feparated and accu-
mulated. There is, however, a part of the folid earth
which is excluded from the refult of this reafoning, and
this part confilts of certain mountains and mafles of granite,
which are thought to be older in their formation, and are
very rarely found fuperincumbent on ftrata, which mutt be
acknowledged as the produétions of the fea. We thus ob-
tain folid land, the greater part of which, if not the whole,
was originally compofed at the bottom of the fea; but this,
. our author fays, is not the world which we inhabit; and
therefore the queftion is, how fuch continents as we have
upon the globe could be elevated above the level of the
fea. This queflion he proceeds to refolve, by fhewing,
firt, how this change could not be effeéted, and then, by
ftating the mode in which he conceives the flrata of the
globe formed at the bottom of the fea were confolidated.

In this operation the general agents are fire and water.
Rejecting, after a minute examination of its effe€&t on various
fub{tances, and in different circumftances, the agency. of
water, he adopts that of fufion by heat, and examines its
effe& on the filiceous and calcareous ftrata, which are the
prevailing fubftances on the globe, all the reft being, in
comparifon of thefe, as nothing; for unlefs they be the
bituminous. or coal ftrata, there is hardly any other which
does not neceflarily contain more or le{s of one or other of
thefe two fubftances. If, therefore, it can be fhewn, that
both of thefe two general ftrata have been confolidated by
the fimple fufion of their fubftance, no doubt will remain
with regard to the nature of that operation, which has
been carried on at great depths of the earth, inacceffible to
human obfervation. Our author, therefore, proceeds to
prove, that thefe ftrata have been confolidated by fimple
fufion, and that this operation is univerfal, in relation to
the ftrata of the earth, as having produced the various
degrees of folidity or hardnefs in thefe bodies. Having
adduced arguments and faéts in proof of the firft pofition,
Dr. Hutton exemplifies the fecond, in the cafe of chalk,
which is naturally a foft calcareous earth, but which may be
alfo found confolidated in every different degree. Through
the middle of the ifle of Wight there runs a ridge of hills of
indurated chalk. This ridge runs from the ifle of Wight di-
rectly weft into Dorfetfhire, and pafles by Corf-cattle to-
wards Dorchefter, or beyond that place. The fea has
broken through this ridge at the weft end of the ifle of
Wight, where columns of the indurated chalk remain, called
the Needles : the fame appearance being found upon the op-
pofite fhore in Dorfetfhire. In this field of chalk, we find
every gradation of that foft earthy fubftance to the molt
confolidated body of this indurated ridge, which is not folid
marble, but which has loft its chalky property, and has ac-
quired a kind of itony hardnefs. This cretaceous fubftance
may be found in its moft indurated and confolidated ftate
in the north of Ireland, not far from the Giants’ Caufeway.
This body, which was once a ma{s of chalk, is now a folid
marble. “Then, if it be by means of fufion that the ftrata of
the earth have been, in many places, confolidated, we muft
conclude, that all the degrees of confolidation, which are in-
definite, have been brought about by the fame meanr. The
author afterwards fhews, that granite, which formsa part ofthe
ftruture of the earth, is confolidated by means of fufion, and
in no other mode. he author proceeds to argue, that if
{trata have been confolidated by means of heat, acting in fuch
a manner as to foften their fubftance, then, in cooling, they
mutt have formed rents or feparations of their fubftance, by
the unequal degrees of contra€tion, which the contiguous
ftrata may have fuffered. There is no appearance more
diftm&, than that of the perpendicular fiflures in_ {trata.
‘They are generally known to workmen by the terms of veins,
or backs and cutters; and there is no confiderable ttratum
without them. If it be by means of heat and fufion that
flrata have been confolidated, then, in proportion to the de-
gree of confolidation they have undergone from their origi-
nal ftate, they fhould, ceteris paribus, abound more with (e-
parations in their mafs; and this conclufion is fully jultiied
by appearances.

The author concludes upon the whole, from chemicxt
principles, capable of demonitration, that all the~folid
{trata of the globe have been condenfed by, means of heat,
and hardened from a ftate of fulion. The propoliticn alfo
admits, he fays, of proof upon principles which are purely
mechanical.

Our author’s next obje@& is to fhew by what operation
mafles of loofe materials, colleted at the bottom of the fea,

were

EARTH.

were raifed above its furface, and transformed into folid
Jand. The power of heat for the expanfion of bodies is,
fo far as we know, unlimited ; but by the expanfion of bo-
dies placed under the ftrata at the bottom of the fea, the
elevation of thefe ftrata may be effected ; and therefore the
quéftion to be refolved is, how far have we reafon to con-
clude, that this power of expanfion has been employed in the
produ 4tion of this earth above the level of the fea? The exami-
nation of natural appearances will ferve to evince the eleva-
tion of ftrata by the power of heat above the level of the
fea. The {trata formed at the bottom of the ocean are ne-
céffarily horizontal, or nearly fo, and continuous in their
horizontal direG@ion or extent: If, therefore, thefe ftrata
are cemented by the heat of fufion, and elevated by an ex-
panfive power aGting from below, we may expe€t to find
every fpecies of fraGure, diflocation, and contortion, in thefe
bodies, and every degree of departure from a horizontal to«
wards a vertical pofition. The ftrata of the globe are, ac-
cordingly, found in every poffible pofition: from horizontal,
they are often found vertical : from continuous, broken and
feparated in every poflible diretion: and from a plane, bent
and doubled. They could not have been thus originally
formed ; and the power that has produced this change can-
not have been inferior to that which might have been re-

* quired for their elevation from the place in which they had
been formed. Natural appearances confirm this reafoning ;
and the inference is, that the Jand on which we dwell has
been elevated from a lower fituation by the fame agent,
which had been employed in confolidating the ftrata, in
giving them ftability, and preparing them for the purpofe
of the living world. ‘This agent is matter actuated by ex-
treme heat, and expanded with amazing force. It is alfoa
power of the fame nature that has been employed in form-
ing, by fraGture and diflocation, mineral veins. By tracing
the effects of volcanoes, and by a variety of other inveltiga-
tions, which we canuot purfue, our author deduces this ge-
neral conclufion, that all the continents and iflands of this
globe have been raifed by means of fire above the furface of
the ocean ; and, therefore, that almoft the whole of what we
fee on this earth, was originally formed at the bottom of the
fea. From the confideration of the materials which com-
pofe the prefent land, Dr. Hutton thinks there is reafon to
conclude, that during the time this land was forming, by the
colle€tion of its materials at the bottom of the fea, there had
been a former land containing materials fimilar to thofe
which we find at prefent in examining the earth. We may
alfo conclude, he fays, that there had been operations fimilar
to thofe which we now find natural to the globe, and necef-
farily exerted in the a€tual formation of gravel, fand, and
“clay : and, moreover, that there had been in the ocean a
fyftem of animated beings, which propagated their {peeics,
and which have thus continued their refpective race to this
day. In order tobe convinced of this truth, we have merely
to examine the ftrata of our earth, in which we find the re-
mains of animals; of every genus now exiting in the fea,
and probably every f{pecies, and perhaps fome fpecies with
which we are not now acquainted. There had been alfo, our
author fuppofes, a world of plants as well as an ocean re-
plenifhed with living animals.

Having afcertained the ftate of a former earth, in which
plants and animals had lived, as well as the gradual produc-
tion of the prefent earth compofed from the materials of a
former world, it muft be evident, as Dr. Hutton fuppofes,
that here are two operations, which are neceffarily confecu-
tive. The formation of the prefent earth neceffarily in-
volves the deftru@tion of continents in the ancient world ;
and by purfuing in our minds the natural operations of a

2

former earth, we clearly fee the origin of that land, by the
fertility of which, we, and all the animated bodies of the
fea, are fed. It is, in like manner, that, contemplating the
prefent operations of the globe, we may perceive the actual
exiftence of thofe produétive caufes, which are now laying
the foundation of land in the unfathomable regions of the
fea, and which will, in time, give birth to future continents.

Upon our author’s principles of decay and renovation, there
may have been an indefinite fuccefiion cf worlds in paft time,
and there may be a fimilar fucceffion in future time. The fame
procefs, or feries of operations, may be repeated without end,
and may have talken place for ages palt.. He obferves, in-
deed, that our earth is compofed of the materials, not of
the earth which immediately preceded the prefent,. but of
the earth, which we may confider as the third in afcending
backwards, and which had exifted before the land that was
above the furface of the fea, while our prefent land was
beneath the water of the ocean; fo that we have three
diftin® fucceflive periods of exiftence, and each of thefe, in
our meafurement of time, having an indefinite duration.
The refult of our author’s inquiry, as he exprefsly fays, is
that, in the fucceffion of worlds, * we find no veftige of a be-
ginning,—no profpe& of an end.” The principles of this
theory have been clearly explained, and elegantly illuftrated
by profeffor Playfair, who has alfo fuccefsfully combated the
charge of impiety, which Dr. Hutton’s opponents endea-
voured to attach to his opinions. In connetion with. this
fyflem, we fhould have introduced fome remarks on volcanoes
fromfir William Hamilton, and others; but having. extended
this article far beyond our cuftomary limits, we muft refer
to VoLcano.

Another theory, which is now held by many in high eftimas
tion, is called the ‘* Neptunian,” or “ Wernerean,’” from pros
feffor Werner of Freybourg, one of the moft diftinguifhed
mineralogifts of the prefent day, and a zealous fupporter
of this theory. He profeffes to banifly every thing hypo-
thetical, and to deduce, from accurate obfervation, fuck
conclufions as feem to be unavoidable. He fets out, hows
ever, in conformity to moft other theoriits, with conjeGure,
and f{tates, that the earth, to a confiderable depth, has been
once in a ftate of fluidity, produced, not by fire, as the
Huttonians fuppofe, but by aqueous folution. The outs
lines of the fyftem, founded on this principle, are as follow :
t. The fuperficial parts of the earth, to a certain depth,
mutt have been originally in a foft or liquid ftate, which
may be inferred from its prefent {pheroidal fhape, and from
a variety of geological obfervations. 2. That, at the time
of the creation,’ and for many centuries after, the interior
and more central parts contained immenfe empty caverns;
and, confequently, confifted of materials fufficiently folid to
refift the preffure of the enormous mafs of fuperincumbent
liquid fubftance. 3. The materials of which the ftrata of
the earth are compofed, were at one period diffolved, or
fufpended in water ; and from this fluid they had fucceflively
confolidated in various combinations, partly by cry{tallization,
and partly by mechanical depofition :—granite, as the bafis
on which the greateft number of ftrata refit, having been
firtt formed, and the other primitive {trata in due order, by
precipitations chiefly chemical. 4. From the period of the
formation of thefe ftrata, the water, which covered the
earth, began to decreafe in height, by retiring gradually into
cavities in the internal parts of the earth; and, during this
procefs, other precipitations were effected, and the intermes
diate ftrata, or ftrata of tranfition, were formed, of which
filiceous fehiftus and tranfition are the principal. 5. When
the water was ftill abating, the mechanical action of its mafs
on the ftrata already formed, occafioned in them a partial

difintegration 5

nie

‘¢

difintegration; the materials from this fource, together
with the remaining part of the- matter originally diffolved,
by their precipitation and. confolidation, formed the {econd-
ary ftrata, which are generally arranged in horizont-l beds,
and abundant 4a organic remains. 6, During the gvadual
confolidation of thefe flrata, rents and cavities opened, into
which the water, holding various fubftances.in folution, re-
tired ; hence, the formation of mineral veins. 7. Volcanic
fires and aliuvions have produced fome inconfiderable and
partial changes on the furface of the earth. See Piayfair’s
Syftem of Geography, vol. i. See Deruce, Fossits,
Suetxis, Strata, and Votcano.

Eartu, in Agriculture and Gardening.
Lanp, &c. ;

Eartu, Untried, the foil, or earth, which is fix or feven
inches deep, where neither {pade nor plouzh has reached,
This is greatly recommended by Mr. Lawrence, for amend-
ments and improvements, both in the fruit and kitchen gar-
den. Heaffures us, from his own experience, that no kind
of compoft, made with art, exceeds it; and adds, that if
the choiceft fruit-trees be planted herein, they prefently dif-
cover an uncommon healthfulnefs and vigour; and that, if
any tender fort of annuals be difcreetly fown in this earth,
made fine by fifting, their looks, colour, &c. foon difcover
that they Ike the foil. Melons and cucumbers need no
other compoft but this untried earth; and afparague itfelf
will profper, at lealt, as well in this.untried earth, if laid a
foot and a half deep, as with all the ufual expence of dung ;
though, for the tenderer flowers, and exotics, this earth is
not found to have any extraordinary excellencies. For annual
plants, produced from feed, a coat of this untried earth, two
inches deep, may fuffice: on other occafions, a. greater
depth is required. ’

Earth, in Chemifiry and. Philofophy.. The ancient na-
turalifts imagined, that all material fubftances were ulti-
mately refolvable into four fimple bodies, air, fire, water,
and earth, which on this account were called the four
elements. ‘The empyreum, or external {phere of the vifible
world, in which the fun and the other ftars perform their
revolutions, was fuppofed to be the peculiar feat of fire:
the region, interpofed between the earth and the empyreum,
was called the atmofphere, the fuperior part of which, (or the
zther,) was confidered as the peculiar refidence of the ele-
ment of air, while the lower portion, in which the clouds
float, was regarded asthe natural fituation of the element of
water. The earth, the loweft and innermoft of thefe
{pheres, was {uppofed to be the great refervoir of elementary
eartb. The natural charaGters of the fuppofed elements
were imagined to be analogous to the above hypothetical
diftribution of them. ‘Thus fire was confidered as the active
principle of the univerfe, the fource of animal and vegetable
life, the great caufe of change and renovation. TFarth, on
the contrary, was regarded as the principle of fixity, hard-
nefs, and folidity ; as that to which the perfiftency of the
various forms of animated and inanimate beings was owing.
The opinions of the ancient naturalifts were received with
refpeét and fubmiffion by the early chemitts, whofe refearches
they direted, and from whom they derived, in return, the
fupport of experimental arguments. In proof of the firft
it may be ftated, that the univerfal method of analyfis
adopted by the old chemifts was, the expofure of the fub-
ftance operated on to different degrees of heat, from which
cireumftance, indeed, they were familiarly known by the
appellation of Philofophers ly fire. OF the nature of the
experiments by which the above-mentioned properties of
earth were fuppofed to be demonftrated, the following may
ferve as a fpecimen. Ifa vegetable or animal is expoied to

See Sort;

EARTH.

the action of an open fire, thofe of ite component parts that
are volatilizable or combuftible, are refolved into fame and
vapour, and air, and there remains behind a white, dry,
fixed, pulverulent, earthy matter, to which, as the only
permanent part of the fubje¢t of experiment, its form was
attributed,

As chemical proceffes came to be multiplied, it.was found
convenient to claffity the earths; whence arofe the diftince
tion of metallic earths, or calces, (which were thought to
be ultimately refolvable into one general metallic or mercurial
earth,) alkaline earths, and earths proper, that is, fuch as
were neither alkaline nor metalizable. The metallic earths
were found ta differ remarkably from the reit by their fu-
perior {pecific gravity, till the difcovery of barytes took
place; the high {pecific gravity of which occafioned many
attempts, but wholly without fuccefs, to reduce it to the
metallic ftate. This, however, was not confidered as abfo-
lutely conclufive of the non-metallic nature of barytes, and
in the opinion of many, was fully counterbalanced by the
pofitive argument of its great weight. When Lavoifier
publifhed his theory, he tated, as an analogical inference,
the probability that the earths would one day be proved to
be metal:ic oxyds; and foon after, the aCtual metallization of
barytes and fome of the ‘other earths was announced by
M. M. Ruprecht and Tondi. On the repetition, however,
of their experiments by Klaproth and Savarefi, the fuppofed
difcovery was clearly proved to be an entire miftake; the
metallic globules which were produced in the experiments
alluded to being only phofphuret of iron, and derived from
the crucible in which the fufions were performed.

Of lace years the bypothefis of the metallic nature of the
earths was entirely abandoned, and the only innovation on
tne old arrangement was, the detaching of the alkaline earths,
barytes, ftrontian, lime, ‘and magnefia, and placing them
with the other alkalies; and Jeaving filex, zircon, alumine,
glucine, and yttria, to form the clais of earths proper, cha-
racterifed by infufibility in fire, infolubility in water, the
abfence of .acid or alkaline properties, and irreducibility to
the metallic ftate. ‘

The recent fplendid difcoveries of profeffor Davy on
eleGtro-chemical agency, have, however, difclofed a mul-
titude of highly important faéts, of which. one of the moft
interefting is, that not only the earths, but the alkalies them-
felves, are compounds of peculiar metallic bafes with oxygen,
in confequence of which the clafs of earths, heretofore dif-
tinguifhed by negative properties, is done away. See
Exvecrricity and MerAts.

Eartu, Animal, is pbofphat of lime, of which the
hard parts of the warm blooded animals are principally com-
pofed, and which remains behind after the diffipation by
combuttion of the other ingredients.

Earra of Dew, an earth much valued by many former
chemical experimenters, and prepared in the following man-
ner: a large quantity of dew is to be colle&ted, and fet ina
wooden veflel, in a cool fhady place, covered with a canvas,
to keep out duit and flies, there will in three weeks, and
fometimes longer, come out a putrefaétion in the liquor.
During the time of this putrefaction, certain films are daily
formed on the furface of the liquor, and thefe falling down
to the bottom, one after the other, form, by degrees, a
fediment of a fortof mud. This is to be thrown away, and
the dew, when feparated from it, is to be filtered clear, and
evaporated to a drynefs, the remainder is a greyifh-earth,
which is the true earth of dew: ‘his is very light and friable,
and is of a foliated ftructure in the mafs, looking like fo
many leaves of brown paper, {pread very thin and even ovdr
one another. Phil. Tranf, N° 3. aa

nie

EARTHS.

This earth, expofed to a {mart fire, lofes its foliated tex-
ture, and runs into a mafs, refembling a mixture of falt and
brimftone melted together, but it is not at all inammabte.
This, ground on a levigating ftone, tinges the water to a
purplifh colour. A pound of this earth, properly treated
by calcination and elixiviation, will yield an ounce of a pure
and white falt, fomewhat refembling nitre. The chemifts
have been at great pains to procure this earth, but they do
not feem yet to have made any very important ufe of it; and
in all probability it is no other than that common {par which
we know to be contained in all water, and which encrufts the
fides of our tea-kettles, and other veffels, in which water is
often boiled. We know, by manifold inftances, that {par is
rarifiable into vapour with water, and therefore it would be
a greater wonder if the dew were found not to contain it,
than that it does.

Earta, in Geography, denotes the terraqueous globe,
which we inhabit, conliiting of Jand and water; the furface
of which is diverfified by countries and feas of various boun-
-daries and dimenfions. On the earth, in this view of it,
are defcribed feveral circles, which either properly belong
to the earth itfelf, or which are transferred to it from the
vifible heavens. Thefe circles are the Lguator, Ecliptic,
Tropics, Polar circles, Mertdians, Horizon, Parallels, &c.
which fee refpeétively. See alio Grose. In order to eiti-
mate the proportion of the land to the water on the furface
of the earth, fo far as difcoveries had been extended in his
time, Dr. Long took off the paper from a terreftrial globe,
and, feparating the land from the fea, weighed the parts
ref{pectively ; and in this way he found the proportion of the
jand to the fea to -beas 124 to 349. ‘This conclufion, which
after all mutt be very vague and unfatisfactory, would have
deen more accurate, if the land were feparated from the fea
before the paper was palted on the globe. “lhe paper of
anodern globes, including all the modern difcoveries, would
afford a more ju{t inference. The feas and unknown parte
of the earch, independent of fome late difcovered iflands and
countries, are faid, in confequence of a meafurement of
fome of the beft maps, to contain 160,522,026 {quare miles ;
the inhabited parts, 38,990,569; Europe, 4,450,065 ; Afia,
10,768,823 ; Africa, 9,654,807; America, 14,110,874 35 in
all, 199,512,595, being the number of fquare miles on the
whole {urface of our globe. In confcquence of recent dif-
coveries, it has been concluded that more than two-thirds of
the furface of the terreftrial globe are covered with water.
{See Ocean and Sea.) For an account of the land on the
durface of the earth, fee Eurorz, Arrica, AMERICA, and
Asia. See alfo Austravasta, Norasia, and Pory-
WESsIA, &c. &c. &e. :

Eartu, Fapan. See Catecnu.
Eartuy, Black. See Brack.
Earta, Fuller’s, in Mineralogy. See Furver’s Larth.

See Green Earth,
See Bore.
See Livonica Terra.

Eartn of Malta. See Metirensis Lerra.

Eartus of Mineral Waters: All mineral waters contain
earth of fome kind, though very different in quantity and in
nature, Thefe are found, in different waters, of very dif-
ferent colours and appearances, fome white, fome grey, fome
yellowifh, fome reddifh, and fome brown. ‘They are aifo
as different in their qualities as in their form; fome of them
are foluble in acids, others are not fo; fome fufible in the
fire; others net; and fome retain their natural colour, after
burning ; others change it in the fire. By this we learn,
that fome are marley, others argillaccoua, others ochreous,
and fome fandy ; others ae are which are produced by the

Eartn, Green.
Eartu, Lemnian.

Earts, Livonian.

sot fo.

concretion of certain juices, faline or fulphureous, and others
Some are fimply mineral, others are metallic.
And as many of thefe are very difierent from any of the
known earths, even in their pure and feparate ftate, they are
yet much lefs diftinguifhable when mixed one with another,
aa they very frequently are in the waters of even our commor
4prings, much more fo in the mineral medicinal ones.

The fimple infufions of certain fulphureous mineral earths
may remarkably alter the waters of wells and fountains,
without having any thing of thofe earths remaining, after their
diftillation ; in the fame manner as nothing is feparable, by
art, from certain liquors, rendered emetic by antimony.
The hot mineral waters may cortraét fome alteration from
the fulphureous and bituminous matters which they meet
with in their courfe; for thefe fubftances all-contain fubtile
falts, which hot water may take up, and carry away with it.
See Mineral Waters.

Eartu of Nocera. Gee Nocertana Terra.

Earrn of Portugal. See Portucariica Terra.

Eartu, Saman. See Bore.

Karru, Sealed. See Bore.

Eartn, Soap. See Soar Earth.

Eartu, Yellow. See Yerrow Earth.

Earru-Bags, Sacks a Terre, in Fortification. See Sacks
of Earth, and Sanv-Bags.

Eartu-Banks, in Hufbandry, &c. are a very common
fence about London, and in feveral other parts of England.
Where ftones are not to be had cheap, thefe are to be pre-
ferred to all other fences, both for foundnefs and duration.

The beft manner of making them is this: dig up fome
turf in a grafly place, a {pit deep, or nearly to the breadth
of the fpade, and about four or five inches thick ; lay thefe
turfs with the grafs outward, even by a line on one fide, and
on the backfide of thefe lay-another row of turf, having a
foot {pace of folid ground on the outfide, to prevent the
bank from flipping in, if it fhould be any way faulty. On
the outfide of this make a ditch, or elfe let the fides be
lowered both ways with a flope two feet deep, and there will
be no pafture loft by the fence, becaufe it will bear grafs on
both fides.

The earth that is dug out of the ditches, or from the
flopes, mult be thrown in between the two rows of turf, till
the middle is made level with the reft. ‘Then lay on two
more rows of turfin the fame manner, and with more of the
earth fillup, and make level as before. Let this methed be
continued till the bank is raifed four feet high, or more-if
neceflary, only obferving, that the higher it is to be carried,
the wider the foundation mult be made. As the bank is
carried up, the fides mult not be raifed perpendicular, but
floping inward both ways, fo that at the top it may be
about two feet and a half wide. This fort of fence, when
made with lefs care, and faced with clay, is left naked, and
ferves very well in fome places ; but when it is thus managed
with the turf, the joinings of the feveral pieces are hid ina
little time, by the growth of the grafly part of the turf on
each fide; and it makes a beautiful fence, of as green and
pleafant a colour as the reft of the ficld.

The great improvement upon this plan, is the planting
quickfets, or young white-thorn plants, in the middle of
the top of the bank. ‘The earth on each tide of thefe ma
be raifed up with a fort of wall, and the vain that fails wholly
preferved for the plants. This plenty of water, and depth
of fine earth, make the young plants grow quicker and
more vigoroufly than in any other way ; and the moft beauti-
ful of all hedges is formed in this manner, When this fort
of hedge is young, there mult be placed on each fide of it a
fhort dry hedge, of about a foot high, te keep the theep

frona

EAR

from cropping the young plants, but this may be taken away
. after a little time.

' There is one caution neceffary in regard to the making of
‘thefe banks, which is, that they mutt never be made ina
very dry feafon, becaufe if much rain. fhou!d, follow, the
earth of the bank wonld fwell and burft out, or fpoit the
fhape of the bank; but if this fhould happen, it 15 eafily
enovgh repaire’. This beautiful fence may be made ata

- {maller price than thofe unaccuftomed to thele things may
imagine. In good digging ground, where men work for
fourteen pence a day, it may be made and planted with

» quick for two fhillings a pole. It may be made proper for
the keeping in of deer, only by the {mall addition of plant-
ing, at every cight or ten feet diftance, a poft a little flant-
tne, with a mortife in it; let. this ftand about two fect above

‘the bank, and into the mortifee all along, put a rail made

of a bough of any tree, no deer will ever go over this, nor

‘can they creep under it, as they often do when a pale

tumbles down. The quick, on the top of this bank, may

‘te kept clipped, and will grow very thick, and afford the

beft fhelter for cattle of any fence in ufe with us. Mor-

“timer’s Hufbandry. ‘

Eartru-Board, that part of a plough which turns over
‘the earth. -

-Eartu-Fiax. See Plume-Aurtum.

Eartu-Nut, in Botany. See ArAcuis.

Eaeru-Nut Pea. See Latuyrus.

Eartu-Pitch. See Bitumen. |

~, Earru-Pucerons, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
authors to a fpecies of puceron very fingular in its place of
‘abode. Inthe month of March, if the turf be raifed in
everal places in any dry pafture, there will be found, under

. dome parts of it, clufters of ants, and, ona further fearch,
it will-be ufually found, that thefe animals are gathered
about fome pucerons of a peculiar fpecies. Thefe are large,
and of a greyifh colour, and are ufually found in the midft
of the clufters of ants. See Pucrron.

The common abode of the feveral other {pecies of puce-
rons is on the young branches or leaves of trees; as their
‘only food is the fap or juice of vegetables, probably thefe
earth kinds draw out thofe juices from the roots of the
ee other plants, in the fame manner that the others

o from the other parts, The ants that conduét us to thefe,

_ are alfo our guides where to find the greater part of the
others ; and the reafon of this is, that as thefe creatures feed

on the faccharine juices of plants, they are evacuated from

“their bodies in a liquid form, very little altered from their

‘original {tate ; and the ants, who love fuch food, find it

ready prepared for them, in the excrements which thefe

little animals are continually voiding, Reaumur.

EARTHED Sucar. See Sucar.

EARTHEN Froors. See Froor.

_.*Eaatnen Ware. See Portery.

EARTHING, in the general fenfe. See INTERMENT.

Eartuine, in Agriculture and Gardening, denotes the

- covering of vines, celery, and other fhrubs and plants with
earth.

_ EARTHQUAKE, in Natural Wiflory, is a fudden

concuffion of {ome part or other of the earth, generaily ac-
companied with unufual noifes, and produétive of various
effects, fuch as the emiflion of flames, water, vapours, &c. ;
and agitating the ground in various degrees, from the
-flighteft thioctt to the moft tremendous convulfions, and the
overthrow of buildings, towns, rocks, mountains, and very
extenfive tras of land.

« It has been juftly obferved, that of all the phenomena of

nature, none is fo apt to imprefs the human mind with terror

» Vor. XID. . Ral ae

EAR

as an éa:thquake. » Its unlimited, its fudden, its dreadful
effe&ts leave no certain remedy, or no refuge to the terrified’
individuals. Seneca, {peaking of it, fays. “ A tempeftate
ros vindicdnt portus: nimborum vim cflufam, et fine fine
cadeates aquas, teéta propellunt: fugientes non fequitur jo-
cenditum: adverfus tonitrua et minas ceeli, fubterranee
domus, et defofli in, aitam fpecus remedia funt. Nullum
malum fine effugio eft. Hoc malum latiffimé patet, inevita-
bile avidum, .publicé noxium. Non enim domos folum, aut
familias, aut urbes fingnles haurit, fed gentes totas, re-
gionefque fubvertit ; et modo ruinis operit, modo in altam
voraginem condit.”” Quett. Nat. jib, vi.

There is no country upon this globe, whether continent
or ifland, which is not move or lefs fubjett to earthquakes.
Even the fea is affeGed by them. And the hiftotics of all
times record an immenfe feries of earthquakes, which has
hardly left a month, a week, or perhaps a fingle day, un-
marked by their devaftatioris in the annals of the world.
Bat though hiftory {peaks of the frequency, of the varicty,
and of the deftrnétion, of earthquakes; yet no certain in-
formation refpeGting their origin has been tran{mitted to us
from the experience of our predeceflors, whofe knowledge of
the fubje& feems not to have amounted merely to conjeétures
and vague hypothefes, 1n fhort, we know nothing certain
re{peGting the caufe or caufes which produce the earth-
quakes; neither are we acquainted with any certain indica-
tions of their going to take place, nor with any mode of
averting them. Yet thefe are the objects to which the in-
duftry of philofophers mult be attentively directed ; and for
the attainment of which, all the fats that have been more
authentically recorded thould be carefu'ly colle¢ted, com-
pared, and reflected upon. In conformity to this, we fhall,
in the firft place, ftate fuch accounts of particular earth-
quakes as are morehikely to convey a competent idea of their
variety, their powers, their extent, &c.; privcipally dwell-
ing upon thofe, which, in confequence of their being of a

More recent date, have been more circumftantially defcribed

by eye-witnefles, fome of whem are ftill living. We shall
afterwards examine the hypothefes that have been offered in
explanation of the phenomena; and hail endeavour to place
the philofophical part of the fubjeét under a concife and
comprehentive form,

Several ancient auchors, as Seneca, Strabo, Callifthenes,
Paufanias, Pliny, Thucydides, &c. mention a variety of
ftupendous effets produced by earthquakes, either preced-
ing or during their. hfe-time; fuch a6 the feparation of
mountains, the appearance and difappearance of iflands, the
de‘truGtion of a great many citizs, fome of which were {wal-
lowed up, together with their inbabitauts, fo effeétually as
not to leave even a veltize of their former exiflence.

In the 17th year of the Chriltian era, under the reign of
the emperor Tiberius, twelve cities of Afia Minor were
d-flroyed in one night :—a dreadful difafler, the memory of
which, or rather of the towns that were raifed in lien of thofe
that were deflroyed, is attelted by a medal, full extant, of
the above-mentioned emperor, on the legend of which we
find, ‘* Civitatibus Afie Reftitutis.”?~ (Strabo. lib. xii.
Tacitus Ann. libsii.) Eufebius adds Ephedfus aifo to the
above-mentioned twelve cities, which raifes their number to
thirteen. A remarkable circumitance attending the deitruc-
tion of thefe towns is particularly noticed by Dr. Stukeley,
as peculiarly favourable to his hypothelis, of which we fhall
fpeak hereafter. The circumitance is, that thefe thirteen
cities mult have occupied a circuit of about 300 miles ia
diameter ; and though the cities themfelves were completely
deftroyed, yet neither the mountains were reverled, nor the
Springs and fountains broken, nor was the courle of the

‘ cya riveré

EARTHQUAKE,

rivers altered. In fhort, there was no kind of alteration
produced in the furface of the country, which indeed re-
mains the fame to this day.

In the 63d year of the Chriflian era, another violent
earthquake took place in the neighbourhood of the mount
Vefuvius, which was attended with extenfive deftrution,
And about 16 years after this, various other earthquakes
were felt near the fame place, which preceded that famous
eruption of Vefuvius, in which the elder Pliny loft his life.

Under the reign of the emperor Gallienus, the greateft
part of the country which forms the prefent Italy was
fhaken by earthquakes during feveral days. They were
preceded and accompanied by horrid founds beneath the
furface of the earth, and with reports like thunder. Various
fiffures of the earth, which were repeatedly opened and
clofed in a great many places, {wallowed up a valt number
of human beings.

In the fecond year of the reign of Valentinian and Valens,
on the morning of the 21ft of July, A.D. 365, (Gibbon
fays, from the account of Ammuianus,) the greateft part of
the Roman world was fhaken by a violent earthquake, The
imprefflion was communicated to the waters. - ‘I'he fhores of
the Mediterranean were left dry, by the fudden retreat of
the fea; great quantities of fith were caught with the hand,
and large veflcls were ftranded on the mud. But the tide
foon returned, with the weight of an immenfe and irrefiftible
deluge, which was feverely felt on the coafts of Sicily, of
Dalmatia, of Greece, and of Egypt. ‘Large boats were
tran{ported, and lodged on the roofs of houfes, or at the
diftance of two miles from the fhore; the people, with their
habitations, were [wept away by the waters; and the city
of Alexandria annually commemorated the fatal day, on
which 50,000 perlfons loft their lives in the inundation.

In the fixth century, during the reign’ of Jufivian in the
Ealt, which lafted 38 years, earthquakes (as it appears from
the hiftories of Procopius, Agathias, John Malala, and
‘Pheophanes) were peculiarly frequent, and remarkably de-
fiructive. Gibbon, in bis account of thofe times, accom-
panies his concife narrative with feveral obfervations of ‘a
moral or philofophical nature, which render the p2flage pe-
culiarly interefting. ‘ Without,” he fays, “ afligning the
caufe, hiftory will diftinguifh the periods in which thefe
ca'amitous events have been rare or frequent, and will ‘ob-
ferve, that this fever of the earth raged with uncommon
violence during the reign of Juftinian. Each year is marked
by the repetition of earthquake, of fuch ‘duration, that
Conttantinople has been fhaken above forty days; of fuch
extent, that the fhock has been communicated to the whole
farface of the globe, or at leaft of the Roman empire. An
impulfive or vibratory motion was felt ; enormous chafms
were opened; huge and heavy bodies were difcharged into
the air; the fea alternately advanced and retreated beyond
its ordinary bounds ; and a mountain was tora from Libanus,
and caft into the waves, where it proteéted as a mole the
new harbour of Botrys, in Phesicia. Two hundred and
fifty thoufand perfons are faid to have perifhed in the earth-
quake of Antioch, on the 2oth.of May, 526, whofe do-
meftic multitudes were {welled by the conflux of ftrangers to
the feftival of the Afcenfion. The lofs of Berytus, on the
oth of July, 551, was of fmaller account, but of much

reater value. ‘Chat city, on the coaft of Phoenicia, was
illufirated by the ftudy of the eivil law, which opened the
fureft road to wealth and dignity: the {chools of Berytus
were filled with the rifing {pirits of the age; and manya
youth was loft in the earthquake, who might have lived to
be the fcourge or the guardian of his country. Ina thefe
Gifafters, the architect becomes the enemy of mankind, The

hut of a favage, or the tent of an Arab, may be throws
down without injury to the inhabitant; and the Peruvians
had reafon to deride the folly of their Spanifh conquerors,
who with fo much cof and labour erefted their own fe-
pulchres. The rich marbles of a patrician are dafhed upon
his own head; a whole people is buried under the ruins of
public and private edifices; and the conflagration is kindled
and propagated by the innumerable fires, which are neceffary
for the fubfiftence and manufaGtures of a great city, Ine
ftead of the’ mutual fympathy, which might comfort and
affift the diftreffed, they dreadfully experience the vices and
paffions which are releafed from the fear of punifhment: the
tottering houfes are pillaged by intrepid avarice; revenge
‘embraces the moment, and feleéta the victim; and the earth
‘often {wallows the <flaffin or the ravifher, in the confumma-
tion of their crimes.””

One of the moft remarkable events in the hiftory of earthe
quakes occurred in the year 1538, on the coaft of Puzzuolt,
(the ancient Puteoli,) in the kingdom of Naples, and is pare
ticularly recorded by many hiltorians, fome of whom were
‘eye-witnefles of the phenomenon. Simon Porzio, Capaccio,
Da Toledo, Summeonte, in his ‘ Hiltory of the Kingdom of
Naples,”’ and others, relate that from the year 1537, until
the month of September, 1538, fhocks of earthquake were
frequently felt along the coaft of Puzauoli; bur, during the
27th and the 28th of that month, the fhocks became much
more violent, and followed each other fo clofely, as hardly
to admit an interval ef a few minutes. ‘The fea retired fe-
veral yards from the accuftomed fhore. But on the 29th of
the above-mentioned month, at abaut two hours after the
fetting of the fun, a moft tremendous fhock took place,
which at once annihilated the lake Lucrinus; a town, with
its inhabitants, was f{wallowed up by the earth, which
opened itfelf in various places, and emitted flames, with fand
and red-hot ftones. That extent of ground, which lay be-
tween the Avernian lake anda hill called mount Barbaro, ~
began to rife, and, with the acceffion of the ignited mat-
ter, formed, ina fingle night, a new hill, which is aQually
exifting under the name of Monte Nuovo; and its perpendi-
cular height from the level of the fea is, according to a late
meafurement, equal to 1127 Englifh feet. The habitations
of the neighbourhood were completely demolifhed, fo that,
24 hours after, no veltige of their exiftence could be pere
ceived.

Meaco, in Japan, experienced a deftruétive earthquake
in 1595. It was again deftroyed by a like calemity, which
continued three hours, in September, 15963 and it was alfo
deftroyed in 1738.

In the year 1638, a terrible earthquake happened in
Calabria, the fpot which {eems to be particularly. devoted
to fuch dreadful calamities; and is defcribed in the follow-
ing manner by Kircher, who was an eye witnefs of it.
«© On the 24th of March, he faye, ‘* we launched in a fmall
boat from the harbour of Mefiina, in Sicily, and arrived the
fame day at the promontory of Pelorns. Our deftination
was for the city of Euphemia, in Calabria, but on account
of the weather, we were obliged to remain three days at —
Pelorus. At length, wearied with the delay, we refolved
to profecute our voyage; and although the fea feemed more
than ‘ufually agitated, yet we ventured forward. The gulf
of Charybdis, which-we approached, feemed whirled-round —
in fuch a manner as to form a vatt hollow, verging to a
point in the centre. Proceeding onward, -and vurning
my eyes tomount Etna, I faw it caft forth large volumes
of {moke, of mountainous fize, which entirely covered the
ifland, and blotted out even the fhores from my view. This, —
together with the dreadful noife, and the fulphureous:tench, —

which |

EARTHQUAKE.

which was ftrongly perceived, filled-me with apprehenfirns
that fome more dreadful calamity was impending. The
fea itfelf feemed to wear a very unufyal appearance ; thofe
who have feen a lake in a violent fhower of rain all covered
over with bubbles, will have fome idea of its agitations.
_ My furprife was ftill increafed by the calmnefs and f{erenity
of the weather; not a breeze, not a cloud appeared, which
might be fuppofed to put all nature thus into motion. I
therefore warned my companion, that an earthquake was ap-
roaching ; and, after fome time, making for the fhore with
all poflible diligence, we landed at Tropea. But. we bad
fearce arrived at the Jefuits’ college in that city, when our
ears were flunned with an horrid ait refembling that of
an infinite cumber of chariots driven fiercely forward, the
wheels rattling and the thongs cracking. Scon after this,
a molt dreadful earthquake enfued; fo that the whole track
upon which we ftood feemed.to vibrate, as if we were in the
feale of a balance that continued waving. This motion,
however, foon grew more violent; and being no longer able
to keep my legs, I was thrown proftrate upon the ground.
After fome time, finding that I remained unhurt amidft the
general concuffion, I refolved to venture for fafety, and run-
ning as faft as J could, reached the fhore. I did not fearch
Jong here before I found the boat from which I had landed,
and my companion alfo. Leaving this feat of defolation,
we profecuted our voyage along the coa(t; and the next
day, came to Rocheita, where we landed, although the
earth fill continued in violent agitations. But we were
fcarcely arrived at our inn, when we were once more obliged
to return to our boat; and in about half an hour we faw the
greatelt part of the town, and the inn at which we had fet
up, dafhed to the ground, and burying all its inhabitants
beneath its ruins. Proceeding onward in our littie veffel,
we at length landed at Lopizium, a caftle midway between
‘Tropea and Euphemia, the city to which we were bound,
Here, wherever I turned my eyes, nothing but fcenes of
* ruin and horror appeared ; towns and caftles levelied to the
ground; ftromboh, though at fixty miles diltance, belching
forth flames in an unufual manner, and with a noife which 1
could diftin@ly bear. But my attention was quickly turned
from more remote to contigucus danger. ‘Che rumbling
found of an approaching earthquake, which, by this time
we were grown acquainted with, alarmed us for the confe-
quences. It fecmed every moment to grow louder, and to
come nearer. he place on which we ftood now began to
fhake moft dreadfully; fo that, being unable to ftand, my
companion and I caught hold of whatever fhrub grew neareft
to us, and fupported ourfelves in that manner. After fome
time, the violent paroxyfm ceafing, we again ftood up, in
order to profecute our voyage to Euphemia, which lay
within fight. In the mean time, while we were preparing
for this purpofe, I turned my eyes towards the city ; but
could only fee a frightful dark cloud, that feemed to reft
_ upon the place. This the more furprifed us, as the wea-
- ther was fo very ferene. We waited, therefore, till the
cloud was pafled away: then turning to look for the city,
it was torally funk; and nothing but a difmal and putrid
lake was to be feen where it flood.” y
The ifland of Jamaica is fo very fubje€& to earthquakes,
‘that, as Dr. Sloane relates, its inhabitants expect one at
leaft every year. Among thefe earthquakes, Dr. Sloane
deferibes,one of fo defiractive a nature, as perhaps to equal
the fevereit of fuch calamities. ‘This earthquake took place
‘in the year 1692, . In. two minutes time the fhock deftroyed
and drowned nine-tenths of the town of Port Royal, at
that time the capital of the ifland. (Phil. Tranf. n, 2¢9.)
' houfes {unk 30 or 40 fathoms deep. ‘The earth open-

4

ing, fwallowed. up people; and they rofe ig other” flrecta?
fome in the middie of the harbour; and yet many were
faved, though there were 2000 people loft, and 1000 acres
of land funk. All the honfes were thrown down through.
out the ifland. One Hopkiys hed his plantation removed
half a mile from its place. Of all the wells, fromone fa-
thom to fix or feven, the water flew ont at top with ave. .
hement motion. While the houfes on one fide of the ftreet
were fwallowed up, on the other they were throwa on
heaps; and the fand in the ftreet rofe like waves in the fea,
hfting up every body that {tood on it, and immediately drop-
ptog down into pits; and at the fame infant a flood of
water breaking in, rolled them over and over; fome catch-
ing hold of beams, rafters, &c. Ships and floops in the
harbour were overfet and loft » the Swan frigate, particularly,
was thrown over by the motion of the fea, and the finking
of the wharf, and was driven over the tops of meny houfts.
It was attended witha hollow rumbling uoife, like that of
thunder. In lefs than a minnte,- three quarters cf the
houfcs, and the ground they ftood on, with the inbab‘tants,
wereall funk quite under water; and the little part left behind
was no better than a heap of rubbifh. The thake was fo
violent, that it threw people down on their knees or their
faces as they were running about for thelter. The ground
heaved and {welled like a rolling fea; and feveral houfes,
flill ftanding, were thuffled and moved fome yards out of
their places. A whole ftreet is faid to be twice as broad
now as before; ‘and in many plzces, the earth would crack,
and open and fhut, quick and faft: of which openings, two
or three hundred might be feen at a time ; in fome whereof,
the people were fwallowed up; others, the earth clofing,
were caught by the middle, and prefled to death; as to
others, the heads only appeared. The larger openings
{wallowed up houfes; and out of fome would iffue whole
rivers of water, {fpouted up a great height into the air, and
threatening a deluge to that part the earthquake f{pared.
The whole was attended with ftenches and offenfive {mells,
the noife of falling mountains at a diftance, &c. and the fky
in a minute’s time was turped dull and reddifh ke a glowing
oven. Yet, as greata fuffever as Port Royal was, more
houfes were left ftanding therein than on the whole ifland
befide, Scarce a planting-houfe or fugar-work was left
ftanding in all Jamaica. A great part of them was {wal-
lowed up, houfes, people, trees, and all at once; in lieu of
which, afterwards, appeared great pools of water, which,
when dried up, left nothing~but fand, without any mark
that ever tree or plant had been thereon. Above twelve
miles from the fea, the earth gaped, and {pouted out with
a prodigious force vaft quantities of water into the air;
yet the greateft violences were among the mountais and
rocks; and it is a general opinion, that the nearer the moun-
tains the greater was the fhake, and that the caufe thereof
lay there. Molt of the rivers were ftopped up for 24 hours,
by the falling of the mountains, till {Welling up, they made
themfelves new traéts and channels, tearing up in their paf-
fage trees, &c. After the great fhake, many of thofe peo=
ple who efcaped got on board fhips in the harbour, where
many continued above two months; the fhakes all that time
being fo violent, and coming fo thick, fometimes two or
three in an hour, accompanied with frightful noifes, like a
ruftling wind, or ‘a hollow rumbling thunder, with brim-
ftone blatts, that they durft not come afhore. ‘The confe-
quence of the earthquake was a general. ficknefs, from the
noifome vapours belched forth, which {wept away above
3000 perfons of thofe who were Icft.
In the year’ 1693, the ifland of Sicily experienced a moft
tremendous earthquake, whole thocks were feverely felt =
2P2 y

EARTHQUAKE.

far as Naples on one fide, and Malta on the other. ‘The
deftruStion occafioned by this earthquake was immenfe;
fifty four cities and towns, together with an immenfe num-
ber of villages, were either totally deftroyed or in great
meafure damaged: and among them was counted the famous
Catania, once the refidence of monarchs, and adorned
by elegant buildings, a univerfity, &c. Father Serrovita,
who was riding in fight of it, obferved from the diftance of
a few miles, that a denfe black cloud hung over. that city.
etna at the fame time iflucd vaft volumes of flame; the fea
was wonderfully agitated, and a roaring noife proceeded from
it ; the birds were terrified, the animals in the fields roared and
trembled; the ground fhook violently ; all feemed to threaten
deftru@tion. Inthe middle of this horrid fcene, an explofion,
with a fhock of enormous magnitude took place, which
levelled Catania with the ground, and acloud of duit, which
rofe in the air, indicated the fatal fpot. Out of 18,gc0 in-
habitants of that once famous city, goo are faid to have fur-
vived that lamentable event. But Sicily and the kingdom
of Naples have experienced fo many earthquakes, that their
dates alone would form a confiderable lift. Among thefe,
the earthquakes of the year 1783 are remarkable, not only
for their duration, and for the vatiety of their deftruétive
effects, but likewife for their having been carefully examined
and particularly deferibed by competent obfervers. “Of
thofe, however, we fhall fpeak hereafter. .

In the years 1737 and 1738, violent earthquakes happened
at Kamtfchatka, which ruined the habitations of the natives.
And about the fame time, the volcanoes of the neighbour-
hood made formidable eruptions ; for that country abounds
in volcanoes, fome of which are extiné, whilft others are
ftill burning. Pekin fuffered a terrible earthquake in the
year 1739-

In South America, and efpecially in the vicinity of vol-
canoes, the earthquakes are frequent and generally violent.
In 1746 Cailao and Lima were almoft totally deftroyed.
But the laft mentioned town is fo very fubje& to earthquakes,
that fince the eftablithment of the Spaniards in that country,
various fuch difaitera have taken place. In 1746 at Quito,
in Peru, not lefs than 200 fhocks of earthquake were counted
in 24 hours; and within about one year 451 fuch fhocks
were felt, In July 1773 San Jago of Guatimala was fo
effeGtuaily deftroyed by a terrible earthquake, that not a
fingle building was left ftandipg in it.

Great Britain, and France, though upon the whole no
very great fufferers, have not, however, been exempt from
earthquakes. In France, indeed, the various extin@ vol-
canoes it contains indicate, that in a remote. period that
country mult have frequently experienced fuch calamities ;
and, in fact, feveral occurrences of the kind are atually re-
corded.

The laft fhocks of earthquake felt in London took place
on the Sth of February, and on the Sth of March, 1749.
But they only affrighted the inhabitants. In the year fol-
lowing, on the 30th of September, an earthquake affected
vations parts of England. ‘The centre of the fhock feems
to have been about Daventry, in Northamptonshire. A few
other flight fhoeks have alfo been felt in various parts of
England and Wales fince that time.

Mr. Henry, inthe Phil. Tranf. for 1778, defcribes the
earthquake which was felt at Manchefter in 1777. It ex.
tended 140 miles; the bells tolled twice: it was obferved
that moft noife was heard.in the neighbourhood of con-
duGors of eletricity ; and fome fhocks were felt.

The year 1755 was rendered memorable by the dreadful
sarthquake of Lifbon, the effets of which were more or lefs

feverely felt by almoft the whole of Europe. OF this alfo
we fhall take particular netice hereafter.

In 1759, during the months of O&ober and November,
feveral violent earthquakes happened in Syria. Damafcus,
and another large city of Syria, were entirely demolifhed ;
and it was reckoned that 6coo human beings in the former,
and nearly all the inhabitants of the latter, were buried
under the ruins. Tripoli of Syria, together with feveral

other towns, villages, &c. alfo fuffered confiderably at the -

fame time.

Daring the year 1767, frequent earthquakes were felt in
Germany, in Switzerland, and other circumjacent places.
Ia 1769, Bagdad was almoft totally deftroyed by an earth-
quake. In June, 1770, the ifland of St. Domingo fuffered
a tremendous earthquake, which was attended with the
opening ofa voleano. In September, 1774, at Altdorf, in
Switzerland, a great number of edifices were deftroyed by
feveral ftrong fhocks of earthquake. In 1775, Vernate,
among the Molucea iflands, and Iceland, fuifered violent
earthquakes, which were accompanied with eruptions of
their volcanoes. In 1778, Manheim, and Smyrna, the
former in April, and the latter in July, fuffered greatly in
confequence of earthquakes. In fhort, there is no part of
the habitable world, which is not more or lefs fubje& to the
deltruGtive aGtioa of earthquakes. Nor are the iflands more
exempt from fuch difafters. On the contrary, it appears,
upon the whole, that earthquakes are more frequent and
more deftru@tive among them than upon continents. In fact,
the Caribbee iflands, the Azores, the Moluccas, the Philip-
pine iflands, &c. are peculiarly fubjeét to earthquakes.

A full hiftory of earthquakes, as far as may be colleG@ed
from the annals of the various countries of the earth, would
prove a difgufting monotony, alike deftitute of amufement
and of inftruction; unlefs, indeed, every particular account
contained an accurate defcription of fome fingular pheno-
menon, which might be likely to throw light upona fubje&
which is equally obfcure and important. But the accounts
of fuch events, efpecially during a remote period, are moftly
contaminated by exaggerations and uncertainties, fo that
they can afford but little affiftance to the mind of a fpecula-
tive philofopher.. The forego‘ng accounts have been fe-
le&ted as the moft ftriking initances of the kind, and as being
fufficient to convey an adequate idea of the force, the extent,
the variety, and the duration of earthquakes, But we have
referved the account of two remarkable cafes for our par-
ticular examination, viz. the earthquake of Lifbon in 1755,

and thofe of Calabriain 1783. The wonderful effets pro- .

duced by thefe earthquakes are, perhaps, not exceeded by
thofe of any other convulfion of the kind.

particularly noticed by a variety of intelligent and creditable

-perfons, who have recorded, with fufficient concurrence of

They were alfo .

teftimony, all the principal phenomena that preceded, ace

companied, and followed them, fo as to afford ample {cope
for conjecture and for hypothefes, refpecting the origin, the

nature, and the probable method of averting, fo greata.

feourge of the human fpecies.

The great earthquake of Lifbon, the capital of Portugal,
took place on the 1lt of November, 1755, but its effets were
felt at an immentfe diftance from Lifboa. Previcus to it fee
veral peculiarities of the weather were remarked, which are
as follows. Inthe year 1750 Lifbon experienced a flight,
but fenfible tremor of the earth, and fimilar very flight tre-

mors were frequently perceived in the courfe of the four.

following years, which proved fo very dry, that feveral
fprings and fountains, ufually abundant, failed entirely.
The wind moftly blew from the north, or the north-eait.

The next years viz. the year 1755, was very wet and rainy;

=

EARTHQUAKE.

the fummer was unufually coof; and during the 40 days which
immediately preceded the earthquake, the weather was clear,
but not remarkably fo. On the day immediately preceding
that of the earthquake, a remarkable gloominefs prevailed in
the atmofphere, and the fun was obfcured. At lait, on the
morning of the fatal day, November the 1ft, a thick fog
arofe early in the morning, but this was foon diflipated by
the heat of the fun. here was no wind, nor the leaf agi-
tation of the fea; the weather was remarkably warm. In
the midit of this univerfal filluefs, at 35 minutes after nine
in the morning, a fubteryanean rumbling noife was heard,
and foon after a tremendous earthquake fhook the whole
city, throwing feveral of its buildings to the ground. The
fhocks were at firlt (hort and quick ; but they foon changed.
into another kind of vibration, which toffed the houfes from
fide to fide with fo much violence, as to deftroy by far the
greateft part of the city, killing, at the fame time, a multi-
tude of its inhabitants. The whole deftruétive fcene lafted
about fix minutes, and not lefs than 60,000 perfons are faid
to have perifhed in it. The effects in the river Tagus were
equally remarkable. At the commencement of the earth-
quake, thofe who were in boats at about a mile from the
city perceived a noife, as if their boats were running aground,
though they were in deep water, and at the fame time they
faw the houfes fall on both fides of the river. The veffels
of all fizes were driven from their moorings, and were vio-
lently toffed about, repeatedly appearing to flrike, or actu-
ally ftriking the ground; for in many places the bed of the
river rofe above itsfurface. It isremarkable that a new quay,
with feveral hundreds of perfons upon it, funk to an unfa-
thomable depth, and not one of the dead bodies ever floated
“to the furface. At firft, the bar was laid dry from fhore to
fhere ; but foon after the fea rolling in like a mountain, in-
ftantly rofe to the height of about 50 feet near Belem caftle.
Another fhock happened at about noon. of the fame day,
and during this the walls of the few houfes that remained
ftanding were feen to open, about’ a foot from top to
bottom, and then to clofe again, without hardly leaving
a mark of the fiffure. Such were the difafters of Lifbon on
that memorable day ; we fhall now gradually proceed to”
fate the effets of the fame earthquake at other places.
At Colares, about 20 miles from Lifbon, and two miles
from the fea, on the laft day of Oftober, the weather was
clear, and uncommonly warm. About four o’clock in the
afternoon there arofe a fog, unufual at that time of the
year, which came from the fea, and fpread itfelf over the
vallies. Soon after the wind changing to the eaft, the fog
returned to the fea, collecting itfelf and becoming very thick,
As the fog retired; the fea rofe with a prodigious roaring.
The rit of November the day broke with a ferene {ky, the

wind continued at eaft; but about nine o’clock the fun be-*

gan to grow dim, and about half an hour after was heard
a rumbling noife, like that of chariots, which increafed to
‘fuch a degree, that it became equal to the explofion of the
largeft cannon.. Immediately a {hock ef an earthquake was
felt, which was quickly fucceeded by a fecond, and a third ;
and at the fame time feveral light flames of fire iffued from
the mountains, refembling the kindling of charcoal. In
thefe three fhocks the walls of the buildings moved. from
eaft to welt. In another fituation, from whence the fea coaft
could be difcovered, there iffued from one of the hills, called
the Fojo, a great quantity of fmoke, very thick, but not
very black. ‘This itill increafed with the fourth fhock, and
afterwards continued to iffue ina greater or lefs. degree.
Jatt aa the fubterraneous rumblings were heard, the {moke
was oblerved to burft forth at the Fojo; and the quantity
#f {moke was always proportioned to the noife. On viliting

the place from whence the {moke was feen to arife, no figne
of fire could be perceived near it.

At Oporto, near the mouth of the river Douro, the
earthquake began about 40 minutes paft nine. The fky
was very ferene, when a dreacful hollow noife, like thun-
der, or the rattling of coaches at a diftance, was heard,
and almoft at the fame inflant the earth began to fhake.
In about a minute or two the river rofe and fell five or
fix feet, and continued to do fo for four hours. It ran
up at firft with fo much violence, that it broke a fhip’s
hawfer. In fome parts the river opened, and feemed to dif-'
chargé vaft quantities of air; and the agitation in the fea
was fo great about a league beyond tke bar, that air was
fuppofed to have been difcharged there alfo.

St. Ubes, a fea-port town about 20 miles fouth of Lifbon,
was entirely {wallowed up by the repeated fhocks and the
vaft furf of the fea. Huge -pieces of rock were detached
at the fame time from the promontory at the weft end of
the town, which confilts of a chain ef mountains containing
fine jafper of different colours.

The fame earthquake was felt all over Spain, except in
Catalonia, Arragon, and Valencia. At Ayamonte, near
where the Guadiana falls into the bay of Cadiz, a little be-
fore ten o’clock on the rft of November, the earthquake
was felt, having been immediately preceded by a hollow
rufhing noife. Here the fhocks costinued for fourteen or’
fifteen minutes, damaged almoft all the buildings, throwing
down fome, and leaving others irreparably fhattered. In-
little more than half an hour after, the fea and river, with
all the canals, overflowed their banks with great violence,
laying under water all the coafts of the iflands adjacent to
the city and its neighbourhood, and flowing into the very:
ftreets. The water came on in valt black mountains, white
with foam at the top, and demolifhed more than one half of
a tower at the bar named De Canala.. In the adjacent:
ftrands every thing was irrecoverably loft; for all that was
overflowed funk, and the beach became a fea, without the
leaft refemblance of what it was before. Many perfons pe-
rifhed ; for although they got aboard fome veffels, yet part»
of thefe foundered; and others being forced out to fea, the
unhappy pafiengers were fo terrified, that they threw them-
felves overboard. The day was ferene, and not a-breath:
of wind ftirring.

At Cadiz, fome minutes after nine in the morning, the
earthquake began, and latted about five minutes. The water
of the cifterns under ground wafhed backwards and forwards,
fo that a great froth arofe. At ten minutes after eleven a
wave wa3 {een coming from the fea, at eight miles diftance,
at leaft 60 feet higher than ufual. It dafhed againft the welt
part of the town, whichis very rocky. Though thefe-rocks-
broke a good deal of its force, it came at laft upon the city .
walls, beat in the breaft work, and carried pieces of the build
ing, of cight or ten ton weight, to the diflance of 40 or
50 yards, Whenthe wave was gone, fome parts that are
deep at low water were left quite dry; for the water returned
with the fame violence with which it came. At half an
hour after eleven came a fecond wave, and after that four:
other remarkable ones; the firft at ten minutes before twelve;
the fecond half an hour before one; the third ten minutes
after one ; and the fourth ten minutes before two. Similar
waves, but fmaller, and gradually leffening, continued with
uncertain intervals till the evening.

At Gibraltar, the earthquake was not felt till after ten.
It began with a tremulous motion ofthe earth, which lalted -
about half a minute. Then followed a violent thock; after
that, a trembling of the earth for five or fix feconds; then
avother fhock, not fo violent as the firit, which went off

gradually,

EARTHQUAKE.

gradually as it began. The whole lafted about two minutes.
Some of the guns on the battery were feen to mfe, others to
fink, the earth having an undulating motion. Molt people
were {cized with giddinefs and fickncfs, and fome fell down;
others were flupefied, and many that were walking or riding,
felc no motion in the earth, but turned fick, The fea rofe
fix feet every fifteen minutes; and then fell fo low, that
boats and all the {mall craft near the fhore were left aground,
as were alfo numbers of {mall fifh. The flux and reflux
lafted till next morning, having decreafed gradually from
two in the afternoon.

At Maarid the earthquake came onat the fame time asat
Gibraltar, and lated about fix minutes. Att firft every body
thought they were feized with a fwimming in their heads;
and afterwards, that the houles were falling. It was-not
felt in coaches, nor by thole who walked oa foot, except
very flightly ; and no accident happened, except that two
lads were ‘killed by the fail of a flone-crofs from the porch
of achurch.

Melaga felt a violent fhock; the bells rung in the fteeples,
the water of a well overflowed, and as fuddenly retired.

Saint Luear, at the mouth of the Guadalguivir, was vio-
Jently fhocked, and the {ca broke in and did a great deal
of mifchicf.

At Seville feveral houfes were fhaken down; the famous
tower of the cathedral, called ‘* La Giralda,’’ opened in the
four fides; and the waters were fg violently agitated, that
all the veffels in the river were driven afhore.

In Africa. the earthquake was felt almo{t as feverely asit
had been in Europe. reat part of the town of Algiers
was deftroyed. At Arzilla, in the kingdom of Fez, about
ten in the morning, the fea fuddenly rofe with fuch impetu-
ofity, that it lifted up a veffelin the bay, and dropped it
with fuch force on the land, that it was broken to pieces 5 and
a boat was found two mufket-fhot within land fromthe fea.
At Fez and Mequinez, agreat many houies fell, and a mul-
titude of people were buried in the ruins.

At Moroceo, many people loft their lives by the falling
down of a-great number of houfes: and about eight leagues
from the city, the earth opened and {wallowed up a village
with all the inhabitants, who-were known by the name of
the “ Sonsof Befumbs,” to the number of about 8000 or
10,000 perfons, together with all their cattle, &e. and foon
after, the earth clofed again inthe fame manner as-before.

At Salle, a great deal of damage wasdone. Near athird
part of the houfes was overthrown ; the waters rufhed into
the city with great rapidity, and left behind them great
quantities of fith,

At Tangier, the earthquake beganlat ten in the morning,

and Jafted 10 or 12 minutes. Thefea came up to-the walls,
which was not known to have ever happened before ; and
went down immediately with the fame rapidity with which
it arofe, leaving a great quantity of fifh behind it. ‘Chefe
commotions were repeated 15 times, and lafted till fix in the
evening.

At Tetuan, the earthquake began at the fame time it did
at Tangier, but lafted only feven or eight minutes, There
were three fhocks, fo extremely violent, that it was feared
the whole city would be deftroyed.

In the city of Funchal, in the ifland of Madeira, a fhock
of the earthquake was firkt perceived at 38 minutes paft nine
inthe morning. It was preceded by arumbling noife in the
air, like that of empty carriages pafling-haftily over a itone
pavement. The obferver felt the floorimmediately to move
with a tremulous motion, vibrating very quickly. The
fhock continued morethana minute; during which time the
vibrations, though continual, were weakened and increafed

ia force twice very fenfibly. ‘The jneresfe, after the firft-re-
miffion of the fhock, was the moft intenfe. ‘The noife in the.
air accompanied the fhock during the whole of its coatinu-
ance, and lafted fome feconds after the mation of the earth
had ceafed; dying away like a peal of diftant thunder ro:ling
through the air. -At three quarters paft eleven, the fea,
which was quite calm, (it being a fine. day,.and no wind
flirring,) retired. {uddenly fome paces; then riling witha
great {well without the leat noife, and as fuddenly advancing,
overflowed the fhore,-and entered the city. It rofe 15 feet
perpeodicular above the high-water mark, although the
tide, which flows there feven feet, was then at half ebb.

The water immediately receded, and after having fudtu-
ated four cr five times between high and low water marx, it
{ubfided, and the fea remained calm as before. In. the
northern part of the ifland the inundation was -more violert,
the fea there retiring above 1co paces at firlt, and, fuddenly
returning, overflowed the fhore, forting open, doors, break-
ing down the walls of feveral magazines and ftore-houfes,
leaviag great quantities of fith afhore, andin the firects of,
thewvillage of Machico. All this-wes the effect of one ri-
fing of the fea, for it never afterwards flowed high enough,
to reach the high-water mark. It continued, however, to
fla&tuate here much longer before it fubfided than at Funchal;,
and in fome places farther to the weftward, it was hardly,
if at all, perceptible.

The fhocks of this earthquake were alfo felt in a. great
many other places, much more diftant from Portugal, bet in
general very flightly. They were felt im feveral provinces

of Sweden, in Italy, and efpecially at Milan ; in Englandat ~~

Earfy Court, Berks; at. Eyam-bridge, Derbyfhire, where.

the fhocks were pretty {mart; in France, as at Bayoane, -

Bourdeaux, and Lyons, &c. . Butthe effets of this earth-
quake indiftaat places, were obferved to affeG the waters of
feas, lakes, rivers, {prings,.welis, &c. in amoft.extraordinary
manner;, and fuch phesomena took place principally in
Norway, Sweden, Germany, Holland, Corfica, Switzerland,
Antigua, Barbadoes, Great Britain, Ireland, &e. ’

In fome of thofe places the waters turned muddy, and
were ftrangely agitated, in others, they overflowed the banks.
with violence and then retired; unufual tides came on at.
different places, a bubbling bifling or roaring was perceived
in fome lakes, and fo forth; but we muit be more particu-
lar in defcribing-fome of thofe effeéts, which were oblerved in
Ergland, Scotland, and Ireland.

At Barlborough in Derbythire, between ¥1 and 12 in-the
morning, a {urprifing and frightful noife was heard near a
large body of water called ** Pibley Dam,” a large iwell
of water came in acurrent fromthe fouth, and rofe two-feet
on the north fide of the lake. It then fubfided, returned’
again, and fo on, gradually decreafing in its motioa
until it ceafed entirely. A fimilar noife, with agitation, and
overflowing of the water of a canal, was obferved at about
half an hourafter ten in the morning, at Bufbridge in Surrey;
afimilar agitation was obferved in a pend at Cobham in
Surrey. At Dunitall in Suffolk, the water of a pond role
gradually for feveral minutes in the form of a pyramid, and
fell down-like a-water-{pout. Other ponds-in the neigh-
bourhood hada fmooth flux and reflux from one end to the
other.
ing noife was heard to iffue from a.pond, and its water was
feen to rife and to defcend alternately, without any fuGu-
ating motion, and continued this rifing and falling during
fix or feven minutes, making four or fivefuch vibrations in a
minute. At Earfy Court, Berks, about 11 o’clock, after a
violent trembling of the earth, a motion of the water of a
f&ith-pond was obferved from - fouth tothe north ead ed

: the

?
:
a

Fy

~

Near Durham, abouthalfan hour after ten, arufh- —

1 2

FARTHQUAKE.

#he pond, leaving the bottom at the fouth “end altogether
ary for about fix feet. It thenreturned, and flowed at the
fouth end, rifing three feet up the flope bank; and imme-
diately after returned to the north bank, rifing there alfo
about three feet. Inthe time between the flux and reflux,
the water {welled up in the middle of the pond, colleéted in
a ridge about 20 inches higher than the level on each fide,
and boiled like a pot. This agitation from fouth to north
lated about four minutes. At Eaton bride, Ment, the
water of a pond was feen to open in the middle, fo that a polt
could be feen a good way down, almoft to the bottom.
The water inthe mean time dafhed over a bank two feet
_ high, and perpendicular to the pond. This was repeated

feveral times witha great noife. At Shireburn caftle, Ox-
fordfhire, at a little atter ten in the morning, a ftrange mo-
tion was obferved in the water of a moat which farrounds
the houfe. ‘Though there was not the leaft wind, the water
was obferved to flow ai onecorner, and to retire again fuc-
ceffively and reguiarly. Every flood began gently ; its ve-
focity increafed by degrees, and at laft itrufhed in with great
impetuofity, till it had attained itsfull height. After alittle
time it ebbed in a fimilar manner, &c. At every flux, the
whole body of water feemed to be violently thrown againft
the bank, but neither during the time of the flux nor that
of the reflux, did there appear the leaft wringle of a wave
on the other parts of the moat.

The like movement was obfezved at the oppofite corner of
the moat ; but it was remarked with furprife, that the water
flowed at both corners, which ftood diagonally oppofite to
each other, at the fame time, and alfo ebbed at the fame
time in both places.

At White Rock, Glamorganfhire, at about two hours
ebb of the tide; and near three quarters after fix in the even-
ing, a vat quantity of water rufhed up with a_ prodigious
noife ; floated two large veffels, broke their moorings, drove
them acrofs the river, and’had liketo have overfet them.

The whole rife and fall of this extraordinary body of
water did not laft above 10 minutes, nor was it felt in any
' other part of theriver, fothat it feemed to have gufhed out

of the earth at that place.

At Loch Lomond in Scotland, at about half an hour
after nine in the morning, the water, without the leaft appa-
rent caufe, rofe againft its banks with great rapidity, then
fubfided far below the ufuallevel. It rofe again, and fo
forth.

The greateft perpendicular height of this {well was two

~ feet, and four inches. A remarkable phencmenon attended
the earthquake in this lake, which was, that a large ftone,
lying at fome diftance from fhore, but in fuch fhallow water
that it could eafily be feen, was forced out of its place in
thelake upon dry land, leaving a deep furrow in the ground,
all along the way in which ithad moved. At Loch Nefs,
at about half an hour after nine, a great agitation was ob-

~ feryed in the water of the river Oich.

At Kinfale, in Ireland, between two and three in the af-
ternoon, the weather being calm, and the tide near full, a
large body of water fuddenly rufhed into the harbour with
fuch rapidity, that it broke the cables of two floops, and

it whirled round feveral veflels. At one place it overflowed,
and poured intothe market place. It then fubfided, and
again rofe, continuing this motion for about 10 minutes,
_ But between fix and feven in the evening, the water rofe again,
though not with fo great violence as before, and it conti-
nuéd to ebb and flow alternately till three in the morning.

At fea, the fhocks of this earthquake were felt moft vio~
lently. Off St. Lucar, the captain of the Nancy frigate
felt his fhip fo violently fhaken, that he thought he had

ftruck the ground; but on heaving the lead, found he was
ina great depth of water. ‘Captain Clark from Denia, in
N. lat. 36° 24!, between nine and tenin the morning, had
his fhip fhaken and {trained as if fhe had ftruck upon a rock,
fo that the feams of the deck opened, and the compafs was
overturned in the binacle. The mafter of a veffel, bound to
the American iflands, being in N. lat. 25°. W. long. 40°,
and writing in his cabin, hearda violent norfe, as he imagined,
in the fteeraye, and while he was afking the caufe of it, the

‘fhip was put into a flrange agitation, and feemed as if fhe

had been fuddenly jerked up and fufpended by a rope fattened
tothe matt-bead. He immediately ftarted up with great
terror and aftonifhment ; and looking out at the cabin-win-
dow, faw land, as he took it to be, at the diftance of about
a mile.’ But coming upon the deck the !and was no more
to be feen, but he perceived a violent current crofs the fhip’s
way to the lgeward. In about a minute, this current re-
turned with great impetuofity, and at a league’s diftance he
faw three cragcy pointed rocks throwing up water of various
colours refembling. fire. Chis phenomenon, in about two
minutes, ended in a black cloud, which afcended very heavily.
After it had rifen above the horizan, no rocks were to be
feen; though the cloud, fill alcending, was long vifible, the
weather being extremely clear. Between nine and ten in the
morning, anotber fhip, 40 leagues welt of St. Vincent, was
fo ftrongly agitated, that the anchors, which were lafhed,
bounced op, and the men were thrown a foot and a half per-
pendicularly up fromthe deck, Immediately after this, the
fhip funk in the water as low as the main chains. The lead
fhewed a great depth of water, and the line was tinged of a
yellow colour, and fmelled of fulphur. The fhock lafted about
ten minutes, but fmaller ones were felt during about 24
hours after the firtt.

Thus we have ftated the moft material particulars which
were obferved on the firft of November 1755, during an
earthquake remarkable fot its deltructive effets, for its ex
tent, and for the fingularity of the phenomena with which
it was accompanied. Many other particulars might have
been added which. were obferved in {ome df the above-men-
tioned places as well as in others; but we have thought
proper to omit them, confidering that they are neither of
much confequence, nor eflentially different frem fome of
thofe which have been already mentioned.. See Phil. Tranf.
vol. xlvi. and xlix. :

The earthquakes. of Calabria are of a more recent date,
but of a duration vaftly greater than the preceding. In fa&t,
it was a repetition of fhocks more or lefs violent end de
ftruétive, which continued to afflict that country from the
beginning of the yea 83 to the end of the year 1786.
The moft violent fhocks, however, and the greateft
deftruction, took place during February and March of
the firlt of thofe years. The moft authentic account of thefe
earthquakes was written by the chevalier Vivenzio, phyfi-
cian to their Sicilian majetties. This intelligent gentleman
publithed his firft account in the year 1783, immediately
after the molt deftruétive fhocks; and his documents were
derived from the accounts which were regularly tranfmitted
to the court of Naples, from the various parts of Calabria
and Sicily, which places were the aétual fuffcrers of the mis«
fortunes, But in the year 1788, when the fhocks had entirely
ceafed, and when the former accounts had received due cor
reGlions and enlargements, the fame gentleman publifhed a
fecond edition, much amended and improved, with the addi-
tion of elegant plates. The title of the book is ‘* Iitoria
de Tremuoti Avvenuti nella provincia della Calabria Ultes
riore, e nella Citta di Meffina, nell? anno 1783, &c. Di
Giovanni Vivenzio, Cavaliere,” &c, Amongtt other im-

provemente,

EARTHQUAKE.

»provements, this fecond edition contains a mof fingular and
accurate journal of the earthquakes, kept by a learned phy-
fician of Monteleone, in Calabria, named Dr. Domenico
. Pignataro, who refided upon that devoted {pot all the time.
This journal exprefles the time, the ftrength, the dircétion,
-and the effe&ts of each fhock, and is accompanied with an ac-
curate ftatement of the concomitant phenomena of the at-
mofphere, fuch as the Rrength and direétion of the wind,
‘rain, température, Kc.
Befides the above, feveral other partial accounts were alfo
ublifhed about that time ; and fir William Hamilton, then
/Englifh minifter at the court of Nzples, alfo tranfimitted his
accounts, which contain feveral curious obfervations. From
call thefe documents we have extracted the following account,
which, confidering the variety and the importance of the
fats, we have endeavoured to render as concife as it was in
our power,

The fouthern part of the kingdom of Naples confifts of
two provinces of the fame name, viz. the Hither Calabria,
cand the Further Calabria, or Calabria Citra, and Calabria Ultra,
the latter of whicl:is{eparated from the ifland of Sicily by the
channel or fava of Mcflina. ‘This province extends from lati-
tude 37° 5 sMNBOy 12’ N., it is teparated from the other Ca-
labria_ princigade by the mountans called Sile, and by the
mountains of Nicaftro; and is itfelf divided nearly from
north to fouth by a.ridge cf mountains called the Appen-
nines, among which there are Monte Djo, Monte Sacro,
and Monte Caulone} ‘extending weftward to the Tyrrhene
fea. It was insthe vicinity of thefe momntains that the
pearthquake in yeneral exerted its greateft for ce. Catanzaro
is the principal city or capital of the province.

With refoe& to weather, temperature, &c. of the vear
1782, preceding that of the earthquake, it wes obferved in
that province, that the fummer proved remarkably bot and
,dry, the antumn was peculiarly rainy and cold; but the be-

-ginning of the winter was rather mild. The.winds moftly
-predominant were, the S.E., the S., and the S.W. On the
28th of O&ober a violent hurricane arofe, and biew along
the coaft of Catanzaro, the heights of Tiriolo, and as far as
‘the plains of Cinfalco, rooting up trees, entting and ce-
ftroying whatever happened to be in its way. The violent
rains’ of OGober and November filied the cifterns, wells,
ponds, and rivers, to an unufual degree, which oecafioned
a great deal of damage throughout the province, and on the
xoth of December upwards of a hundred perfons loft their
lives in confequence of the violent overflow of a torrent.

In the courfe of the night of the 1it of January, 1783,a
flight fhock of an earthquake wes felt ; and it was faid by
fome, that two other flight fhocks were alfo felt during two
other nights of the fame month. ‘This, however, 1s uncertain.
During the firt two days of Pebruary, the weather was
either clear, though not perfe@ly fo, or covered with
broken clouds: the wind blew either from the fouth-eaft, or
from the weft. The fun appeared fomewhat inflamed.
‘The morning of the 5th commenced with nearly the fame
zppearances, but a hazinefs came on gradually. On the
fhores of Bovino and Pizzo the fifhermen were obliged to
relinquish their occupations, and to land, for though there
was no wind, yet the fea at fome diflance appeared to be
in anextraordinary ftate of ferment and ebulltion. On the

eattern coaft, near cape Rizzuto, the fea being unufually agi-_

tated, overflowed the fhores, and at that time fome affert that
they felt a flight tremor of the earth. From about ten uns
til very near twelve o’clock at noon, fome rain fell in differ-
ent parts of the province; but at Monteleone it rained
abundantly. The wind was S.S.E. In this ftate of the
aatmolphere, at about a quarter before one ig the afternoon,

-a rumbling fubterraneam noife, like a fucceffion of thunders

was in about two feeonds fucceeded by a dreadful earth-
quake. At firft the foil began to fhake gently, but the vi-
brations foon became violent jn the direGtion of S.S.W. and
N.N.E. fome of them, however, were extremely ftrong and
irregular, then they decreafed nearly in the fame manner as
they had commenced, and the whole lafted about two
minutes. The water of the fea was inftantly put in agita-
tion; at firft it retired from the fhore, and it flowed: foon
after, and this was repeated three times fucceflively. . This
earthquake fhock, fraétured, or entirely demolifhed, feveral
buildings on the northern part of the ifland.of Sicily, as well
as all over the province of Calabria. The ground was
thrown up or funk in feveral places, changing the face of the
country, and interrupting the courle of rivers, the overflowing
of which occafioned incredible damage. At the fame time the
fires, which were natlral'y kindled among the houfes and vil-
lages that -were deflioyed, contributed to the diftrefs of the
natives. Some of thefe fires continued to burn two or three
days, and even longer. The inhabitants of Montcleone faw
a denfe fog rife from the fea, and thofe who happened to
be involved in ir, perceived a difagreeable ftrong {mell, asif it
came from the rubbifh of the buildings that were deftroyed.
Water was feen to {pring out of the ground in.a great many
places, and thefe, as well as the waters of rivers, &c. became
muddy, and moltiy emitted a {ulphurecus er phofphoric
fmell. Large fiffures were found openinthe ground, and in
other places the ground was elevated much above its ufual
level; end thus the moft delicious plantations, gardens,
pafture lands; &c. inftantly became a frightful defert. =

The greatelt force of the earthquake feems.to have been
exerted in the very centre of the province, viz. in the vicinity,

or on the wefiern fide cf. Afpromonte, Monte Sacro, and
® r >

Monte Caulone. And frem that place the greatelt force
feems to have procecded in the direévion of W.S.W.

The {pace which came within the aGtion of this earthquake
was reckoned to meafure 40 miles by 30; for whatever was
comprehended within it, was altered and deftroyed.in a dread-
ful manner. At Mcfiina, in Sicily, the houfes on or near
the level of the fea fuflfered moft. The Lipari iflands hike.
wile fuffered their there of the difafters. The utmoft boun-
daries at which the fhock was felt, feemed to be Otranto in
the kingdom of Naples, and Palérmo in Sicily. .A yaft
number of people perifhed under the ruins of their habitations,
many were left lame and helplefs, and thofe who furvived
were fo terrified as hardly to know whattodo. Befides the
above great convulfon, four more fuch dreadful commotions
took place, of which we fhall {peak prefently ; but in the
courfe of the fame day, the memorable 5th of February

1793, and within four hours of the great commotion, not .

lefs than 14 other fhocks were felt, but their force and dura-
tion was not to be compared to the great one. Indeed,
during the whole year 1783, from February forward, very
few days paffed without one or two or more of thofe fhocks
of various ftrength ard duration, taking place. They be-
came gradually lefs frequent in the following years, 1784,
1785, and 1786, with which the journal terminates.

We mutt now refume the account of the four other extrae
ordinary commotions which followed that of the sth of Fe-
bruary. The next, or fecond great earthquake, took place
at about midnight, between the 6th and 7th of the fame Fe-
bruary.. It was accompanied by a dreadful rambling noife,

it lafted about one minute and an half, but it commenced and —

ended with the fame uniform violence. About the fame
time the fea in many places rofe feveral feet above its ufual
level, and produced great damage by its inundation. This
fecond great earchquake, as may be eafily imagined, added

ty conliderably

oe

'
’

EARTHQUAKE.

confiderably to the feene of deftruion and diflrefs; but
without repeating the fame difagreeable expreflions of horror,
we fhall proceed to ftate the periods of the other great com-
motions, and thall then add a fummary of the principal fa&ts
which may demand our more particular attention.

The third great earthquake took place in the afternoon
of the 7th of the fame February. It iafted about two mi-
nutes and a half. The rumbling noife and the commotion
commenced at the fame moment. The fhocks were of va-
‘rious forts, fuch as horizontal or vertical pulfations, whirl-
ing, waving, &c.

The fourth tremendous earthquake happened very early
in the morning of the ift of March following. This alfo
was accompanied with great fubterranean noife; it lalted
about a minute and 35 feconds; it was tremendoufly violent
throughout its whole duration. The fhocks were at firft
undulating, but after a very fhort intermiffion they changed

~ jnto a fort of whirling motion. [

The fifth and laft great earthquake took place on the
evening of the 28th of the fame month of March, at about
an hour and a quarter after fun fetting. It lafted about two
minutes. Its fhocks were of various forts, the laft of which
proved the mot violent.

In the journal, the hocks, much inferior to the abovemen-

tioned five extraordinary conyulfions, are diltinguifhed into
four degrees of force; the firft being the weakeit, and the
fourth the ftroage®. And from the ftatement of the
whole journal, it appears that during the year 1783, the
unfortunate inhabitants of Calabria felt 501 fhocks of the
firft degree, 236 of the fecond degree, 175 of the third, and
32 of the fourth degree, befides the five great commotions;
in all 949 earthquakes.
__ During the year 1784, there happened 98 fhocks of the
firft degree, 34, of the fecond, 16 of the third, arid three of
the fourth degree. In all 151 fhocks. Their number
gradually diminifhed in the following years, fo that it needs
not be particularly ftated.

Thole dreadful and repeated commotions, fhook, altered,
and deftroyed the whole face of the country. Sir William
Hamilton obferves, that if the city of Oppido, where the
earthquake exerted its greateft force, be taken as a centre,
and round that centre a circle be defcribed with a radius of
22 miles, this will comprehend all the towns, villages, farms,
&c. that. were utterly deftroyed, where the greatelt mor-
tality happened, and where the furface of the country fuf-

. fered the greateft alteration. But if you defcribe the circle
with a radius of 72 miles, this, then, will comprehend the
whole country that had any mark of having been affected by
the earthquake. The greatett alteration of the country took
place on the weltern fide of the mountains which have been
mentioned above, viz. Monte Sacro, Monte Caulone, &c.
Many openings and cracks were made in thofe places; fome
hills were lowered, others were entirely levelled with the
adjoining ground; fome were fplit afunder; deep vallies
were filled up; pieces of ground, with trees flanding, were
tranfported from one place to another, even with men upon
‘them, who often remained unhurt. But the interruption of
the rivers, in confequence of the fall of hiils, and the altera-
tions of the ground, caufed an udappreciable damage. As
_ dt appeared from the furvey made by profeflional perfons,
fent on purpofe by the government of Naples, not lefs than
_ 215 lakes, and fome of them very extenfive, were formed by
the above-mentioned interruptions.

From the authentic ftatements which were tran{mitted
‘to the government, it appears that 1$2 towns and villages
were entirely deflroyed, 92 were partly deitroyed, but ren-

Vou. XU.

dered entirely uninhabitable, and many others fuffered in a
lefs degree.

From the ftatement of the population previous to, and
fubfequent to, the earthquakes, it appears, that in the whole
country that fuffered, the whole: population before the
earthquakes, comprehending men, women, and children,
amounted to 439,776 human beings ; out of which number
29,451 died under the ruins, and 5709 died of difeafes con-
tracted in confequence of the earthquakes. It is now ne-
ceflary to add fome of thofe remarkable occurrences which
tock place at different timea during the above-mentioned
earthquakes. Jt was obferved, previous to moft of the
fhocks, that the clouds, when any exifted, difperfed in the
atmofphere, generally collected together, and remained
flationary, fufpended, asit were, upon fome particular f{pot.
It is faid that korfes and other animals, by their moanings,
dejection, or uneafinefs, frequently indicated the approach
of an earthquake; and it was particularly obferved, that
gcefe were fooneft and moft alarmed at the approach of a
fhock, Vivenzio relates that a phyfician of Cofenza, named
Dr. Nicccla Zupo,: being impreffed with the idea that clec-
tricity is the caufe of earthquakes, ftuck into the ground
an iron rod of about 12 feet in length, and that at the time
of many a fhock, he obferved electric fire proceed from the
pointed extremity of the rod which projeéted above the
ground.

Mount /Etna, in Sicily, and the volcano of Stromboli,
had fmoked lefs than ufual before the earthquakes; but
they both exhibited appearances of an eruption during the
earthquakes.

Sir William Hamilton, long before the termination of
the earthquakes, had the curiofity to go and examine the
place with his own eyes. AAs he was going towards Rofano,
and before he arrived at that place, he pafled over a fwampy
plain, in many parts of which he was fhewn {mall hollows
in the earth, of the fhape of an inverted cone. ‘They were
covered with fand, as was the foil near them. He was
informed that during the earthquake of the 5th of February,
a fountain of water, mixed with fand, had been driven up
from each of thofe {pots to a confiderable height. This
phenomenon, he thought, might be eafily explamed by
fuppofing the firft impuife of the earthquake to have come
from the bottom upwards, which all the inhabitants of the
plain attefted to be the fact; the furface of the plain fud-
denly rifing, the rivers, which are not deep, would natu-
rally difappear, and the plain returning with violence to ita
former leved, the rivers muft naturally have returned and
everflowed, as the fudden depreflion of the baggy ground
would as naturally force out the water that lay hid under
their furface. It was obferved in the other parts, where
the fame phenomenon had been exhibited, that the ground
was always low and rufhy.

The furprizing cafe of the two tenements which had
exchanged fituation was fully afcertained by fir William
Hamilton, who relates that they were fituated in a valley
furrounded by high grounds; and the furface of the earth,
which was removed, had probably been undermined by little
rivulets which come from the mountains, and were ther
plainly difeernible on the bare fpot which the tenements had
quitted. Their courfe down the valley was fufficiently
rapid to prove that it had not been a perfeé& level. The
earthquake, he fuppofes, had opened {ome depofitories of
rain water in the clay-hills, which farrounded the valley ;
which water, mixed with the loofe foil, taking its courfe
fuddenly through the undermined furface, lifting it with
the large olive, mulberry trees, aad a thatched cottage,

gQ floated

EARTHQUAKE.

floated the whole piece of ground, with all its vegetation
about a mile down the valley, where it then ftood with moft
of the trees ereé&t. Thefe two tenements were about a mile
long and half a mile broad. ‘

The deftruction in fome plaees, and the mifery that
énfued, exceed defcription. The force of the earthquake
of the sth of February was fo great at the town of Poli-
fiene, that all the inhabitants were buried, alive or dead,
under the ruins of their houfes, inan inftant, and out of
6000, 2100 are faid to have loft their lives on that day. At
Cafal Nuovo, the princefs Gerace Grimaldi, with 4000 of
her fubjects, perifhed on the fame day by the explofion ;
for {uch it appears to have been. Some, who had been dug
alive out of the ruins, faid, that they had felt their houfes
fairly lifted up, without the leaft previous notice. Ana in-
habitant of Cafal Nuovo was at that moment on a hill over-
looking the plain, when, feeling the fhock, and turning
round, inftead of the town he faw only a thick cloud of
white duft, like {moke, the natural effect of the cruhhing of
the buildings and the mortar flying off. That town was fo
effectually demolifhed, that no veftize of houfe or fireet
remained, but all lay in one confuled heap of ruins. Of the
fever:] perfons that were dug out alive, fome were quite
unhurt; and it is fingular, that fome perfons were buried
by one fhock, and liberated by another fhock. Thefe fats,
however extraordinary they may appear, were well authen-
ticated ; and a prieft efpecialiy, who related his own adven-
ture to fir William Hamilton, having been buried in the
ruins of his own houfe by the fir fhock, was blown out of
it by the fecond, which immediately followed the firlt.

Another well-attefled fa& took place in the vicinity of
Oppido. A. man, who was ploughing his ficld with a pair
of oxen, was tranfported with his field and team clear from
one fide of a ravine to the other, and neither he nor his
oxen were hurt, 2

We thall clofe this account of the Calabrian earthquake,
with the narration of the misfortune which overwhelmed the
inhabitants of Scilla; and which may be confidered as one
of the greateft difafters occafioned by thofe convulfions.
The city of Scilla was fituated on the declivity of a moun-
tain, the foot of which was wafhed by the Tyrrhene fea.
The prince of Scilla having remarked, that duriag the firlt
great fhock of the sth of February, part of the rock near
Scilla had been detached into the fea, and fearing that the
rock of Scilla, on which his town and caftle were fituated,
might alfo be precipitated down, prepared fome boats,
together with feveral of his dependents and adherents, ac-
commodated, as well as they could, in thofe boats, and
retired to a little beach, fituated at the foot of the hill. The
fecond great earthquake, which happened about midnight,
having detached the greateft part of a mountain much higher
than that of Scilla, called Monafina; that enormous mals of
folid matter fcll into the fea, and occafioned a great wave.
But Vivenzio’s account fays, that it was part of another
hill, called Campalla, that fell fome time after the above,
aod which might meafure about a {quare mile and a half,
and that about half a minute after this fall, two mountainous
waves, accompanied by a horrid roating, proceeded towards
the fhore to the altitude of about 30 feet, and {wept away
whatever happened to be in their way. ‘The water retired,
and came again; repeating this motion three times within
about two mindtes; and during this fhort period an im-
menfe deftru@ion was occafioned by the impetuofity of the
water. Barges, tends, men, and all were dafhed againft the
houfes, and wafhed away into the fea. ‘The prince, or
count of Sinopoli, with his adherents, and a vaft number of

2

other perfons, loft their fives. A few, however, ha& the
good fortune of being faved, and among thofe, the fingular
adventure of a girlis related, who was driven by the water
into the branches of a mulberry tree, fituated about 30 fteps
from the fhore, where her hair and clothes being entangled
amongit the branches of the tree, detained her, at the
height of about jo feet from the ground. The formidable

effects of the above-mentioned waves were aifo felt on the.

coalt of Sicily, where fcveral perfons were killed.

A careful examination of the accounts of earthquakes, that
havé been recorded by ancient as we!l as modern authors,
has enabled philofophers to form certain general rules or
deduétions, which we fhall now ftate, but concerning which,
we mult obferve, that none of them mutt be confidered as
being exactly certain. They are only approximations te
the truth, and may be confidered as rules becaufe they agree
with, or are indicated by the majority of facts, and of
courfe they are fubject to various exceptions.

t. Thofe countries which are within the tropics, or not
very far from them, are more fubject to earthquakes than
thofe which are nearer to the poles, or havea high latitude ;
excepting, however, thofe countries in which volcanoes
exilt, as Iceland and other places; for in the vicinity of
volcanoes, earthquakes have generally been more frequent.

2. When a valeano has continued an unufual length of time
without making an eruption, then an earthquake is more
likely to happen in the neighbourhood ef it, than after a
copious eruption.

3- Earthquakes are moftly-preceded by the fall of copious
rains atter a long drought; and {uch was evidently the cafe
with the earthquake of Lifbon, as well as with thofe of
Calabria.

4. Several other unufual phenomena have often preceded
earthquakes, and fuch are {trong northern lights, abundance
of what are commonly called fhooting ftars, fire-balls, which
are more commonly known under the name of meteors; a
peculiar thicknefs, or rather a want of perfect tranfparency
in the atmofphere, anda timilar dullnefs or a fiery rednefs in
the afpe& of the fun.

5. The fea alfo is generally affe€ted in an unufual manner
previous to an earthquake happening upon the adjoining
land. It either {wells up to an unufual height, or bubbles
up, and emits a peculiar roaring noife.» The waters like-
wife of fprings, wells, ponds, and rivers, frequently grow
muddy previoufly to an earthquake, or give other indications
of it, fuch as to become fuddenly more abundant, or more
{eanty, to yield unpleafant {mells, &c. It has been often
obferved, that the waters of ponds, rivers, feas, &c. have

given indications of an earthquake having taken place at aa

immenfe diftance, when no fhock or tremor of the earth, or
other unufual plienomenon, could be perceived in the neigh-
bourhood of thofe waters.

6. At the time of an earthquake the air is generally calm
and ferene, though feldom very pellucid; but afterwards
becomes generally obfcure and cloudy.

7. A noife of various kind, viz. either a continued rume
bling, or fomething like the rattling of carriages, or like
the explofions'of heavy cannon, is the general forerunner
of an earthquake ; but fometimes the fhock and noife come
mence at the fame time.

8. The nature and direftion of the fhocks vary much,
and mottly they fucceed each other in a very fhort time.
The earth fometimes trembles, at other times it moves fome=
what like the waves of the fea. The fhock frequently be«
gins with a perpendicular heave; then changes into a vi-

bratery

aoe

an

’

—_——S. +

«Jt will be eafily comprehended that, if the floor of the .

EARTHQUAKE.

bratory motion backwards and forwards, or in a whirling
fort of movement.

g. A fingle fhock is of fhort duration, fearcely ever ex-
ceeding a minute; but they frequently fucceed each other,
at fhort intervals, for a confiderable length of time.

ro, At the time of an earthquake, fillures, cracks, or
chafms, are frequently opened in the earth, which are of
various fhapes and fizes ; and are either fhut up immediately,
orthey are left open. In great earthquakes, thofe openings
of the earth frequently {wallow up human beings, and other
animals. And there are various inftances on record of their
having fwallowed up even whole towns. Sometimes a ful-
phureous, or phofphoric imell, fmoke, and Hames, but more
commonly waters, MTue out of thofe openings.

11. Fiame and fmoke have alfo been emitted from the
earth, when ro openings were vifible in it; and it is faid,
that flame and {moke have iffired, likewile, from the water of
the fea at the time of an earthquake.

12. The effeéts of an earthquake are felt by fhips at fea,
and often in avery great degree. An unufual motion of the
water is moftly cblerved, which is either like a prodigious
{well, or like-a current fetting in a certain direGion, or
fomewhat like a whirling movement. ‘The fhips are affected
with a fudden ftroke, asit they had run a-grdund, or ftruck
upon arock ; and fometimesthey areaffeted in a more hurt-
ful manner, as we have meutioned above, during the earth-
quake of Lifbon.

13. Earthquakes are not confined to any particular dif-
trict, or within any prefcribable limits. Some of their

—effeéts have frequently been obferved at an immenfe diflance

from the adtual fcene of aétion. And if attentive obferva-
‘tions were made, and proper machines were ufed, there is no
doubt but that their effects would manifelt themfelves at a
much more furprifing diftance.

The idea of meafuring the vibrations of an earthquake,
or of conftruéting a machine capable of indicating the mo-
tion of the earth, when affeéted by a moderate fhock, has
occurred to feveral perfors. A Mr. Wark propofed to ufe
a veffel partly filied with water, and having its infide furface
above the level of the water, covered with powder of any
light fort; for, if a veffel, fo prepared, be kept on the
ground, or upon any thing that is firmly fixed to the
‘grouad, the powder will remain unwafhed from the infide of
it as long as the earth remains unfhaken; but if the earth,
and of courfe the veffel, happens to be moved out of its ufual
fituation by any fhock of an earthquake, then the water,
by wafhing off fome of the powder, from one fide or the
other of the veffel, would give an indication of that motion.
-(Roz. 1.376.) -That the above-mentioned effeét would
take place, there can be no doubt ; but the fhortnefs of the
radius of vibration (fora very large veflel could not be con-
veniently ufed for fuch a purpofe,) will not render fenfible
any very {mall movements of the earth.

A watch-maker of the city of Naples, during the earth-
quakes of Calabria, in the year 1783, made a much better
contrivance for the fame purpofe, which is as follows: By
eonneGting three oblong pieces of wood, he formed a trong
triangular frame, which he fixed ftraight up, ina very fteady
room, and {crewed one fide of it faft tothe floor. From
the upper angle of this triangular frame, a pendulum pro-
ceeded, which was about eight feet in length, and confilted

of a rod, nicely fufpended, and having a bob, or leaden ball,

ef a confiderable weight, faftened to its lower extremity.
Ju under the ball there was a black lead pencil, which, by
means of a delicate {pring, was made to reft gently upon a
fheet of paper, which was fixed horizontally under the pencil.

room, wherein this machine was fixed, happened to he
moved out of its ufual level, the pendulum muf neceffarily
move relatively to the frame, and, of courfe, the pencil mu‘t
mark a black ftroke upon the fheet of paper. The length
and dire&tion of this ftroke would obvioufly indicate which
way, and how much the floor was moved from its ufual
fituation. This machine was ufed at’ Naples during the
latter part of the earthquakes of Calabria, and its inventor
had the fatisfaétion to obferve feveral marks made by the
pencil upon the paper, at the time that the fhocks of the
earthquake took place ia Calabria (as it was proved by
comparing the times with the isformation which was after-
wards received from Calabria,) at the fame time that no
perfon in Naples was at all fenfible of any fhock. It is
evidest, that fuch a machine cannot indicate any perpendi-
lar riting, or finking of the ground.

The reader will cafily believe, that a natural phenomenon
of fuch mayznitude, and of fuch confequence as an earthquake,
has at all times excited the fpeculation of philofophers,
refpecting its nature and its origin. Though few experiments
have been inftitnted with that view, yet a vaft number of
hypothefes have been offered, which run through all the
intermediate fteps, from the moft ‘evident abfurdity to a
Gegree of high probability. Almoft all the ancient writers
who {peak of earthquakes offer fome theory, or conjeCiure.
But, as at that time, when the branches of natural philo-
fophy were in their very infancy, in proportion to what they
are at prefent, thofe theories, or conjetures, were hardly any
thing more than random guefles; yet, it is to be remarked, that
fome of them coincide, in a great degree, with the two beft
modern theories, which reft upon the innumerable fais and
difcoveries that have been produced by the two or three
laft prolific centuries.

It was imagined by Anaxagoras, that vaft caverns, or
vaults, exifted within the body of the earth, and that earth-
quakes were produced by fubterraneous clouds, confined
within thofe cavities, which, burfting into lightring, fhook
thofe vaults, and occafioned the fhocks. Another hypo-
thefis was, that the above-mentioned vaults, being under-
mined, or weakened by fubterranean fires, at lait fell in,
with whatever lay upon them. Epicurus,ard other Peri-
patetics, afcribed the earthquakes to the ignition of inflam-
mable exhalations.

One of the moft prevailing opinions, not only among the
ancients, but alfo amongft the more modern, and even
amongft fome of the prefent philofophers, is, that the rare-
faction of water is the caufe of voleanoes; but it is curious
to.obferve how this hypothefis has been differently modi-
fied at different times, and by different philofophers.

The very early philofophical writers were contented to
fay that water, reduccd into fteam by the heat of {ubterra-
neous fires, was the caufe of earthquakes. Gailendus,
Kircher, Schottus, Varenius, Des Cartes, &c. fappoied that
there are numerous large cavities within the body of the
earth, which communicate with one another. Some of thefe
cavities contain water; whilft others coniain vapour, or ¢x-
halations, arifing from inflammable matter, fuch es bitumen,
fulphur, xc. They then imagined that thele exhalation
were fubje& to inflammation, either from the eff: cf cf fer-
mentation, or otherwife, and by their flow, or by their
violent combuttion, occafioned the different kinds cf earth-
quakes. Fabri fimply and judicioufly fuppofed, that water,
when prodigioufly rarefied by heat, might fometimes be the
caufe of earthquakes. Dr. Woodward fuppofes, that the
fubterranean heat, or fire, which is continually elevating
water out of the abyfs, which, according to him, occupies
the centre of the earth, to furnifh ram, dew, fprings, aud

3 Q2 riverg j

EARTHQUAKE.

rivers ; may be ftopped in fome particular part. When this
obitruction happens, the heat caufes a great {welling and
commotion in the waters of the abyfs; and, at the fame
time, making the like effort agaiaft the {uperincumbent
earth. that agitation and concuffion of it are occafioned, which
we call an earthquake. Mr. Amontoys, of the French
Academy of Sciences, offered the following hypothefis.
According to the received philofophical principles, which
fuppofe the atmofphere to be about 45 miles high, and that
the denfity of the air increafes in proportion to the abfolute
height of the fuperinacumbent column of aerial fluid, it is
fhewn, that, at the depth of 43,528 fathoms below the fur-
face of the earth, zir is but one-fourth lighter than mercury.
Now, this depth of 43,528 fathoms is only a 74th part of
the femi-diameter of the earth ; and the vaft fphere beyond
this depth, in diameter 6,451,538 fathoms, may probably be
only filled with air; which will be here greatly condenfed,
and much heavier than the heavielt bedics we know of in
nature. But it is found, by experiment, that the more air 1s
compreffed, the more does the fame degree of heat increafe
its {pring, and the more capable does it render it of a vio-
lent effe& ; and that, for inftance, the degree of heat of
boiling water increafes the {pring of the air above wht it
hasin its natural {tate, in our climate, by a quantity equal to
a third of the weight wherewith it is prefled. Whence,
we may conclude, that a degree of heat whichy on the fur-
face of the earth, will only have a moderate effect, may be
capable of avery violent one below. And, as we are affured,
that there are in nature degrees of heat much more con-
fiderable than that of boiling water, it is very poflible there
may be fome, whofe violence, further afliited by the exceed-
ingly great weight of the air, may be more than fufficient to
break and overturn this folid orb of 43,528 fathoms ; whofe
weight, compared to that of the included air, would be but
a trifle.

This reafoning, though very fpecious, will not bear a
careful and particular examination.

Dr. Stukcley feems tohave been the firft perfon who ad-
vanced that earthquakes were probably canfed by electricity.
"The two carthquakes which were felt in London during the
months of February and March 1749, together with that
which happened in Northamptonfhire on the 30th of Sep-
tember 1750, fuggelted this inquiry, upon which the doctor
beftowed a good deal of attention, and he communicated his
reafoning and his obfervations to the Royal Society ir
two papers, which are contained in the Phil. Tranf. vol. slvi.
A fummary of thefe p2pers is as follows. .

‘That earthquakes are not ewing to fubterrancovs winds,
fires, vapours, or any thing that occafions an explofion, and
heaves up the ground, Dr. Stukeley thought might eaiily be
concluded from a variety of cireumftances. In the firlt place,
he thought there was no evidence of any remarkable cavern-
ous ftru@ure of the earth; but that, on the contrary, there
is rather reafon to prefume, that it is, in a great meature,
folid, fo as to leave little room for internal changes and fer-
meniations within its fubltance ; nor do coal-pits, he fays,
when on fire, ever produce any thing refembling an earth-
quake.

Tn the fecond earthquake at London, there was no fuch
thing as fire, vapour, faioke, fmell, or any eruption of any
kind obferved, though the fhock affe€ted a circuit of 30
miles in diameter. This coufideration alone, of the extent
of furface fhaken by an earthquake, he thought, was fufi-
cient to overthrow the fuppofit:on of its being owing to the
expantion of any fubterrazeous vapour. /

For it con!d not poffibly be imagined, that foimmenfe a
force, as could a@ upon that compals of ground initantancous-

£

ly, fhould never break the furface of it, fo as to be difcoverable
to the fight or fmell; when {mall fire balls, burfting in the
air, have inltantly propagated a fulphureous {mell all around
them, to the difiance of feveral miles.

Befides, the operation of this great fermentation, and
produétion of elaltic vapours, &c. ought to be many days
in continuance, and not inftantaneous; and the evagoration
of fuch a quantity of inflammable matter would requirea
long time.

He thought that if vapours and fubterraneous fermenta-
tions, explofions, and eruptions, were the caufe of earth=-
quakes, they would abfolutely ruin the whole fyitem of
{prings and fountaizs wherever they had once been, which is
quite contrary to fact, even where they have been frequently
repeated. Mentioning the great earthquake which hap-
pened A.D. 17; when no lels than 13 great cities of Alia
Minor were deftroyed in one night, and which may be reck-
oned to have fhaken a mafs of earth 300 miles in diameter, he
afks, howcan we poffibly conceive the a€tion of any fubterrane-
cus vapours to produce fuch an effe fo inftantaneoufly ? How
came it to pafsthat the whole country of Afia Minor was
not at the fame time deftroyed, its mountains reverfed, &c, ?
Whereas, nothing fuffered but the cities.

To make the hypothefis of fubterraneous vapours being
the caufe of earthquakes the more improbable, he obferves,
that any fubterraneous power, fufficient to move a furface of
earth thirty miles in diameter, muit be lodged at lea? 35 or
20 miles below the furface of the earth, and, therefore, mult

move an inverted cone of folid earth, whofe bafis is 30 |

miles in diameter, and axis 15 or 20 miles; an effeG which,
he fays, no natural power could producc.

Upon the fame principle, the fubterraneous caufe of the
earthquake in Afia Minor mult have moved a cone of earth

ef 300 miles bafe, and 200 in the axis; which, he fays, ail _

the gun-powder which has ever been made fince the inven-
tion of it, would sot have been able to ftir, much lefs any va-
pours, which could be fuppofed to be generated fo far below
the furface. : “

It is not-upon the principles of any fubtcrranecus explo-
fion that wecan inthe leaft account for the manner in
which fhips, far fromany land, are afleGted during an earth-
quake ; which feems as if they itruck upon a rock, or as if
fomething thumped again{t their bottoms. - Even the fithes
are eficGcd by an earthquake. The firoke. therefore, muft
be occafioned by lomething that could communicate metion
with unfpsakably greater velocity than any heaving “of the
earth under the fea, by the elaiticity of genersted vapours.
This could only produce a gradual fwell, and could never
give fuch animpulfe to the water, as would make it~ feel
hike a ttone. : :

Comparing all thofe circumftances, Dr. Stukeley fays, he
had always thoug):t, that an earthquake was an electrical
fhock, of the faine nature with thofe which are now become
familiar in eleGtrical experiments. And-this hypothefis, he
thought, was confirmed by the phenomena preceding and
attending earthquakes, particularly thofe which happened
in London ard othe? partsof England.’ The weather, for
five or fix months before the firft of thefe earthquakes, had
been dry and warm to an extraordinary degree, the wind
generally fouth and fouth-weit, and that without rain, {fo
that the earch muft have been in a -itate of ele&tricity ready
for that particular vibration in which eleGrification confilts.
On this account, he obferves, that the northern regions of
the world are but little fubj-@ to earthquakes in comparifon
with the foutheyn, where the warmth and drynefs of the air, —
fo neceilury to electricity, aré common. S,

All the flat country of Lincolafhire, before the earthquake.

ia”

_ mult neceffarily enfuc.

EARTHQUAKE,

in September, though underneath it isa watery bog; yet,
through the whole preceding fummer and autumn (as they
can have no natural {prings in fuch a level) had the drought
fo great on the furface of the earth, that the inhabit-
ants were obliged to drive their cattle feveral miles to water.
This, he fays, fhews how fit the dry furface was for an elec-
trical vibration; and alfo, which is of great importance,
that earthquakes reach but very little below the furface of
the earth.

Before the earthquake at London, all vegetables had been
uncommonly forward, and electricity is well known to
quicken vegetation. As the weather had been uncommonly
mild previous tothe earthquake, it is more likely that the
forward ftate of vegetation was owing to that circumitance,
rather than to the interference of electricity, which Dr.
Ingenhoufz found, by a variety of experiments, not to for-
ward vegetation, as it had been believed.

Dr. Stekeley continues to remark, that the aurora bo-
realishad been very frequent about the fame time, and. had
been twice repeated juli before the earthquake, of fuch co-
lowrs as had never been feen before. It had alfo removed
to the fouth, contrary to what is common in England; fo
that fome Italians, and pcople from other places where
earthquakes are frequent, obferving thefe lights, and the pe-
culjar temperature of the air, did a€tually foretell the earth-
quake. “For a fortnight before the earthquake in Septem.
ber, the weather was ferene, mild, and calm ; and one even-
ing, there was a deep red aurora borealis, covering the cope
of heaven, very terrible to behold. The whole year had
been remarkable for fire-balls, thunder, lightning, and co-
rufcations, almoft throughout England. And all thefe

‘meteors are fuppofed to be caufed by the electrical ftate of

the atmofphere.
In thefe previous circumflances of the ftate of the earth
and air, nothing, he fays, is wanting to produce the won-

. derful effeét of an earthquake, but the touch of fome non-

eleétric body, which mult neceflarily be had ad extra, from
the region of the air, or atmofphere. Hence, he infers, that
if a non-eictic cloud difcharges its contentsupon any part
of the earthin that highly eleCtrical ftate, an earthquake
It has been obferved, thatthe noife
which commonly attends earthquakes, generally precedes
the thock : whereas it muft have been quite the contrary if
the concuffion had depended upon a fubterraneous eruption.
This noife attending earthquakes, the doctor thought, could
not be accounted for, but upon the principles of electricity.
He alfo thought that the flames and {ulphureous fmells which
are frequently obferved during earthquakes, are more eafily
accounted for, upon the fuppofttion of their being ele&trical
phenomena. The impreffion made by an earthquake upon
Jand and water, to the greateft difances, is inflantancous,
which could only be cffeed by cle&ricity.

_ The little damage, the Dr. lays, generally done by earth-
quakes, is an argument of their being occafioned by a fingle
vibration, ortremulous motion of the furface of the earth
by an eleétrical {nap. This vibration imprefled on the water,
meeting with the folid bottoms of ships and lighters, occafions
that thump which is faid to be felt by them. That earth-
quakes are eletrical phenomena, he thinks, is made further
evident, from their chicfly affe€ting the fea-coalt, places
along rivers, and eminences. Lialtly, the do¢toradds, asa
farther argument in favour of bis hypothefis, that pains in
the back, rheumatic, hy{teric, and nervous cafes; head-aches,
colics, &c. were felt by many people of weak conititu-
tions for aday or two after the earthquake; juft as they
would after electrification, and, to fome, thefe dilorders
proved fatal. - ,

Tn what manner the earth and atmofphere are put into
that ele¢trical and vibratory ftate, which prepares them to
give or receive that {nap and fhock which we call an earth-
quake, and whence it is that this eleGtric matter comes, the
doétor does not pretend to fay, but thinks it as difficult to
account for as magnetifm, gravitation, mufcular motion, and
many other fecretsin nature.

Willing to throw as much light as poffible upon the im-
portant and obfcure fubject of earthquakes, we have entlea-
voured to extraét the molt important part of Dr. Stuk+ley’s
ingenious papers, which, fince their publication in the Phil.
Tranf. have acquired many adherents; yet it is eafy to pers
ceive, that he writes like a man who has long employed his
f+rious thoughts upon a favourite fubje&t ; whieh naturally
cafts a veil over the merits of other fubje€ts that may ftand
in oppofition to the former. The doctor moftly derived his
conclufions from the phenomena which attended the flight
earthquakes of 1749 at London. Had he lived to examine
the fubfequent earthquakes of Lifbon and of Calabria, it is
mott likely that he would at ieaft have altered fome of his
arguments. He is miltaken when he fays, that the force of
fteam cannot poffibly equal that of pua-powder. Healfo
lays too much, ftrefs upon various effeéts which might be
attributed to other caufes as well as to the agency of elec-
tricity ; and at laft, his not being able to account forthe ac-
cumulation of an enormous quantity of ele¢tricity in the
a orinthe atmofphere, formsthe greatett defect of his
theory.

The fimilarity between the effects of ele&tricicy:and fome
of the phenomena that attend earthquakes, has ftruck a
great many perfons, but when one examines the particulars
a little beyond the bare fimilarity of certain phenomena,
there appears to be very little reafon for concluding that elec-
tricity isthe caufe of earthquakes. The chevalier Vivenzio, in
his account of the earthquakes of Calabria in 1783, exprefles
his perfe&t conviction of their being eleétrical phenomena ;
but his hypothefis of the accumulation of ele€tric fluid under
certain {trata of non-conduiing matter, and of the force
which it mult exert againft thofe ftrata, is too vague to de-
mand any particular examination. This author is not only
perfuaded that eleGricity is the caufe of earthquakes, but
he alfo propofes a remedy againft their effe&s. In fhort, he
propofes to fix metallic rods into the ground, as deep as it
may be praéticable, through which the electric fluid may
pals from the earth into the atmofphere, and vice ver/a.
‘Thefe rods, he favs, fhould project fome feet above the {ur-
face of the earth, and both extremities of each metallic rod,
viz. that which is within, and that whichis above the ground,’
fhould terminate into a number of points, or pointed branches,
fomewhat like a brufh. And if: another fet of fuch pointed
branches was placed about the middle of each rod, it would
be ftill better.

Whoever is acquainted with the praGtical part of clectri-
city, mu know how difficult it is to confine the eledtric
fluid, efpecially when it is ‘much condenfed, or in large
quantities. The beit poflisle infulation, formed by the in-
terpofition of dry glafs and reftns, will hardly preverit the
diffipation of that fubtile fluid, which will endeavour to fly
off into the air, or to any other body which may happen to
be within its reach, . How difficult it is then to conceive,
that an immenfe quantity of that fluid (for furely immenfe
muft that quantity be which can produce an earthquake)
can be aceumulated in any part of the earth, without its im-
mediately rufhing to the cther parts of it; or, in fhort, that
it may be accumulated at all in any part of it more than in
another. It is undoubtedly true, that the earth contains
various non-conducting bodics; but the manner in a

they;

EARTHQUAKE.

they are found to exift is fuch as to prevent the poffibility of
forming a perfect non-conducting ftratum of any confiderable
extent: for they either exift in feparate pieces, or they are
intermixed with water and a variety of other bodies, fo that
the whole compound is far from being a non-conduétor of
eleGiricity. And we may venture to add, that as far as
human art has been able to defcend below the furface of the
earth, it is not poffible to cut off from any part of it a cubic
Jump of 15 or 20 feet, which might be confidered as a per-
fe& non-conductor of eleCtricity. In the atmofphere, or in
the clouds, as far as we know, no very excraordinary quan-
tity of ele&ricity can be accumulated, beyond what may
conftitute « thunder-ftorm ; for though the aurora borea’s,
fhooting ftars, as they are commonly called, and other
meteors, have been fuppofed to be electrical phenomena,
yet there is no certain evidence of their being aétually fo.

Such, in brief, are the obfervations which maybe ad-
vanced refpecting the fuppofed accumulation of electric
fluid, either within the earth or in the atmofphere. If,
then, we proceed to examine the effeéts, we fhall undoubt-
edly find, that fome of thofe which are produced by earth-
quakes may be conveniently explained upon the fuppofition
of their being eleétrical phenomena; and the. principal of
thefe is the effect produced upon veffels at fea. But feveral
others cannot be fatisfactorily reconciled to it: for inftance,
in the earthquakes of Calabria, in 1783, {mall fhocks,
ftrong fhocks, and extraordinary commotions, foilowed one
another at fhort intervals of time, without any order or re-
gularity. Now it is difficult to comprehend how the ele€iric
fluid, which produced thofe fhocks, could be let out of its
confinement ina manner {fo irregular: for if a {mall quantity
of it, which produced a flight fhock, could find an exit,
why a larger quantity of it (which can much more eafily cut
its way through any obltacle) could not come out at the
fame time? and yet, not long after, this large quantity
comes out of its confinement, and produces a great earth-
quake.

Slight flames, fuppofed to have been eleétric fire, have
been frequently feen at the time of earthquakes: but, in
the firft place, thefe, flames may have been nothing more
than the combuftion of hydrogen gas, diflodged from under
the earth, and inflamed at the time of an carthquake; and,
fecondly, they may be allowed to be ele@tric fire, without
the leaft neceflity of admitting that earthquakes are produced
by eleétricity : for, at the time of an earthquake, the con-
verfion of a certain quantity of water into vapour, or of va-
pour into water, generally and evidently takes place; and
whenever this is the cafe, electricity muft be, generated,
becaufe vapour contains much more eleétric fluid than water,
or the fame quantity of water contains lels of the eleétric
fluid in that ftate, than in a ftate of vapour: therefore,
when water is converted into vapour, a quantity of eledtric
fluid is abforbed, and, of courfe, negative eleCricity is
manifetted ;—when vapour is converted into water, a quan-
tity of electric fluid is depofited, and, of courfe, potitive
ele&tricity is manifefted.

The communication of the fhock of an earthquake to
places far diltant from each other, at the fame or nearly at
the fame inftant of time, has alfo been alleged as a proof of
their being produced by cleGtricity. But furely when a
flroke of any kind, and of fufficient ftrength, is given to
any part of an extended folid, the commotion is-communi-
cated to the moft diftant parts of it, if not initantaneoufly,
at leaft in an exceedingly {mall portion of time. ‘The leat
feratch of a pin, at one end of the longeit beam that can be
produced, is inftantly heard at the other end, by a perfon
who puts his ear in contact with the beam,

The laft hypothefis which remains to be mentioned is,
that earthquakes are produced by the fudden expanfion of
water into vapour; and this indeed. ccincides with the
Opinions of various ancient authors: but it is rendered much
more probable by the fa&s which, of late years, have been
afcertained refpeSting the expanfibility of ftcam. The
principal faGis are as follow. Water, raicd to the tems
perature of 212° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, in an ore
dinary ftate of the atmo{phere, is converted into fleam, wiz.
an elaflic fluid, the bulk ef which is not much lefs than
1800 times the bulk of the water from which it originated ;
and in that flate, its clafticity enables it to fupport the
preflure of the atmofphere., If its temperature be increafed
by about 30° more, fo as to amount in all to about 242°,
then its elaltic force will be doubled; by the addition of 30”
more of heat, its elafticity will be quadrupled; and fo on;
nor is it known how far this increaie of ela{ticity may be ex-
tended, by increafing the temperature. Therefore, if wa-
ter happens to fall upon any thing, which can inftantly com-
municate a very high degree of heat to it, the elafticity of
the vapour, which is thereby produced, may be equal to any
force we may have any idea of. The only thing requilite is
the ignited fubftance, which is to furnifh a fuflicient quantity
of heat; and for this purpofe, large quantitics of melted
metals are the fitteft, efpecially thofe which require a very
high temperature for their fufion; metallic fubflances being
very good conductors of heat, fo that when water falls upon
any part of the melted matter, the caloric rufkes to that fpot
from every part of the mafs, and inftantly converts the water
into fteam, poffeffed of a prodigious elaftic force. Now the
application of thefe fats to the production of earthquakes
is extremely eafy, as will appear from the following opbferva-
tons of Dr. Thomas Young. We muf not, however, omit
to acknowledge that there are certain circumftances, which
indicate a conne¢tion between the ftate of the atmofphere
and the approach of an earthquake, and which do not feem
to admit of an explanation upon this hypothefis. ~~. .

** The fhocks of earthquakes,” Dr. Young fays, ‘* and
the eruptions of volcanoes, are, in all probability, modifica-
tions of the efleAs of one common caufe: the fame countries
are liable to both of them}; and where the agitation pro-
duced by an earthquake extends farther than there is any
reafon to fufpe@ a fubterraneous commotion, it is probably
propagated through the earth nearly in the fame manner as
a noife 1s conveyed through the air. Volcanoes are found
in almoft all parts of the world, but moft commonly in the
neighbourhood of the fea, and efpecially in {mail iflands ;
for inftance, in Italy, Sicily, Iceland, Japan, the Caribbees,
the Cape Verd iflands, the Canaries, and the Azores,
There are alfo numerous volcanoes in Mexico and Peru,
efpecially Pichincha and Cotopaxi. The fubterraneous
fires, which are continually kept up in an open volcano, de-
pend perhaps in general on fulphureous combinations and
decompofitions, lke the heating of a heap of wet pyrites,
or the union of fulphur and iron-filings; but, in other cafes,
they may perhaps approach more nearly to the nature of
common fires. A mountain of coal has been burning in
Siberia for almoft acentury, and mutt probably have under.
mized, in fome degree, the neighbouring country. The
immediate caufe of an eruption appears to be very frequently
an admiffion of watcr frem the fea, or from fubterraneous
refervoirs. It has often happened that boiling water has
been difcharged, in great quantities from a volcano; and
the force of {team is perhaps more adequate to the produc-
tion of violent, explofions, than any other power in nature.
The confequence of {uch an admiffion of water into an im-
menie collection of ignited materials, may in fome eet

i]

oe 2 ee:

:
,
ah

EAR

he underftood, from the accidents which occafionally happen
jn founderies; thus, a whole furnace of melted iroa was
Jately difipated into the air, in Colebrook Dale, by the
effe& of a flood, which fuddenly overflowed it.”’

We fhall now conclude this article with the account of an
jdea-of a prefervative againft the efle@s of earthquakes,
which kas been not only believed, but a€tually put in prac-
tice by various.perfons at different times. The idea is, that
deep wells, by giving vent to the effluvia, whatever they be,

* that produce earthquakes, will guard cities, buildings, &c.
againft their effects; or rather that they will prevent the
Shocks of earthquake. And this effe@, provided it be true,
f{zems to be much in favour of the laft-mentioned hypothefis,
namely, that earthquakes are occafioned by the great ex-
panfion or elaficity of aqueous vapour. We do not mean
to vouch for the truth of it, but we fhall bricfly-mention our
authorities. Pliny fays, ‘‘ In terre motibus eft remedium,
quale, et crebri fpecus prebent: conceptum enim {piritum
exhalant: quod in certis notatur oppidis, qu minus qua-
tiuntur, crebris ad cluviem cuniculis cavata. Multoque
funt tutiora in iifdemillis, que pendent; ficut Neapoli in
Italia intelligitur Definunt autem tremores, cum
ventus emerfit.”? Hift. Nat. 1. ii. cap. 82. In the city of
Naples, there is a pyramid ereGted before a church, dedi-
cated to St. Januarius, urder which (Celaao, in his firft
volume of the defcription of that city, fays that) there isa
deep well, which has feveral openings about the bafe of that
pyramid, and which was made exprefsly for the purpofe of
faving it from the effects of earthquakes, Toaldo, the dif-
tinguifhed aftronomer, is much inclined to believe that idea,
and he adduces feveral inftances in corroboration of it. (See
his Saggio Meteorologico, printed at Podova, in 1770.)
This author, among other inftances, fays, that the city of
Udine, capital of the Friuli, has four very deep wells, and
other excavations, made at a very remote period; for they
are even mentioned by Palladio: and ancient tradition fays,
that they were made at a time when that province fuffered
frequent earthquakes ; and that the expedient feems to have
been attended with the defired effe&. The ancient city of
Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, was never known to have
been damaged by earthquskes; and this city contains beth
within and without its boundaries a great number of wells.
Tt is much to be withed, that fuch cafes may be inquired
into, and properly examined, wherever they may be thought
fikely to occur.

Eartuquake, ritificial. There are two experiments,

“frequently defcribed by chemical and philofophical writers,

~ to which they have given the name of artificial earthquakes :

one of them is furnifhed by the {cience of chemiftry, the
other by that of electricity. The former, which, by the
bye, may with more propriety be called an artificial volcano, is
prepared in the following manner: Take about twenty
pounds weight of irou-flings, and an equal quantity of

_ pounded fulphur, or of flowers of fulphur; mix thefe two

>

articles with as much water as will enable you to work them
jntoa mafs like a pretty {tiff pafte; and in that ftate bury it
into the ground, about a foot or two below the furface.
This patte, being a fort of artificial pyrites in a moilt ftate,
will ferment and will generate heat fufficient to fer it a€tually
.on fire; fo that, fome hours after the laying down of the
above-mentioned pafte, the earth over it will be feen to crack,
and fire will come out of it.
By means of electricity, the artificial earthquake may be
performed various ways; but the following is perhaps the

“beft. Place the extremitics of two wires upon the furface

— of a thick and flat piece of glafs; fo that they may ftand in
owe direction, and about one inch diftant from each other.

EAS

Lay a little cylinder of ivory (about three-fourths of an inch
in diameter, and an inch or two high) upon that part of the
furface of the glafs which lies between the extremities of the
two wires. Upon the upper part of the ivory cylinder,
place a little board about five or fix iuches {quere; and upon
this, which may reprefent the ground of a town, difpofe, in
any manver you pleafe, little reprefentations of houfes, made
either of paper, or cork, or wood, &c. Vhings being thus pre-
pared, conneét one of the above-mentioned wires with the
outfide of a pretty large Leyden phial, fully charged with,
ele&tricity, and connect the other wire with the knok of the
fame phial : in doing which, the charge or fhock will pafs over
the flat piece of glafs, and under the ivory cylinder, from
the extremity of one wire to the other. This fhock hardly
ever fails to break the glafs, and to fhake the ivory cylinder,
with the board that ftands over it, fo as to throw down the
little reprefentations of houfes, &c.; and thus it will give a
faint reprefentation of an earthquake, This experiment
may be performed very commodioufly, by ufing an electrical
inftrument, called the univer/al difcharger ; for a defcription
of which, fze the article ELectricar Apparatus.

EARTHWORM, in Zoology. See Lumsricus.

Earthworms are by fome efteemed of great virtue in medi-
cine, and are faid to be diuretic, diaphoretic, and anodyne ;
as’ alfo difcutient, emollient, and openers of obftructions;
and have been prefcribed in apoplexies, fpafms, and all
nervous affections, and in the jaundice, dropfies, and colics,
See Worm Tindure.

EASE, in the Sea Language, fignifies as much as flacken,
or let go flacker. }

Thus they fay, eafe the bowline, eafe the fheet ; that is,
let them go flacker.

Ease the Ship, is the command given by the pilot to the
fteer{man, to put the helm clofe to the lee fide; or hard-a-lee,
when the fhip is expeéted to pitch or plunge her fore-part
deep in the water while clofe hanled. ‘

‘East, Chapel of. See Cuarer.

EASEL, the frame ufed by painters to fupport the
tablet, or frame of canvas, upon which they are painting.

The eafel in common ufe is: too well known, and too
fimple, to need a figure: it is.only a triangular frame, which
ftands on its bafe, and is {upported in an inclined pofition by
a leg behind; the fides of the triangle are perforated with
holes to receive pegs, which fupport the tablet; and by
placing the pegs in other holes, the canvas can be placed
higher or lower on the frame. Mr. Middleton of St.
Martin’s Lane, London, has contrived an eafel, reprefented
in fig. 1. Plate X11. Mifcellany, of which A Aisa reGtangular
frame of mahegany, having grooves for a frame, aa, to fide
up and down in; and a {mall fpring-latch at the underfide
of the frame, aa, fixes the frame at any height the painter
chufes, by locking into any of the holes made in the middle
rail of the frame A.A. The canvas is refted upon a {mall
box, 4, at the lower part of the frame aa; and the box
alfo ferves as a fhelf to contain {pare pencils, &c. Bisa
leg to fupport the frame A A, which is fhut up clofe to the
frame, when the eafel is not in ufe.

Easeu-Picces, among Painters, {uch {maller pieces, either
portraits or landfeapes, which are painted on the eafel.

They are thus called to diftinguifh them from larger pice
tures drawn on walls, cielings, &c.

EASEMENT, in Law, a fervice or convenience which
one neighbour has of another by charter or prefcription,
without profit; as a way through his ground, a fink, or the
like. (Kitch. .105.) A perfon may prefcribe to an eafe-
ment in the freehold of another, as belonging to fome an+
cient houfe, or land, &c. Anda way over the land of an-

other

E-AS

other, a gate-way, water-courfe, or wathing-place on an-
other’s ground, may be claimed by pre(cription as eafemente,
Bat a rultitude of perfons cannot preferibe; though for an
ealement they may plead cuftom. Cre. Jac. 170. 3 Leon.
254. 3 Mod. 294. -

In the civil law, eafements are called /ervitus predii.

EASINGWOLD, in Geography, a market-towa in the
wapentake of Bulmer, in the North Riding of Yorkthire,
England, is about tr miles from York, and 306 from Lon-
don, According to the late official report to parliament, in
18ot, this town contained 269 heufes, and 1467 inha-
bitants. Here are a weekly market on Fridays, and two
annual fairs. Y

EASIs, a lake of Ireland, in the county of Donegal ;
4 miles N.E. of Donegal.

‘EAST, in Co/moagraphy, one of the cardinal points of
the horizon; being the point wherein the prime vertical in-
terfects that quarter of the horizon in which the fun rifes
when in the equinoGiial.

The word eaft is Saxon, In Italy, and throughout the
Mediterranean, the eaft-wind is called the /evante:—In
Greek, asarorn and arndiwrns, becaufe it comes from the
fide of the fun, ex we :—ic Latin, eurus.

To find the eaft and weft line, points, &c. fee Mert-
piAn-Line, and DeGret.

East-Wind, is that which blows from the eaft point.
See Wino. .

Easr- Dials. See Drav.

Easr-Jndia Companies. See Company.

East-Jndia Silk. See Siuk.

_ East, Mooring for. See Moorinc.

EASTANALLEE, in Geography, the N.E. head
branch of Alahama river, in Georgia, North America, on
which ftands the town of Eattanallee.

EAST Anpvover, a town of America, in York county,
and ftate of Maine, go miles N.W. of Portland, containing
175 inhabitants.

East Bay, an arm of Jake Champlain, projecting eaft-
ward from its fouth point.

East Betuienem, a townfhip of America, in the
county of Wafhington and ftate of Pennfylvania, having
1461 inhabitants.

EASTBOURNE, a parifh in the hundred of Eaft-
bourne, and rape of Pevenfey, in the county of Suflex,
England, is one of thofe places that has obtained fome de-
gree of celebrity, in confequence of being frequented in the
fummer manths, for bathing. It is fituated in a valley, nearly
furrounded by hills, which are moftly appropriated to fheep-
walks. The country is very fimilar to parts of Salifbury-
plain; and, like that, confilts of a fubftratum of chalk and
flint, with a thin ftratum of mould, which produces a fine
{weet herbage for fheep. The village is about one mile from
the fea, near which is the hamlet of Southbourne, where are
feveral modern houfes built and fitted up for vifitors. In
the parifh is a free-{chool for 15 boys, a {mall theatre, and
barracks for horfe and foot foldiers. In the church, which
has fome claim to antiquity, are feveral fine monuments.
Lord George Cavendifh has a handfome feat here. Ata
place called Holywell is a {pring of chalybeate water, which
1s faid to poffefs fimilar qualities to the Briftol waters. On
this coat the cliffs are very lofty in places, particularly that
promontory called Beachy-head, which is noted by mariners
as a place of danger. Here are many caverns in the cliffs,
which are much frequented by fmugglers, See a Guide to
Eaftbourne.

EAST Camp, a village of New York, in the county of

EAS

Columbia, on the eaft bank of the Hudfon, 7 miles above
Red Hook; 13 miles N. of New York.

East Cape, the eafternmo't poiut of the contivent of
Afiz, and the dominions of Ruffia. N. lat. 66° 15’. W.
lone. 169° 32!.

East Care, the eafternmoft land of the coaft of New
Zealand. S. lat. 37° 42’ 30". W. long. 181°. The cape
is high, and has white cliffs.

East Cuester, a townthip of America, in the ftate of |

New York and county ef Weft Chefter, on Long ifland
Sound, about 8 miles S.W. of Rye, and 17 N.E. of New
York, containing 738 inhabitants.

EASTER, in Chroaclogy and L£eclefaftical Hiflory, a
fealt of the church, held in memory of our Saviour’s refure
reGlion,

Yhe Greeks and Latins cell it Iarya, pafcha, originaily
a Hebrew word, fignifying paffage, appli-d to the feaft of
the Paffover, which is held among the Jews muck about
the fame time. In Englifh it is called Eatter, from Zafrre,
a gaddefs worfhipped with peculiar ceremony in the month
of f pril.

The obfervatien of this feftival is as ancient as the time of
the Apottles ; for it is certain that the Chriftians of the fe-
cond century celebrated anniverfary feltivals in commemora-
tion of the death and refurreétion of Chrilt, and of the effu-
fion of the Holy Ghoft upon the apoftles. The day which
was obferved as the anniverfary of Chrift?s death was called
the pafchal day, becanfe it was confidered as the fame with
that on which the Jews celebrated their Paffover. But to-
wards the clofe of this century, a difpute commenced about
the particuler time in which this feait was tobe kept. The
Afiatic churches kept it on the 14th day of the firft Jewifh
month, and three days after commemorated the refurreétion
of the Redeemer, pleading on behalf of this praétice the
authority of the apoitles, Philip and John, and che example
of Chrift, who held bis pafchal feat on the fame day that
the Jews celebrated their paffover. ‘The weftern churches
celebrated their pafchal feaft on the night that preceded the
anniverfary of Chrilt’s refurreGtion, and thus conneéted the
commemceration of his death with that of his refurreGtion ;
and they pleaded the authority of the apoftles Peter and
Paul. ‘One principal inconvemence atterding the Afiatic
method was, that this great feftival was commonly held on
other days of the week than the fr/?, or Sunday, which was
the day of Chrift?s ref{urreGQion. Hence very vehement con=
tentions arofe between the Afiatic and Wettern Chriftians.
About the middle of the fecond century, during the reign
of Antoninus Pius, the venerable Polycarp came to Rome,
to confer with Anicet, bifhop of that fee, upon this matter ;
but the conference, though condu€ted with great decency
and moderation, was ineffectual for terminating the difputes.
Polycarp and Anicet, however, agreed in opinion, that the
controverfy ought not to diffolve the bonds of charity. To-
wards the clofe of this century, Victor, bifhop of Rome,
attempted to force the Afiatic churches, by the pretended
authority of his laws and decrees, to follow the rule which
was obferved by the weftern churches: they refufed to fub-
mit, and were excommunicated by Victor. However, in
confequence of the mild interpofition of lrenzus, bifhop of
Lyons, the difputants retained their own cultoms till the
fourth century, when the council of Nice abolifhed that of
the Afiatics, and rendered the time of the celebration of
Eafter the fame through all the Chriftian churches. _

Eafter is one of the mott confiderable feftivals in the
Chriftian calendar; being that which regulates and deter-

amines the time of all the other moveable feafts.

The rule for the celebration of Eailer, fixed by the
souncil

PAGE RK.

‘eounci! of Nice, in the year 325, is that it be held on the
‘Sunday which falis next after the full moon following the
rank of March; é.¢. the Sunday which falls next after the
firft full’ moon after the vernal equinox.

- The redfon of which decree was, that the Chriflians might
avoid celebrating their Eafter at the fame time with the
Jewifh paffover, which, according to the inflitution of
Mofesy was held the very day of the full moon.

To find Eafter egreeably to thisyrule, the method that
‘obtained throughout the church, from the-time of Dionyfius
@Sxiguus to that of the reformation of the calendar under pope
“Gregory, and which ftill obtains ia countries where the
‘Gregorian corre€&tion is not admitted, ia,- by means of the
‘golden numbers, duly diltributed throughouc the Julian
vealendar.. See Metonic Cycun.

To find Eafter by the goiden number, fee Number of
Direélion, and Metonic Cycut.

In the new or Gregorian computation, in liew of golden
numbers, the time of Eafter is found by means of epadis
‘contrived for that purpofe. Sce Epact, and Metonic
“Cycre.

Having the dominical Jetter and the epact, Eafter-day
,may be found by the two following rules: 4. For finding
Eater limit, or the day of the pafehal full moon from
March the firft inclufive; add 6 to the epa&; and if this
;fum exceeds 30, 30 mult be taken fromit; the remainder
dubtraéted from 50 will give the limit, which is never to ex-
ceed 49, nor fail fhort of 21. 2. From the limit and do-
minical letter, Eafter-day may be found, by adding 4 to the
number of the dominical l-tter, {ubtraéting the fum from the
limit, and the remainder-from the next higher number,
which is exa€ily divifible by 7 ; add the laft remainder to the
limit, and the fum wiil give.the number of days from the st
of March to Eatter-day, both inclufive. Thus for the year
1809, the epact is 14, and the dominical letter A: 6+ 14
» == 20: 50 — 20= 30 pafchal limit; 30 — 5 the fum of 4
,and the dominical letter, = 25; and 28 — 25 = 3, which
added to 30, the limit, gives 33, cr the number of days
-from March the 1ft inclufive to Eafter-day, or 2d of
April, :

The following table renders the finding of Eafter in the
ieee year from the year 1700 to the year 1900 very
eafy.

Pafchal tull Pafchal full
‘ Epatts ' Moons. Epads. Moons.

Mes 13 April, iy Lx 4 April, (C8
SL, 2 April, A.| XX. |24 March, F.
XXII. |22 March, JD. ZT. “|r2 Apri!, iD.
IIL. ro April, Bs \ sab Sob le 1 April, G.
XIV. [30 March, E.| XXIII. |21 March, ec
XXV. {183 April, G IV. 9 April, A
VI: 7 April, F.| oXV. sejegMarch,.. D
-| XVII. j27 March, B.| XXVI. |17° April, BL.
XVIII G|- VIL. 6 April, E.

15 April,
E XVIII. 26 March,

-

Now, to find Eafter for any given Gregorian year, feek
_ the dominical letter and the Gregorian epaét, as fhewn under
Epact and Metonic Cycre. Find the epact in the table,

_. and note the palchal full moon, with che weekly letter cor-

_ vefponding to the fame.
. £. gr. the dominical letter of 1809 is A, and the epad&
» XIV. confequently the pafchal full moon fails on the 30th

_ , of March E, which is therefore Thurfday, and Eafter-day is
_. the 2d of April, as before.

Vou. XIL.

Though the Gregorian calendar be doubtlefs preferable to
the Julian, yet it alfo has its defe&ts. It cannot, for in-
ftance, keep the eqninox fixed on the. 21ft of March, but
it will fometimes fall on the roth, and fometimes on the
23d.

Add, that the full moon happening on the z2oth of
March, might fometimes be pafchal; yet it is not allowed
as fuch in the Gregorian computation ; as on the contrary,
the full moon of the 22d cf March may be ailowed for
palchal, which itis not. Scaiger and Calvifius have alfo
proved other inaccuracies in this calendar. See CaLenpar.
See an excellent paper on this fubje&t by the earl of Macelet-
field, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. xl. p. 417. See Mftonic
Cycre, and Eracr.

Easter, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, commonly fuprofed to be Davis's Jand, from its hav-
ing being vifited by Czpt. Davis in 1656, but touched at
by Rogyewin ia April 1722, 1s fituated in S, lat. 27° 5/30",
and W. long 109° 46! 20”. Tbe French editor of La-Pe-
roufe’s voyage is of opinion that Davis’s iand does not exit :
but that there are iflands in the 27th degree of S. latitutde,
about 200 leagues from Copiapo, which are the iflinds of
Sc. Felix and St. Ambrofe, laid down erroneoufly in all the
maps; and that thefe :flands are the pretended land of Davis.
Ectter isabout ten or twelveleagues ia circuit, having a hilly
and ftony furface, and an tron bound fhore. ‘he hills are fo
high that they may be feen at the diftance of 15 or 16 leagues.
Off the S/end are two rocky iflets lying near the fhore:
the north and eaft points of the ifland rife direétly from the
fea to a confiderable height; between them, on the S.E.
fide, the fhore forms an open bay, in which Capt. Cook, -
who vifited this ifand in March 1774, fuppofes that the
Dutch anchored. He anchored cn the welt fide of ‘the
iflind, three miles to the north of the fouth potot, in a road
which is very good with ea‘teriy winds, but dangerous with
thofe that are welterly, as the other on the S:E. ‘fide muft
be with ea‘terly winds. This bay, cailed ** Cook’s bay,”
is eafily known, fays La:Peroufe, for after doubling the two
rocks off the S. point of the ifland, and running along fhore
at the diftance of a mile, a fmall creek may be perceived,
which is the’'moX certain landmark. When this creck bears
E. by S. and the two rocks jult mentioned are fhut in
with the point, there is anchorage in twenty fathoms water
over a bottom of {and, at three quarters of a mile from the
fhore. Nothing, however, but neccility, fays Cook, will in-
duce any one to touch at this ifl:, unlefs it can be done
without going much out of the way, in which cafe it may
be done with advantage, as the people readily part with fuch
refrefhments as they have, and at an ealy rate. Generally
{praking, this ifland afférds no fafe anchorage, no wood for
fuel, nor any frefh water worth teking on board. Nature
has been very {paring of ber favours to this fpot. As every
thing muft be raifed by dint of labour, it cannot be fuppofed
that the inhabitaots plant much more than is fufficient for
themfelves, and ag they are but few in number, they cannot
have much to {pare to fupply the wants of ftrangers who may
chance to vifit them. La Peroufe fays, that fearcely a
tenth part of the iiland is cultivated; and fuch isi's fertility,
that three days’ labour is fufficient to produce the Indian
fubfiftence for a year. ‘ne lands elready cleared are in an
oblong form, and very regular, without any inclofures the reft
of the ifland is covered with a very coarfe grafs, which ex-
t-rds to the fummitof the mountains. ‘The people feemed
to have no implements of agricultuce; and therefore it is
probable, that when they have cleared the land, they make
holes with flakes, and ther plant their yams and potatoes.
However, in the cultivation of the foil they maniteit great

3R intelligences

EASTER,

intelligence, as they pull up the weeds, burn them in heaps,
and thus fertilize the foil, The banana trees are planted in
a ftri& line by acord. The produce of the ifland is {weet

otatoes, yams, taracreddy root, plantain, and {ugar canes,
all of which are tolerably good, and the otatoes peculiarly
excellent in their kind. ‘They have fome few gourds. Their
tame fowls, fuch as cocks and hens, were few and fmall, but
well tafted. They have alfo rats, which they eat: of land
birds there are fcarcely any, and their fea birds are few ;
thefe were men of war, tropic and egg birds, noddies, tern,
&e: The coaft didnot feem to abound with fh. The foil
is kept cool and moift by large ftones, that he loofe upon the
earth, and fupply the place of the faiutary fhade, of which
the inhabitants have deprived themfelves by feliing their
trees. This practice, which has expofed their foil to be
burnt up by the fun, and precluded the exiltence of floods,
rivulets, or {prings, muft have tak<n place in very remote
periods. The inbabitants did not feem to exceed 6 or 700
in number, and of thefe above two-thirds were males, ac-
cording to Cook’s account; but La Peroule, in 1785, elti-
mates_them at 2090: and the difproportion between the
males and females not fo conliderable. Their population
did not feem to be on the decline. Ja colour, features,
and language, they bear fuch affinity to the people of
the more weftern ifles, that they are withcut doubt of
the fame origin. Their language, phyfiognomy, and ma-
nufaétures, are the fame with thofe of the other iflanders
of the South fea. They are generally of a flender race; fo
far from being giants, as one of the authors of Roggewin’s
voyage afferts, nct one of them was [een who meatured fix
feet. They are brifk and ative, have good features, and
not difagreeable countenances; are friendly aed hofpitable
to ftrangers, but as much addifted to pilfering as any of
their neighbours, nor do they feem to attach any difgrace to
it. But they are well apprized of the injuftice they com-
mit, for they inftantly fly to efcape the punifhment, which
they evidently expe&t. he practice of tattooing or punc-
turing the {lin is much ufed in this ifland, both by the men
and women; but lefs by the latter than by the former.
Their cluathing tsa piece or two of quilted cloth, about fix
feet by four, oramat. One piece wrapped round their loins,
and another over their fhoulders, made a complete drefs.
But the men are generally naked, or wear nothing buta
flip of cloth between their legs, faltened by each end toa
cord or belt paffing round their waift. Their cloth, like
that of Otaheite, is made of the bark of the cloth-plant.
"Pheir hair is commonly black, worn long by the women,
and fometimes tied up on the crown of the head ; but the
men wear their hair and beards cropped fhort. | Their head-
drefs is around fillet adorned with feathers; and both men
and women have very large holes, or rather flits in their ears,
extended to the length of nearly three inches. Their ear
ornaments are the white down of feathers, and rings made
of fome elaftic fubftance and rolied round like a watch fpring.
‘The women offer their favours to thofe who are sipoled
to purchafe them by prefents; and the men urge the ac-
ceptance of them, and while the women lavifh their carefles,
they take away the hats and the handkerchiefs of thafe wko
comply. All feemed to be accomplices in thefe thefts, and as
foon as they were committed, ran away like-a covey of birds.
Some of them dragged girls thirteen or fourteen years of
age, folely with the hope of receiving the*reward of pan-
ders; but their repugnance evinced, that in’ them the laws
of the country were violated. ‘Althcugh thefe iflanders
feem to be harmlefs and friendly, they are not deftitute of
offenfive weapons, fuch as fhort wooden clubs and {pears ;
the latter of which are crooked flicks about fix feet long,

armed at one end with pieces of flint. Their houfes are
low miferable huts, conftru€ted by fetting flicks upright in
the ground, at fix or eight feet diftance, then bending them
towards each other, and tying them together at the top.
The building is fo contrived as to be higheft and broadett
in the middle, and. lower and narrower towards each end.
To thefe fticks are affixed others in a horizontal direGtion,
and the whole is thatched over with leaves of fugar-cane.
The door way is in the middle of one-fide, formed hkea
porch, and fo low and narrow as ju& to-admic the entrance
of aman crawling upon allfours. The largeft of thefe huts-
fven by Capt. Cook was about Go feet long, eight or nine
feet high in the middle, and three or four at each end; its
breadth being nearly equal to its height. But La Peroule
meafured a houfe, conftruéted fince Cook’s vifit, which was
300 feet in length, 10°in breadth, and in the middle 10 in
height. Its form was that cf a canoe inverted 5 and it had-
no entrance except by creeping on the hands through two
doors, beth lefs than two feet high. This houfe was capable
of containing 200 perfons; and, together with two or three
others not far diftant, formed a village. Some dwellings are
fubterraneous, and are a kind of caverns or vaulted houfes,
conftru&ted with ftone. In thefe under-grouad habitations,
which are numerous in the interior part of the ifland, Capte-
Cook and fome of his officers imagine that the inhabitants con-
ceal their woinen and children. ‘They drefs their viétuals in
the fame menner as at Otaheite, with hot ftones, in an oven
or hole in the grcund. The ftraw, or tops of fugar-canesy
plantdin-heads, &c. ferve as fuel to heat the ftones. In every
diflri& there is probably a chief, who fuperintends the plan-
tations, of which Capt. Cook imagined he was the pro-
prictor. The moft probable conje€tures concerning the
government of thefe iflanders are, that they compofe but
a fingle natton divided into as many diitritts as there are
‘ morais ;” for it was obferved that their villages are built
near thefe cemeteries. The productions of the earth appear
to be common to all the inhabitants of the fame diitri@ ;
and as men offer their wives to ftrangers without the leaft
delicacy or referve, it muft be fuppofed that they do not
belong to any man in particular, and that as foon as chil-
dren are weaned, they are delivered to other wemen, who in
each diftrié are charged with the management of them.
The ifland abounds with feveral monuments and ftatues, of
a gigantic fize, which appear to be very ancient; and they
are placed ina kind cf morai, or burying-ground, which
might be inferred from the number of bones that were near
them. Inftead of the coloffal maufolea of prideand vanity,
thefe iflanders have fubftituted {mall heaps of ftone in the.
fhape of a pyramid, the upper ftone of which is whitened
with lime water. Thefe little monuments are ereGted near
the fea-fhore ; and an Indian clearly expreffed to La Perovfe
and his companions the objeé to which thefe heaps of ftones
were appropriated, by laying himfelf down and afterwards
lifting up his head towards heaven, which evidently ex-
preffed his belief in a future exiftence. However, they ob-
ferved no trace of religious worfhip among them, and the

gigantic ftatues are not regarded zs idols by the prefent in- —

habitants, though they exprefs a kind of veneration for
them.
which are 30 or go feet long, 12 or 16 broad, and from
3 to 12 feet in height. They are faced with hewn
ftones of a very large fize; and the workmanfhip is not in-
ferior to the belt plain piece of mafonry we have in England.
They ufe no fort-of cement, and yet the joints are exeeed-
ingly clofe, and the ftones mortiled and tenanted into one
another in a very artful manner. The fide-walls are not
perpendicular, but inclining a little inwards, like the brealt«

works,

They are placed on platforms of mafonry, fome of —

-_

EAS

works, &c. that are built in Europe; and yet notwithftand-
ing all the ficill manifefted in their conftruétion, thefe
curious ftra&tures are mouldering by the ravages of all-de-
vouring time. The co!offal ftatues, the largeft of which
is only fourteen feet fix inches high, feven feet fix inches
broad acrofs the fhoulders, three feet thick in the belly,
and fix feet broad, and five feet thick at the bafe, reft upon

latforms as their foundations. They are formed by a rude
kind of {culpture out of a volcanic produ@tiion, known among
naturalifts by the name of * lapillo,” fays La Peroufe, a
ftone fo light and friable, that fome of Capt. Cook’s officers
thought it might be a faétitious fubftance, compofed of
mortar indurated by the air. Although the workmanthip
is coarfe, the features of the face are not ill formed. particu-
larly the nofe and chin; but the ears are long beyond pro-
portion ; and, as to tite bodies, there is nothing hke a hu-
man figure about them. In order to elevate them upon the
platforms, and to place large cylindric ftones upon their
heads, Capt. Cook fuppofes that they raifed the upper end
by little and little, fupportiag it by ftones as it was elevated,
and building about it tll it became ere& ; and thus a fort of
mount or f{caffolding would be formed, upoa which they
might roll the cylinder, and place it upon the head of the
ftatue; and then the ftones might be removed from about it.
We may hence infer the ingenuity and perfeverance of the
iflanders at the period in which they were conftru€ted. Be-
fides thefe monuments of antiquity, which were numerous,
on or near the fea-coaft, there were many fmaller piles of flones
along the coaft, as we have already mentioned. Thefe ftones
were lavas of different denfities. ‘The canoes of thefe peo-
ple are of the fame form with thofe of the Soeiety iflands;
but they were mean in their flru€ture, being built of many
pieces of wood fewed together with {mall line. There were
only about three or four of them obferved on the ifland ;
about 18 or 20 feet long, head and ftern carved or raifed a
little, very narrow, and fitted with out-riggers. They feemed
capable of carrying no more than about four perfons, and
unfit for any diftant navigation. As they have no trees on
the ifland, they muit have obtained the wood large enough
for their purpofe, either from that left here by the Spaniards,
or from that drifted on the fhore from fome diftant land.
At the fouthernmoft extremity of the ifland, M. de Langle
and other companions of La Peroufe found the crater of a
volcano, whofe fize, depth, and regularity, excited their ad-
miration. It refembled the fruftum of a cone, whofe upper
and lower bafis appeared more than two miles in circumfer-
ence; the depth was at leaft Soo feet. At the bottom was
a marfh, containing feveral confiderable pools of frefh water,
whofe furface appeared to be above the level «f the fea.
This marfh was furrounded by the fineft plantations of ba-
nana and mulberry trees. The grafs on the fides of the cone,
the marfh at the bafe, and the fertility of the adjacent lands,

rove that the fubterranean fires have been long extinguifhed.
The inhabitants of this ifland, as we have reafon to believe,
were more numerous when the ifland was better wooded. If
they had fufficient induftry to build cifterns for preferving
water, they would remedy one of the principal inconveniences
of their fituation, and might even prolong their lives ; for
M. de Langle informs us, that they did not fee one man
who appeared to be more than 65 years of age, as far as
they were capable of judging. The ingenuity of thefe peo-
ple may well furprife us, when we confider the meannefs of
their working-tools, which, like thofe of all the otber

‘jflanders in this ocean, are made of ftone, bone, fhells, &c.

They little value iron, or iron tools; and as prefents, they

_ preferred pieces of painted cloth, half aa cll long, to nails,

knives, and beads. Butthe chief objet of their withes was

EAS

hats, which they greedily accepted or flole whenever they
bad an opportunity. Cook’s 2d Voyage, vole i. La
Peroufe’s Voyage, vol. i.

Easter Term. See Term.

EASTERLING.. See Sreruine.

EASTERN. See Orrenrav.

Eastern Amplitude, Church, Horizon, Ocean.
fubftantives.

Eastern Diffrit, in Geography, a diltri& of Upper Ca-
nada, conftituted as fuch by the name of the diffnaét of Ln
nenburgh, in the province of Quebec, by lord Dorchefter’s
proclamation, Juiv 24, 1788, and taken principally from
the welt end of Montreal. It derives its prefent name frem
an a¢t of the provincial legiflature. -It is bounded by the pro-
vince of Lower Canada on the eaft; to the fouth by the river
St. Lawrence ; norther'y by the Ottawa river ; and wefterly
by a meridian line paffing through the mouth of the Gana»
neque river in the townfh'p of Leeds.

astern Ifland, an ifland on the &, fide of Chefapeak
bay, at the mouth of Chefter river.

Eastern Precind, a precinét of America, in the ftate of
New Jerfey, and county of Somerfet, which contained, ia
1790, 2068 inhabitants, including 468 flaves.

Eastern River, a fettlement of America, in the ftate of
Maine, and county of Hancock, containing, in 1790, 240 in-
habitants.

EASTERTON, a village of America, in Dauphin
county, Pennfylvania, on the E. fide cf Sufquehannah river,
4 miles N. by W. of Harrifburg, and 111 N. by W. of Phi-
ladelphia.

EAST Froripa.

East Greenwicu.

East Grinsteap. See GainstTeap.

East Happam. See Happam.

EASTHAM, a poft town of America, in the ftate of
Maffachufetts, and county of Barnftaple, 6 miles long and 24
wide, feated on the peninfula of Cape Cod, between Orleans
and Wellfleet; diftant g4 miles from Bofton. Since the
forefts have been cut down, a part of this townfhip is become
a defert of fand; and though it has thus fuftained confi-’
derable damage as an arable diflriG, the ferti'e lands are likely
to be preferved by inclofures. - The number of families is
122, including 659 iahabitants in 99 dwelling-houfes, of
which only feven are two ftories high. At the diftance of
a mile, a light-houfe was erected on the hizh lands of Cape
Cod in the year 1795. The town contains a meeting-houfe
and two {chool-houles. The Nanfet Indians formerly occu-
pied this town and Orleans. Ne lat. 41° 51’. W. long.
69° 56’.

EAST Hampron. See Hamrron.

East Hartrorv. See Harrrorn.

East Haven, See Haven.

East Isuanp, an ifland fo called by Cook, in 1760, that
lies off East Care, onthe coaft of New Zealand. It is of
a {mall circuit, high and round, and appears white.and
barren.

East Kincston.

Fast Main. See Main.

East Mearn. See Mearu.

Easr Ness, or Eastonness, a cape in the German
ocean, on the eaft coalt of England, between Southwold and
Loweltoff. 4

EASTON, a poft town of America, inthe ftate of Penn-
fylvania, and capital of Northampton county, pleafantly fi-
tuated at the mouth of the Lehigh, and on the W. fide of
Delaware river ; containing about 150 dwelling houfes, a
church, court-honfe, regifter’s office, and an academy, and

a 2 1045

See the

See Frogipa.
See GREENWICH.

See Kincsron.

r

EAT

2045 inhabitants; 12 miles N.E. of Bethlehem, and 70 N. of
Pailadelphia. —Alfo, the chief and poft-town of Talbot coun-
ty, Maryland, formerly called T'albot court houfe, is feated on
the E. fide of Chefapeak bay, near the forks of Treadhaven
river; 12 miles from its junétion with Choptank river. © It
has a handfome court-hcufe and market-hovle, about 150
dwelling-houfes,-and feveral ftores for the fupply of the adja-
cent country; 5 miles S. wefterly of Wilhamfburg, 37° S.
of Cheiter town, aud 118 S.W. of Philadelphia. Allo, a
townthip in Wafhington county, New York; containing
306g inhabitants.

Easton, or Laflown, a polt-town, important for its
iron manufactures, fituated in the county of Briftol, and
ftate of Maffachufetts, near the head of Raynham riter, tix
miles N.W. of Raynham, and 12 W. of Bridzewater, and
containing 1550 inhabitants. The art of making fleel was
introduced here by captain Eliph. Leonard in 1786 ; which
ferves by its excellent quality for plough-fhares, horfe-
fhoes, &c. that require hard fteel: but for edge-tools, in
geveral, it is inferior to that which is imported. The belt
mill-faws in the ftate are manufa@tured here. The manu-
faGure of linfeed oil began here in 1792; ‘and from an an-
nual flock of 3000 bufhels of feed, there have been annually
produced near 5000 gallons of oil.

Easton’s Beach and Bay,.a beach and bay of America,
which lie at the fouthern end of Rhode ifland.

EASTOWN, a town of America, in the county of
Wathington, and ftate of New York, feated on the ecait
bank of Hudfon' river, and containing 3072 inhabitants

EAST Point, the extreme eaft point of the ifland of
St. John, in the gulf of St. Lawrence.—Alfo, the N.E.
extremity of New Holland. S. lat. 10° 42’.

East Port, a polt-town of Wathington county, in the
ftate of Maine. This townfhip forms the weftern cape of
Paffamaquoddy bay, and the mouth of Kobbeflcook river ;
fituated 588 miles N. E. from Wathington.

East River, da river of America, in the ftate of New
York, forming a communication between North river and
Long ifland, along the eaftern fide of New York ifland.

East River. See QuINEPAUGE.

East Town, atown of America, in Chefter county, and
ftate of Pennfylvania, containing 444 inhabitants.

East WuitEvanp, a townfhip of America, in Chefter
county, Pennfylvania, containing 642 inhabitants.

East Winpsor. See Winpsor.

EATON. See Eron. .-

Eaton, a townfhip of Lower Canada, E. of Afcot,
having 400 inhabitants. A fouthern branch of S-. Francis
river runs through this town.—Alfo, a town of America, in
the northern part of Strafford county, New Hampihire, three
miles N. of the Great Offipee lake, and about 56 N. by W.
of Portfmouth; incorporated in 1766, and containing 381
inhabitants. ;

EATOOAS, in Modern Hiftory, a name given at Ota-
heite to a clafs of enthufiaftic perfons, fo called from a per-
fuafion, that they are poffefled with the fpirit of the divinity.
‘They appear as if they were bereaved of their fenfes, and
pretend to extraordinary gifts. During the paroxy{ms of
their fits they do not feem to know their molt intimate
acquaintance ; and if any one of them happen to poll-fs
property, he will give away every moveable unlefs his friends
put it out of his reach; and when he recovers, he will in-
quire for thofe very things, which he had, juft before, dif-
tributed, not feeming to have the leaft remembrance of what
he had done, while the fit was upon him. Cook’s Third
Voyage, vol. ii. p. 19.

EATUAS, in Modern Mstholegyy a name which the in-

EBE

habitants of Otaheite in the South fea give to an imaginary.
inferior race of deities; two of whom, they fay, at fome re-
mote period of time, inhabited the earth, and were the pas
rents of the frit man. ‘The term is derived from eothe, which
fignifies fni/hed. Vhefe fuberdinate deities are very nume-
rous, and are ot both fexes; the male are worfhipped by’the
men, and the female by the women, in feparate morais, and.
under the direétion of dillin€t priefts. There are alfo mo-
raiscommon to both. Hawk{w. Voyages, vol. 11. p. 239. |

EAU Araquesusave. See Aqua Vulneraria. ;

Eau de Luce, is a kind of volatile liquid foap, of a ftrong,.
penetrating {mell. ‘The following inttructions will ferve for _
making it: take four ounces of reCtified foirit of wine, and
in it diffolve ten or twelve grains of white foap ; filtrate this
folutior, then diffolve in it a dram of reétified oil pf amber,
and filtrate again: mix as much of this folution with the
{trongeft volatile {pirit of fal ammoniac, in a cryftal-glals
bottle, as when fufficiently fhook, fhall produce a beautiful
milky-liqvor. If upon its furface be formed a cream, fome-
more of the oily [{pirit of wine cught to be added.

Eau Rabel. See Raper. ;

EAVES, the margin or edge of the roof of.a houfe,
being the loweff tiles, flate, orthe hke, which. hasg over the
walls to throw off the waters toa diltance from. the wail.

Eaves-natu, a thick feather-edged board, generally
nailed round the eaves of a hovfe for the lowermolt tiles,
flate, or fhingles to reft upon. ;

Eaves-Droppers, in Law, are perfons. who liften under
walls or windows or the eaves ofa houle, to hearken after dif.
courfe, and thereupon to frame flanderous and mifchievous
tales. Thefe area common nuifance, and prefentable at
the court-leet, or indiiable at the quarter feffions, and
punifhable by fine, and finding furcties for good behaviour.
tHawk.«PiC sap

EAUZE, in Latin L.ufa, in Geography, a very. ancient
town of France, in the department of the Gers, chief place
of a canton, in the diitriét of Condom, fituated on the river
Gelife, near the ruins of the ancient Elufa, which was the
chief city of Novempopulania; 21 miles S.W. cf Condom,
and jo miles N.W. of Auch. It has a population of 3300
individuals. The canton contains 14 communes, and 9224
inhabitants, upon a territorial extent of 2574 kiliometres.

EBBING and Flowing of the Sea. See Lives.

EBDOMARY, Exspomaparius, an officer anciently
appointed weekly in cathedral churches, to fupervife the ree
gular performance of divine fervice, and preferibe the parti-
cular duties of each perfon attending in the choir, as to
reading, finging, and praying. ‘To this purpofe, the ebdo-
mary, at the beginning of his week, drew up in form, a biil,
or writing, of the refpeCtive perfons, and their feveral offices,
called tabula, and the perfons there entered were ttyled’
intabulati. :

EBDOME, ‘E®2oun, in Antiquity, a felival kept on the
feventh of every lunar month, in honour of Apollo, to whom

-all feventh days were facred, becaufe one of them was his —

birth-day ; -whence he was fometimes called Lbdomagenes.
For the ceremonies of this folemvity, {ce Pott. Archzol..

Gree. lib. ii. cap. 20. tom. i. p. 385. f
EBEDJESU, in Biography, a learned Syrian writer, of |
the fect of the Neforians, was bifhop of Nifibis, called by
the Syrians Soba, in the latter part of the 13th century, and
died in the year 1318. Dr. Affeman firft pub#hed an
accurate edition of his catalogue of ecclefiaftical writings at
Rome, in 1725. |Ebedjefu baying, in his catalogue, men=
tioned the writers of the Old Teftament, proceeds to
enumerate thofe of the New, arranging the gofpels, the A@s
of the Apoftles, three Catholic epiitles, and St. Paul’s 14
epittles_

EBE

epriles in the order which now obtains among us, and fpe-
cifying the places and languages in which the feveral gofpels
of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, were written, agreeably
to the common opinion of the Syrians in general. Accord-
ingly, he fays, that Matthew wrote his gofpel in Hebrew,
and publifhed. it in Paleftine; that Mark preached in
Latin at Rome ; Luke taught and wrote at Alexandria, in
the Greek tongue ; and Jotn wrote bis gofpel at Ephefus,
in the fame language. He mentions only three Catholic
epiltles, omitting the 2d of Peter, and 2d and 3d of John,
and the epiltie of Jude; conforming, in this re{pec, to the
common fentiments of the Syrians. He likewife omits the
book of Revelation; which book, and alfo the three Ca-
tholic epiftles, are omitted in the ancient Syriac verfion.
Dr. Lardner very juftly remarks, that Ebedjefu fhould not
have pafl-d over in filence the four Catholic epiftles, and the

. book of Revelation, whatever might have been the general

opinion of the Syrians concerning them; becaufe he could
not be unacquainted with them. And if they were not
equally refpeéted with the other books of the New Tefta-
ment, he might have fo faid. Lardner’s Works, vol. iv.

e. EBELEBEN, in Geography, a {mall town of the king-
dom of Saxony, belonging to the prince of Schwarzburg
Sonderfhaufer, with a caftle and a grammar fchool, remark-
able for feveral learned profeffors, among others Paul Gol-
zen, known among hiftorians by the name of Paulus
Jovius.

EBELING,-C. D. in Biography, of Hambro’, well
merits notice among German dilettanti, for his excellent
talte, found judgment, and extenlive knowledge of the
hiftory of the mufical art and its votaries ; many excellent
‘tratts and critiques have flowed from his pen, to which he
never fet his name. He was many years in ftriét friendthip
with the incomparable Emanuel Bach, whofe fuperior genius
and abilities he very early felt; and on the death of Tele-
mann, he, perhaps, firft taught the Hamburghers to appre-
‘ciate his merit. His colleGtion of mufic and mufical curic-

- fities, 30 years ago, furpaffed that of any other private

gentleman of that city. M. Ebeling was then in partner-
fhip with M. profeffor Bufch, in the celebrated Academy of
‘Commerce. He is author, among otber works, of the
«* Hiltory of the American War,” which has been much ap-
proved ; but the prefent article extends no further than his
fill, performance, and knowledge in mufic, faculties which

--he has, unhappily, long ceafed to enjoy, except by memory,

~ and refleGion, from an almoft total deafaefe.

ee ; 3 miles S. of Stein.

“nah, and 860°S.W. of Philadelphia.

EBELSTADT, or Eserrort, in Geography, a {mall
town of Denmark, in the province of North Jutland, with

‘a good harbour, on the gulf of the fame name, on the eak

fide of Jutland. In Latin, it is called Hbeltoftia, or Poma-
grium, Ebeltoft is in the diocefe, or general government,
of Aarhuue, in the circle of Stiernholm.
“EBENEZER, a town of America, being the capital
of Effingham county, in the ftate of Georgia, feated on the
“S.W. bank of Savannah river; 25 miles N.N.W. of Savan-
It was fettled in
1735, by Proteftants, driven by perfecution from Saltfburg,
in the el:Gtorate of Bavaria; but is now declining, and re-
duced to lefs than 12 decaying houfes,
EBENFELD, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
EBENFURTH, a town of Germany, in the archduchy
of Auftria, feated on the Leyta, built by the knights Tem-
“plars ; 18 miles S. of Vienna.
~ EBENHAUSEN, a {mall town of Germany, in the
former ‘bifhopric of Wurtzburg, which was fecularifed at
1 Ww . . .

4

.

EDBE

the pezce of Luneville, and given as an indemnity to the
grand duke of Tufcany.

EBENOXYLUM, in Botany, from <Bes, ebony, the
name-of a valuable wood in T'heophraftus, Phny, &c. and
Evaov, ewvood, Loureir. Cochinch. 613. Clafs and order,
Diecia Triandria?

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. none. Cor. Petals three, longifh,
acute, a little {preading, incurved. Stam. ... Female. Cal.
and Cor. as in the male. Néedlary ftellated. Style one,
fhort. Berry fmall, ovate, fmooth, of one cell. Seeds
three, oblong, angular.

Eff. Ch. Male, - Cal. nore.
Cal. none. Petals three.
Berry with three feeds.

Sp. L£benoxylum verum, Lour. A. tall tree, with afcend-
ing branches. Bark rough, greenifh-brown. Wood with
a thick, heavy, white, uniform a/burnum, and a very black,
very heavy, and peculiarly uniformheart. Leaves fcattered,
ftalked, lanceolate, broadifh, entire, fmai!, {mooth, firm,
fining, flat, of a brownifh-green. Flowers white, on many-
flowered terminal ftalks. Berry reddifh-yellow.. Native of
the valk woods of Cochinchina, about the rith degree of i
north latitude, where Loureiro fays he had eften feen it,
but not being then attentive to botany, he negle&ted to
colle& the Howers. The generic characters above given are,
therefore, taken from Rumphius, whoin his Herb. Amboin,
part 4. t. 1, figures what ‘he terms Ebenus vulgaris, and
appears to be the plant of Loureiro. Whether it may be
the fame with any of the trees we have already mentioned
under Diospyros, (which fce,) and how far the above
charaGters are faithtul, we have not materials to deter-
mine.

EBENSFELD, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Stiria; 6 miles W. of Pettau.

EBENTHEL, a town of Germany, in the duchy: of
Carinthia; 2 miles S.S.E. of Clagenfurt.

EBENUS, in Botany, Linn. Gen. 386. Schreb. 4gr.
\Clafs and order, Diadeiphia Decandria, ‘Nat. Ord. Legu-
minoje, Jail. Papilionacea, Linn. E. cretica, Linn. Sp. Pl.
5076. Alpin. Exot. t. 278, the only {pecies upon which
this genus was founded by Linnzus, is reduced to Juthyllis
by Juffieu, who is followed by La Marck, and by Willde-
now, Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1019. The latter defines it * fhrubby ;
Jeaves pinnate, cr ternate, equal, villofe; flowers {piked.”
It is a native of Crete; a flender elegant fhrub, with filky
leaves, and rofe-co!oured flowers, Profper Alpiaus con-
ceived this to be one of the plants comprehended by Theo-
phraftus under his «220s, or ebony, as the wood is hard and
black, and the fhrub has an affinity to Cyzifus. Hence, the
above name was reteined by Linnzus (See Diospyros
and Esrnoxytum.) Lberus pinnata, Ait: Hort. Kew.
v. 3- 27. Desfont. in A&. de la Soc. d’Hit. Nat. de
Paris, v, I. t. 3, apparently of the fame genus as the
above, is Anthyilis fericea, Willd, 1014. his grows in
Barbary and the Levant. Wabl makes it an Hedy/arum.
The item is not fhrubby, but herbaceous, and the root
biennial.

EBERACH, in Geography, a {mall town of the kingdom
of Bavaria, with a righ abbey, which was fecularized at the
peace of Luneville, and the revenues of which were made
over to Bavaria.

EBERARDI, La Teresa, in Biography, one of the
molt elegantiy ‘fimple and pleafing Italian fingers of the
fecond clafs, that we remember on our opera itage. She
was here from the year 1760 to 1765, and performed the
fecond woman’s part in ferious operas under the Mattci, and
in the comic, under the Paganini, while Efi was here,
’ Whoever

Petals three. Female,
NeGtary ftellated. Style one.

EBT

“Whoever heard her fing Galuppi’s Sicilian flrain, “La paf-
toralla al Prato,’? in Il Vilofofo di-Campagne, and “ Sono
Amante,’’ in La Pefoatrice, will never forget her modeft, un-
adorned, and unpretending manner of finging, which pleafed,
by mere purity of tone and natural fweetnefs of expreffion.
And though her ftyle and appointment were fo inferior to
the two great fingers, with whom fhe alternately appeared,
fhe was f{carcely ever fuffered to quit the ftage, till the had
wepeated her fongs.

EBERBACH, in Geography, a {mall town of the king-
dom of Bavaria, fituated on the Neckar; 2 miles W. of
Mofsbach, and remarkable for its good wine.—Alfo, a fmall
“town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine; 9
miles of Haguenau, in the diltri& of Strafbourg.

EBEREMORTH, or Eneremors, in our Old Law,
the fame as eberemurdrum, or eberemurder. See ABERE-
MURDER.

EBEREMURDRUM, or Azeremurprum, in o@r
Old Writers. See AyEREMURDER.

EBERMANSTADT, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the.circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Bamberg,
feared on the Wilent ; 13 miles E.S.E. of Bamberg.

EBERN, a {mall towa of Germany, in the former bi-
fhopric, now grand duchy of Wiirtzburg, fituated on the
river Baunach, and chief place of a diftrict of the fame
name.

EBERSBURG, a {mall town of the kingdom of
Saxony, belonging to the cousts of Stcliberg, and remarkable
for a very ancient tower, and the ruins of an old caftle, and
for a rich coal-mine, at a very little diftance, near the village
of Herrmanfacker.

EBERSTEIN, a fmall town of Germany, in the grand
duchy of Baden, near the Black foreft, the diftri€ of which
was formerly an earldom. It ts five miles S.E. of Baden.

EBHER, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak,
feated on a river of the fame name, in a fertile country, con-
taining about 2530 houfes, and many mofques, caravanferas,
bazars, and other handfome buildings. ‘The Turkith lan-
guage is {poken in one part of the town, and the Ferfian in
the other. It is diftant 40 miles W. from Cabin.

EBIN, or Yarn, one of the {maller Philippine iflands, in
the Eatt-Indian fea.

EBINGEN, or Exincen, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia, and duchy of Wurtemburg; 36 miles S.
-of Stutzardt, and 22 S. of Tubingen.

EPIONITES, in Ecclefiaftical Hiflory, the denomination
of perfons who rofe in the church in the very firlt age of it,
and formed themfelves into a fet in the fecond century,
denying the divinity of Jefus Chrift. f

Origen takes them to have been fo called from the He-
brew word edion, which, in that language, fignifies poor ; be=
caufe, fays he, they were poor in fenfe, and wanted under-
ftanding. Evfebius, with a view to the fame etymology,
is of opinion, they were thus called, as having poor thoughts
of Jefus Chrift, taking him for no more than a mere man,
born of Jofeph and Mary ; and eftecming the ritual ordi-
nances of the law necefflary to be obferved by them. Others,
he fays, donot deny, that Jefus was born of a virgin by the
Holy Ghoft. Neverthelefs, they do not acknowledge his
pre-exi'tence, as God the Word; and, like the others, they
are fond of the external obfervances of the law of Mofes.
They alfo reje& Paul’s epiftles, and call him an apofate
from the law.

It is more probable the Jews gave this appellation to the
Chrittians in general, out of contempt; becaufe, in the fir
times, there were few but poor people that embraced the
Chriftian religion. This opinion, Origen himfelf feems to

/

ER!

give into, in his book againft Celfus, where he fays, that
they called Ebionites, fuch among the Jews as believed that
Jefus was truly the expeéted Mefliah.

It might even be urged, with fome probability, that the
primitive Chriftians affumed the name themfelves, in con-
formity to their profeffion. Yt is certain, Epiphanius ob-
ferves, they valued themfelves on being poor, in imitation of
the apoftles. The fame Epiphanius, however, is of opinion,
that there had been a man of the name Ldion, the chicf and
founder of the feét of Ebionites, contemporary with the
Nazarenes and Cerinthians. He gives a long and exaét
account of the origin of the Ebionites, making them to
have rifen after the deftruGtion of Jerufalem, when the firft
Chriftians, called Wazarenes, went out of the fame to live at
Pella.

As to the origin of their name, many learned men are
now of opinion, that there never was any man named Ebion,
the leader of a fe€1; but that the Ebjonites were {fo called
from their low opinion concerning the perfon of Chrift, and
their attachment to the external rites of the law of Mofes.
To this opinion the judicious Dr. Lardner feems to incline.
We cannot deny, fays this candid writer, (vel. vii. p. 21.)
that there were fome believers, who fuppofed Jefus to have
been born as other men; but he apprehends, that the num.
ber of them was very f{mall, nor does he recolle& any
Chriftian writing, now extant, where that opinion is main-
tained. Although we allow that there were fome, who
rejeGted the apoftle Paul, whilft they received the other
apottles, thefe he fuppofes to have been few in number
He adds, that he does not know any work of an ancient
author, now remaining, who {peaks difrefpe€tfully of him,
excepting only the ‘* Recognitions,’ or ‘* Clementine Ho-
milies.””

The Ebionites are little elfe than a branch of Nazarenes ;
only that they are faid to have altered and corrupted, in
many things, the purity of the faith held among thofe firlt
adherents to Chriltianity. For this reafon, Origen, as well
as Eufebiug, diftinguifhes two kinds of Ebionites, in his an-
{wer to Celfus: the one believed that Jefus Chrift was born
of a virgin; and the others, that he was born after the man-
ner of other men. The firft were orthodox in every thing,
except that to the Chriftian doftrine they joined the cere-
monies of the Jewifh law, with the Jews, Samaritans, and
Nazarenes, together with the traditions of the Pharifees.
They differed from the Nazarenes, however, in feveral things,
chiefly as to what regards the authority of the facred
writings ; for the Nazarenes received all tor {cripture con-
tained in the Jewifh canon; whereas the Ebionites are faid
to have rejected all the prephets, and held the very names
of David, Solomon, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, in ab-
horrence. They alfo rejeéted ali St. Paul’s Epililes, whom
they treated with the utmoft difrefpe@.

They received nothing of the Old Teftament but the
Pentateuch; which fhould intimate them to have defeended
rather from the Samaritans than from the Jews. They
agreed with the Nazarenes in ufing the Hebrew Gofpel of
St. Matthew, otherwife called the Gofpel of the Twelve
Apoltles ; but they are charged with baving corrupted their
copy in abundance of places; and particularly with havin
left out the genealogy of our Saviour, which was pied
entire in that of the Nazarenes, and even in thofe ufed by
the Cerinthians.

Irenzus, Eufebius, and Epiphanius, concur in faying, that
the Ebionites received the gofpel of St. Matthew only. Epi- —
phanius informs us, that the gofpel of the Ebionites began
with the third chapter of Matthew, a little altered, and he
faysexprefsly, that it is defective and corrupted.

Some,

Eafebius.

EBI

Some, however, have made this gofpel canonical, and of
greater value than our prefent Greek gofpel of St. Matthew.
See Gofpel of Str. Martuewand NazsreneEs.

Befide the Hebrew gofpel of St. Matthew, the Ebionites
had adopted feveral other bocks, under the names of St.
James, John, and the other apofles; they alfo made ufe of
the travels of St. Peter, which are fuppofed to have been
written by St. Clement, but had altered them fo, that there
was {carce any thing of truth lett inthem. They even made
that faint tell a number of falfehoods, the betrer to autho-
rize their own practices. See St. Epiphanius, who is-very
diffufive on the ancient herefy of the Ebionites, Her. go.

But his account deferves little credit, as, by hts own con-
feffion, he has confounded the other fe&s with the Ebionires,
and has charged them with errors, to which the firlt adhe-
rents to this {ect were utter ftrangers.

Dr. Prieftley, in his ** Hiltory of Early Opinions con-
cerning Jelus Chrift, &c.”’ (vol. iii.) zealoufly maintains the
identity of the Ebionites and Nezarenes ; ani in oppolition
to thofe who aflert, that they were fubfequent to the de-
ftru€tion of Jerufalem by Titus, and to others who have
fixed their origin fo late as the defolation of Judea by Adrian,
he endeavours to fhew, that perfons difinguilhed by thefe
appellations were fuppofed to have exilted in the time of
the apoftles. LIrenzcus, fays this writer, who gives no other
name to any Jewiih Chriftians befides that of Ebionites,
whom he always {peaks of as denying the pre-cxiftence and
divinity of Chrift, and likewife the miraculous conception,
objects to the Gnoltics, that they were of late date, but
he fays nothing of the Ebionitesin that refpect. Eufebius
allo fays, that ‘* the firft heralds of our Saviour’? (meaning
the apoltles) ‘ called thofe Ebionites, which in the Hebrew
Janguage fignifies poor; who, not denying the body of
Chrilt, flewed their folly in denying his divinity.’

Epiphanius makes the Ebionites contemporary with the
Nazarenes; and hementions the Ebionites as well as the
Nazarenes among thofe who gave great alarm to the apoftle
John. Dr. Prictticy further maintains, that there was po
difference between thefe two feéts; and that both of them
were equally believers in the fimple humanity of Chrift. To
this purpofe he alleges the teftimonies of Origen, Eufebius,
and Jerom; but fome have thought that the paflages he
produces do not decidedly warrant the inference which he
deduces from them. (Sce the preceding part of this article,
and thetitle Nazarenes.) In favour of the identity of
the Ebionites and Nazareves, this author obferves, that the
datter are not mentioned by name by any writer, who like-
wife {peaks of the E-bionites, before Epiphanius, who was
fond of multiplying herefies, though the people fo called
were certainly known before histime. The term Ebionites
voccurs, he fays, only in Irenzus, Tertullian, Origen, and
None of them make any mention of Nazarenes,
though they muft have been more confiderable in the time
of thefe writers than they were afterwards. It was not

till the time of Epiphanius, thatthe term Nazarenes, by

‘which the unbelieving Jews (til continued to:call the Chrif-
‘tians among them, was applied to a {eét diflerent from that
of the Ebionites. M.Le Clerc, and many other eminent
‘critics of the laft age, maintained the opinion, that the
‘Ebionites and Nazarenes were the {ame people. Mr. Jones
#6 On the Canon” (vol. i.),obferves, that there was a very
eat agreement between thefe two ancient feéts, but at the
fame time he intimates, that the Ebionites had made fome
saddition to the old Nazarene fyftem. Our author, after
having remarked that the peculiar opinions of the Ebionites
sand Nazarenes are reprefented by the moft refpectable au-
‘thorities as the very fame, adds, that fome have thought that

EBO

the Nazarenes believed the miraculous. conception, which
the Ebionites denied ; but that this opinion has no authority
whatever among the ancjents. Againft this aflertion, however,
many objections might be urged. (Sec Nazarenes.)

Tertullian, it is obferved, isthe fir Chriftian writer who
exprefsly calls the Ebionites eretics. Although Irenzus
profeffes his diflike of their dotrine, he never confounds
them with the heretics. Juitin Martyn makes no men-
tion of them, but is fuppofed to include them under the
general denomination of * Jewifh Chriftians;’’ and it is af-
ferted, on the authority of Jzrom, that the Ebionites were
anathematized /olely on account of their adherence to the
Jewith law, the yoke of which many of them were defrous
of impofing on the Gentile Chriflians. LEpiphanius, with
great injufticc, as it feems, charges the Ebionires with the
peculiar do¢trines of the Gnoltics; whereas by the tefti
mony of ancient writers, the herefy of the former was the
very reverfe of that of the fatter.

The Ebionites, as we have already faid, made ule of no
other gofpel than that written in Hebrew, which was their
own language, andthis gofpelizcommonly faid to be that
of St. Matthew, originally compofed in their language, and
for their ufe. Their copies of this gofpel, however, began with
the third chapter.

Epiphanius fays, as we have already cbferved, that they
alfo made nfe of the travels of Clement, with which they
might be pleafed, as it was an Unitarian work. But they
made no ule of the epiftlesof St. Paul, beceufle they difap-
proved the flight, which he put upon the lawof Mofes,
which they held in the greateit veneration. Epiphanius
further fays concerning the Ebionites,, that they deteft the
prophets. However, from other accounts it appears, that
they acknowledged the autherity of ail thofe. books which
we admit intothe canon of the Old Teftament. Symma-
chus was an Ebionite,and Theodotion, according to Jerom,
was of the fame fet, and as they both tranflated the other
books of the Old 'Vellament, as well as the Pentateuch, and
without making any diftingtion between them, it is proba-
ble that they confidered them as entitled to equal credit. To
this purpofe Ireneusexprefsly fays, that the Ebionites ex-

ounded the prophecies too curicufly.

EBISMA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Arabia Felix,
in the country of the Adramites, according to Ptolemy.

EBLANA, a town of Hibernia, now Dubiia.

EBODA, a town of Arabia Petrxa, according to Ptde
lemy ; but placed by Pliny in Arabia I'clix.

EBOES, a name given in the Weit Indies to thofe ne-
groes who are imported from thofe parts of Africa that
are bounded weftward by an extent ot coalt of about-30o
leagues, cailed the bight of Benin. (See Benin.) Thefe
negroes are, with regard to their comp exion. much yellower .
than thofe of the Gold Coalt and Whidah. They appear of
a fickly hue, and their eyes feem to be fuffufed with bile,
even when they are in perfect health. ‘The cénformation of
theirface, in general, refembles that of the baboon. ‘The
great objection to thefe Eboes, as flaves, is their conftitu-
tional timidity and.defpondency of mind, which prevail.to
fuch a degree, that they often feek, in a vo'untary death, a
refuge from their own melancholy reflections. ‘They there--
fore require mild and gentle treatment 10 reconcile them to
their fituation ; and with this treatment their confidence
may be gained, and they then manifeft as great fidelity, af
feGtion, and gratitude, as can be expeéied from men ina.
ftate of flavery. The females are betier labourers than the
men, probably from their having been more hardly treated
in Africa. It is faid, however, that thefe Eboes are more
favage than any nation of the Gold Coalt; inalmech as

many:

many of then, efpecially thofe of the Moco ttibe, have

been accuttomed tothe fhocking praétice of feeding on hu-

caan fl-fhe As to their religious opinions and modes of
worlnip, it is faid, that, hke the inhabitants of Whidah,
they pay adoration to certain reptiles, of which the guana,

a fpecies of lizard, is tn the highelt eltimation. They uni-

verfally pradtile circumcifion s and it is, moreover, affirmed,

that they frequently offer up human facrifices in their worfh’p
of the guana. [Edwards’s Hitt. W. Indies. vol. ti.

~ EBOLICS, Waorrca. See Ecsorics.

EBONY of Crete, in Botany.. See Exenus.

Esony of the Alps. See Cytisus.

Epony, Fale. See Poinciana.

Exsony, Mountain. See Bavuinta.

Exsony-Wood is brought. from the Ind‘es, exceedingty
hard and heavy, fufceptible of a very fine polifh, and on that
account ufed in Mofaic and inlaid works, toys, &c.

There are divers kinds of ebony; the mott'ufual among
us are black, red, and green, all of them the product of
the ifland of Madagafcar, where the natives call them, tadif-
ferently, hazon mainthi, q.d. black wood. The ifland of
St. Maurice, belonging to the Dutch, hkewife furnifhes
part of the ebonies ufed in Europe.

Authors and travellers give very different accounts of the
tree that yields the black ebony. By fome of their deferip-
tions, it fhould be a fort of palm-tree; by others, a cytifus,
&c. M. Flacourt, who refided many years at Madagalfcar,
as governor thereof, affures us, that it grows very high and
big, its bark being black, and its leaves refembling thofe of
our myrtle, of adeep, dufky, green colour.

Tavernier fays, that the iflanders always take care to bury
their trees, when cut down, to make them the blacker,
and to prevent their fplitting, when wrought. F. Plumier
mentions another biack ebony tree, difcovered by him at
St. Domingo, which he calls ‘ fpartium portulace foliis acu-
Jeatum cbeni materia.’? Candia alfo bears a little fhrub,
known to the botanilts under the name of ebenus Cretica,
above defcribed.

Pliny and Diofcorides fay, the beft ebony comes from
Xithtopta, and the worlt from India; but Theophrattus
prefers that of India. Black ebony is much preferred to
thac of other colours. The belt is a jet black, free of veins
‘and rind, very maflive, altringent, and of an acrid pungent
talte. This is the diofpyros cbenum, according to Dr.
Roxburg’s account, and 1s found in the woods of Ceylon.
See Diospyros. Leureiro makes a diftmé genus of it
under the name of Ldimoxylum, which fee. Its rind, in-
fufed in water, is faid to purge pitufta and’ cure venereal
é:forders; whence Matthioius took guaiacum for a fort
of ebony. It yields an agreeable perfume when laid on
burning coals: when green, it-readily’ takes fire, from
the abundance of its fat. If rubbed againtt a ftone it be-
comes brown. The Indians make ftatues of their gods,
and fceptres for their princes, of this wood. It was firlt
brought to Rome by Pompey, after he fubdued Mithri-

- dates. Itis now much lefs ufed among us than anciently ;
fince the difcovery of fo many ways of giving other hard
woods a black colour.

As to the green ebony, befides Madagafcar and St. Mau-
rice, it likewife grows in the Antilles, and efpecially in the
ifle of Tobago. The tree that yields it is very buthy ; its
leaves are fmooth, and of a fine green co'our. Beneath its
bark is a white blea, about two inches thick; all beneath
which, to the very heart, is a deep green, approaching
towards a black, though fometimes ftreaked with yellaw
veins. Its ufe is not confined to Mofaic work; it is likewsle
good in dyeing, as yielding a fine green tiuéture.

EBR

As to red ebony, called alfo crenadilia, we know iittle of
tt more than the name.

The cabinet makers, inlayers, &c. make pear-tree, and
other woods, pals for ebony, by giving them the black
colour thereof. "This fome do by a few wafhes of a hot
decoG@tion of galls; and when dry, adding writing ink -
thereon, and polifhing it with a ftiff broth, and a little hot
wax; and others heat or burn their wood black.

EBORA, in Ancient Geography, now Evora, a town of
Spain, in the S. W. part of Lufitania. According to
Bochart, its name, in the Kaflern language, fienificsabundance;
which correfponds to Cerealis, derived from Ceres, an
appellation given to it by Pliny.

EBRBUHARITES, a fe& or order of religious,
among the Mahometans; thus called from their founder
Ebrbuhard, a difcipie of Nacfchibendi.

The Ebrbuharites, notwithfanding the‘ extracrdinary
fan&ity they make profeflton of, with an abfolute dereliGion
of all worldly things, are regarded, by the Muffulmaris, as
no better ‘than heretics, becaufe they do not efteem them-
felves oblized.to go in pilgrimage to Mecca. To excufe
themfelves from this labour, they urge, that the purenefs cf
their fouls, their fublime contemplations, ecfacies, &c.
fhew them Meccaand Mahomet’stomb, without flivring out
of their cells. ¥

EBREUIL, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Ailier, chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Gannat, with a population of 22009 individuals,
The canton has an extent of 207 kiliometres and a half, and
contains 13,043 inhabitants, dilperfed in 17 communes. -

EBRICCATUM, a term ufed by Perace'fns to exprefs
the partial lofs, or deprivation of reafon, as it happens
during drunkennefs; but with the addition of the epithet
caloffe, it fignifies, with the fame author, a much more
exalted ftate, a fort of divine enthvfiaim, or infpiration,
fuch as the Sybils of old boafted of ; and, among the mo-
derns, the French prophets, and fome other religions fe@is,
have pretended to. Paracelfus himfclf pretended, af times,
to be under fome fuch influence; but his mad fits feemed to
have very little of infpiration in them,

EBRIETAS. S-e Daunkenness. wat

EBRILLADE, in the Manege, a check cf the bridle,
which the horfeman gives to the horfe by a jerk of one rein,
when he refufes to reture. An ebrillade differs from a
Jfaccade, the latter being made with both reins at once,
and the former only with one. Mott people confound thefe
two words under the general name of a check or jerk of the
bridle, called in French coup de bride. It is a chaftifement,
and no aid, and ts difufed in academies.

EBRIZI1US Coxor, a term ufed by fome of the old
writers, to exprefs a very fine yellow. The word feema
originally to have been obrizium, and was certainly derived
from the aurum obryzum, or fine geld, of which this
ebrizins exprefled the colour. 4

EBRO, in Geography, the ancient Jberus, from which
Spain took the name ot [beria, is 2 confiderable river o
Spain, which has its fource on the boundaries of the Atturias
and Old Caftile, in the mountains near Santillana, runs
through Bifcay and Arragon, begins to be navigable at
Tudella, paffes by Saragofla, where commences a canal, into
which the Ebro falls at Bocal, and then flows through
Catalonia into the Mediterranean fea, about 25 miles belo
Tortofa. Its water is remarkable for its faiubrity. I
courfe is from north-welt to fouth-eaft, through the greate
part of northern Spain. pl
~ The Ebro ferved as:a limit to the conquefts of Charles the
Great, in the South, and the French did not penetrate
further

\ s

EBU

further into Spain in 1795. But at the end of the year
1808, and in the beginning of 1800, their conquefls extended
to a confiderable diftance beyond this river, which is to form
the boundary between France and Spain, in cafe Jofeph
Buonaparte maintains himfelf on the throne of the united
kingdom of Spain and Portugal. ’

EBRODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, Embrun, a
town of Gaul, belonging to the*Caturiges. It is alfo
called Lborudoro, Hebriduno, and Eburono. It lies at the
foot of the Alps, and is therefore referred to Italy by
Prolemy.

EBROIN, in Biography, mayor of the palace under the
French kings Clotaire IJI. and Thierri I., is fuppofed to
have been a German by birth. At the fucceffion of Clo-
taire, in 656, he was raifed to the dignity of mayor, and in
this capacity he governed the kingdom in conjunétion with
the queen-mother Batilde. During ten years the admini-
tration of public aflairs was conducted with impartiality and
peace, but at the end of this period difputes ran high be-
tween Ebroin and two bifhops, which fo difgufted the queen,
that fhe withdrew toa convent. Ebroin now held the reitis
of government with a high hand, and made the principal
people in the ftate his enemies, who, at the death of Cio-
taire, rofe in arms, plundered the minifter, and dethroned
~Thierri, whom he had proclaimed as king. For a fhort
time Childeric, king of Auftrafia, reigned in the room of
Thierri, but, in 670, the death of Childeric made room for
the depofed monarch, who was replaced on the throne, and
on this event Ebroin leit the monaftery, to which he had
retired, and fcrupled the ufe of no means to regain his
former poft, which he at length obtained, when he became
as defpotic as he was powerful, and infli@ted on his enemies
the moft cruel torments. He was himfclf affaffinared in the
year 681, by one whom he had fined for mal-practices in the
offices which he held. Moreri.

EBROMAGUS, or Esromanus Pacus, in Ancient

~ Geography, a place of Aquitanic Gaul. Anton. Itin.

EBRUS, a river of Illyria, according to Diodorus Sicu-
lus:—Alfo, a river of Greece, in Theflaly, which paffed by
the town of Lariffa.

EBSTORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of Luneburg :
celebrated for its honey, which the inhabitants fell annually
to the amount of feveral thoufand crowns; 7 miles W.N.W.

of Ultzen. ‘ :

EBU-HANIFA. See Sonnirtes.

EBULLITION, in Padyjics, the a&t of emitting bubbles,
_ by a vehement agitation of the parts of a fluid, produced by

fire, or otherwife. Sce Bortine.
_ Esuruition, or Lfervefcence, in the language of Syden-
‘ham, and fome other humoral pathologifts, figaified the ex-
_acerbation, or hot ftage of an intermitting fever, before the
-fweating ftage had commenced. ‘This exprefiion was de-
duced from the comparifon of a paroxy{m of fever, with the
chemical procefs of fermentation ; whence the fubfequent
. {weating ftage was denominated the de/pumation of the fe-
_ brile*humours: the hot ftage, in which the circulation ap-
_ pears to be in a ftate of tumultuous aétion, being fuppofed
to refemble the inteftine motion of a vat of fermenting liquor;
and the {weating ftage, to reprefent the throwing off of the
{cum and froth from the furface. See Sydenham, fect. i.

c. 5. Van Swieten ad Aph. 750.

EBULUS, in Botany, Dane-wort, or Dwarf Elder, fee
Sambucus. A fectid and rather dangerous plant, which
. was vulgarly fuppofed to have fprung up from the blood of
dome of the Danes who were killed in invading England.

The roots and leaves of dwarf-elder are faid to be brifk
j Vou, XII,

B.C. A

eathartics. The juice of this plant has been recommended
in the dropfy, geut, and fcorbutic diforders. The flowers
are efteemed fudorific ; and the leaves boiled, tilt perfectly
foft, make a good cataplafm for the fciatica. See Exper.

EBUR:; Fossrrz,in Natural Hiflory. See Fofile lvory«

Exur foffle variegatum, in the Natural Hiflory of the an-
cients, a‘name given to the fubltance which we now call the
rough or native turquoife.

Foffile ivory, and the bones of other animals, are frequently
found buried at great depths in the earth, and are found to
have preferved their fubitance, texture, and colour in dif-
ferent degrees, according to the nature of the matter among
which theyhappentohave lain. Sometimes they arefirm and
folid, and {carce altered in colour; and fometimes more or
lefs hardened, and tinged to different colours by the different
matters im which they have been depofited.

Of this kind was the fpotted foflile ivory of the ancients,
which was in all refpeG@s the fame with our rough turquoifes
of many places, which are no other than the teeth and bones
of animals accidentally lodged in the way of particles of
copper. See Turcois.

EBURA, or Exora, in Ancient Geography, 4 town of
Spain, now A/cala-real, between Grenada and Cordova.

EBUROBRICA, or Esvrosrica, a place of Gaul,
between Auxerre and Troie, now St. Florentin.

EBUROBRITIUM,a place’of Spain, in Lufitania, now
Ebora-de-Alcobaga.

EBURONES, an ancient people of Belgica, whofe
country corefponded to the duchies of Cleves, Juliers, and
Gueldre. Their chief town was Atuatuca. A legion of
Cefar, which wintered there, was defeated by Ambiotrix ;
and by way of retaliation, he threatened to exterminate
them. His treatment of them was very fevere. They were
fucceeded by the Tongri.

EBURUM, an ancient town of Germany, in the country
of the Quadi, according to Ptolemy ; fuppofed to be Ol-
mutz, a town of Bohemia.

EBUSUS, now Ivica, an ifland of the Mediterranean,
near the coaft of Spain. This ifland was fertile in the pro-
duétion of vines, olives, and large figs, which were exported
to Rome, and other places.

PEU LES a town of Italy, in Samnium, N.W. of
Alife.

ECACOATE, in Zoology, a name by which the natives
of fome parts of Anterica call the rattle-fnake.

ECALESIA, Exaaxoiz, in Antiquity, a feftival kept in
honour of Jupiter, furnamed Hecalus, or Hecalefius, from
Hecale, one of the borough-towns in Attica.

ECARTELE, in Heraldry. See QuarreRty.

ECASTAPHYLLUM, in Botany, Browne’s Jamaica
299, t. 32.f. 1. See Hepysarum and Datsercia.

ECASTOR, in Antiquity, an oath wherein Cattor was
invoked. It was a cultom for the men never to {wear by
Caftor, nor the women by Pollux,

ECATESIA, ExeInciz, an anniverfary folemnity, ob-
ferved by the Stratonicentians, in honour of Hecate.

‘The Athenians likewife had a public entertainment, or
fupper, every new moon, in honour of the fame goddele.
The fupper was provided at the charge of the richer fort ;
and was no fooner brought to the accuitomed place, but
the poor people carried off all, giving out, that Hecate had
devoured it. For the reft of the ceremonies obferved on this
occafion, fee Pott. Arch. Grire. lib. ii. Cap. 20. ;

ECATUEA, Exollesm, ftatues erected to the goddefs
Hecate, for whom the Athenians had a great venera
tion, belicving that fhe was the overfeer of their families,

3:5 : and

ECB

aed that fheprotefted their children. Pott. Arch, Gree.
hb. ii. cap. 20. tom.i. yp. 386.

ECATOMBON, ExclouCamy, in Chronology, the firf
month of the Athenian year. It confifted of thirty days, and
began on the firft wew moon after the fummer folftice, and
confequently anfwered to the latter part of our June and
beginning of July. The Beeotians called it Hippodromus,
and the Macedonians Lous. (See Monru.) ‘The wordis
a derivative fromthe Greek, ixerouSn, a hecatomb, becaufe of
the great number of hecatombs facrificed in it.

. ECAVESSADE, inthe Manege, is ufed for a jerk of the
caveffon.

ECBASIS, ExSzcis, in Rhetoric, is uled for a digreffon,
which fee.

ECBATANA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated city
of Afia, the capital of Media, and the refidence of the Me-
dian and Perfian kings, was built by Dejoces the frft, who
reigned in Media, after the inhabirants had fhaken off the
Affyrian yoke. In the book of Judith it is faid to have
been built by Arphaxad, fuppofed by fome to be Dejoces,
and by others Phraortes his fucceffor, who might have_re-
paired tke city or made fome additions to it. It was fituated
on a plain, about 12 ftadia from mount Orontes, according
to Diodorus, who fays that it was. 250 ttadia in circuit.
The wails of this city are much celebrated by the ancients,
and particulariy defcribed by Herodotus. (I.1..98.) They
were feven in number, all of a-circular form, and gradually
riling above each other by the height of the battlements of
each well. The fituation of the grounds, which gently af-
cend, might fuggett the defign of thus building them. The
royal palace and trealury were within the ionermolt of thefe
feven circles. Inthe book of Judith we read, that the walls
cf this itately metropolis were 70 cubits high, and 50 cubits
broad; that the towers en the gates were 100 cubits in
height, the breadch in the foundation 60 cubits, and the
walls built of hewn and polifhed ftone, each ftone being fix
cubits in length, and three in breadth. The timber of the
palace was, according to Diodorus, (l. xi. 13.) ecdar or cy-
prefs: and various parts of it were cafed with gold or filver.
The whole was pillaged about the time of the arrival of Alex-
ander. We read in the 2d bock of Maccabees, that An-
tiochus Epiphares was at Ecbatana, when he received in-
tellizence of the defeat of his armies in Paleftine. ‘There
are now no monements remaining of the fuperb palace,
where the monarchs of Afia generally paffed their fummer ;
nay, there is a difazreement among our modero travellers
about the place where that ftately metropolis ftood. Sir
John Chardin thinks it moft probable, that Tauris is the
ancient and famous Ecbatana. Others fuppofe it to be
Hamadan.

Ecsatana, acity of Syria, at the foot of mount Carmel,
on the fide of Ptolemais. In this city the unfortunate
Cambyfes died, in his return from Egypt towards Sufe.

EcraTana, an ancient city of Afia, called “ the City of
the Megi,”’ to diltinguifhit from thofe of Mediaand Syria.
it beionzed to the Magi. Darius removed it towards the
moustains. ‘This place is mentioned by Pliny.

ECBOLAS, in Botany, from =x8a22w, to cafl out, is, ac-
cording to fome authors, the name of a fig fuppofed to canfe
abortion. See Ecsorium.

ECBOLE, or Evevartioy, in the moft ancient Greek
“wujfic, was the alteration of the enharmonic genus, when a
ftring was accidentally raifed five diefes above its ufual
tuning.

Ecrove, Exfoan, in Rhetoric, is alfo ufed fora digreffion.

ECBOLICS, Ecsorica, from Saaaw, J jaa, in the writ-
-ings of the ancient phyficians, a term ufed to exprefs fuch

2

“from the emigrations of the Franks to king Conrad 1.

Zct

medicines as were given to promote delivery in child-birth s
and alfo fachas caufed abortion. See Derivery.

ECBOLIUM, in Botany, from sxSurd», to caf? out,
(whence alfo exfc?so 1s an appellation for any drug that pre«
motes delivery or abortion), has been applied by Rivinus
and others to the genus now called Fuficia, in aliufon to
the elaftic force with which its capfules proie& the feeds.
The original Lcdolium of Rivinus is the Malabar net, Ff
ticta Adhatoda of Lianras. Fuflicte LEcbolium of Linnzus
is a diftiné fpecies, though ucanly rclated to the former.

ECBRASMAYTA, from Spats, I caufe heats,in the
writings of fome of the earlier phylicians, a word ufed to
expreis eruptions, or puftules, ofa fiery and infiazned nature
appearing on different parts of the body. Virgil calls thefe
ardentes papule, and {eems to attribute them to the wearing?
cloaths made of the wool of fhecp which had died of a mur
rain, which he deferibes. ;

ECBRYSOMATA, from exSpuw, I caujfe sta fpread, 4
word ufed by Galen, and the ald phyficians, for thofe emi-
pences or protuberances of the bones at the joints, which
appear through the ficin.

ECCANTHIS, or Encanruts,in Medicine.
CANTHIS.

ECCARD, or Ecxnarp, Joun Georce, in Biosraphy,.
a learned antiquarian, was born at an obfcure village in Gen
many. Having received a good education, he removed to
Leipfic, where he became acquainted with Leibnitz. By
the recommendation of this celebrated man, he obtained the
profeflorfhip of hiftory at Helmitact, m 1706, and in 1773
he was appointed a céunfellor of te eleGorate of Hanover,
and hiftoriographer. He now affifted Leibnitz in his ** Ort. -
gines Guelphice,”’ and, in 1717, fucceeded him as librarian at
Hanover. Shortly after this he travelled at the «xpence of
George I. through a coniiderable part of Germazy in fearch
of MSS. and other materials to enable him to profecute
the compilation of the work which he had undertaken. _
Some other hterary.occupations procured him the favour of —
prince Eugene, and count Von Zmdendorf, and through the
means of the latter, he was raifed by the emperor Charles VI. _
to the rank of nobility. The friendfhip of the great pro-
duced kim honour, but he was extremely peor, and pre-
fented a poem to his fovereiga, in which he gave a picture —
of bis diftrefied fituation, and begged for relief ; before, how-
ever, the neceffary forms could be complied with, he was
obliged to abfcond: he proceeded to Cologne, where, in Feb. —
3724, at the college of the Jefuits, he formally abjured the
Lutheran religion. After this be entered the fervice of the
bifhopric of Wurzburgh ; where he was entrofted with the
care of the library belonging tothe court and the univerfity,
The dean and chapter committed to his charge the MSS.
contained in the diplomatic archives of the cathedral, which
he arranged and claffed with great ability. He next pro-
jeG@ed improvements in academical le€tures, and other
works of public benefit, He printed, in two magnificent
folios, his ** Commentarii de rebus Francie orientalis,” and
undertook a hittory of Wurzburgh, which he did not live to
finifh ; in this he comprehended the principal German events

See En- —

’

Ta

While defining, in his preface, the boundaries of the bi-
fhopric under St. Burckhard, he was fuddenly feized with a
mortal difeafe, which put a period to his life in February,
1730. LEckbard was a very voluminous writer. His moft
interefting work is entitled ** Corpus hiltoriarum medii aevi,”?
which is compiled from materials colleGed with great Ia-
bour during many years. “This is,confidered by Lenglet du
Eref{noi as the produétion of one of the ableft men in Ger-
many: he adds that it contains a great many curious pe

we

-

EC ¢

well arranged, and not to be found in any other collection.

Eekhard was deeply {killed in hiftory, geography, and anti-

quitiess He had alfo made etymology his ftudy many

years, with a view of publifhing a didtionary of the German

language. A lift of his works is givenin the General Bio-
raphy, to which our readers may be referred.

ECCATHARTIC, in Medicine, a term fynonymous
with cathartic, but not now in uie.

ECCE-HOMO, among Painters, a name given to a
picture,. wherein our Saviour is ae he in a purple robe,
with a crown on his head, and a reed in his hand, fuch as he

was prefented before Pilate by the Jewr. ‘

The phrafe is Latin, borrowed from the words of the
Jews themfelves: g. d. this is the man.

ECCENTRIC. See Excenraic.

ECCENTRICITY. See Excenraiciry.

ECCHELLENSIS, Asrauam, in Biography, who
flonrifhed in the 17th century, is famous for the afliltance
which he rendered M. le Jai, in preparing for the prefs the
magnificent Polyglot Bible. He alfo furnifhed the Arabic
and Syriac texts of the book of Ruth, with the Latin ver-
fion. He was unfortunately engaged in fome difputes,
which were little creditable to the contending parties. One
of his opponents charged him with incapacity for the under-
taking in which he had embarked; but he repelled the ac-
cufation, and conduéted himfelf in fucha manner as to obtain

- the appointment of profeflor of the Syriac and Arabic lan-
guages, in the College Royal at Paris,

tranflating the {criptures into Arabic, which employed him
from the year 1636 to the year 1652. He was likewife
amade profeflor of the Oriental languages at Rome; and was
chofen by the archduke Ferdinand IL. to tranflate out of
the Arabic into Latin the sth, 6th, and 7th books of
«¢ Apollonius’s Conics,”? in which he was aflifted by Borelii.
‘The whole work was printed at Florence, with Archimedes’s
book, ** De Affumptis,” in 1661, in folio. He publithed

‘many other works, and died at Rome in the year 1664.
Moreri. ,)

* ECCHYMOSIS, in Surgery. This term fignifies a
Jivid or blue difcolouration of the fkin, in confequence of
the rupture of veflels, and extravafation of blood.

The word is derived from the Greek exyvw, fo pour out ;
‘an ecchymofis bemg in fact only a kind of iwelling, formed
by an cffufion of blood from the veflels.

-~, Anecchymofis is ufually produced by falls, blows, and
f{prains, which rupture many of the {mall veflels on the fur-
face of the body, and occefion an extravafation of fluid, ua-
‘attended with any external breach of continuity. Contu-
fions are always attended with a degree of ecchymofis. (See

_ Contusion.) A very confiderable ecchymofis may be pro-

duced by bruifes and blows, when any of the ruptured

- veflels are fufficiently large to pour out a copious quantity of

_ .blood into the cavities of the cellular fubftance, = ©

In general, an ecchymolis does not exhibit the difcoloura-

_¢tion which characterifes it, until fome time has elapfed after

» the receipt of the violence. . We may indeed remark, that

. Gris not till after feveral hours that the blue and livid dif-

colouration of the {kin becomes molt confpicuous. A black
‘eye, which is one of the moit common examples of an ecchy-

- molis, is always mott disfigured fix or eight hours after its

+ voccurrence. - wh

In the common operation of bleeding, an eechymofis
-often arifes at the time when che blood is flowing out. This
happens in-confequence of the fluid not having a ready vent,
fo that fome of it gets into the cellular fubfance, near the

He was next en- -
gaged by the college “De propaganda Fide,” to affift in

ECG
opening in the vein. When the patient changes the pofture
of his arm, after the puncture is made, the orifice ia the {kin
fometimes flips a little away from the wound made in the
veffel ; and as the blood ftill continues to foyy from the latter,
it neceflarily produces an ecchymolis, by infinuating itfelf
into the cellular fubttance.

Common cafes of ecchymofis are in general eafily cured,
by applying difcutient lotions, and adminiftering one or two
dofes of any mild purgative falt. ‘The beft topical applica-
tions are vinegar,-the lotio falis ammoniaci, fpiritus vini
camphoratus, and aqua ammoniz acetate. ‘The grand in
dications are to prevent inflammation, and to promote the
abforption of the effufed blood.

Every man of experience muft be fo well aware of the
fuccefs which attends the praGtice of difperfing colleGions
of extravafated blood, by exciting the a€tion of the ab-
forbents, that he can hardly piéture to himfelf a cafe of ecs
chymofis, in which it would be proper and advantageous to
make an incifion for the difcharge of the effufed fluid. We
have frequently feen tumours on the head, formed by extras
vafations of blood, and containing four or five ounces of this
fluid, fubfide with wonderful rapidity, while the treatment
merely confifted in employing general antiphlogiflic remedies,
and applying a difcutient lotion.

On the contrary, when an opening is made into thefe
{wellings, the whole of the blood can very feldom be entirely
preffed out, owing to its coagulated ftate; and the portion,
which remains behind, becoming expofed to the air, fooa
putrefies, and acquires an irritating quality; and the too fre-
quent confequences are a great deal of inflammation and fup-
puration, which need not be induced.

ECCLES, Joun, in Biography, was the fon of Solomon
Eccles, a performer on the violin, and author of feveral
grounds, broken into common divifions, of common chords,
without improving the tune. Bellamira, one of his grounds,
has words fet to it in the Beggar’s Opera. From the in-
firu€tions of his father, John became an eminent and popular
compofer for the theatre, furnifhing it with a tunes, dance
tunes, and incidental fongs, in moit of the new comedies,
after the death of Purcell. The air which he fet to * A
Soldier and a Sailor,”? fung by Ben, in Congreve’s comedy
of * Lave for Love,” is fo truly original and characteriltic,
that it can never be fuperfeded for any other air. He fet-an
ode, written by Congreve for St. Cecilia’s day in i7or.
He likewife fet Congreve’s ‘¢ Judgment of Paris,’ when
there was a contention for prizes, and gained the fecond, of
50 guineas. Several of his fingle fongs were the beft of the
time, and have flill the merit of originality. Indeed we
never remember to have feen the flighteft compolition by
Eccles, whether catch, ballad, or rope-dancing tune, that
was nat flamped with fome mark of genius. Upoo the
death of Dr. Staggins, about the year 1698, Eecles, at a
very early period of his profeffional life, was appointed maf-
ter of queen Anne’s band; and after the deceafe of Dr.
Crofts, in 1727, he feems only to have fet the odes, and to
have retired from all other profeffional employments to
Kingfton, for the convenience of angling, in which amufe~
ment he appears to have been as much deiighted as Walton.
He died in 1735, and was fucceeded as matter of the king's
band and compofer to his majefty by Dr. Green.

Eccles had two brothers: Henry, a performer on the
violin, faid to have been jn the king of France’s band, -and
author of 12 excellent folos for his own initrument, printed
at Paris, 1720. hele we have never heard or feen, even
ina catalogue. Thomas, who had been taught the violin
by Henry, and had the ciaraéter of a very fine player, but

352 preferred

o

Hac

preferred the life of a ftrolling fidler at taverns to that of a
regular profeffor, and was more fond of drinking than either
of good company or clean linen.

_ He feems to have been one of the laft vagrant bards, who
ufed to inquire at taverns if there were any gentlemen in the
houfe who wifhed to hear mufic? Since fmoking has been
difcontinued, few evenings are fpent in taverns, which has
diminifhed the number of modern minftrels, particularly
fuch as are as well qualified to amufe good company and
lovers of mufic as Tom Eccles, who ufed to regale his
hearers with Corelli’s folos and Ehandel’s beft opera fongs,
which he executed with precifion and fweetnels of tone,
equal to the moft eminent performers of the time. He fur-
vived his brother, John, more than 20 years; and continued
to officiate as a prieft of Bacchus to the lait.

ECCLESBOURN, in Geography, a river of England,
which runs into the Derwent, in Derbyhhire.

ECCLESFECHAN, a town of Scotland, in the county
of Dumfries; 15 miles E. from Dumfries. ‘

ECCLESFIELD, a large parifh in the wapentake of
Strafforth and Tickill, in the Weft Riding of the county of
York, England, is a yery popuious diftri&, comprifing 984
houfes, and 5114 inhabitauts. The principal part of thefe
are employed in the various branches of cutlery and hardware
goods. The place is only 5 miles from Sheffield, which
hes long been noted for its large manufa@ories of knives,
and forks, feiffars, razors, &c. In the vicinity of Ecclef-
field are fome remains of a Roman encampment, which is
known by the name of the Devii’s-ditch.

ECCLESHALL, a market-town and parifh in the
hundred of Pirchiil, Staffordfhire, England, was, at a
former period, the feat of the bifhops of Lichfield. In the
time of the civil wars, it was garrifoned for the king, but
being taken by the parliamentary forces, was nearly de-
ftroyed; after which it was rebuilt by bithop Lloyd. The
town is pleafantly fituated on the banks of the river Sow,
about 7 miles from Stafford, and 148 from London. It
contains. 590 houfes, and 3487 inhabitants. Here are a
weekly market on Friday, and three annual fairs. The
living is a vicarage, in the patronage of the bifhop of Lich-
eld.

ECCLESIA, a Latin, or rather Greek term, fignifying
church.

In our ancient law-books, Fitzherbert obferves, that ec-
clefia, exxdnoiz, properly fignifiesa parfonage. Whence, if
a prefentation were made to a chapcl, as to a church, by
the name of ecclefia, it changed the name thereof, and: it
prefently commenced a church.

When the queftion was, Whether it were ecclefia, aut
capella pertinens ad ecclefiam? the iflue was, whether it had
baptifterium & fepulturam? For if it had the adminiftration

of the facraments and fepulture, it was in law judged a_

church. See CuaPev.

Eccuesia, Reflitutione extradi ab. See RestituTionz.

Eccresia, Redo de advocatione. See Recro. °

Eccuesiz, Warda. See Warpa.

Eccresr& Sculptura, the image or {culpture of a church
in ancient times was often cut out in plate or other metal,
and preferved as a religious treafure or relique ; and to per-

etuate the memory of fome famous churches.

ECCLESIANS, Eccuesiani, in Church Hiflory.
Upon any falling out, or mifunderftanding, between the
emperors and the churchmen, the adherents to the emperor
called fuch as adhered to the iaterefts-of the church and
churchmen, ecclefiani, a term of reproach, anfwering to our
Righ-church men. ;

5

ECC
ECCLESIASTES, one of the books of the Old Tefta«

ment thus called, from aGreck word, fignifying preacher 5
becaufe the apthor in it declaims or preaches againft the
vices and vanities of the world; or becavfe of the peculiar
gravity and dignity of the fu! je@ts, of which he treats.

This is Mariana’s judgment: Grotius thinks otherwile;
taking the book to derive its appellation from its being a
coll: Gion of fine fentences and refleGions on the vanity of
the things of our earth, &e. from the word 9p, which
figmifies to ama/s or colle@, eweSrfewv. Some Hebrew doc-
tors, fuppofing the fame etymon, will have it to have been
thus called on account of its amefling a great deal of wifdom =
others, becaufe the author’s aim is to aflemble and call to-
gether ail fuch es are willing to confult their fafety, and
avoid the dangers of the world, which is the opinion of
Gejerus. Laft.y, others, with Calovius, deduce it from
his affembling them about him, as a preacher affembles his
auditors: accordingly Ludolphus obferves, that the word
Cohelésh, in the Ethiopic language, fignifies a circle, or a
company of men gathered togcther, in the form of a circle.

There are different fentiments as to the author of this
book: the moft common is, that it is Solomon’s, who is
fuppofed to haye written it towards the clofe of his life; to
give tokens of his penitence to poferity.

Grotius, indeed, takes the work to be polterior to
Solomon, and to have been written after his death, by fix
authors, unknown, who, to give their book the greater
authority, put Solomon’s name to it, and reprefented hina
as arepentant. What he chiefly founds his opinion on is,
that we meet with words in this book. which are no where
elfe feen, but in Daniel, Ezra, and the Chaldee paraphrafes ;
whence he thinks it probable, that it was written after the
captivity in Babylon: but it is certain, all Hebrews, Greeks,
and Latins, have always fpoken of it as a work of Solomon,
Indeed there are authors who have attributed all the books
of Solomon to Ifaiah; but thefe are only to be underttood
as if that prophet had coke€ted them. If it be true, that
there are Chaldee words in the Ecclefiaftes, it is eafer to
fuppofe Solomon underftood that language than to deny him
to be the author of the book. The Talmudifts afcribe this

book to Hezekiah; rabbi Kimchi, to [aiah; and Grotius,

to Zorobabel.

Calovius affures us, that the true reafon why Grotius
would not allow Solomon to be the author of the book of
Ecclefiaftes, is, that it fpeaks too clearly and precifely for

his time, of the univerfal judgment, eternal life, and the-

pains of hell; but thefe are truths eftablifhed before Solo-
mon, in the Pfalms, Peniateuch, and Job..

There appears no reafon, therefore, for denying this bock.
to Solomon, but feveral for afcribing itto him. As, 1. The
title of the boek, which afferts its author to be the fon of
David, and king of Jerufalem. 2. Several paflages in the
book, which agree to nobody but that prince, as chap. i.
ver. 12. chap. vii. ver. 25. chap. xii, ver.9, &c. And,

3. The conftant tradition of the ancient Jews and Chriftians.

The defign of the author is to difcover what conftitutes
the chief good or complete felicity of man. Accordingly
this book confifts of two principal parts: the firft of which,
comprehended in the 6 firft chapters, contains a recital and
confutation of men’s falfe opinions about their chief good ;
and the otber teaches in what our genuine true and folid
felicity confifts, both in this life and the next. Ia both he
fhews, what is the end to which a man fhould direé all his
counfels, fludies, and endeavours ; what he ought to follow,
as above all things moft defirable ;. and what to avoid, as the
worlt of ail. evils.

The

~ Caftro.

2

ECC

The Talmudifts, and other Rabbins note, that it was
fome time before the book of Ecciefiaftes was pot in
thecanon. Seethe Gemaraon the Pirke Abboth, fol. 1.
col. r.Maffech. Schabbath, cap. ii. fol. 30. col. 2. Aben
Ezra on the Ecclefialtes, vi. 4. Maimonides, Moreh. Ne-
bochim, lib. iti, cap. 28. and Mercerus, Calovius, and
Gejerus, on this book.

ECCLESIASTIC, or Eccrestasrican, fomething be-
Jonging to, or fet apart for the church, in contradiftiné&ion
to civil or fecular, which regard the world. Sce Civiv. &c.
There are ecclefiaftical things and perfons; ecclefialtical law,
jurifdiction, hiltory, ceremonies, difcipline, preferments, &c.
Ecclefiaftical perfons are thofe whofe funtions confilt in per-
forming the fervice and maintaining the difcipline of the
church. See Crerey. Ecclefiafttcal perfons are either
regular or fecular, (See ReGuxiar and Secuvar.) In
the empire there are three ecclefiattical eleGiors, viz. the
archbifhops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne.

Eccuesiastic chambers, community, corporation, courts,

aith, patronage, tradition. \ See the different fubftantives.

ECCLESIASTICAL Jurispiction. By ftat. 37
Hen: VIII. c. 17, the doctors of the civil law, although
they be laymen, &c. may exercife ecclefiaftical jurifdiGtion.

Eccrestasticat Laws. See Canon Law and Lccle-
Jfiafical Courts.

Eccrestasticau State, in Geography, the pope’s domi-
-nions in Italy, reaching from the Po to beyond Terracina,
alength of more than 260 Britifh miles, comprehending
about £3,508 fquare miles, and containing little more than
two millions of inhabitants.

Thefe dominions have.been differently divided by former
geographers; but the moft regular and convenient divifion was
into the following territories: 1. The duchy of Fertara, ac-
quired in 1598. 2. That of Bologna, gained by Julius II.
in 1513, and now fuppofed to contain 80,000 inhabitants,
g. The province of Romagna. 4. The duchy of Urbino,
acquired in 1626. 5. The marquifate of Ancona, gained
in 1532, and now containing about 20,000 inhabitants.
6. The Perugiano, 7."he Orvietano. §&. The duchy of
9. The Patrimony of St. Peter. 10. Campania
di Roma, 11. Sabina. 12. The duchy of Spoleto al Om-
bria. 13. The country called Citta di Cattello, Befide
which, the pope formerly poflefled the following countries out
of the papacy, viz. the duchy of Benevento, in the kingdom
of Naples, annexed to the pope’s dominions in the 11th cen-
tury; the counties of Avignon and Venafin, in the fouthern

arts of France. He had, befides, a confiderable number
of fiefsin Italy, which hold of the papal fee: the principal
of which were the kingdom of Naples, and the {tates of
Parmaand Placentia. See Navies, &e. &c.

The pope may be confidered in two refpeéts, as the fpi-
ritual head and monarch of the Roman chunsch, and as a con-
fiderable temporal prince in Italy. In the firlt charaéter,
his fubjeéts may be divided into two claffes, v/z. clergy and
laity ; the former may not unfitly be compared toa fpiritual
ftanding army, whofe bufinefsis to maintain his rights. and
conqueits; and the reft, the laity, as his tributary fubjects,
who are obliged to.maintain thofe forces at their own charge;
and if one may judge of the greatnefs of their number, by
what pope Paul IV. uled to boalt, that he had 228,000
parifhes under his jurifdiGtion (all of which have at leaft one
or more priefts), avd 4400 monafteries, it will appear no in-
confiderable army. But their number has been much leflened
fince-the Reformation and the Revolution of France.

In the fecond view, the pope was formerly confidered as
a potent prince in Italy, whole fovereignty was chiefly fup-
ported by the jealoufy between Spain, France, and the Em-

ECC

pire; though in moft other refpects, it wae not to be come
pared with that of other princes of Europe. His revenues
were very confiderable, and he was able to maintain a great
military force, But by the new conquefts and arrangements
of Buonaparte, the emperor of France, the dominions of
the pope are fo dilapidated and curtailed, that he retains very
little of the fecular power that formerly belonged to him,
and he has been defpoiled of the greateft part if not the
whole of hisimportance asa temporal prince. By. the Sth
article of the treaty of Campo Formio 17y7, the three le-
gations of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna are annexed to
the Cifalpine republic, which fee. See alfo Ipaty.
. ECCLESIASTICO: primo beneficio habenda.

RIMO.

ICCLESIASTICUS, an apocryphal book, compofed
by Jefus the fon of Sirach, and admitted by the Romifh
church into the canon of the Old Teftament.

It is frequently cited by the abbreviation, Lccli, to diftin-
guith it. from the Ecclefiaftes, which is cited by Lecle. Some
of the ancients have denominated it ravdp<Ies, i. e. the boolk
of every virtue; but the moft ufual name among the Greeks
is that of * the Wifdom of Jefus the fon of Sirach.’””

It is called Ecclefiafticus, as fome fay, becaufe the ancients
divided the books of the Old Teftament into four forts, viz.
the Pentateuch, the Prophets, the Hagiographa, and the
Ecclefialtical, or Apocryphal books, as not being in the
Jewifh canon. Among the latter, thisof Jefus the fon of
Sirach, being the molt remarkable and ufeful, was called:
xall'Eoxnv, or by way of eminence, Ecclefiailicus, whilit the
reft of the fame clafs have loft their name. According to
others, this title was given to it by the Latins, to denote
its ufein the church, as it wasread for edification in the
public religious affemblies ; or, becaufe, like Solomon’s Ec-
¢lefiattes, which it refemblesin name, as well as matter, it
teaches fuch as attend to it by the admirable precepts which
it delivers, and earneft exhortations to wifdom, which is an+
other word for religion.

Ifidore, lib. vi. Etym. cap. ii. and’ among the: moderna,
Grotius-and.Drufius, -deny.the author of Ecclefiafticns to
be Jefus.the fon of Sirach, grandfon of the high-prieft Jefus,
whoreturned from Babylon with Zorobabel. Genebrard
afferts, that Jefus the fon of Sirach, was of the race of
Jefus fon of Jofedec; but this does not appear. Some
of the ancients have erroneoufly afcribed this book to
Solomon. Cyprian, and Ambrofe have cited it under his-
name.

St. Jerom affures us, in his preface to the books of So--
lomon, that he had feen this book in Hebrew; and that
the Hebrews intitled it Parables, or Proverbs +. from which
the Jefuit Mariana concludes, that the high-prieft Jefus
wrote this book in Hebrew, as it appears likewife from the.
prologue to the bookitfelf; and that his grand{on tranflated
it into Greek, which likewife appears from the prologue ;
that he made this. tranflution in Egypt, where the author
lived in his thirty-eighth year ; thatit was done under the-
reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, fucceffor of Prolemy Phila--
delphus, who began to reign in the year of Rome 508, 246
years before Chrift; that the grandfather had entitled it
Parables, which the graudfon changed into Eccleliatticus :
laftly, that the book, however, is attributed to the tranflator,
becaufe he changed, and added many things to the ori-

inal,
Fa. Calmet takes the book of Ecclefiafticus to have been-
compofed under the Pontificate of Onias III. fon of Simon,
and the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, kmg of Syria, about
171 years B.C. He adds, that neither the author of the
Latin tranflation, nor the time when it was made, is aa
ut

See

Eee
but being quotedrepularly by all the ancient fathers, there
is no doubt of its being very ancient. He takes it to have
been done by the tranflator of the Book of Wifdom.

Munfter and Fagius mention Hebrew copies of this book,

as well as St. Jerom; but Scaliger, Drufius and Huetius

think that none of thefe were the original, but either Ben

Sira’s alphabet, or fome late verfion made from the Greek.

It is probable, that many ufeful maxims of the Hebrew

Sirachides, as well as fome of his own, were added by the

Jatt Jefus, the fon of Sirach, to his grandfather’s book, or
from marginal additions of cther men’s fayings, of the like

nature; which being too few to fill a book of themfelves,

were joined to this larger work. We cannot otherwife ac-
count for the variations in the feveral Greek copies of Ec-

clefiafticus, and the tranflations of it, nor for the entire

fentences, which are found in fome and wanting in other

copies. The Hebrew Serachides wrote his bock, as we
may reafonably fuppofe, in the language of the Jewe of Je-

rufalem, fuch as was ufed after their return from the capti-
vity, probably eitherin the Chaldee diale€t, or Syriac, as a

manual for the Jews in Egypt. The learned fuppofe that
the original work itfelf is come down to us imperteG, either
through the author’s death, or the lofs of fome part of it

in Egypt (See Bifhop Chandier’s Vindic. of Def. p. 81—
5.) 3 and this may account for the great incoherence, and
abrupt tranfition in many places. How long the original
was preferved, we are not now able to afcertain. The Greck
Js the prefent only original; and it is the moft early and
authentic tranflation of this work, made for the ufe of the
Jewsin Egypt in their difperfion, who had then almolt for-
gotten their native tongue; and fo this, as well as other
books not canonicaliin theirlanguage, might ‘eafily be loft.
‘This feems to have been too literal a tranflation, which often
occafions the fenfe to be either obfeure or deficient. The
tranflator bim{clf has the modelty to acknowledge, that he
doubts his having failed in expreffing the full fpirit of the
then language, whether it was the ancient and pure, or more
modern and corrupt Hebrew, and ingenuovfly apologizes
for not attaining to the exaét propriety and expreffivenefs
of the original. -Drufiusis of opinion, that, befides this in-
accuracy, he has fometimes a€tually miftaken the meaning
of the original in fome of the more obfcure and intricate paf-
fages. There isa ftrange tranfpofition of chapters. in the
beit Greek copies of this book from ch. xxx. to ch. xxxvi.;
befides the tranfpofition of whole fentences or verfes; fo
that the printed editions gzeatly differ from one another, which
is very much owing to the careleffnefs of tranfcribers; in
confequence of which, the prefent ttate of this book is cor-
ruptand mutilated. And-asto the Greek tranflation itfelf,
the language is neither beautiful, nor altogether corre&.
This] .cter circumftance is chiefly owing to the idiom of
the Greek Macedonian language, and the particulars now
referred to are not fo properly faults, as modes of that
adopted tongue. In this book there cccur frequent allufions
to Grecian rites and cuftoms; from which we may infer, that

the Jews had learned their philofophy, and embraced feveral
of their opinions, ever fince their intercourfe with that
people under Alexander the Great, the Ptolemies, and

Seleucide his fucceflors, who reigned in Egypt and Syria. .

The old verfions, particularly the Syriac and Arabic, fo
much differ from the Greek, as almoft to lead one to fuf-
ped, that they were not made from it, and yet there is no
reafon to think, that they tranflated from any Hebrew
copy. Nor do the Oriental verfions agree any better -with
the Latin. j

As tothe Vulgate, it is uncertain what copy it follows, or
what was its authority. It fometimes adds whole fentences,

ECC

which have nothing correfponding to them in the Greeks .

fo that Huetius conjeétures, that the tranflator inferted
fome parallel maxims fromfome other work. It does not
appear to have been interpolated; or that any alterations
have been made by the pious fraud of fome Chriftians ia
order to make it conform to, or countenance, any favonrite
featiments and opinions, 2s Grotius. intimates. Boffuct,
Calmet, and other commentators, follow the Vulgate tao
implicitly, and make that verfion the foundation of their an-
notations; and it is no wonder that the-pop:fh expofitors
fhould religioufly adhere to a verfion, which the council of
Trent has confirmed and ratified.
as Coverdale’s and the Bifhops’ Bible, generally copy the
Valgate too clofely ; but the Geneva often departs from it
with advantage. Our laft tranflators feem chiefly to have
regarded the Complutenfiar, which, though it lies under a
fulpicion of conforming its Greek to the Vulgate, yet ex-

hibits a text in this book, eccording to Dr. Grabe (Prole-,

gom. ch. ii. § 1.) “ non nuper filum aot interpolatum, iced
jam olim a Patribus ita leGtum.”? However they feruple
not occafionally to prefer the Latin to the Greek, where
they think it ptves a better fenfe, and fometimes even to
adopt conjeGtures, unfupported by any copy, for the fame
purpofe, After all we may obferve, that their rendering
is in very many places inaccurate and obfcure, and in fome,
faulty and miitaken.

This book was originally compofed for the initru@ion.

and benefit of thofe, whw were difpofed to regulate their
hives agreeably to the laws of God; and with this view the
grandion of Ben Sirach rendered it into Greek. and with the
fame defign it has been tranflated into many other ancieat
and modern languages. In the weftern church it has met with
geveral efteem, and it was introduced by cur firft reformers,
and the compilers of the articles of our eftablifhed church,
into the public fervice. It begins with an exhortation to
the purfuit of wifdom; and this is followed by numerous
moral fentences or maxims, as far as the 44th chapter,
where the author begins his eulogy of the patriarchs, pro-=
phets, and famous men among the Jews, which he continues
to the 51ft chapter, containing a prayer to God. Calmet
fays, that it is a received opinion of the-Catholie church,
that this book was placed in the canon of feripture, and
that it may be demonitrated by the teftimeny of feveral fa=
thers, and by the tradition of ali Chrifian churches, and by
its being quoted by a great number of ecclefiakical writers,
asa work infpired by the Holy Gholt. But thefe af-
fertions are unfounded. Epifcopius, in order to fhew the
agreement of Chriftian churches with the Jews in this point,
enumerates the decifions of nine of the Eattern, nive cf the
Wetftern, and two of the African churches, which determine
for the canon as we now have it, and exclude all others, bat
the 22 books received by the Jewifh church, and contained
inthe Hebrew Bible. ‘lhe authority of the church of Rome
cannot outweigh the decifions of thole of Jerufalem, Alexan-
dria, Antioch, and Conftantinople, to the contrary. Ais to
the refpe& paid to it by ancient ecclefiaitical writers, we may
obferve, that they ufed the term feripture in a very lax
fenfe for any book that contained excellent and pious inftrue-
tions; and whem either the Greek or Latin fathers attri-
bute to any books the title of Holy Writings, they do not
‘place them in any higher rank than that of feriptures,
which are of inferior, imperfe&t, and doubtfal authority.
Dupin’s Compleat Hittory of the Canon, b. i. chap. 3. § 16.
Arnold on the Apocrypha.

Canon.
ECCLISIS, from exxrww, I decline, a word ufed by Hip-
pocrates, and from him by many other of the old phyfieians,
for

The old Englifh verfions,

See Arocsypua, Bisie, and —
.

zCH

for a receffion of a bone from its proper fituation, that is, a
Juxation.

ECCOPJEUS, from exxorlw, J cut, the name of an infru-
ment, deferibed by fome of the ancient writers in Medicine,
and ufed for the fame purpofes for which ‘the modern fur-
geons employ a lenticular or rafpatory. The anceent in-
Ftrument was a fort of knife, with which they cut down
morbid eminénces cf bones, or took out bones, in cafe of a
fractured fkuil.

ECCOPE, Exxown, in Surgery, the fame-with excifion, or
amputation. “4

The word is formed from the Greek, exxoriw, ex/cindere,
to cul off

Eccore is likewife ufed for a kind of frafiure, or folu-
tion of continuity, of the fkull, by a fimple incifion.

ECCOPROTICS, Exxoxpurixe, in Medicine, laxative, or
loofening remedies, which purge gently, by foitening the
humours and excrements, and fitting them for ezpulfion.

The work is compofed of the Greek particle «x, and xo-
pos, excrement.

ECCRIMOCRITICA; from exxpicss, excretion, and xpt-
anos, figns to judge of a diltemper, from particular excre-
tions.

ECCRINOLOGICA, from exxpiw and Acyo:, a term
tufed by fome writers, for that part of medicine which relates
to the dotrine of excretions, or the difcharge of any of the
excrements out of the body.

ECCRISIS, an excretion of any excrementitious or mor-
bid matter from any of the natural emunStories, as it hap-
pens in a perfect crifis. The matter thus excreted 1s alfo
Jometimes called by this name.

ECDICL, Exdixo, among the Ancients, patrons of citizs,
who defended their rights, and took care of the public
money. Their office refembled that of the modern fyndics.

ECDORA, from exdepw, J excoriate, a word ufed by the
ancient phyficians, to exprefs any kind of excoriation, but
in a more particular manner that of the urethra.

ECDORIA, aterm uled by the ancient writers in M7e-
dicine for fach cauftic or efcharctic medicinee, as have a

ower of taking off the fltn.

ECDYSIA, Exduci, in Antiguity, a feftival obferved by
the Pheellians in henour of Latena.

ECETRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, be-
longing to the Volfci.

ECHALAR, in -Geography, a town of Spain, in Na-
varre.; 20 iniles N. of Pamplona.

ECHALLENS, atawn and bailliage of Switzerland,
in the canton of Bern, belonging to the cantons of Bern
and Fnburg, conquered by the Swifs in 1475, and ceded
to the two cantons in 1474; 6 miles from Laufanne. On
an eminence in this bailliage flands the caltle of St. Bar-
thelemi, in one of the moit beautiful pafitions in Switzer-

land; about three miles from Orbe, near the high road from
Laufanne to Yverdun.

ECHANBROIGNES, Les, a fmall town of France,
in the departinent of the two Sevres; fix miles N. of Cha-
tillon fur Sevre, and three miles E. of Maulevrier,

ECHAPE, in the Manege, is ufed to denote a horfe got be-
tweena flallionand a mare of a different breed and country.

ECHAPER, is uled in the French academies for giving

“the hhorfe head, or putting him on full [peed. Hence they
laiffer echapper de la main.
Ma RD Lapesncr, in Biography, was fon. of a
clergyman, and born near Beccles in Suffolk, in 1671.
Having laid a foundation of claffical learning, he went to
Chrift’s collegeyCambridge, where he took his degree of
_A.M,, and was afterwards admitted into holy orders. His

,

ECH

firfk fettlement was in Lincolnhhire, where he publifhed, in
1609, * The Roman Hiftory from the Building of the City
to the Settlement of the Empire by Avguftus,”? which was
followed by a continvation from that period to the time of
Conitantine. Thefe were afterwards printed in 3 vols. 8vo.
In 1702, he publithed « A General Feclefiattical Hiftory
from the Birth of Chrift to the Efteblifhment of Chrifti.
anity.”” This work, which was printed in folio, was ‘cx-
ceedingly popular, and was in the eourle of afew years
reprinted in an oétavo fize five times. He next publifhed
“The Gazetteer, or Newfman’s Interpreter,” being a geo-
graphical index, or diétionary, of ail the principal places
on the globes, This run through many editions, and may
be regarded as the forerunner of our prefent improved
gazettecrs, than which few books are more popular. Mr.
Echard publifhed likewifea biltory of England, from the inva-
fion of Julius Cafar, to the end of James I.’s reign, which he
afterwards brought down to the revolution: he tranflated
fome of the comedies of Plautus, and took a part in the
trarflation of ‘Terence: he compiled a volume of maxims
and difcourfes, moral and divine, from the works of arch
bifhop ‘Pillotfon. His church preferment was the appoint-
ment to the archdeaconry of Stow, in 1712: he was alfo
made prebend of Lincoln, and chapiain to the bifhop of:
that dincefe ; and towards the latter end of an ufeful and
indultrious life he was prefented by the king to the livings
of Rend!efham, Sudborne, and Alford, in Suffolk, to which
county he removed ; but the change was unfavourable to his
health, and he died in 1730. Biog. Brit.

ECHARPE. See Barrery en echarpe.

ECHARRI, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Na-
varre; 17 miles W.of Pamplona. .

ECHAUFOUR, a fmall town of France, in the de-
partment of the Orne, fituated on arivulet which flows into
the Rille between Laigle and Sées; 12 miles N.E. of Sées,
in the diffri& of Alencon. i

ECHAUGUETTE, in the French Military Art, an
elevated and covered place foracentinel. Richelet explains
it by the Latin /pecula, excubie. See Guerre.

Some diltinguith the exchauguette from the guerite, giving
the former name to centry-boxes, made of wood, and {quare ;
and the latter name to thofe made of ftone, and round.

ECHEBRUNE, in Geography, a {mail town of France,
in the department of the Lower Charente; fifteen miles off
Saintes. "

ECHEDAMIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
inthe Phocide, according -to Paulanias.

ECHEDORAS, a river .of Macedonia, in the Am-
phaxitide territory, according to Ptolemy, called Chidoros
by Herodotus, who places itsfource in Creftonia.. Hedfays,
that it traverfes Mygdon‘a, and purfues its courfe along a
marfh near the river Axius, into which it difcharges itfelf.

ECHEIA, harmonic-vafes ufedin the ancient theatres
for the augmentation of found. Vitruvius, book v. cap. 5,
tells us, that they were placed in cells or niches, between
the rows of feats occupied by the fpeCtators, to which the
voice of the ator had free paflage; that they were made of
brafs, or earthen-ware, and proportioned in magnitude to
the fize of the building ; and laltly, that inthe {mall thea.
tres, they were tuned in harmonical proportions cf fourths,
fifths, and cighths, with their replicates ; and in theatres of
great magnitude, there was a va{e to correfpond with.every
found in the difdiapafon, or great mufical fyttem, in all the

enera.

The Romans, according to the fame author, were obliged
to the Greeks for this inventi6n, as well as for tragedy itfelf.
For theecheia were brought firlt into Italy from ca

y

ECH

by Mummius. Perhaps they had fomething of the effe&
of the whifpering gallery at St. Paul’s church, which, by
its erbicular form, augments found in the fame manner as
the belly of an inftrument, a hogfhead, oradraw-well,

Sir Francis Bacon’long fince obferved, that found diffufes
and wattes itfelf in open air, but 1f inclofed and confined in
a canal, or narrow limits, its force is augmented; and adds,
that inclofures not only increafe and fortify found, but pre-
ferve it. Refonance is but an aggregate of echoes, or of
quick repetitions and returns of the fame found, which foon
uniting into one point, are confolidated and embodied ; and
by this means, the force of the tone firft given ts greatly
augmented upon the delivery, and preferved fome time after
the firft caufe ceafes. This conftitutes the ringing of mu-
dical inftruments, and places favourable to found; but with
refpect to the whilper, which is inltantly carried from the
perfon who utters it, to the oppofite fide of the gallery, it
runs along the {mooth furface of the wall, and arrives at the
place of its deftination with nearly the fame degree of force
as it is delivered.

It is not eafy now, however, to defcribe, or even to con-
ceive, the form and effe&s of the theatric vafes; but their
exiftence and ufe having been recorded by fo fcientific a
writer as Vitruvius, has excited much curiofity, and pro-
duced many conjetures, and, as yet, ineffeCtual experiments,
Our fmaller theatres, luckily, are in want of no fuch helps ;
but this is certain, if thefe veflels were tuned to mu‘ical
tones and intervals, nothing but noife and confufion could
be produced from them by common fpeech, or fuch as is
ufed in modern declamation. For if any onecough, fpeak
loud, or ftrike forcibly upon the cafe of a harpfichord, with
the lid propped up, oron any-hard body near it, the fhock
will make every ftring in the inftrument found at the fame
infant; but if a fixed and mufical tone be produced by the
voice, or upon a violin or flute, none but the unifon will be
heard upon the harpfichord; and though the cloathing of
the jacks be in clofe conta& with all the firings, which ren-

Ee H

ders it impoffible to produce a clear tone from any one of
them, by the common means of quills, or hammers, yet if.
any perfon fing near them, every note willbe exactly echoed
by the inftrument.

If, therefore, thefe echeia were of the ufe related by Vi-
truvius, it mutt have been from the voice approaching them
io fixed and mufical tones, modulated in- unifon with th
tones of the vafes. '

The beft commentary upon this obfcure fubje& in Vi-

truviusisthat of Perrault, who has given an engraving of .

part of an ancient theatre, on purpofe to exhibit the fitu-
ation of the harmonic vafes. ‘* Les dix Livres d’Architec-"
ture de Vitruve,” Par. 1684. 2d edit. folio. Kircher,

whofe pen was never impeded by doubts or difficulties, has

not only defcribed, but given them imaginary forms refem«
bling bells. See'Mufurgia, tom. ti. p. 255.

Every thing was upon alarge {cale in the ancient theatres.
The figure, features, and voice, were all gigantic. The
voice was, in a particular menner, the objeét of an actor’s
care ; nothing was omitted, fays father Brumoy, that could
render it more fonorous; even in the heat of aétion it was
governed by the tones of’inftruments, that regulated the
intervals by which it was to move, and to exprefs the
paifions.

When_a new opera-houfe was built at Turin about 30 or
40 years ago upon a very large f{cale, all the architeéts, ma-
thematicians, and the learned in (phonics) harmonics, or the
philofophy of found, were confulted about the form and fi-
tuation of thofe vafes; but the problem we believe has not
yet been folved. A

ECHELLE, Fr. a f{cale, or gammut. The names which
French muficians give to the eight notes of C major, uf, re,
mi, fa, fol, la, fi,.ut, are retained in all keys, whether the
notes fo denominated are flat, fharp, or natural. This fcale
is generated by the harmonics of three bafes, C, G, apd F ;
or the key note and its two fifths, the fifth above and the
filth below the key note.

“This ts termed the natural or diatonic fcale, that is, com-
ofed of tones and femitones.

But the moderns have another f{cale, which they call femi-

tonic or chromatic, from its proceeding by femitones, or what

are called half-notes. For a bafe to this chromatic fcale,
fee Mu/ic. Plate XXIV. and prepared bafe to ditto, Plate
XVI. This fcale furnifhes the means of modulation into
what key we chufe to make the fundamental, and of tranf-
pofing our ideas from the natural to the fiGiitious-or agtificial
keys as they are called.
Ecuerze Neuve, or Scaua Nuova, in Geography,
as fea-port town of Turkey, in Afia, fituated in the province
of Natelia, about 50 miles off Smyrna. The Englifh and
the French had confiderable mercantile eftsblifhments at this

place till the middle of the 17th century, when the jealoufy +

of the cnftom-houfe officersof Smyrna caufed this port to
be fhut to all European nations. Its principal trade now
confifts in exporting annually about 2000 bales of cotton

and cotton yarn, fome wax, Morocco leather, and fine

Tpunges. Di&. de Geogr. Commercante.

ECHELLES, Les, in Latin Scale, a {mall town of
France, inthe department of Mont Blanc, chief place of a
canton, in the diltrié&t of Chambéry, with a population of
1245 individuals. ‘The canton contains nine communes and
6494 inhabitants, on a territorial extent of 120 kiliometres.

The high road of the Echelles Bourgades, 16 kiliometres
W. of Chambéry, behind the mountain of the grotto on the
road to Lyons, may be confidered as the boldeft work that
was ever undertaken. Charles Emanuel II., duke of Savoy,
caufed a monument to be ere&ted here, of which the French
mutilated one of the fineft parts, as well as the infcription,
during their revolutionary frenzy in 1793. i

ECHELSBELK, a {mall town of France, in the de-
partment of the North; fix miles N. of Bergues, witha very
fine caftle.

ECHEMBROTUS, in Biography, an Arcadian, who,

' . according

ot ~exw? >: in ~~

Dae pM One See's a ec?

ae eis

EC H

according to Paufanias, in his enumeration of the mufical
contelts that were added to the ancient Pythic games,
at the clofe of the Criffan war, accompanied upon the
flute, Cephallon, the fon of Lampus. The Ampbi¢tyons
afterwards retrenched the flute accompaniment, on account
of that inftrument being too plaintive, and fit only for la-
mentations and elegies, to which it was chicfly appropriated.
A proof of this, fays Paufanias, is given in the offering
which Echembrotus made to Hercules of a bronze tripod,
with this-infeription :

«¢ Echembrotus, the Arcadian, dedicated this tripod to

' Hercules, after obtaining the prize at the games of the Am-

phiétyons, where he accompanied the elegies that were fung in
the aflembly of the Greeks, with the flute.’ See Pyraie
Games.

ECHENAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Marne, and diftrict of Joinville ;
feven miles E.N.E. of Joinville.

_ ECHENEIS, in Jchihyology, a genus of the thoracic
tribe, having the head naked, flat above, and tran{verfely fur-
rowed, the gill-membrane furnifhed with ten rays, and the
body deftitute of fcales.

Three f{pecies of this fingular genus are defcribed, one of
which, the remora, is fufficiently well known to the Englifh
navigators in the Mediterranean by the name of the fucking
fith. The fpecies neucrates is lefs frequent, and exceeds the
other in fize. Tne third, ineata, is a recently difcovered
kind, of which a particular account occurs in the Linnzan
Tranfadtions. ;

Species.

Remora. Tail furcated; back of the head with
eighteen ftreaks. Zcheneis remora, Forfk. Arab. Remora
Imperati F Aldrovandi, Will. Echeneis, Plin. &c.

Native of the Atlantic and Mediterranean feas, in the lat-
ter of which it is moft abundant. Its length is ufually
from twelve to eighteen inches, the body of moderate thick-
nefs, with the head pointed, and the general colour brown;
deepeft on the back, and becoming white on the belly; the
fins {mall, invefted with a thick fkin, and of a cinereous co-
lour, edged with brown. ‘The fkin is fmooth, marked with
numerous imprefled points, and-covered with a thick mucus.

The extraordinary faculty which this fifh poffefies, of ad-
hering at pleafure to other bodies by means of the organ

_~-at the back of the head, is mentioned by many writers.

Pliny, and fome other authors among the ancients, do not he-
fitate to affirm that the remora is able to arreft the progreis
of a fhip in full fail, by faftening againft its hull. The mo-
derns are more moderate, and fimply relate that it is kiown
to affix itfelf to any fmooth furface fo firmly, as not to be
removeg without a confiderable exertion of ftrength; it
would be difficult, it is faid, for the ftrongeft arm to effet
its {eparation, unlefs it be pulled in a lateral-direCtion, fo as
to flide it along the furface of the body to which it adheres.
This ability of adhefion appears to be a peculiar property
defigned by nature to facilitate its means of obtaining food ;
for the remora fwims fo feebly and indifferently, that it is

} neceflary to avail itfelf of other methods of purfuing its

courfe in the water, the molt convenient of which is to

_ fatten itfelf to fome larger fifh, or other floating body. The
remora for this reafon is almo{t conftantly found attached

to whales, fharks of the more gigantic kinds, and other vo-

yacious animals.

Nevcrares. Tailentire; head with twenty-fourftreaks.
Haffelq. Lcheneis in extremo fubrotunda, Seba. Lperugquiba
et Piraguiba brafilienfis, Marcg.

Vou, XII.

E CH

‘This fpecies grows to the length of five, fix, or even
feven feet ; the body is of a more lengthened form than the
preceding, and the tail is ovate. ‘The head is of a moderate
fize; the body above the lateral line olive green, beneath
white; the fins yellowifh, edged with violet; the fkin is
marked with numerous minute pores as in the other. ‘This
fpecies is corfined principally to the Indian and American
feas. Commerfon relates, that it is very common about the
coalis of Mozambique, where it is fometimes employed in
catching turtle. The procefs is altogether fingular: a nog
is fecurely faltened round the tatl of the fifh to prevent its
efcape, and a long cord being tied to the ring, the fith fs
carried in a. velfcl of fea water till the boatmen obferve a
turtle fleeping on the furface of the water, when they ap-
proach as near as poflible without difturbing it, and throw
the remora into the fea. ‘The fifh inflinGively dire&ts its
courfe to the fleeping turtle, which, by the length of its
cord, it isenabled to reach, and immediately faftens itfelf fo
firmly on its breaft, that the turtle is drawn by the men into
the boat, by means of the cord, with very little trouble.

Lineata. Tail cuneated; head with ten ftreaks. Lchee
neis lineata, Menz. Linn, Tranf. 1. p. 187. pl. 17. f. r.

A new fpecies found in the Pacitic ocean, and deferibed
as above in the TranfaGtions of the Linnean fociety. ‘The
body is about five inches long, fubulate, {mooth, and of a
dark brown colour, dotted all over with minute darker {pots,
and ornamented with two whitifh longitudinal lines on each
fide, which begin at the eyes and end in the tail; the under
mandible is a little longer than the upper, and both are fur-
nifhed with minute teeth’; the clypeus on the top of the
head has but ten tranfverfe freaks. ‘The fpecimen defcribed
was found adhering toa turile.

ECHETLA, -in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
towards the {prings of the river Achates. It was formerly.
a very flrong place, and during the Punic war, it was
fituated on the frontiers of the Carthaginians and Syracufans.
It is now Ochula or Acquila.

ECHETRA.. See Ecerra.

- ECHEVIN. See Escuevin.

ECHIDNA, in Schthyolocy, afpecies of Murena, whichfee.

Ecuipna, in Natural Hiflory, a name given, by fome
authors, to the feverdl kinds of ophites, or ferpent-ftone,
from exidva, a viper, or ferpent. .

ECHILLEUSE, in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department of the Loiret; 9 miles E. of Pithiviers.

ECHINARACHNIUS. See Ecuinus.

ECHINASTRUM, in Botany, a name given by fome
perfons to the Geranium tuberofum of Bauhin and Linnzus,
on account of the refemblance of its root to the Lchinus or
Sea-Urchin,

ECHINATUS, is a term applied to any thing befet
with fpines, like a hedge-hog, as the fruit of the horfe~
chefnut. It is nearly fynonymous with muricaius. It
gives the generic charaGter of Hydnum, a fungus whole
head is /ubtus echinatus, prickly underneath.

ECHINI Fosstres. Itisa very remarkable obfervation
of Auguftino Scilla, that all thofe foffil echini which he
had found in the Meflinefe and Calabrian hills, and about

- Malta, were, when bruifed, as was frequently the cafe, always

bruifed by a perpendicular preflure. See Ecuinitves.
Ecuini /patangi,. It is obferved, that the foflil echini
{pantagi, or fpatagi, are very frequent in the ifland of Malta,
and people who are for having all foffil fhells to be real ter-
reftrial bodies, produced of feeds in the earth, and never to
have been parts of real animals, obje& to thefe having ever
been fuch, their being found fo plentifully in this foffil {tate,
and fo rarely in the native or recent one, ‘This is no objec
3 ior

E’ G@’H

tion of weight; becaufe the cornua ammonis give a much
ttronger, which are a more common foffil, and have never
been found recent at all. ‘This is no argument of weight,
however, fince it is eafy to conceive, that the fea, at the
time of the univerfal deluge, might throw up fhells from its
deep bottom, which we never can get at in fifhing or other-
wife. And Scilla has proved the abfurdity of the objetion,
in regard to the echini {patangi, and fhewn that thofe people
who raifed it, have been led into it by theirignorance. For
he has affirmed, that they may be picked up by hundreds
at a time in the port of Meflina, and that himfelf once took
up more than a hundred recent ones in an hour.

The fheils of this fpecies, found foffi! in the ifland of
Malta, are very frequently full of the marle of which the
upper ftratum of that ifland confilts ; aud fome of them are
cracked, and have been deprefled a little inwards. This is
an evident proof that they once were real fhells, having, in
this cafe, given way, as far as the included marle would let
them, on the preffure of fome external force. See Ecuinus.

ECHINITES, or Ecuixitra, in Natural Hijflory, the
name given by authors to the foflil fhells of the feveral
fpecies of echini marini, and to the ttones formed in them.
Of thefe there is almoft an endlefs variety in the foffil world.
Many of thofe which we daily find in our chalk pits are the
fame with thofe now known to us in their recent ftate, or
living in the fea; but we have numbers of others, of which
our imperfe& knowledge of the animal world gives us no
certain account, in their recent ftate.

The fhells of fome of thefe are found {carce at all altered
from their original condition, In many others we have
plated fpar filling the places of the fhells, and retaining
every lineament of them. But their moft frequent appear-
ance is in the form of maffes of hard flint, or other ftone,
which have been catt and formed in them, having been re-
ceived, while in a fluid ftate, into the hollow of the fhell,
and therefore retaining all the lineaments of the inner furface.
And, not unfrequently, thefe alfo are coated over with a
{parry or ftony matter, fupplying the place of the fhell they
were formed in; and haviog been made, by the infenfible
depofition of hard matter, im the place of the particles of the
fhell infenfibly wafting away ; thefe retain all the lineaments
of the outer part of the fhell, as the formed flint does of the
inner ong. Sometimes pure cryftal is found in the place of
flint in thefe, and often eryital, but lightly debafed by earth ;
and thefe make very elegant fpecimens.

The various genera of foffil echini, orechinite, are known
among fome authors by the names of fpatangt, cordati,
galeati, pileati, difcoides, ovarii, pentaphylloides. See
EcCHINUS. bibs

What is generally underftood by the word echinite, is a
fort of arched fheils, or ftones formed in them, covered with
divers eminences and cavities, fome of which are difpofed
into beautiful lines, diverging from the fummit; and always
having two apertures, the one for the mouth, the other for
the anus of the animal. Of thefe,

The echini cordati are fueh as have a remarkable furrow
on one fide, or end, which is ufually broader than any other
part of the body, and by means of this furrow, reprefents,
in fome degree, the figure of a heart on cards.

The galeati are fuch as have the bafis fomewhat oblong,
and the apertures, one in the very margin, and the other
near the margin, on the oppofite fide. (See Galeafler under
Ecurinus.) The pileati, and difcoides, are fub-diitinétions
of this kind, >

The pileati are higher, and approach to a conic figure.

‘The difcoides are flatter, and more compreffed.

I

EC at

The ovarii have only one aperture at the bafe, and have
large and unequal tubercles and papillz.

The pentaphylloides have rows of fhort lines, which are
fo difpofed as to reprefent a cinquefoil leaf.

The {patangi is a very comprehenfive term, taking in
molt of the others as {ub-diltinctions. It comprehends all
that have two apertures in the bafe, and that are covered
with {mall tubercles. See Ecuinus,

ECHINOCYAMUS. See Ecutnus.

ECHINODERMA, in Natural Hiflory, the name of
the fea animal more commonly known by the name of the
echinus marinus, or fea hedge-hog. See Ecuinus.

ECHINODISCUS. -See Ecuinus.

ECHINOGLYCUS. See Ecuinus.

ECHINOMELOCACTUS, in Botany, the Turk’s-
cap, or Melon-thiftle. SeeCacrus, fect, 1.

ECHINOMETRA, a name given by fome to the fe-
veral depreffed {pecies of the echinodermata. See Ecuinus.

ECHINONEUS. See Ecuinus.

ECHINOPHORA, in Botany, (exw0s, a hedge-hog, and
G:pu, do bear, alluding to its prickly heads of flowers and.
feed,) Prickly Sampire, or Sea Parfnep, Linn. Gen. 129.
Schreb. 180, Willd. Sp. Pi. v. 1. 1379. Sm. Fl. Brit.
293. Jufl. 225. Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia..
Nat. Ord. Umbellifere.

Gen. Ch. General umbel of numerous rays, of which the
inner ones are fhorteft ; partial of numerous flowers, the,
central one feflile. General involucrum of about five une
equal, fharp-pointed, permanent leaves ; partial turbinate, of
one leaf, in fix acute unequal fegments, permanent.
minute, with five unequal teeth, deciduous. Cor. Univer/al,
irregular, radiated ; male flowers numcrous, with abortive
piftils ; female folitary, in the centre of each partial umbel ;
partial of five unequal, {preading, plaited, inflexed, and
cloven petals. Sam. Filaments five, fimple, longer than
the petals; anthers roundifh. Pi/. Germen of the female
flowers oblong, inferior, imbedded in the partial involucrum ;
ftyles two, fimple, longer than the petals; fligmas fimple.
Peric. none, except the hardened, fpinous, partial involucrum.
Seed one or two, ovate-oblong. Sometimes itamens are
found in the central, or female flower.

Obf, The above defcription is correéted from the manu-
{cripts of Linneus, compared with nature.

Eff. Ch. Partial involucrum turbinate, of one Jeaf, in fix
fegments. Marginal flowers radiant, male, ftalked ; central
one female. Seeds imbedded in the partial involucrum.

1. E. fpinofa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 344. Sm. Prod. Fh.
Gree. v. 1.179... Cavan. Ic. t. 127. Mart. Mill. Di&.
v. 2. (Crithmum fpinofum; Dod. Pempt. 705. Ger.
Em. 533. Paftinaca marina; Lob. Ic. 710. Bauh. Hilt.
v. 3.196.) ‘* Leaflets awl-fhaped, fpinous, three-cleft, or
undivided, entire.”” A native of fandy fea-fhores, efpecially
of the Mediterranean, and in the Levant, flowering from
July to September. ‘here are fo many authorities on re=
cord for its having been found, in former times, in various

arts of our own coaits, that though no recent inquiries on the
fubjeé&t have been fuccefsful, it could not be refufed a place in
the Flora Britannica.
Genoa, Mr. Salifbury at Montpellier, and Dr. Sibthorp in
Greece, and Afia Minor.
by Mr, Ferd. Bauer, exifts among thofe deftined for the
Lore Greca. Root perennial, tap-fhaped, often branched,
long, flefhy, whitith, eatable, having the tafte and imell of a
parfnep. Turra fays it is diuretic and aphrodifiac. Plant
fo repeatedly branched, and armed with fuch a multiplicity
of {pinous leaves, that it forms an impenetrable, inaccefiible,
hemifpherical bufh, two er three feet in diameter, bao: 2

wit

Perianth

We have gathered this plant nea

A mott admirable drawing of it ©

ECH

with numerous, white; or reddifh, large, radiant umbels,
well contrafted with the rather glaucous, fomewhat downy,
foliage, fo as to be not deficient in beauty. ‘The inflexed
point of each petal is curioufly fringed. ‘The juices of the
whole abound with alkaline falt. E. orientalis montana
{pinofa; Tourn. Cor. 45. Buxb, Cent. 5, Append. f. 27;
is {carcely diftin& from this {pecies.

2. E. tenuifolia,; Linn. Sp. Pl. 344. Sm. Prod. Fl.
Grec. v. 1. 179. Mart. Mill, Di@t. v..2. (Pattinaca
echinophora apula; Column. Ecphr. 98. t.10r.) Leaflets
pinnatifid, finuated, flat, {carcely fpinous. Native of ex-
pofed places near the fea, in Greece, Afia Minor, and the
weffern fide of Italy, flowering in July and Auguft. Root
perennial, long, fender, blackifh. Herb much branched,
downy. Leaves bipinnate ; leaflets finuated and pinnatifd,
their points fomewhat pungent, fcarcely fpinous. Umbels
numerous, {mall, of a dull yellow. Columna reports the
roots to be very good food, like carrots.

3. E. trichophylla. Leaflets thread-fhaped, elongated, un-
divided, fcarcely {pinous. Native of the Levant, preferved
in the herbarium of the younger Linnezus. /erd fmooth.
Leaves twice or thrice ternate; leaflets undivided, very
long, and flender, fo as to be almoft capillary, flightly chan-
nelled above, their points acute, but not {pinous. Umdels
the fize of the firft {pecies, on long ftalks, each with a dark-
purplifh convex tumour in the centre; partial ones, when
in feed, globofe, muricated. Petals whitifh. The plant
abounds with gum. S. .

-EcurxopuorA, in Ichthyology, aname given by Rondele«
tius to a f{pecies of fea-{nail, of the round-mouthed kind, or
clafs of the cochlez lunares..

~ He calls it echinophora, becaufe it ia all over befet with
tubercles; but this is a very ill-chofen name, as it confounds
it with the echini, or fea-eggs; he had much better have
called it cochlea tuberculofa. See Lunaris cochlea.

ECHINOPHTHALMIA. This furgical term is de-
rived from exwoz, a hedge hog, and ofdarpux, an inflammation
of the eye. It fignifies an inflammation of the eye-lids, at-
tended with a projection of the eye-lafhes, which project out
like the quills of a hedge-hog.

ECHINOPS, in Botany, (altered by Linuzus from
LEchinopus, a name which feems to have been firft given by
John Bauhin, from eyivos, a hedge-hog, and om;, afped, or
appearance, more ef{pecially alluding to the refemblance of its
round prickly heads, to a fea urchin.) Globe Thiftle,

“Linn. ro 453 Schreb. 592. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2396.
Juffl.175. Gaertn. t. 160. Mart. Mill. DiG. v. 2. Clafs
and order, Syngencfia Polygamia-fegregata. Nat. Ord. Com-
pote, Linn. Cinarocephale, Jull.

Gen. Ch. (Cal The common one of many awl-fhaped
totally reflexed leaves, containing many flowers ; partial, to

- each flower, inferior, oblong, imbricated, angular, of nume-
‘ous, awl-fhaped, ere, permanent, leaves, {preading in their
upper part. Cor. of one petal, the length of the calyx,
‘tubular; its limb five-cleft, reflexed, a little {preading.
‘Stam. Yilaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers united
into a cylindrical five-toothed tube. Pi. Germen ob-
long ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the corolla ; ftigmas
_ two, oblong, fomewhat depreffed, revolute. Peric. none,
_ except the enlarged calyx. Seed folitary, ovate-oblong,

tapering at the bafe, obtufeat the fummit. Doan obfolete.
_ Common-receptacle globofe, nearly naked.

Pf. Ch. ‘Partial calyx fingle-flowered: Towers all
perfe&t. Corollatubular. Receptacle nearly naked. Seed-
“down obfolete.

1. E. /pherocephalus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1314, Mill. Illuttr,
70. © Leaves pinnatifid, white, and cottony beneath.

ECH

Stem branched.” A native of Italy and Germany, a cont.
mon hardy perennial in our gardens. This ia the beft known
fpecics. Its /fems are four or five feet high. Leaves a foot
er more in length, pinnatifid with angular lobes, downy
above, white and cottony beneath. Heads of flowers nu-
merous, terminal, near two inches in diameter, globofe,
white, or blueifh, vifcid to the touch, and exhaling a faint
fweetifh {mell, like fome forts of pomatum. Five more
{pecies are enumerated by Willdenow, chiefly found in the
fouth of Europe, fmaller, or more flender, than the above,
and more prickly.

Propagation and Culture.—The moft of thefe are hardy
perennials, eafily propagated by feed, but requiring to be
frequently renewed by the fame means, like many plants of
warm, or dry climates, when kept in our gardens. The
firft {pecies fcatters itfelf widely in fhrubberies; fo as to bee
come a weed.

ECHINOPUS. See Ecurnors.

ECHINORINCHUS, in Zoology, a genus of inteftinal
vermes, the body of which is long and cylindrical, and the
anterior part furnifhed with a fhort retraétile probofcis, armed
at the tip with recurved prickles.

Ail the {pecies of this numerous genus live in the vifcera
of various quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fifhes, generally
in the inteftines. None have yet been found in man.
They adhere very firmly by means of their recurved prickles
at the anterior extremity to the vifcera, in which they ufually
form a kind of trough, and remain fixed in one {pot during
the whole life of the animal upon which they prey. The
hooked prickles vary in form, and are more or lefs nume-
rous in different {pecies, and are in fome kinds difpofed with
more regularity than in others. :

Thefe deftruive creatures are gregarious. They fubfift
on the lymphatic humours and other fluids, which they co-
pioufly extract, by wounding and irritating with the hooked
prickies, before mentioned, thofe parts to which they are
immediately attached. Nor is it very unfrequent with them
to perforate the membranes, and thereby .expofe to deftruc-
tion the life of the animal in which they are nourithed,
Contrary to the commonly received opinion, that thefe
animals are hermaphrodites, we have reafon to conclude,
there are both males and females of the feveral fpecies in
this genus; and that they are of the oviparous kind, is in-
ferred from the number of {mall oval bodies found in the
fuppofed females. The fpecies of this genus, at prefent af-
certained, are very numerous; but their manners of iife, and
the maladies occafioned to the more valuabie kinds of ani«
mals, from the ravages of thefe voracious inmates, are far
lefs clearly afcertained than the importance of the inquiry
merits. The following fpecies are deferibed by Muller,

Goéze, aad other writers, who treat on this fubject.

* Infefling Mammiferous Animals.

Puoc#. Body pale; inteftine milk-white, and fpiral.
Afcaris phoce, Fabr.

Found in great numbers in the inteftines of the harp and
rough feal, which it often devours, The body is pellucid,
membranaceous, tapering to both ends, and from three te
eight inches long.

Tosirsra. Whitifh, glabrous, and tapering behind inte
a fine hair. A/caris tubiferay Fabr.

‘ Length one inch. Difcovered in the ftomach of the harp
eal.

Gicas. Clear white ; without neck ; probofcis fheath-
ed, with numerous rows of hooked prickles ; orifices of fuce
tion feven. Goeze. Faeria hirundinacea, Pallas.

Found ia the inteftines of {wine ; and grows to the length

3T 2

ECHINORINCHUS.,

of eighteen inches; the filaments of the probofcis appear
as if united by two lateral ligaments,

Bavenx. Inhabits the inteftines of the whale. Phipps’
Journ.

*% Infefling Birds.

Bureonts. Clear white; veficles of the tail blueish and
lentiform. Goeze. |

Found in the inteftines of the buzzard, and rather ex-
ceeds two inches-and a quarter in Jength.

Scopvis. Probofcis covered with numerous prickles,
Goéze.

Inhabits the larger inteftines of the ftrix fcops.

Axvconts. Body fub-rugofe and opake; probofcis
thick. _Muil.

Difcovered in the ftomach of ftrix aluco.

Srrieis. Probofcis clavate. Goeze.

In the larger inteftines of {trix ftridula.

Pict. White, without neck; probofcis with fmall fer-
rated prickles. Goeze.

Lives in the inteftines of fome wood-peckers ; has been
found in thofe of the two fpecies viridis and erythrocephalus.
The {pecies is gregarious, and half an inch long. °

Borearis. Found in the inteftines of the eider duck.
Phipps’ Journ.

Boscavis. Neck filiform; probofcis rather prickly.
Goeze.

Inthe inteftines of the common duck.

Anatis. Scarlet; body ovate; thorax and probofcis
covered with prickles, with along {mooth neck between
them. Goeze.

Inhabits the inteftines of the velvet duck.

Merci. Head and neck armed with prickles.

Length an inch anda half. This kind is found in con-
fiderable numbers in the inteftines of the mergus minutus.

A.c#. Body with lateral wrinkles beneath on the fore-
part. Mull.

In the inteftines of the awk tribe. The length of this
kind is four inches; the body is roundifh, beneath flat,
pointed at the anterior part, and terminating behind in an
extremely fine point; colour whitifh, with a black line
down the back.

. Arvex. Body ftriated ; probofcis clavated. Goeze.

The body is conic behind, and finuated,; each in the mid-

dle. A fpecies found in the great white heron.
Vawexur. Tail with a white veficle. Goeze.

Tn the inteflines of tringa vanellus.
Merutz. Ovate; thorax prickly.
In the inteftines of the black-bird.

*** Infefling Reptiles.

Ranx. White; probofcis united by two flender white
filaments within. Goéze. Tenia heruca, Pallas.

A. fpecies of a greenifh, or greyifh colour; found in the
inteftines of frogs.

Farcatus. Probofcis long, and armed with many lon=
gitudinal rows of hooks ; body marked on the fore-part with
a pellucid blotch, and the pofterior with a pellucid dot of
thefame. Froelich.

Found in the falamander. *

HX Tnfofling Fifbes.

Ancuitts. Body white and {mooth; probofcis glo-
bular. Schreb.

In the inteftines of the eel.

A ltt In the inteftines of the xiphias gladius.
Redi.

Often perforates the inteftines, and occafions the death of
thofe fithes.

Canpivus. Body opake, fubrugofe, and wrinkled:
Mull. Acanthrus fipunculoides, A&, Stockh. :

Length three inches; the body pale-afh, variable to
brown, yellow, &c. Inhabits the inteflines of many fifhes,
both of the frefh and falt water kinds,

Lineotatys. Body with tranfverfe brown lines, inter«
rupted in the middle. Pallas, &c.

Inhabits the inteftines of the cod fith; length two inches,

Loncicotuts. Reddifh-white ; head rounded, and lon«
gitudinally ftriated ; neck filiform; probofcis flightly hooks
ed. Goeze.

Found in the inteftines of the torfl.

Prevronecris. Sides of the body with undulated im-
preffions. Mill.

In the inteftines of the turbot. ‘

Artenvatus. Globiferous; body equal, yellow, and
fmooth ; neck filiform. Mull.

In the inteftines of the flounder.

Awnutatus. Globiferous; body ending in a point;
neck wrinkled. Mull.

In the inteltines of the torf and bream.

PLaTEssoipx. Snout pointed; body with an elevated
terminal belt behind. Mull.

Body pale, fmooth, and about two inches and a half long ;
found in the ftomach of pleuroneétes plateffoides,
Bae Body foft, wrinkled, and obtufe at each end.

ull.

In the inteftines of the perch.

Cernuz. Probofcis armed with from ten to twelve rows
of prickles. Schreb. :

In the perca cernua.

Cositipis. Striated; probofcis clavated. Goeze.

In the cobitis barbatula.

SALMONIS.
drical. Mil.

Found in the inteftines of the falmon.

SuBLOBATUS.
at the fides behind; neck cylindrical and annulate, pros
bofcis with fixteen feries of ten hooks each. Mull.

In the inteftines of the falmon, when young. ;

Quaprirostris. White; tail rounded and inferted ins
to the body; probofcis quadruple. Goeze.

In the liver of the falmon.

Trutrz. In the inteftines of the trout.

Marenz.
behind tapering, and rather obtufe. Mart. AG. Stockh.

In the inteftines of falmo marzna.

Luci. Body pellucid and {mooth. Schreb.

Body yellowifh, narrower, and obtufe behind.

Goéze.

Arcentina. Inhabits the inteftines of the argentine.

AG. Hafn.
Axosz. Body filiform; anterior part clavated and red-
difh, with eight rows of loofe prickles ; probofcis pale, with
eight rows of denfer prickles. Herrmann.
Length two inches. Found in the inteftines of the fhad.
Barat.
‘cylindrical, and glafs-fhaped. Schranck.
Inteftines of the barbel.
Carrionts.
Ippari.

Inhabits the inteftines of cyprinus idbarus.
Miill. :

Arrinis. Inhabits the inteftines of cyprious rutilug. 4

Mill.
Rutit1. Probofcis tuberous and prickly at the tip;

body

Body clavated, fmooth; probofcis cyline

White globiferous, and fomewhat lobate.

Fuliform, f{mooth and flightly wrinkled; ©

Ovate, yellow, fafciated; neck long, whitey —

Inhahits the inteftines of the carp. Koelr

/ with moveable {pines ; the mouth placed beneath, and moftly_

tion.

EC
body with afingle mouth or fucker on one fide, and four on
the othery Miiil.. , ‘

Found in the fame fifh as the former, but lefs frequently.

Bram. Neck filiform; probofcis armed with very
minute prickles. Goeze,

Inhabits the inteftines of the bream.

Lorn. In the inteftines of lophius pifcatorius.

Srurionis. Rounded and white. Goeéze.

In the inteftines of the fturgeon.

ECHINOS, in Ancient Geography, iflands of the Ionian
fea, called by the Grecks Echine and Echinades, fituated
over-againft Etolia and the mouth of the river Achelous.
They are now called Cuzzolari.

ECHINOU, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Albania; 8 miles N.E. of Zeiton.

ECHINUS, in Ancient Geography, a town ot Greece, in
Acarnania.—Alfo, a town of Greece, in the Phthiotide
territory, fituated, as Pliny fays, at the mouth of the river
Sperehius; or, as others fay, at the bottom of the Mahiac
gulf.

Ecuinus, in Architedure, a member or-ornament, near
the bottom of the Lonic, Corinthian, and Compofite ca-
pitals ; which, from its circular form or contour, is called
by the French, guart de rond, and by the Englilh, quarter
round, or boultin; and from its being ufually carved, or cut
with figures of eggs, &c. is called allo by the Latins, ovum ;
by the Italians, ovolo; the French, euf; and the Englith,
eggs and anchors, Lattly, the eggs beiag encompaffed with
a cover, and thus bearing fome refemblance toa chefnut cut
open; the Greeks have called it exwo;, echinus, a word which
denotes the prickly cover of a chefnut.

_ Ecuinus, in Botany, Loureir. Cochinch. 633. a dic-
cious tree of Cochinchina, fufpeéted by Loureiro to be the
Ulafium of Rumph. Amboin. book 4. chap. 18. t. 23.
It appears to belong to the natural order of Amentacee, and
he defcribes the fruit as two united roundifh muricated cap-
fules, with a round {mooth black feed in each. The /eaves
are {cattered, ovate, pointed, undivided or three-cleft, en-
tire, reticulated with veins, downy beneath. f/oqwers many
together ona flalk. Whatever may be determined concern-

Mull.

‘ing this genus, its name is untenable in botany, being pre-

occupied in zoology.

Ecuinus. See Savsova and Starice. —

Ecuinus is alfo ufed by fome botanifts for the prickly
head or top of any plant; thus called from its hkenefs to a

-- hedge-hog, or the cover of a chetnut.

Ecuinus, the hedge-hog, in Zoology. See Erina-
CEUS.

Ecuinus, a genus in the Linuzan fyitem, included in
the mollufca order of vermes. Thefe have the body
roundifh, covered with a bony cruft, and furnifhed in general

confifting of five valves.

This is the chara¢ter afcribed to the echinus genus by
Linnzus, and retained by Gmelin. A flight attention to
the genus, as it ftands thus defined, will be fufficient, it is
prefumed, to convince every impartial naturalift that fome
amendment is requifite in the claffification of thefe bodies,

- admitting only thofe f{pecies which Linneus defcribes; and

if this be allowed, it will be feen that the Gmelinian arrange-
ment, being far more copious, is much more liable to objec-
Linnzus includes three or four diftin& natural genera
under his genus echinus; Gmelin, no lefs than ten; and
many of thefe fo remote in character, as to bear no affinity

whatever with each other, except in being, as Linnzus ex-

preffes it, of a roundifh form, covered with a bony cruit,
befet with {pines, and having the mouth placed beneath,

je&, in “ Zoologia Danica ;

B,¢ H

By fome it may be urged, that this really conflitutes them
of the echinus genus ; ‘and every other difference, whether in
figure or any other peculiarity, ought to be regarded as
diftinGtions of {pecies and not of genera. ‘To a certain ex-
tent we concede the truth of this; but from the many ex-
amples befure us, which this extenfive tribe prefents, there
can be little difficulty in difcriminating which charaGters de-
fine natural families, and which form diftin&tions of ipecies
only; the former of which will not fail to afford the beft
generical diftinétions that can be adopted in the arrangement
of this tribe of animals. ‘What confiderable reformation is
requifite in the Linnean arrangement, we think, muit be
allowed; nor can we hefitate in believing that Linneus
would himfelf have made much amendment in his claflification
of the echini, had he been acquainted with half the number
of fpecies which have been difcovered fince his time. Were *
we, in fat, to regard all bodies, which may be fafely in-
cluded within the “definition of bis echinus, as appertaining
{triGily to one genus, we might with equal confiftency recaft
the whole fyftem of concbology, and confolidate every {pecies
of whatever families into a fingle genus. All fhells have a
greater or lefs degree of tendency to a round:th form,
whether multivalye, bivalve, or univalve, and have the co-
vering alike of a teftaceous fubftance. All echini have a
greater or lefs degree of tendency to a roundifh form, and
have the covering alike of a bony fubftance: yet, how ab-
furd would it appear to admit the firft as a generical diftinc-
tion, though from habit we implicitly admit the latter? It
is indeed added, that the echini have moveable fpines; to
which, in {peaking of fhells, we may contraft the circum-
{tance of the' {pines ‘on fhells, when prefent, being always
immoveable, his parallel might be purfued ftill further ;
but enough, we conceive, has been adyanced to prove that
the definition of echinus, as retained by the Linnzan fchool,
admits of far more general application than can be confiftent
with a generical diftinGion : and it will be hereafter fhewn,
that the feveral families, which in the latitude of its exprefe
fion that genus embraces, exhibit as prominent geveric fear
tures as the feveral tribes of fhells. ‘
That no improper blame be attached to Linneus, it
fhould be recolleéted, that fo lately as the publication of
the tenth edition of the “ Syflema,”? no more than feventeen
fpecies of echinus were known to that author; and though
thefe included examples of feveral diftin& natural genera,
when we confider the concife amount of thefe, he is not al-
together inexcufable for retaining them together: had he
divided them into about three genera, :t might have been
fufficient. Gmelin poflcfled every advantage, and has ftill
done little towards improvement. When Linneus wrote,
his moft material affiltance was derived from the works of
Rumpfius, an early edition of Klein, and Breyowus, and
lattly, fome few fpecimens in the cabiner of count Teflin.
For the dilpofal of thefe in methodical order, he formed two
fections: one for thofe having the body of regular form, and
the vent vertical; the other irregular, and having the mouth
and vent beneath. ‘The firft of thefe feGtions contain eleven
fpecies ; and the fecond, fix. Gmelin derived every affilt.
ance from better authors: the labours of Miiller on this {ub-
37? Phelfum’s work, entitled,
«© Briefaan C. Nozeman over de Gewelr-Siekken of Zee~
eglen ;”? and, more efpecially, the Lefkeian edition of
Klein’s “ Naturalis Difpofitio Echinodermatum, &c. ;” all
which appeared fubfequent to the time of Linnzus. From
thefe publications, Gmelin found the tribe of echinus to be
far more numerous than had been before conceived ; and
clearly faw the neceflity of extending the genus to a con-
fiderable length for their reception, if he adhered to the
1” « Linnzaa

ECHINUS.

Linnvan method; er of eoaftituting feveral new genera, if
he deviated from it. 'The former prefented difficulties ; the
latter, innovation and trouble. ‘'Thofe writers bad not only
defcribed many fpecies which belonged to either one or an-
other of the families propofed by Linnzus, but many more,
which, without great impropriety, could not be referred to
either; the fpecies altogether amounting to above one hun-
dred fubje&s. ‘The only circumftance to be regretted was
the want of harmony in the different fyfteme ; for, although
the feveral writers agreed in the mof effential point, namely,
the neceffity of forming a number of new genera, they were
neither difpofed to accord in the conftruétion of thofe genera,
or in the application of names, even to thofe particular fa-
milies, which in any fyftem might be defignated by the fame
appellation. Gmelin does not attempt to unravel thefe, and
overcome the perplexity: he at once fevers the gorgon
knot, by rejeCting the genera of every author indifcrimi-
nately, and referring the whole of the {pecies to the genus
echinus. For the admiffion of thefe, he forms twenty-feven
principal and fecondary divifions; and, m this ftate, it may
be truly obferved, that there is no genus whatever, through-
out the whole Linnzan fyftem, the cancri perhaps excepted,
which prefents {uch an incongruous affemblage.

Any arrangement formed on fuch a plan muft prove de-
feGtive; and the echinus genus, as conftru@ted by Linnzus,
ought rather to be confidered, in the prefent time, as the
chara@ter of an extenfive order of vermes than as a genus.
‘There is in each of the fy{tems which have appeared much
to commend; none, however, which in our opinion is fo
conftruéted as to deferve entire approval. Some of thofe
eltablifhed by Lefke, and others by Miiller, are excellent ;
and feveral of the new genera of La Marck ought in par-
ticular to be retained. In the following arrangement of
genera, we have endeavoured to combine the advantages of
each; and are inclined to believe, that no difficulty can oc-
Cur in referring any of the known fpecies of Linnzan echini
to its natural genus, according to the method now propofed.
“The feveral genera, though confidered diftin@ly, are brought
together into one point of view, to avoid that perplexity to
the Linnzan reader which muft neceflarily arife, were each
genus referred to its alphabetical order through the work.

Before we conclude this topic one point muft be confi-
dered. It muft be confeffed that there is one radical fault
in the arrangement of thefe bodies,'in which all writers have
participated, with the exception of Linnzus; and that is,
the incorporation of the recent with the remains of foffil
{pecies. Some of the former we have occafional opportu-
nities of examining, in a perfect ftate, in mufeums and col-
leGions ; while, oa the contrary, the others occur almoft
conftantly in a ftate of mutilation, or are fo enveloped and
difguifed in ftony matter, 43 to render their charaéters am-
biguous. he latter, when tolerably elucidatory of the
ipecies, or efpecially with any remains of the {pines affixed,
are deemed ineitimable. The remains of foffil echini men-
tioned by writers are, therefore, to be at all times received
with caution; and fome within our own knowledge muft be
rejeCted: neither is it advifeable to form any genera of the
foffil kinds, except from fuch examples as perfectly difplay
every character of the general form, together with both the
fituation of the mouth and the anal aperture.

Naturalifts have entertained very different opinions con-
cerning thefe bodies. Ariftotle, who is one of the earlieft
writers on the fubje&, calls them echinos, echinometra,
and f{patagus, placing them with multivalve fhells. This
example is followed by Pliny, and many much later writers.
Among the moderns, it fhould be mentioned that Bruguiere
forms a diftinét clafs of thefe, and the afterias; Cuvier re-

fers them to the zoophytes clafs, and a Marck to his radi.
ares, the clafs in which he comprehends the atterias and
holothuria.

The recent animals of this. clafs are inhabitants of the
fea, and thofe fpecies which occur in a foffil fate are found
moft commonly in fecondary caleareous rocks, or more
frequently in chalk and flint. The crutt or covering is com-
pofed of a great number ef plates, amounting, tp many
{pecies, to nearly 2 thouland in a fingle fhell; their form ts
various in different families, and the perforations of the fhell
difpofed as varioufly. ‘Chefe perforations in the thell are the
apertures to which the tentacula of the inclofed animal are
protruded. he furface of the fhell is alfo more or lefs
befet with tubercles, upon which the fpines are fituated.
Tele in the living animal are attached by very ftrong liza-
ments, but almoft conftantly fall off when the animal dies.
The mouth, which is placed beneath, confifts of five or fix
teeth of atriangular form. Their internal organization, not-
withftanding the inveftigations of Cuvier, femains in con-
fiderable obfcurity, and their fexual organs are unknown.
They are afcertained to be oviparous, and to pawn in the
fpring. The {pines are the inftruments of motion, an inter=
elting account of which appeared from the pen of Reaumar,
in the Memoirs of the French Academy of Sciences, in
1772. Their tentacula are the proceffes by means of which
they adhere very fecurely to the rocks, or feize upon their
prey, and by the affi‘tance of which they condué it to their
mouth. They live chiefly on crabs and teftaceous animals,
marine worms, &c.

The fucceeding appear to be the principal natural fami-
lies into which the Linnzan echini, afcertained at this time,
may with propriety be divided; and which, as before re-
marked, to avoid confufion, are concentrated in the prefeut
article.

Ecainus.

Body hemifpherical, globular, or fubowal, with avenues of
pores, which diverge equally on all fides from the vent to the
mouth; vent vertical; mouth beneath and central.

Escurentus. Hemifpherical-globular, with ten avenues
of pores, the {paces between covered with fmall tubercles
fupporting the {pines. LEchinus efculentus, Lion. Echinomres
tra, Rondel. Melo marinus, Plancus. Cidaris miliaris,
Mein.

Native of the Mediterranean and other European feas,
and one or more of its varietiés found in India. The body
is generally reddifh and yellow, varied with green or purple
fpines, which fade in colour, and fall off after the death of
the animal. ‘The flefh is eatable.

Sex#ra. Spherical, red, with blueifh fpines. Null.

Inhabits the northern feas, and is by fome fuppofed to
be the young of the f{pecies efculentus,

Deasacuiensis. Hemifpherical, pale, with long pale
fpines. Miill.

Found in the northern feas.

Mitraris. Hemifpherical, depreffed with ten avenues
of pores, the {paces between with two rows of protuberances.
Gmel. Cidaris miliaris faxatilis, Klein.
Rondel.

An European fpecies.

Basreri. Shell depreffed, with few tubercles, and fer

rated line down the middle of the {paces; pores of the ave~

oun placed in alternate rows of two and three foramina.
ein.

A native of Europe, and by fome authors confidered aa

a variety of the former. The colour is greenifh-grey, va-

riable to olive or reddith violet. The larger fpaces are

marked

Echinus ovariusy

ECHINUS.

marked with eight rows of {mall tubercles, and {prinkled
with a few others of {maller fize; the lefler {paces with two
rows of larger, and as many {mall tubercles; avenues with
a triple row of double pores ; {pines ftriated whitifh,

Hemispuzeicus. Hemilpherical, depreffed, with ten
avenues of pores, the {paces with a ferrated future down the
middle, and tranfverfe lines; mouth pentangular, the angles
obtufe. Klein.

Refembles E. efculentus. Colour red with paler avenues,
the bafe ochraceous; rough with larger and {maller protu-
berances.

Ancutosus. Hemilpherical; the fpaces granulate and
bifarioufly warted, the larger ones bipartite by a ferrated
future down the middle ; avenues trifarioufly porous. Jlein.

Shell grey, with a violet tinge; {paces with rows of gra-
nulations and protuberances; avenues with double diftant
pores. Klein defcribes alfo a variety of this {pecies of a
{maller fize, and greenifh grey colour.

Excavarus. Hemifpherical; {paces granulated, and bi-
farioufly tuberculated; avenues excavated and bifarioufly
porous. Klein,

Found in a petrified {tate at Verona.

Gtosutus, Hemifpherical, fub-zlobular, with ten ave-
nues, the {paces muricated at the fides, and porous in the
middle. Linn.

Inhabits the Indian ocean.

Spuzroiwes. Hemifpherical, gibbous; avenues ten, mu-
~ ricated throughout, and porous in the middle.

Native of the Indian ocean.

Grartitta. Hemppherical, gibbous; avenues ten, tri-
plicate, the {paces muricated in a decuflate manner. Linn.

Inhabits fame feas as the latter.

Lixuza. Hemifpherical, with ten avenues in contiguous
pairs, the {paces tran{verfely muricated and punétured. Linn,

Native of the Indian ocean,

Saxatitis. Hemifpherical, deprefled; pores of the
avenues in a curved line, the curves oblique at the bafe,
Linn. Cidaris rupeflris, Klein.

Several fuppofed varietics of this fpecies are found in the
Mediterranean and Indian feas. The colour is commonly
violet-grey or white, with the protuberances reddifhor yel-
lowifh in two or three longitudinal rows; pores of the
avenues double; fpines rigid, reddifh-brown, with violet
tips.

siiindeh tides Orbicular, with a flat feneftrate bafe;
paces ten, with unequal fmall and large tubercles ; mouth
witb ten angles. Klein.

White, and granulated throughout; in the larger fpaces
are fix rows of papillous warts; avenues broad with three
pair of pores; {pines violet-black ; vent pentangular.

Susancuvaris. Hemifpherical, orbicular, with ten
fpaces, the leffer ones elevated, and ten rows of tubercles in
each. Klein.

_ Shell greenifh-grey, rather inclining to chefout; {paces

‘with four tubercles placed ina rhombic form ; pores of the
avenues curved in four or five pairs.

Native place unknown.

Ovarius. Ovate, the larger fpaces bifarioufly tuber-
culate. Plott, &c.

Found in a foffil {tate in England.

Diapema. Hemifpherical, depreffed, with five ave-
iat longitudinally. tuberculate; the fpaces lanceolate.

inn.

Inhabita the.Indian feas. The fhell is orbicular with the
top depreffed, colour genera!ly blucifh ; mouth large ; vent
eircular, and furrounded with a pentangular fkin; fpaces
bifarioufly tuberculate, the tubercles perforated at the tip ;

avenues with three pair of pores at the bafe and one at the
tip ; {pines violet and blue-grey. There are feveral varieties
of this {pecies differing in colour and difpofition of the
fpots, &c.

Caramarius. Spheroid, depreffed; avenues five, with
black porous margins, granulated in the middle with a row
of larger prominent dots. Fallas.

Native of the Indian fea, the colour greenifh-white; the
{pines refemble the ftem of the equifetum, and are whitifh
annulated with green and grey at the tip.

Araneirormis. Orbicu'ar, grey, with-purple-grey
{pines thicker in the middle. Gmel. Spinnehopf, Phelf.

Inhabits American feas.

Sretcratus. With the lower fpines capillary. Gmel.
Kleine komect, Phelf. Lchinometra purpurea americana,
Seba. Lrinaceus marinus, Pontopp. Norfk. Naturh.

Found in the American feas.

Rapiatrus. With five radiated avenues, forked at the
tip. Klein. Groote komect, Phelf. -Echinanthus. major
Jpinis orbus, Seba.

Native place unknown.

Circinarus. With ten granulate fpaces, bifarioufly
tuberculated, the larger ones excavated, the lefler ones cle-
vated, and fub-pulvinate at the bafe. Lefke. L£chinomelra
circinata, Breyn. Krunsje, Phelf.

Found in a foffil ftate.

Ciparts. Hemifpherical, depreffed, with five flexuous
linear avenues, the fpaces alternately bifarious. Linn.

Many very diflimilar kinds of echini are included by
Gmelin as varieties of this {pecies, feveral of which we are
perfuaded will be found on further inveftigationto be dif-
tinét. E. cidaris inhabits European and Indian feas.

Mammitiatus. Hemifpherical, oval, with ten wind-
ing avenues; the {paces muricated and warty, the narrower
ones abbreviated. Linn. Cidaris mammillata, Klein.

Inhabits the fouth-feas, is of a depreffed form and yel-
lowifh afh-colour inclining to brownifh, beneath paler.

Lacunrur. Hemifpherical-oval with ten flexuous ave-
nues; fpaces muricated, the narrower ones longitudinal.
Gmel. Cidaris lacuntur, Klein.

Variable in colour from yellow-cinereous to blueifh or
blackifh. The fpecies inhabits the Indian ocean.

Arratus. Hemifpherical-oval and flightly depreffed ;
with very fhort obtufe-truncated {pines ; the marginal ones
clavated and depreffed. Klein.

Orbicular cinereous inclining to violet; fpines violet. Na-
tive of the Indian feas.

Coronaris. Hemifpherical-orbicular with ten {paces
alternately narrower and covered with {cattered papillz ;
avenues flat, uniting in confluent pairs before the area of
thecrown. Leflce.

Yound ina foffil {tate in chalk and flint in various parts of
the world.

Asrerizanse Orbicular depreffed ; tubercles furrowed
with a groove up to the tip, and furrounded with a circle of
granulations, Lefke. Sverrewrat Zee-egel, Phelf. Zee-eg.

A mineralized {pecies met with in chalk.

Assutatus. Shell fcutellate, the {cutels united by
tranfverfe futures. Klein.

Sarpicus. Orbicular depreffed tuberculate, with ten
impreffed avenues; the {paces multifarioufly tubercled, with
an impreffed future down the middle. Klein. Sardi/che
Zee-egel, Phelf. ;

A large fpecies, found inthe Tufcan and Adriatic feas;
-the colour grey, tinged with yeilowith red; the bafe nearly
flat and yellow; larger Spaces with tubercles milgetes in

about

ECHINUS.

about twelve rows, with le{fey,ones and fmall granulations in
the interltices; the leffer {paces with about fix rows of
{mailer tubercles; avenues with five pairs of pores placed in
an arched feries ; mouth fmaii.

Feammeus. Hemilpherical depreffed; the {paces void
of tubercles in the middle towards the upper parts, the leffer
ones more elevated; avenues narrow and bounded each fide
bya row of tubercles. Klein. Gevlamde Zee-egel, Phelf.

Native place unknown. The colour is olive green, with
the tubercles and bafe whiter; larger {paces with twelve rows
of tubercles at the broadefl part. Jefler fpaces with three ;
each tubercle furrounded with a circle of Icfler ones; mouth
fmall, vent furrounded with pentangular fcales.

Variecatus. Orbicular fubangular; middle {paces
rofy, rich green each fide; avenues whitifh-green; bale
whitifh. Lefke, Dunigeflamte Zee-egel, Pnelf.

A rare kind, the native place unknown.

Pusrurosus. Larger {paces divided in the middle by a
future, with numerous tranfverfe rows of tubercles increafing
in number towards the middle; lefer fpaces more elevated.
Klein.

This isa {mall {pecies, about an inch in height and two
in diameter, the colour brownifh-grey inclining to red, the
leffer {paces paler, bafe whitifh, and protuberances tinged
red. Mouth with broad finuofities. Country unknown.

Granuratus. Sub-orbieular, fob-angular; middle of
the {paces naked and divided by a future ferrated each tide,
the larger ones with feven rows of tubercles, the leffer ones
with four. Klein. Zand-korlige Zee-egel, Pnelf. 4

About one fourth lefs than the former; colour dull green,
with the margin of the larger fpaces, and the bafe inclining
to greyifh; avenues with three pair of pores placed ina
triangle ; vent circular with ten feales at the margin expanded
like a rofe. :

Tesseuiatus, With ten {paces divided in the middlz by
a future, and teffellated; avenues ten biporous; mouth cir-
evlar. Klein. Zeyendak, Phelf.

Found in a-foffil ftate.

Borryotpes. Spaces divided by a longitudinal future in
the middle, the larger ones bifarioufly tuberculated ; avenues
with a double curved row of pores. Klein. Geribde Zee-
egel, Pheif.

Found in fame ftate as the former.

Toreumaticus. Hemifpherical, with ten {paces bi-
farioufly tuberculated, the tubercles crenated and furrounded
by a circle of granulations, the larger {paces with four lon-
gitedinal grooves, the leffer ones with two grooves. Klein.
Gegraveerde Zee-egel, Phelf.

Cinereous greenith or blueifh, the bafe and avenues yel-
lowifh; avenues biporous, the pores placed in a thickly
ferrated line ; vent furrounded with ten fcales. .

t

Ciyreus.

Boddy fhield form 3 vent vertical ; mouth beneath and central.

Sinuarus. Convex; avenues ten, itriated ; {paces ten 5
tubercles ferrounded with a circle of granulations. Plott.

Found in a foffil ftate in Britain. ‘

Semictososus. Hemilphericil, grooved, with a flat
bafe, the protuberances placed in rows. Klein.

Found in a foffil ftate. :

QuinqueLabiatTus. Painted with innumerable annu-
ations, with a hollow in the middle, furrounding a fives
yayed convex ftar. Klein. Vy /lip, Phelf.

Found in a foflil ftate.

Coxoipeus. Sub-conie, with an elliptic circumference 5
{paces aud avenues ten, the latter tranfverfely grooved, and

porous at the margin, the former dividéd by a ftraigh |
future. Leflce. 7
Found in a foffil ftate.

GALERITEsS.

Conoid, or oval, with avenues of pores radiating from the
Summit to the bafe ; mouth central ; vent in the margin or.con-
figuous.

Axsocarerus. Spaces ten; covered with numerous
fmall tubercles, the larger ones united by a ferrate future
and tranfverfely lineated, the lefier ones terminated by a
foramea at the crown; avenues ten and biporous. Gmel.
Pistt, &c.

A foffil fpecies, met with in various parts of Britain.

Depretssus. Spaces ten, the larger ones divided in the
middie by afuture; avenues ten, biporous ; crown deprefled;
vent orbicular, Lefke. Lgelfleen tienband plattep, Pell,

A foffil fpecies. °

Vutcaris. Orbicular, with ten avenues, two of which
are neareach other. Morton, &c.

Common in a foffil ftate in various parts of Europe.

Quaprirasciatus. With four avenues of pores.
Gehler, &c.

Found in a fofil ftate.

Sexrascratus. With fix avenues of pores, Gehler, &c.

A. foffil fpecies. ;

Discorpeus.

Body roundifh, with the bafe exaély circular 3 mouth and
vent beneath, Jmall and orbicular.

Susucutus. ‘Avenues ten, biporous; {paces ten, al-
ternately large and fmaller. iein.

In this fpecies the {paces are befet with very fmall circles;
pores of the avenues very minute, and crowded: clole
together.

Found in a foffil ftate.

EcuInonevs.

Body oval or orbicular, and rather depreffed; rays of pores |
numerous and radiate from the faummit to the bafe 3 mouth fome~
cvhat central ; vent beneath and near the mouth. : §

Cycrostomus. Oblong, fub-deprefled; crown with —
five pores; mouth placed in the middle and round; vent —
oblong and near the mouth. Lefke. Spatagus pujillusy
Mill. Rond-mond, Phelf

Cinereous or yellowifh; {paces ten, divided by a ferrated
line down the middle, and befet with minute tubercles in»
clofed in a circle; avenues ten, biporous, and extending to
the mouth. A foffil {pecies.

Semitunaris. Vent longitudinally oblong; mouth
tranfverfe and femilunar.. Klein. Mul. Zchinus ovalis,
Telfin. Splect-mond, Phelf. 4

Colowr pale yellowifh-ahh. The fpecies inhabits the
Atfiatic feas.

ScuTirormis. Mouth pentangular; avenues ten,
{triated ; larger fpaces divided into plates, the pieces pens
tangular. Lefke.

Native place unknown.

a ae

GALEASTER.

Body ufually convex above and flat beneath ; bafe ovate and
acute ; vent and mouth beneath and oppofite. :
Scuratus. Convex, beneath flat; fpaces tuberculated
and alternately larger, the large ones divided by a ferrated
future in the middle; mouth tranfverfely kidney-fhaped.
Lhuyd.- Galea vertici feutata, Klein. Vyfblad, Phelf.- _
Found in a foffil ftate in Britain. J
Ovatuse

: ‘E-CHINUS,

Ovatus. Ovate, divided into plates of an hexangular
form; crown naked; yent fomewhat oval. Klin,

A foffil fpecies. ‘The thell is ‘compofed of twenty rows
of plates, which are alternately larger and fmaller, and afl
united by a ferrated future; mouth round and fmall; vent

* flightly oval. ‘
. Pustutosus. Spaces obfolete and tuberculated ; ave-
hues with raifed dots difpofed in pairs; crown impreifed.
Plott, &c.

Found in a foffil fate in England and Germany.

_. Quapeirapiatus. With four double rows. of dots.
Klein. L£chinites Niendorpienfis, Mi. de lap.

Found in Germany in a foffiltflate.

Minor. Ovate, with a flat or concave bafe; {paces and
avenues ten, the avenues biporous; mouth traniverfe,

- roundifh; vent fub-oval. Lefke.
= _ A foffil fpecies.

Dusius. Ovate, with ten porous avenues; half the
vent marginal. Lefke. P

The five larger fpaces are marked with imprefled circles.

Found in a fofiil ftate.

CLYPEASTER.

Body irregular, eonvex above, beneath fubconcave ; margin
angularly finuous ; furface with a quingue-petalous mark of.
pores ; mouth beneath, and-central ; vent beneath, and near the
Margit. 4

Rosaceus. Flattith, and roundifh-oval; avenues five,
oval, with a dotted‘ furface. Linn. Zchinanthus humilis,
Klein. Groot egel-roozen flomp-blad, Phell.

Native of the A fiatic feas. ‘

Attus. Crown elevated and orbicular; avenues broad
with convergent granulated tips. Walch, &c.

A. foffil {pecies.

PENTAPHYLLUS.

Body irregular and ovate, above convex, beneath flat ; margin
emlire; furface with a quingue-petalous mark of pores ; mouth

| tranfoerfe 3 vent marginal. :
Ovirormis. Convex, beneath flat; avenues ten, bi-
porous, and expanded in a ftellated form; crown with four

pores. Klein.
_ Found in a-foffil ftate. ‘
Orsicutatus. Granulated; avenues biporous, the

“pores united by a tranfverfe impreffed line, and the inter-

8 {paces divided by a ferrated line in the middle; the

~¥elt of the furface quinque-partite. Leftke. Monoflroites
minor, Mercat.

_ A fpecies of the foflil kind, and perhaps not ftri@ly of

“this genus. :

Ecuinopiscus.
Body flat above and beneath; furface perforated wish fora-

mina, and a quingue-petalous mark of pores ; mouth central ;
rown with four pores.

7 * Sedion. With finuate Margin.

’ Birorts. Bafe with five grooves, and ten flexuous
¥adiated lines; near the vent two oblong foramina, Lefke.
Native place unknown. f
PenrarHorus. Avenues emarginate at the tip; vent
ear the mouth; with five foramina, Klein, &c. Vyf-
izige egelkock, Phelf.

Colour above whitifh-ath, tinged with reddith, beneath
thite and yellow, with blue veins; crown marked with a
pentagonal far,

, Vox. X11

:.

Hexaroaus. Orbicular, with narrow avenues, and fix
narrow foramina near the vent. Scba, &c.

,Inhabits the Indian, American, and South feas. The
colour cinereous ; crown umbilicated, bafe rather hollow.

EmarcGinatus. Sub-pentagonal, with ovate avenues ;
vent ova!, more remote from the mouth, with fix foramina -
clofe tothe margin. Lefke. Loefwerk, Phelf.

This is of an oval form, and fomewhat heart-fiaped ; the
length above four inches; the crown is petulous, bafe rather
flatter, and marked with deep flexuous ramofe lines. The
{pecies inhabits the ifland of Bourbon, and is of a greenilh-
brown colour.

Avritus. Margin waved, the lower one rounded, the
upper one nearly {quare, and twice divided, with an opening
pore between every two of the avenues. Lefke. Geoorde

Slomp-hari, Phelf.

Native of the Perfian feas. Yellowifh-grey, with the
upper margin tawny ; bafe flat, pun@ured, and marked with
radiated itriz ; vent oblong, and placed near the mouth,

Inauveirus. Sub-cordate, and divided into plates, the
pieces hexagonal ; avenues five, oval, emarginate at the tip,
the fifth longer, and a pore between every two of them.
Lefkes | Ongecorde flomp-hari, Phelf.

Inhabits Amboyna. Height five or fix imches, and
breadth the fame; colour above reddifh-afh, beneath violet-
red.

Tetraprorus. Orbicular, flightly finuovs, and pers
forated each fide with four foramina; vent circular. Seba,
&e.

Colour pale yellow-grey. Native place unknown.

** Sedion. With the Margin toothed or lobate.

Decapactytos. Shell perforated with four oblong
foramina; the margin with ten teeth. Lefke.

Native place unknown. The fhell is rough with granula-
tions, above blueifh-green, varied with cinereous; the
avenues and futures pale flefh-colour; bafe yellowifh-fleth-
colour, with ten impreffed flexuous grooves, bifid at the tip,
and greenifh-afh; mouth rounded; vent ovate.

OcropactyLos. Anterior part orbicular, and perfo-
rated with two foramina; pofterior part with eight teeth ;
avenues lanceolate. Breyn, &c.

Whitith-ahh, divided into convex plates; crown umbili-
cate ; avenues emarginate. Country unknown.

Orxsicutus. Fore-part orbicular and entire ; hind-part
unequally toothed; avenues lanceolate, cleft, and bent.
Rumpf., &c.

Native of the Indian fea. This fhell is flat, fitb-orbicular,
not perforated, and compofed of hexangular pieces; the
bafe flat, with imprefled grooves; avenucs oval; mouth
rounded ; vent oval. :

Ecprinocrycus.
Body flat above and beneath, with entire furface, and

guingue-petalous mark of pores ; mouth central; crown with
Sour pores. :

Lacaxum. Avenues oval, finely ftriated and cleft at
the tip; crown prominent ; vent circular and near the mar-
gin. Lefke. Zeereal, Rumpf. *

Found in a foffil ftate.

Suzrorunpus. Orbicular,
Klein. Aldrov., &c.

A foflii fpecies.

with fadiated avenues.

Reticurarus. Ovate, flattifh, with five oval avenues ;
the furface reticulated. Rumpf. Lchinoglycus ovalis,
Phelf, ;

3U Native

ECHINUS.

Native of the American and [adian feas.

Corotratus. Orbicular, with fhort,
‘avenues. Klein.

A mineralized {pecies.

oval, obtufe

Ecuinocyamus.

Body ufually globular or oval, with ten avenues on the
crown; rays on the furface bipcrous, firaight, and forming a
far of five rays; mouth and vent contiguous in the middle of
the bafe :

Nucrevs. Surface globular, with an orbicular circum-
ference ; bafe narrow and flat in the middle; fides grooved ;
avenues pu!lvinate; crown excentric. Klein, &c.

Yellowith-ath ; crown perforated with four pores; mouth
circular; vent rather oblong, and fmaller than the mouth,
Native place of this and the two following unknown.

Centratis, Surface globular, circumference orbicular ;
bafe pulvinate; fides very finely grooved; avenues flighily
pulvinate ; crown central.

Allied to the former; the mouth minute and orbicular.

Ervum. Surface globular, circumference fomewhat
oval 5 bafe a little narrowed ; fides furrowed; avenues fome-
what pulvinate; crown central. Phelf.

Cranroragis. Surface globular on the anterior part ;
polterior nearly five-angled, pulvinate, and floping; cir-
cumference elliptic; bafe a little narrowed; fides grooved ;
avenues pulvinate; crown excentric. Pallas, &c.

Native of India. The colour white, covered with granu-
lations, furrounded by a hollow line; crown with four
pores.

Turcicus., Surface and bafe pulvinate, circumference
elliptic; fides fligbtly grooved; avenues fub-pulvinate ;
crown flightly depreffed and central. Phelf.

Vicia. Surface globular, circumference obtufely oval ;
bafe a little narrowed; fides grooved; avenues flattifh ;
crown central. Phelf.

Refembles echinus craniolaris, and inhabits the Adriatic.

Ovunum. Surface pulvinate, circumference obtufely
oval ; fides flightly grooved ; crown central. Lefke.

Latuyrus. Surface and bafe pulvinate; circumference
oval; fides flightly grooved; avenues pulvinate; crown
nearly central. Phellf.

Colour dull yellowifh-grey.

Eguinus. Surface and bafe pulvinate; circumference
elliptic ; fides fmooth ; avenues fub-pulvinate ; crown cen-
tral. Lefke.

Mrinutus. Surface pulvinate and nearly flat, circum-
ference ovate and fub-pentangular; bafe narrowed ; fides
grooved ; avenues pulvinate; crown central. Pallas, &c.

A {mall fpecies, found frequently on the fandy coats of
the Netherlands.

Fasa. Surface and bafe pulvisate; circumference ob-
tufely oval; fides hardly grooved ; avenues flat; crown. a
little prominent and central. — Phelf.

Very {mall, ochraceous, and granulate.

Inequatis. Surface gibbous on the fore-part, pofterior
flat and floping; circumference oblong-oval and nearly
pentangular; bafe globular and rather narrowed; fides
grooved ; avenues fub-pulvinate ; crown central. Phellf.

In this {pecies the back is unequal.

Raninus. Surface globular, and more floping behind ;.
eircumference acutely oval; bafe globular; fides grooved ;
avenues fub-pulvinate; crown central. Phelf.

Refembles echinus minutus.

Byronivs. Surface globular; circumference ovate,

heart-fhaped, and f{nub-triagonal; bafe pulvinate; fides
flightly grooved; avenues pulvinate ; crown nearly central,
Much allied to the Jaft.

Cassiputus.

Body elliptic or fub-cordiform ; upper furface with a five
rayed flar of pores; mouth fub-central beneath ; vent above,
and near the margin.

AmerRicanus. Body fub-globofe ; circumference fomee
what oval ; crown with four pores. Bofc.

Tuhabits American feas.

SpaTanevs. 5

Body cordiform or ovate; vent lateral.

Se@ion*, Heart foaped ; the crown grooved.

Cor Axncuinum. Above convex, with five impreffed
quadrifarioufly porous avenues, and five fpaces. Lhuyd, &c. ~
Pokhart, Phelf.

A. fefiil {pecies found in Britain.

Lacunosus. Ovate, gibbous, with five depreffed avee
nues. Linn. Spatangus lacunofus, Klein. Groote halblad,
Phelf. :

Native of the Indian and European feas,

SeZion **, Heart-/haped, the crown not grooved.

Rapiatus. Avenues four, with imprefled ftriz, porous.
on each iide; crown with four pores; fpaces.ten, divided by
a ferrated future in the middle, and arched tran{verfe futures,
Walch.

Found in a foffil flate; the bafe is flat; mouth rather kid-
ney-fhaped, and furrounded with a fub-pentagonal ftar of
pores; vent roundifh. t |

Purrureus. Avenues four, petal-fhaped and lanceolate;
larger tubercles placed in a zig-zag manner ; {pines aciculary,
incurved, and white. Klein. Dickblad, Phelf. Pas de poue
lain, Argeny. Scolopendrites, Aldr.

Native of the North feas. The back convex, fides floping s.
anterior part with two projections; pofterior truncated ;.
beneath flat; furface granulated, and covered with fubclae —
vate, and {patulate briitly fpines. \

Pusitzius. Oval, with five avenues; vent remote. Mull,

A. minute {pecies found in the North feas. 7

Compzanatus. Rather flattened each fide; {paces andi
avenues ten, two of which are placed in the furrows of the —
back. Klein. q

This is of a roundifh form, and is found in a foflil flate.

Susctiososus. Both ends convex, fub-globular, and di- ]
vided into plates; avenues tea, with biporous ftrie; vent:
ovate. Lift, &c. 4

Found ina fofil ftate in Britain; the fhell is granulated,
with four pores on the crown ;. {paces divided: by. a longi-
tudinal ferrated future, and grooved with tran{fverfe curved’
lines; mouth tomewhat kidney-fhaped; and furrounded with:
tubercles difpofed in a ftellated form.

Awnancuytis. Oblong; heart-fhaped and fub-conic
the bafe flatter ; avenues and {paces ten; mouth rounded and —
furrounded with an elevated margin ;.vent oval and emargi=
nate below. Klein.

A foffil fpecies.

Bicorparus. With a double crown.

A rare fpecies, found in a foffil ftate. ‘

Carinatus. * Middle of the back carinated. Bayer.

Refembles the laft, but is narrower behind; mouth kidney
fhaped ; vent obfolete. A foffil kind.

7 SeSion

Lefke.

ECH

_ Seétion ***, Body ovate, the avenues grooved.

Seataaus. Ovate, gibbous, with four depreffed ave-
nues. Linn.

Native of European feas. Many of the echini tribe are
defcribed by Gmelin as varictics of this {pecies, but which
are certainly diftinct.

Sefion ****,

Brarssoipes. Oblong; with four biporous ovate lance-
olate avenues, united by tranfverfe grooves, with larger tu-
bercles placed archwife betweeu them. Klein.

A foflil fpecies.

Terres. Convex, with four biporous petal-fhaped ave-
nues not united. Kicin.

Refembles the laft, but has the mouth broader.

: Oxriva. Above convex, punctured olive, with a double
naked band reaching from the mouth to the vent. Lrfke.
Kleine egelnoot, Pheit,

Found in the recent ftate, the native country unknown;

fhell with four ftellated rays above.

Amycpara. Refembling an almond in form. Klein.

Native place uncertain.

Ovatis. Divided into plates; with ten avenues and
Spaces ; the latter divided by a ferrated future in the middle.
Lefke. Lgel/chuitje twee top, Phelf.

A foffil fpecies.

Pyrirormis. Ovate, and gibbous at one end, the bafe
flat; avenues five, fomewhat petal-fhaped; and obfoletely
porous. Klein.

Found ina foffil ftate.

Lariscancri. Obtufely oval, convex; crown excentric,
and perforated with four pores; avenues five, biporous,
ovate-lanceolate, and cleft at the tip. Klein.

Found in the fame ftate as the former. The bafe of this
fhell is fiat and flightly excavated.

Patitvaris. Very much deprefled, with avenues re-
fembling a ftar. Klein.

Circumference ovate; back flightly convex ; bafe rather
excavated ; fides granulated ; mouth orbicular.

A foffil f{pecies.

Ovate, the avenues not grooved.

EcuINARACHNIUS.

Body circular ; mouth central ; vent lateral and fquare.

_ PracenTa. Sub-conic, with ten {paces alternately nar-
rower; avenues five, lax, flat, and gaping at thetip. Breyn.
Native of the Southern ocean. Shell a little convex and
conoid, the circumference fomewhat angular ; the bafe flat ;
{paces divided by an obtufely-toothed vertical line; vent
placed on the furface, and nearly marginal.
* ECHIOIDES, in Botany. See Lycorsis and Myo-
SsOTIs.

ECHIQUETTE, in Heraldry. See Cuecxy.

ECHIRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the T'wo Sevres, and diftri& of Niort; four
miles N. of Niort.

ECHITES, in Botany, was fo named by Browne, in his
Natural Hiftory of Jamaica, from ss, a ferpent or wiper,
as profeflor Martyn prefumes, on account of its deleterious
quality. Perhaps its {mooth twining habit may have con-
firmed the idea. Linn. Gen. 117. Schreb. 164. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v.1. 1237. Juff. 146. Browne Jam, 182. Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contorte,
‘Linn. = Apocinee, Jul.

~ Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fmall, deeply five-cleft, acute.
Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped, pervious; limb _ five-

E'C:

cleft, flat, widely {preading. Neary five glands placed
round the germens. Stam. Filaments five, flender, ere@ $
anthers rigid, ob'ong, pointed, converging. Pi?. Germens
two; ftyle fingle, thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens;
ftigma oblong-capitate, two-lobed, conne&ed with the an-
thera by a vifcid juice. Peric. Follicles two, very long,
each of one cell and one valve. Sceds numerous, imbri-
cated, crowned with long down, and affixed to a linear re-

ceptacle,
Eff. Ch. Corolla.contorted, funnel fhaped, with a naked
orifice. Follicles two, elongated, ftraight. Seeds with a

hairy crown.

Browne founded this genus upon a fingle fpecies, E. um-
bcllata of Linnezus, Jacq. Amer. t. 22, which Linnzus was
at firft inclined to reduce to Tabernemonfana, Jacquin, how-
ever, confirmed the genus Zchites, and enlarged it with nine
more fpecies. Swartz difcovered feveral others, fo that with
the addition of a few from the Cape and the Eaft Indies,
Willdenow enumerates twentystwo. TThefe are not all per-
haps correétly of the fame natural genus, at lealt po one
botanift has fufficichtly compared them together, to deter-
mine this pcint; but on the other hand, their number is to
be augmented by fome fine non-defeript plants of this genus
from Sierra Jueone. .

The habit of Echites is climbing, and for the moft part
{mooth ; the leaves oppofite, ftalked, imple, undivided, en-
tire, fhining, with parallel veins interbranching at their ex-
tremities. [loweys generally axillary, cluftered or umbel-
late, yellow, white or greenifh, rarely red, almoft univer-
fally, according to Jacquin, without fcent. The fhape and
proportions of the corolla are very different in different
fpecies. he feed-veflels are remarkabiy long and flender.
The plants abound with acrid milky juice. Being moftly
natives of very hot climates, they have fcarcely been intro-
duced, with any fuccefs, even into our ftoves, though many
of them feem highly ornamental.

ECHIUM, fuppofed to be the exioy of Diofcorides,
and to have been fo called from sxss, a viper, either be-
caufe it cured the bite of that ferpent, or becaufe the
feeds were fhaped like its head. It is not improbable that
the mucilaginous juices of this whole family of plants
might aét like olive oil in allaying the poifon of a viper’s
bite, if applied to the wound. Viper’s Buglofs. Linn
Gen. 78. Schreb. 103. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 781. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 221. Juff. 130. Gertn. t. 67. Tourn. t. 54. Clafe
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. A/perifoliey
Lion. Borraginee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth in five deep awl-fhaped feg-
mente, erect, permanent. Cor. of one petal, beil-fhap<d ;
tube very fhort; limb ere&, gradually dilated, five-cleft,
obtufe ; its fegments more or lefs unequal ; the two upper-
moft longeft, the lower one {malleft, acute, reflexed ; orifice
pervious. Stam. Filaments five, aw'-haped, about the
length of the corolla, declining, unequal; anthers oblong,
incumbent. Pf, Germens four; ftyle thread-fhaped, the
length of the ftamens; ftigma obtule, deeply cloven.
Peric, none, the hardened calyx proteéting the feeds.
Seeds four, roundifh, obliquely pointed.

Obf. In E. /evigatum, italicum, and grandiforum, the
corolla is almoft regular.

Eff. Ch. Seeds four, naked. Corolla of one petal, irree
gular, pervious, and naked. Stigma deeply cloven.

About 30 fpecies of Lichium are defcribed by authors,
Willdenow has 26, all natives of Europe or Africa. heir
herbage is clothed with thick-fet, rigid briftles, often origi-
nating from, or intermixed with, curioufly formed callous
tubercles, and in fome of the more fhrubby kinds, natives

302 of

E.C H

of a warm climate, fo fine and flender as to be almoft filky.
‘The flowers are commonly pink in the bud, blue when ex-
panded, and thence not inelegant; in fome they are always
red, and in, others white. E. vulgare, Engl. Bot. t. 181,
common with us in dry chalky fields, or wafte places, a well-
known fpecies, makes a gay appearance in the open country
of Cambridgethire.
native of the Cape of Good Hope, is perhaps the mot
handfome of all, being fhrubby, with green briltly leaves,
and large tubular fcarlet flowers. "This is with us a tender
preen-houfe plant, fcarcely perfecting its feeds, and with dif-
ficulty increafed by cuttings. 1naconfervatory it foon be-
comes firaggling, naked, and unfightly.

E. giganieum, Linn. Suppl. 131, bears huge denfe clufters
of innumerable white flowers, and is fometimes feen in our
green-houfes. Mr. Maffon brought it from Teneriffe. The
three following new fpecies, difcovered in his tour to Greece,
by the late Dr. Sibthorp, are as fuch defined in the

vod. Fl. Grae. v. 1. 125, though not perhaps to be met
with in Greece itfelf.

FE. puffulatum, leaves linear-oblong, waved, tuberculated,
briftly. Stem ere&t. Spikes lateral. Stamens prominent.
Native of Sicily. Biennial.

E. hif/pidum, leaves linear-oblong, briftly, fomewhat tuber-
culated. Stem ereét, very hairy. Spikes lateral. Stamens
prominent. Native of the country near Naples. Biennial.

E. diffzfum, leaves linear-{patulate, tuberculated, briftly.
Stem diffufe. Spikes terminal, folitary. Stamens con-
cealed. Native of Crete. Annual. ‘Ihefe two laft have
fcarlet flowers.

ECHIUS, or Ecxius, Joun, in Biography, was born in
Suabiain the year 1486. When he had aitained to a pro-
per age, he embraced the ecclefiaftical life, and was appointed
profeffor of theology in the univerfity of Ingolfladt. He
Became celebrated for the part that he took in the public dif-
putes, concerning the reformation, againft Luther, Carlo-
fladt, and Melan@thos. He began his contefts with Luther,:
on the fubject of the propolitions again indulgences, and
was the means of exciting a great degree of attention to the
controverfies that were then dying away, but which he res
kindled to the injury of the power afflumed by the Roman
pontiffs. He next challenged Carloftadt to public difputa-
tions on the fubj-& of the freedom of the human will, and
defied Luther himfelf to enter the lifts with him, while he de-
fended the authority and fupremacy of the pope. The di
putations were carried on at Leipfic, in the year 1519, be-
fore a numerous and highly refpe€table audience; they were
coadu@ed with great {kill by all parties, but Echius, who
had been the challenger, was generallydeemed the vanquifhed
party. His opponents, not fatisfied with the mere victory,
purfued the blow which they had given to the credit and
authority of the pope. Echius could not bear the idea of
being thrown in the back ground: his haughty fpirit urged
to feek for vengeance; but his zeal and fury were fatal to
the ,caufe which he efpoufed, and the doétrines of Luther
obtained a rapid progrefs in Germany. Echius was next
employed with Faber and others to draw up a confutation
of the famous confeffion of Augfburg, which, by command
of the emperor Charles V., was laid before the dict aflembled
at that city, and the unlimited fubmiffion of the protettants
required to the do&trines and opinions contained in it. ‘This
confutation was very ably anfwered by Melanéthon, ina
work, entitled <‘ The Detence of the Confeffion of Augf-
burg.” During the reft of his.life, Echius was a principal
in ail the difputes between the catholics and proteftants, aud
was zealous asa writer, as well asa difputant, againft the pro-
teftants. He died at Ingolftadt in 1543, in his 55th year.

E. grandiflorum, Andr. Repof. t. 20, _

ECH

He was regarded as one of the moft learned and able de-
fenders of the pretenfions and opinions of the church of
Rome. He was author of two treatifes, * On the Sacrifice
of the Mafs,”” ** A Commentary on the Prophet Haggai,”
«© Homilies,” in four volumes, and a great number of con-
troverfial traéts. Moreri. Mofheim.

ECHO, in 4rchitedure, is applied to certain vaults, and ;
arches, moft commonly of elliptical or parabolical figures 5
ufed to redouble founds, and produce artificial echoes,

The method of making an artiticial echo is taught by the
Jefuit Blancani, in his Echometria, at the end of his book
on the fphere. .

Vitruvius tell us, that in divers parts of Greece and Italy
there were brazen veffels, artfully arranged under the feats
ef the theatres, to render the found of the aétors’ voices more
clear, and make a kind of echo; by which means, of the
prodigious multitude of perfons prefent at thofe f{pectacles,
every body might hear with eafe and pleafure.

Ecuo, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the kingdom
of Aragon ; 13 miles N.N.W. of Jaca.

Ecuo, in Mufic, pieces compofed in imitation of echoes.
Sometimes alfo the word echo ftands for piano, intimating
that the inftrument, or voice, is to play, or fing, after a fott
and {weet manner. Organs and harpfichords have what
they call an echo ftop.

Ecuo, (from the Greek »x0;, found, of the verb nyzw, £
Jfound,) in Natural Philofophy, iva reflected found; for fonnds
are refleted by bodies of certain configurations, fomewhat
like the reflection of light from polifhed furtaces ; fo that
if a perfon, fituated before one of thofe bodies, and at fome .
diftance from it, utters a word, he wil!, a fhort time after,
hear the echo; that is, the repetitign of that word, as if”
another perfon mocked him. -

The ancient philofophers, who were entirely unacquainted
with the true nature of the echo, afcribed it to feveral’
caufes, which are too abfurd to deferve any notice in this
place. ‘The poets fuppofed it to have been once a nymph,
who pined into a found tor love of Narciflus. The medern —
ftate of philcfophical knowledge, eftablifhed upon experience, —
and upon unerring calculation, fhews, that found, or that
vibratory motion of the air which conftitutes a found, is re=
fle&ted by hard folids, and, in certain cafes, even by fluids.
Thus, the fides of a hill, houfes, rocks, banks of earth, the
large trunks of trees, the furface of water, efpecially at the
bottom of a well, and fometimes even the clouds, have been
found capable of refleGting founds. The configuration of
the furface of thefe bodies is much more concerned in the
produétion of the echo than their fubftance. A {mooth fur-—
face refleAs founds much better than a rough one. A convex
{urface is a very bad refle€tor of found; a flat one rcfle&ts very
well; but a {mall degree of concavity, and efpecially when —
the founding body isin the centre, or focus; of the concavity,
renders that furface a much better refletor, and the echo is
heard confiderably louder. ‘Thus, in an elliptical chamber,
if the founding body be placed in a focus of the ellipfis,
that found will be heard much louder by a perfon fituated
in the other focus of that ellipfiz, than in any other part of
the chamber. In this cafe, the eff:@ is fo powerful, that”
even when the middle part of the chamber is wanting ;. viz.
when the two nafrow oppoiite elliptical hells only exilt, the
found expreffed in one focus will be heard by a perfon”
fituated in the other focus, but hardly at all by thofe who
ftand in the intermediate {pace. :

Without attempting to explain the manner in which the
vibrating air impinges upon, and is fent back by the re-
fleGting body, which has not as yet been thoroughly invefti<

2 gated 5

EvGiuin.. ©,

gated; the facts which have been afcertained are as
follow;

If a perfon, ftandinz before a high wall, a bank, a rock,
&c. ata certain ditance, and uttering a word, with a pretty
ftrong voice, or, in fhort, producing a found with a hammer,
or ftone, &c. hears a repetition of that word, or found ; he
will find that the time elapfed between his uttering the
word, and hearing the echo, is equal to that time which a
found is known to employ in going through an extenfion
equal to twice the diltance between him and the reflecting
wall, or rock, &c.; for the vibratory motion of the air
mutt proceed from the founding perfon to the wall, or rock,
and back again from the latter to the former. Now, found

is known to travel equally at the rate of 1142 feet per fecond; .

therefore, if the perfon that exprefles the word, or any found
whatever, {tands at the diftance of 1142 feet from the echo-
ing-wall, then two feconds of time mutt elapfe between his ut-
tering the found and his hearing the echo of it. If the dif-
tance be equal to 4563 feet, then eight feconds of time mutt
elapfe between the uttering of the found and the arrival of the
echo, and foon, Butthe fameoriginal found, andtherepetition
of it. viz. the echo, may be heard by other perfSns fituated
at different diftancee, both from the original founding place,
and from the reflecting body. The cffe&t, however, wil
not be exacily alike ; viz. thofe who are nearer to the reflc&t-
ing body. will hear the echo fooner than other perlons;
thofe who are farther off, will hear it later; and a fituation
is eafily found, from which they will hear both the original
found and the echoat the fame time ; in which cafe they will
perceive, as it were, one found, but louder than they would
without the echo.

~ But though feveral perfons, in different fituations, will
hear the echo, or repetition, of the fame found; yet, ina
particular dire€tion, the echo may be heard much better
than in any other direction. Now, if two itraizht lines be
drawn from the centre, or middle, of the refle&ting furface,
one to the place from which the original found proceeds,
and the other in the above-mentioned beft direétion; thofe
two lines will be found to make equal angles with, or to be
equally inclined to, that furface. Hence, it appears, that,
in the reflection of found, the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of refraction. Therefore, if a perfon wifhes to hear
the echo ot his own voice in the belt manner poflible, he
muf fland in a dire&tion perpend:eular to the reflecting fur-
face. And this fhews, that though found proceeds from an

j “-original founding body, or from a reflecting furface, in

every dire€tion; yet a greater quantity of it proceeds in_

fome particular direGtion than in any other, which is pro-
bably owing to the original impulfe being given to the air
more forcibly in one dire€tion than in any other, as alfo to
the want of perfect freedom in the motion of the aerial
fluid.

Several phenomena may be eafily explained upon the
above-mentioned property of found. Thus, for inftance,
feveral refleéting furfaces frequently are fo properly fituated
with refpeé to diftance and direction, that a found procecd-

- ing from a certain point is refleéted by one furface firlt,

then by a fecond, foon after by a third, and fo forth; but
by allion one direQion; in which cafe, a multiple, or mam-
fold, or tautological echo is produced ; viz. the fame word
is heard repeated feveral times fucceflively in the fame tone
and accent; the expreffion of one Aa will appear like a
lanzhter ; a mufical intrument, properly played, will pro-
dace an agreeable repetition, as if many inftruments of the
fame fort imitated each other.

According to the various diftances from the fpeaker,
a refleing object-will return the echo of feveral, or of

a few fyllables, for all the fyllables muft be uttered before
the echo of the firft fyllable reaches the ear, otherwife it
will make a confufion. In a moderate way of {peaking,
about three and a half fylladles are pronounced in one fecond,
or feven fyllables in two feconds. From the computation of
fhort-hand writers, it appears, that a ready and rapid orator, in
the Englith language, pronounces from 7000 to 7500 words
inan hour; wiz, about 120 words in a minute, or two words
in each fecond. (Memoirs of Gibbon’s Life.) Therefore,
when an echo repeats feven fyllables, the reflecting object is
1142 feet diltant; for, fince found travels at the rate of
1142 feet per fecond ; the diftance from the f{peaker to the
reflecting object, and again from the latter to the former, is
twice 1142 feet. When the echo returns 14 fyllables, the
reflecting obje& mult be 2284 feet diftant, and fo on.
famous echo is faid to be in Woodltock park, near Oxford.
It repeats 17 fyllables in the day time, and 20 at night,
when the air being fomewhat denfer, the found does not
travel quite fo falt.. (Dr. Plot’s Nat. Hift. of Oxfordthire.)
Another remarkable echo is faid to be on the north fide of
Sbipley° church, in Suffex. In favourable circumftances it
repeats, diftin@ly, 21 fyilables. Harris’s Len, Tech. Art.
Ecuo.

Therefore, the farther the refle@ting objet is, the greater
number of fyllables the echo will repeat; but the found
will be enfebled nearly in the fame proportion, and, at latt,
the fyllables cannot be heard diftinétly. When the reflect-
ing obje@ is too near, the repetition of the found arrives at
the ear, whilft the perception of the original found ftill con-
tinues, in which cafe, an indiftin@ refounding noife-is heard.
This efle&& may be frequently obferved in empty rooms,
paflages, &c. efpecially, becaufe in fuch places, feveral re-
fle¢tions from the walls to the hearer, as alfo trom one wall
to the other, and then to the hearer, clafh with each other,

-and increafe the indittinéine!s.

From what has been faid above, it will be eafily conceived,
that, with refpe€t to echoes, a vait variety of effefts may be
produced, by varying the form, the fhape, the diftance, and
the number of refleGing {urfaces; and hence we hear of
various furprifing echoes being met with et different places.
At Rofneath, near Glafgow, in Scotland, there is an echo
that repeats a tune played with a trumpet three times,
completely and diftin@ly. (Birch’s Hilt. of the Royal
Society, vol. i. p.137.) At the fepulchre of Metella,
wife of Craffus, there was an echo which repeated a fentence
five times. A tower 1s faid to have exilled at Cyzicus,
where an echo repeated feven times. And there is an echo
at Broffels which repeats fifteen times. ;

Barthius, in his Notes on Statius’s Thebais, lib. vi.
ver. 30, mentions a very extraordinary echo, and, perhaps,
too extraordinary to be entirely believed; however, he
afflures the reader, that this echo not only repeated words
feventeen times, but different from common echoes, where
the repetition is not heard till fome time after hearing the
word fpoke; in this, the perfon who fpeaks, or fings, is
fearcely heard at all ; but the repetition is heard very clearly,
and always in furpriling varieties; the echo feeming fome-
times to approach nearer, and fometimes to be farther off.
Sometimes the voice is heard very diltinétly, and fometimes
icarcely atall. One perfon hears only one voice, and an-
other feveral ; one hears the echoon the right, and the other
on the left, &c.

Addifon, and other travellers into Italy, mention an ex-
traordinary echo in that country, at Srmonetta palace, near
Milan. It will return the found of a pittol fifty-lix times,
even though the air be very foggy. The echo is heard behind
the houfe, which has two wings ; the piltol is aa (ta

rom

ECT

from a window in one of thofe wings; the found is returned
irom a dead wall in the other wing, and is heard from a
witdow in the back-front. Addif. Trav. edit. 1718, p, 32.
Ph), Tranf. N° 480. p. 220.

Several authors, who treat of echoes, have ufed a few
peculiar words, which are not tn commen ufe, therefore we
deem it proper to mention thofe words and their meanings
in this place. That department of philofophy which treats
of found, is called acoujfics ; and this is divided into branches ;
one of which is called cafacouffics, and treats of reflcGed
found, {uch as the echo, and the effeéts of the whifpering
domes, galleries, &c. which alfo depend upon the refiec-
tion offound. (See Wuisperinc Gatreries.) The word
echo has fometimes been nfed for denoting the place itfelf
where the repetition of the found is produced, or heard. In
echoes, the founding point, or place where the perfon ftands
who utters the words, &c. has been called the cenirum pho-
nicum, and the object, rock, or place, that refle&s the found,
has been cailed the centrum phonocampticum.

Ecuo, in Pogiry, denotes a kind of compofition, wherein
the lalt words or iyllables of each verfe, contain fome mean-
ing, which being repeated apart, an{wers to fome queltion,
or other matter contained in the verfe.

Such is that famous echo of Erafmus, ‘© Decem annos
confumpfi in legendo Cicerone—one,’’ Z. ¢. ov, afine.

The firft echo in verfe, according to Pafquier, is that in
the Sylvz of Johannes Secundus: but Pafquier is miftaken ;
for the ancient Greek and Latin poets have wrote echoes.
This Martial intimates plainly enough; when, laughing at
fome forts of baubles, he fays, there is nothing hke them
among his poems. ‘ Nuiquam Grecula quod recantat
echo :”” by which, on the one fide, he fhews there were
Latin poets, in his time, who made echoes, and, on the
other, that the invention came from the Greeks.

Aniftophanes, in his comedy entitled Ozzpode;iaCecat, in-
troduces Euripidesin the perfon of Echo: and Cailimachus,
in the epigram, Ex4ossw to woinjx to xuxdimov, feems to have
intended a kind of echo.

There is 2 humorous fpecimen of this kind of poetry in
Hudibras.

ECHOMETER, in Mufic, a rule, or graduated fcale
divided into many parts for the purpofe of meafuring the
length or duration of founds, determining their different value,
and even the ratios of their intervals. The word is derived
from the Greck xo:, found, and jzrgov, meafure. We shall
not attempt to deicribe this machine, as it 1s never ufed,
and there is no good echometer. Thofe who with for more
toformation on the fubje, will find it in the Mem.de P? Acad.
des Inf. for t7or. M. Sauveur fuggefted the invention.

ECHOS, Hyo:, a found, in Phyfic. In Hippocrates, this
frequently imports what the Launs call tinnitus aurium, and
the Enghth a ringing of the ears; a fymptom very fre-
quent in acute diftempers.

ECHPHYAS, from sx and Guz, J produce, an excrefcence,
or appendix, a word ufed by many of the ancient writers in
medicine. The appendicula vermiformis is thus calied by
many authors.

ECHTERNACH. in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department cf Foréts, chief place of a canton, in the
difktri& of Bilfbourg, with a population of 2756 individuals.
The canton contains 17 communes, and 10,477 inhabitants,
on a territorial extent of 250 kiliometres.

ECH TE ELYNSIS, from exdnruy2, of Sndus. feminine, ‘f
render effeminate, a term ufed by the ancient phyficians for a
laxnefs, or flabby foftnefs of the fiefh of the legs, or any
other part of the body. Some have alfo ufed the word to
exprefs a fault in bandages, when too loofe.

Ee

ECHTRUS, in Botany, from exS;0s, hateful, or inimical,
Loureir, Cochiach. 344. Clafs and order, Pclyandria Mono-
gynia. A genus founded by Loureiro, but wh ch from his de-
icription is evidently nothing elfe than Argemone mexicana of
Linnzus. He mentions it as common every where by the
way fides in Bengal and the coaft of Coromandel, and he
applied the above name on account of the innumerable thorns
with which the plant is armed.

ECIJA, or Ex1ya, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
kinodom of Seville, delightfully fituated on the banks of the
Xenil, eight leagues from Cordova. It has pleafant walks,
ferving, hke thofe of the great cities of Spain, for an even-
ing refort. lt contains 28,176 inhabitants, and has fix
parifh churches, eight chapels, 20 convents, and fix hofpi-
tals. The churches, built entirely of brick, are fitted up ia
the old tafte, and crowded with p'llars, which are loaded with
prepofecrous ornaments, and covered with gold. The molt
extravagant of all is the church of “ Nueftra Senora del Ro-
fario,”? in the convent of the Dominicans, which may ferve as
amodel forthe perfe@tion of vitiatedtafte. The‘ Plaza Mayor”
is a fine objet, very {pacious and much to be admired for
its balconies, occupying the whole front of the houfes.
The rent of land in the vicinity of this town 1s high, being
commonly ‘two bufhels of wheat and one of barley, for every
bufhel of their feed; or if the rent be paid in money by the
occupiers, it is not delivered immediately to the land-owner,
but as under-tenants to rich Jand-jobbers, from whom no
moderation can be expected. Inclofed farms let at a much
higher rate than thofe that are open, becaufe the latter are
liable to be fed by the Merino fheep ; whereas, if they fhould
enter the former, one-fifth of the number trefpafling would
be forfeited. Hence arife various contentions, which fre-
quently terminate in murders. Wool and hemp are the
chief riches of this place. N. lat. 37° 93”. Long. 11° 43"
E. of Peak of Teneriffe. "Townfhend’s Spain, vol. ii.

ECKARD, in Biography, a harpfichord-player of great
‘abilities, though little known, except in private, by con-
noifleurs, There are many great German mufictans, dif-
perfed throughout Europe, whofe merit is little known in
England, or even in their native lard; among thefe is
Eckard, who has been 50 years at Paris. We never heard
him perform; but his compofitions manifeft great fkill, re=
finement, and knowledge of his inftrement, Heis faid, but
erroneoufly, to have been one of the firft, who, after the ©
manner of the celebrated Alberti, introduced in France a
perpetual bafeio batteries of femiquavers; but Jerig. Edel-
man, and Balbaftre, long before Eckard arrived at Paris, had
tired all ears with the abufe of this eafy expedient.

The treble part of Albert:’s fonatas is fo elegant, and fo
much the melody of fongs of the firft clafs, as to make ample
amends for the want of variety in the baie.

This admirable dilettante (Alberti) who fung as well as
played in an exquifite tafte, finding that the tones of the
harpfichord were too tranfient to fuftain vocal paflages, and
to intereit an audience through a whole movement, has
given a {pirited bafe, which keeps the tone alive, without
calling off the attention from the treble, or difturbing that
unity of melody, which Rouffeau fo ftrongly recommends,
and we believe, in a great meafure, formed his precepts upon
the examples, Alberti was a Venetian gentleman, extremely
admired for his compofitions and performance, during the
time that Rouffeau was refident in that city as fecretary to
the French ambaflador. Now, M. Eckard was in want of
no fuch model; he had refources of his own, which, in extem-
pore playing, could amufe and charm the moft faitidious
judges for feveral hours together; and in the leflons which
we have feen of his compofition, there is an elegance id

ftyle

—_

yer out

é

e.C.z

ftyle built upon fuch found principles of harmony and
modulation as few have furpaffed. His variations to
the Minuet d’Exaudit, or, as we call it, Marfhal Saxc’s
minuet, are in the highelt degree,. ingenious, elegant, and
fanciful.

ECKARDTSBERGA, insGeography, a {mall town of
the kingdom of Saxony, in the circle of Thuringia, with
¥200 inhabitants and fome manufa@ures, chiefly of worfted
ftockings and alum works. Of the ancient caftle Excardtf-
burg, built in the year 998 by margrave Eccard, th:re are
but two towers left, which are kept in repair, and ferve as
corn magazines.

ECKEREN, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the two Nethes, chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Anvers, or Antwerp, 27 miles S.W. of Breda, 24 miles S.E.
of Bergopzoom, and fix miles N. ef Antwerp, with a popu-
lation of 2826 individuals. It is remarkable for the battle
which was fought in its neighbourhood in 1703, between the
allies and the French. The canton has an extent of t70
kiliometres, and contains 10 communes, with 10,764 inha-
bitants.

ECKERNFORDE, or Ecxernrourpe, a fmall but
neat town of Denmark, in the duchy of Slefwick, diftiG of
Hutten, fituated on the Baltic, with a commodious harbour,
15 miles S.E. of Slefwick. It is remarkable for being the
piace where the famous count St. Germain, of life elixir
notoriety, ended his days.

ECKERO, a {mail ifland of Sweden, between the Baltie
and the gulf of Finland, W. of the ifland of Aland.

ECLAMPSIA, cr Ectampsis, in Medicine, is nearly fy-
nonymous with Epilep/y, which fee. The difference between
the two dileales, as ttated by Sauvages, appears to be alto-
gether hypothetical, and not to be afcertained in practice.
Eclampfia, he fays, differs from epilepfy, in being an acute,
febrile difeafe, fometimes remittent, or abfolutely unceafing
Z. e. not recurring by diftant paroxyfms. Thus, under the
head of eclampfia, are arranged the convulfions of puerperal
women, thofe occafioned by wounds, by inanition, plethora,
dentition, fevere pain, fever, &c. Yet under the genus epi-
Icpfy, wounds, fever, fevere pain, plethora, &c. are alfo men-
tioned as caufes of the difeafe, and as ferving to difcrimi-
nate the different fpecies. As the diflintion, therefore,
is not lefs ufelefs in a pratical view, than it is fanciful in
nofology, we fhall ref-r the whole to the article ErrLepsy.

The word eclampfis, probably. from cxAuure, effulgeo, I

_ Spine, is ufed by Hippocrates and Galen under different ac-

ceptations, The mott obvious origin of its application to
epilepfy, appears to arife from the {parklings and flafhes of
light, which often precede the epileptic convulfion, in many
individuals. But.the two phyficians of antiquity, juft
named, have alfo ufed the word to denote the higheft de-
gree of the paroxy{m of ‘fever, immediately preceding the
cer:fis, when the heat and violence of the fymptoms are at thé
greateft height.

ECLANUM, in Ancient=Geography, a town of Italy,
called Ziculanum by Ptolemy. It is tituated in the Campa-
pia; and now known under the name of * The Colony.”

ECLARON, in Geography, a2 {mall town of France, in
the department of the Marne, fituated on the river Blaife,
15 miles N.W. of Joinville. ;

ECLECTICS, Ecrecrici, a name given to fome ane
cient philofophers, who, without attaching themfelves. to any
particular feét, formed the flattering defign of felecting,
from the do&rines of all former philofophers, fuch opinions
as feemed to approach neareft the truth, and combining
them into one fyftem. But in executing this plan, they

only piled up a fhapelefé and incoherent mafs, “ rudis indie.

ECL

geftaque moles,’? not unlike that chaos, which they ade
mitted as an effential article in the f{cience of nature. They
attempted, however, but without fuccefs, to adorn and en-
rich the fyftem with fancies of their own.

Hence their denomination : which, in the original Greek,
fignifies, that may be chofen, or, that choofes ; of the verb,
EXAEY Ws, L choofe.

Laertins notes, that they were alfo, for the fame reafon,
denominated analogetici ; but that they call themfelves phi-
alethes, i. e. lovers of truth.

The chief, or founder of the ecleétici, was one Potamo,
of Alexandria, who lived uuder Auguttus and Tiberius, ac-
cording to Suidas ; but it is more probable, from the ac-
count of Laertius, that he commenced his undertaking about
the clofe of the fecond century. This Platonift, weary of
doubting of all things with the Sceptics and Pyrrhonians,
formed the ecleétic fe& ; which Veffins calls the ech Aive.

Towards the clofe of the fecond century a fc arofe in
the Chriftian church under the denomination of TEcleétics,.
or modern Platonics. They profeffed to make treth the
only object of their inquiry, and to be ready to adopt, from
all the different fy items end fes, fuch tencts as they thought
agreeable to it. However, they preferred Piato to the
other philofophera, and locked upon his opinions concerning
God, the human foul, and things invifible, as conformable
to the {pirit and genius of the Chriftian do@rine. One of
the principal patrons of this fyltem was Ammonius Sacca,
who, about the beginning of the third century, laid the
foundation of that fect, afterwards “diltinguifhed by the
name of the new Piatonics, in the Alexandrian fchool.
This philofopher was born of Chriftian parents, and edu-
cated in the Chriftian faith, and probably never deferted
the outward profeffion of this religion; though Porphyry
maintains, in oppofition to the teftimony of Eufebius,
that in maturer life he became a pagan; and Fabricius, who
is followed by Dr. Lardner, alleges that there were two
perfons of the fame name, the one a heathen philofopher,
and the other a Chriftian writer. Thofe, who are defirous
of acquainting themfelves with the grounds of thefe op-
pofite opinions, may confult Pabricius’s Bibl. Gree. lib. iv.
cap. 26. p. 259. Lardner’s ColleGion of Jewifh and
Heathen Tefimonics, vol. iti, p. 195, &c. and Mofheim,
De Rebus Chriftianorum ante Conit. Mag. p. 281, &e.

It was evidently the defign of Ammorius to reconcile and
unite all fe@s, philofophical and religious, and to inculcate
a doétrine that fhould comprehend all, the Chriftians not
excepted, in one common profeffion, For ths purpofe he
maiotained, that the great principles of all philofophical and
religious truth were to be found, equally im all fe€&s; that
they differed from each other only in their method of ex-
preffing them, and in fome opinions of little or no import-
ance ; and that, by a proper interpretation of their refpcGive
fentiments, they might eafiiy be united into one body. Ac-
cordingly, all the Gentile religions, and even the Chriftian,
were to be illuftrated and explained by the principles of
this univerfal philofophy ; and the fables of the priefts
were to be removed from pagani{m, and the comments and
interpretations of the difciples of Jefus- from Chriftianity.
In conformity to this plan he infifted, that ail the religious
fyftems of all nations fhould be reftored to their o-iginal
purity, and reduced to their primitive ftandard, viz. the
ancient philofophy of the Ealt, preferved uncorrupted by
Piato; and he affirmed that this project was agreeable to
the intentions of Jefus Chrift, whofe fole view, in de-
{cending upon earth, was to fet bounds to the reigning
fuperftition, to remove the errors that had blended them-
felves with the religions of all nations, but not to abolifh

the

ECE Gere S.

the ancient theology from which they were derived. He
therefore adopted the doirines which were received in
Exzvpt concerning the univerfe, and the deity, confidered
as conftituting one great whole, concerning the eternity of
the world, the nature of fouls, the empire of *Providence,
and the government of the world by demons. He aifo ef.
tablithed a fyftem of moral difcipline, which allowed the
people in general to live according to the laws of their
country, and the cidlates of nature, but required the wife
to exait their minds\by contemplation, and to -mortify the
body, fo that they might be capable of enjoying the pre-
fence and effiftance cf the demons, and of afcending after
death tothe prefence of the Supreme Parent. In order to
reconcile the popular religions, and particularly the Chriftian,
with this new-fyftem, he made the whole hiftory of the
heathen gods an allegory, maintaining that they were only
celeftial minifters, intitled to an inferior kind of worfhip ;
and he acknowledged that Jefus Chrift was an excellent
man, and the friend of God, but alleged that it was not
his defign entirely to abolifh the worfhip of demons, and
that his only intention was to purify the ancient religion.
This fyftem, fo plauvfible in its firit rife, but fo compre-
henfive and complying in its progrefs, has been the. feurce
of innumerable errors and corruptions in the Chriitian
church. Atits firft cftablifhment it 13 faid to have had the
approbation of Athenagords, Pantenus, and Clemens the
Alexandrian, and of all who had the care of the public
fchool belonging-to the Chriftians at Alexandria. It was
afterwards adopted by Longinus, the celebrated author of the
Treatife on the Sublime, Plotieus, who continued the fchool
of Ammonius, and completed the ecle&tic fyftem, Heren-
nius, Origenes, a pagan and a different perfon from Origen,
the celebrated Chriftian teacher, Ametius, a Tufcan, Por-
phyry, an inveterate enemy toChriftienity, who fucceeded
Plotinus-‘and taught his doGrines, Jamblichus the difciple of
Porphyry, Sopater, Edefius, Euftathius, Eufebius of Min-
dus'in Caria, Maximus of Ephefus, Prifcus of Thefprotium,
who accompanied the emperor Julian to Perfia, Chryfanthius,
the matter cf Julian, appointed by him high prieft of Lydia,
Julian the Apottate,: Eanapius, a pupil of Chryfanthius,
Hierocles, and many others, both Pagans and Chriftians.
“Such as we have enumerated were the principal promoters
of the Ecleétic philofophy in"Alexandria, and in various parts
of Afia. After Greece became fubje@ to Rome, its philo-
fophers were difperfed; but by the favour of the Roman
emperors; ‘particularly Adrian and Marcus Avrelius Anto-
nius, Athens, the ancient feat of wifdom, recovered, in
{ome degree, its former honour. Adrian founded a library,
and Aurelius ere€ted magnificent fchools, -and eftablithed
proieffors in rhetoric, and in the principal feéts of philofo-
phy. Thefe {chools were liberally endowed, and Athens
was again diltinguifhed by a numerous train of philofophers
and fcholars. Thefe Athenian fchools, though they fulfered
great injury,during the incurfions of the Goths, at the
clofe of the 4th century, furvived that hazardous period,
and continued to flourith till after the time of Jufinian. It
was nottill the reign of Julian that the Alexandrian philo-
fophy was publicly profeff=d at Athens. After Chryfan-
thius, already mentioned, who was appointed preceptor in
Athens by Julian, the next profeffor of this fyitem was
Plutarch, the fon of Neftorius:- He died about the year
435» aud left the charge of his {chool*’to Syrian, an Alcx-
andrian. Among the pupils of Syrian, his chief favourite
was Proclus, and he was allowed to fhare with him the ho-
nours and profits of the Platonic chair. (See Procius.)
Upon the death of Proclus in the year 485, the ecleétic
fchool at Athens was contiaued by Marinus, a native of

Sichem in Palefline, and a convert fromthe Samaritan te
the Gentile religion. From him it was transferred to Iii-
dorus, and by Ifidorus, on his removal to Alexandria, it
was committed to Zenodotus, a pupil of Proclus. The
fucecffion of the Platonic or Ecle&tic fchool in Alexandna
terminated in Damafcius, a native of Syria. Hypatia, a
celebrated female, belonged alfo to this fchool, and main-
tained itshononr. (See Hyparia.) Befides the philofo-
phers of the Alexandrian or Ecle&tic fe, who have been
enumerated, and others of inferior note, there were many
perfons, who, though not philofophers by profeffion, ef.
poufed the do@trines of Platonif{m, as they were new mo-
delied in this fchool. Among thefe there were feveral
celebrated writers ; particularly Macrobius, and Ammianus
Marceilinus. é

The Ecle@ic feé&, as we have already feen, took its rife
among the Egyptians, a people peculiarly addited to fux"
perftition, among whom the art of divination is faid to have
originated. It was formed in Alexandria, a city colonifed
rom many different nations, whofe inhabitants brought
with them their refpeAtive tenets both in religion and pinlo-
fophy. From‘an attentive comparifon of various circum-
ftances, which we cannot recite in this place, it would ap-
pear, that the EcleGtic method of philolophizing began at a
period prior to the time of Chrilt. The diffenfions pro-
duced by divérfity of opinions in the Alexandrian {chools,
induced many to with for a general coalition of f{-¢1s. Po-
tamo, as we have feen, firft formed this prejeét, and it was
carried into execution by Ammoniys and his followers.

The philofophy of Plato, already united with that of Py; ~

thagoras, was made the bafis of this new fyitem; whence
the {¢& was confidered as a Platonic fchool, and its followers

have been commouly diftinguifhed by the appellation of the —

later Platonifts. With the de@rines of Plato, they at-
tempted to blend thofe of Ariftotle.

explained upon the principles of Plato. The only fect
with which the Alexandrian fchool could not agree, was

that of Epicurus, whofe mechanical principles of nature —

were contrary to the fundamental doctrines of Piatonifm.
The Platonic {&, we may obferve, h2d leaned, from its
firft intkitution, towards enthufiafm, ‘That part of their
{yftem, which thefe later Platoniits had borrowed from the
oriental philofophy, was wonderfully ¢alculated to. cherifh
the flights of a luxuriant fancy. But in order to ‘mark
more precifely fome of the more firiking features of the
EcleGic fe&, we may direét our attention to the arts, which
the leaders of this fei employed to obftru@ the progrefs of
the Chriftian religion. By combining into ove fyltem all

the important tenets, both theological and philotophical,

which were at chat time received, either in the Pagan or

the Chriftian fchoals, they hoped to confirm the Heathens ~
in their attachment to their old fuperftitions, and to recon

cile the Chriftians to Paganifm, .With this view they endea=
voured to conceal the abfurdities of the ancient religion,
by cafling over its fables the veil of allegory, and thus re:
prefenting them as founded upon important truths. The
bumerous train of heathen divinities they reprefented™
emanations from the Supreme Deity, through whom he him-
felf was worfhipped. ‘They attempted to incorporate with

their own dogmas feveral of the peculiar doétrines received —

among Chriftians, and on many occafions imitated the lane
guage of the Chritian fathers.
credit which Chriftianity derived from the exalted character
of its founder, and the purity of manners that diftinguifhed his
followers, thefe philolophers inculcated and pratifed rigo-

Tous

The Stoic fyftem™*
was alfo in the Ecle&tic {chool accommodated to the Plato- —
nic; and the moral writings of the followers of Zeno were

In order to counteraét the —

,
4

“ ECL

‘yous abftinenice, and pafled whole days and nights in contem-
plation and devotion. In order to fubvert or diminifh the
authority which the Chyriftian religion derived from, miracles,
they pretended to a power of performing fupernatural opera-
tions, and maintained, that the miracles of Chrilt were

‘wrought by the fame magical, or theurgic, powers which
they themfelves pofletled.. Moreover, for fupporting the
credit of Paganifm againitthat of Chriftianity, they obtruded
upon the world many {purious*books, under the names of
Hermes, Orpheus, and other illuftrious ancients.

The Ecledtic feét, thus raifed upon the foundations of fu-
peritition, enthufiafm, and impofture, was the occafion of
much confulionand mifchief both tothe Chriftian religion
and to philofophy. In the infancy of the Alexandrian
fchool, many Chriftians were fo far deluded by the preten-
fions of this fet, as to imagine that a coalition might be ad-
vantageoufly formed between its fyftem and that of Chrifti-
anity. [he confequence, however, was, that Pagan ideas and
opinions were gradually blended with the pure and fimple
doétrine of the gofpel ; the fanatical philofophy of Ammo-
nius corrupted the pure religion of Carift; and his church
became a field of contention and a nurfery of error. A coa-
lition of fyftems was no lefs injurious to philofophy. For a
further delineation of the EcleGtic do€trine in metaphyfics,
theology, and morals, we fhall refer to the biographical ar-
ticles Plotinus, Famblichus, and Porphyry. See alfo Pua-
ronism and Anexanpria. And fora more diffufe detail,
we refer to Brucker’s Hilt. of Philof. by Enfield, vol. it.
and Mofheim’s Eccl. Hilt. vol. i.

Ecuecrics were alfo a certain fet of phyficians among
the ancients, of whom Archigenes, under Trajan, was the
chief, who feleCted from the opinions of all the other fects,
that which appeared to them belt, and molt rational ; hence
they were called ecleétics, and their prefcriptions medicina
ecleética.

ECLEGMA, or Ectiema, Exeyps, or Lclectos, in
Medicine, a peStoral remedy, of the confiftence of a thick

- fyrup; called, alfo, Johoch, lindus, end lambative. The
word is Greek, formed of ex, and Asya, to lick, becaufe
the patient isto take it by licking it off the end of a liquor-
ice ftick dipt therein; in order that, being taken thus by
little and little, it my remain the longer in the paflage, and
moiften the breaft the better,

There are eclegmas of the fyrups of poppy, others of
‘lentils, others of {quills, &c. ‘T'heir intention is to heal or
eafe the lungs, in coughs, peripneumonier, &c. They are
ufuaily compofed of oils, incorporated with fyrups.

ECLIPSAREON, in Afronomy, is an ipfrument in-
vented by Mr. Fergufon for exhibiting the time, quantity,
duration, and progrefs of folar eclipfes, at all parts of the
earth. This machine confiits of a terrettrial globe, A,

(Plate X. Afronomy, fig. 74.) turned, by a winch, M,
round its axis B, inclining 234°, and carrying an index

round the hour-circle D ; acircular plate E, on which the
months and days of the year are inferted, and which fupports
the globe in fuch a manner, that when the given day of the
month is turned to the annual index G, the axis has the fame
- pofition with the earth’s axis at that time; a crooked wire
-_F, which points to the middle of the earth’s enlightened
difc, and thews to what place of the earth the fun is vertical
‘at any given time; a penumbra, or thin circular plate of
brafs I, divided into 12 digits, by 12 concentric circles, and
_ fo proportioned tothe fize of the globe, that its thadow,
formed by the fun, ora candle, placed at a convenient dif-

tance, with its rays tran{mitted through a convex lens, to
- make them fall parallelon the globe, may cover thofe parts
of the globe, which the fhadow and penumbra of the moon
SAWeOb. KIT.

ECL

cover on the earth; an upright frame H HHH, on the
fides of which are feales of the moon’s latitude, with two
fliders KK and If fitted to them by means of which the
centre of the penumbra may be always adjufted to the moon’s
latitude ; a folar horizon C, dividing the enlightened from
the darkened hemifphere, and fhewing the places where the
general eclipfe begins and ends with the rifing or fetting
fun; and a handle M, which turns the globe round its axis
by wheel work, and moves the penumbra acrofs the frames
by threads over the pulleys L, L, L, with a velocity duly
proportioned to that of the moon’s fhadow over the earth,
as the earth turns round its axis.

If the moon’s latitude”at any conjun@ion exceeds the
number of divifions on the feales, there can be no eclipfe;
if not, the fun will be eclipfed to fome parts of the earth ;
the appearances of which may be reprefented by the ma-
chine, either with the light of the fun, or of acandle. For
this purpofe, let the indexes of the fliders K, K, point to the
moon’s latitude, the plate E be turned till the day of the
given new moon comes to G. and the penumbra be moved
till its centre comes to the perpendicular thread in the
middle of the frame, which thread reprefents the axis of the
ecliptic ; then turn the handle till the meridian of London
on the globe comes under the point of the wire F, and tura
the hour circle D, till XLII at noon comes to its index; and
turn the handle till the hour index points to the time of new
moon in the circle D, and then ferew faft the collar N.
Laftly, elevate the machine, till the fun fhines through the
fight-holes in the fmall upright plates O, O, on the pedeftal ;
or, place a candle before the machine, at the diftance of
about four yards, fo that the fhadow of the interfeétion of
the crofs thread in the middle of the frame may fall precifely
on that part of the globe to which the wire F points; with
a pair of compafles take the diltance between the centre of
the penumbra, and the interfeétion of the threads, and fer
the candle higher or lower, according to that diftance ; and
place a large convex lens between the machine and candle,
fo that the candle may be in the focus of the lens; and thus
the machine is reétified for ufe. J

Let the candle be turned backward till the penumbra
almoit touches the fide H F of the frame, and then, turning
it forward, the following phenomena may be obterved.
1. Where the eaftern edge of the fhadow of the penumbral
plate, I, firft touches the globe at the folar horizon, thofe
who inhabit the correfponding part of the earth fee the
eclipfe begin on the uppermolt edge of the fun, jult at the
time of its rifing. 2. In that place where the penumbra’s
centre firft touches the globe, the inhabitants have the fun
rifing upon them centrally eclipfed. 3. When the whole
penumbra juft falls upon the globe, its weftern edge at the
folar horizon touches and leaves the place where the eclipfe
ends at fun-rife on his lowermolt edge. 4. By continued
turning, the crofs lines in the centre of the penumbra will
go over all thofe places on the globe where the fun is cene
trally eclipfed. 5. When the ealtern edge of the fhadow
touches any place of the globe, the eclipfe begins there;
when the vertical line in the penumbra comes to any place,
then is the greateft obfcuration at that plece; and whea
the weftern edge of the penumbra leaves the place, the
eclipfe ends there, and the times are fhewn on the hour-
circle; and from the beginning to the end, the fhadows of
the concentric penumbral circles fhew the number of digits
eclipfed at all the intermediate times. 6. When the
eaftern edge of the penumbra leaves the globe at the folar
horizon C, the inhabitants fee the fun beginning to be
eclipfed on its lowermoft edge at its fetting. 7. Where the
penumbra’s centre leaves the globe, the inhabitants fee the

Ep.§ fia

EicoLt

fan centrally eclipfeds andJafly, where the penumbra is’
wholly departing from the globe, the inhabitants fee -the
eclipfe ending on the uppermoft part of the fun’s edge, at
the time of its difappearing in the horizon.

This inftrument will likewife ferve for exhibiting the
times of fun-rifing and fetting, and of morning ‘and evening:
twilight, as well as the places to which the fu-vis vertical on
any day, by fettmg the day on the plate FE to the index G,
turning the handle till the meridian of the place comes under
the point of the crooked wire F, and bringing XII on the
hour-circle D to the index: then if the globe be turned,
till the place touches the eaftern edge of the horizon C, the
index fhews the time of fun-fetting ; and when the place
comes out from below the other edge of C, the index fhews
the time when evening twilight ends; and morning twilight
and fun-rifing are fhewn in the fame manner on the other
fide of the globe. And the places under the point of the
wire F are thofe to which the fun pafles vertically on that
day. Fergufon’s Aftronomy, p. 298, &c. 4to. edit. or
Phil. Tranf. vol. xlviiis p. 520.

ECLIPSE; in dfronemy, the difappearance of a hea-~
venly body, caufed either by the interpofition of an opake
body between it and the obierver, or by the lofs of the re-
flected light of the fun.

To the firft clafs belong folar eclipfes, and occultations of
the fixed ftars by the moon or planets; to the fecond, lunar
eclipfes, and eclipfes of the fatellites of Jupiter.

The phenomena of eclipfes, confidered with a view to il-
luftrate the general principles of the fcience, are very unim-
portant: they are merely accidental occurrences, totally
unconneéted with any theory, and add but little to oar
knowledge of the great mechanifm of nature’ But they are
of confiderable praétical utility: they ferve to corre&t and’
increafe the ‘perfe€tion of our folar and lunar tables ; and
they are highly ufeful to geography, becaufe they afford a
fure and accurate method of determining the relative fitua-
tion of the diftant parts of the globe.

Such is the ftate of the fcience of aftronomy at prefent,
that it is not by being able previoufly to announce all the
circumftances that will attend thefe phenomena, that the
purpofe of general utility is promoted; but the obferving
them with accuracy when they do occur, and ‘applying the
refults corre€tly to future inveltigation. But as the publi¢
Kill take fome intereft in thefe prediGtions, and confider them
as a kind of teft of the proficiency of the fcience, the doctrine
of eclipfes continues to forma very important part of every
treatife of aflronomy. It is impoffible to produce a ftronger
inftance of the ultimate triumph of truth over error and fu-
peritition, than the view we are at prefent permitted to take
of the fubject of our prefent inveftization.

The time has not always been when an ‘eclipfe was con-
fidered only~as a fubje@ of calculation for an aftronomer,
and an obje& but of flight curiofity even to the public. It
was an event that once poffeffed a great fhare in the general
interefts of the moral world. It would be but a melancholy
tail to dwell on the hiftory of ignorance and fuperitition.
Tf there are few inftances in which it has been more profound
than in the opinions that have been entertained relative to
eclipfes, it mult be allowed that no fuperftition was ever
more excufablt im its origin, or more innocent in its ef-
feats.

Aftronomers moré efpecially fhould reeard thefe errors
with indulgence, fince the fcience is indebted to them for
its earlielt foundation. In all the early nations of antiquity,
the fctence feems originally to have been cultivated only
with a view of prediGing thefe phenomena.

That knowledge of caufe and effeft, which teaches us to

ECL

affign the various occurrences of the moral and phyfical world,
to their appropriate claffes, can only be obtained by the
long and refined civilization of many fucceflive ages,

Should we be furprifed then to find that, in the infant
ftate of the world, moral and phyfical events fhould have
been improperly affociated together? Rather let us admire —
the fuccefsful ftruggles that the human race have gradually
made to emancipate themfelves from error; and, by cams
paring the litrle that remains with that which once exifted,
indulge the hope ‘chat even that little will in time yield. _
to the fuperior power of trath and reafon.

Aftronomy bears the fame relation to aftrolory that
chemiftry does to alchemy: it is the wife offspring of a
foolifh parent. The early altronomers, like the early
alchemilts, in common with the reft of mankind, firft de-
ceived themfelves ;-and interefted motives afterwards induced
them to connive at the deception of others. ’

To what degree of accuracy the ancients arrived in the
art of prediéting eclipfes, is a queltion on which writers mas”
terially differ. Bailly, in all his aftronomical writings, ens
deavours to prove that the early aitronomers were in poff-f. q
fion of accurate methods of calculating eclipfes, and that
thefe were derived from antediluvian tradition. This theory
fuppofes that the world once exifted in a ftate very different
from the prefent ; that it was nearly deltroyed by fome great
and fudden calamity, in which almott the whole human race
were involved; that only a few individuals efcaped this
dreadful cataflrophe, who, thus reduced to a defolate flate
of exiftence, had to invent again all the arts of life. But
he fuppofes, that in ‘this apparent {tate of barbatifm, traces
are tuill to be found ef the former tlate of civilization and
knowledge. This theory is {urely little betterthanadream:
we can {carcely fuppofe that in a moment of fuch general
confternation, the obje& of general folicitude fhould be to
fave a table of legarithms, or a compendious method of cals
culating an eclipfe ; befides, the whole fyitem is founded, or
at leaft fupported, on a miftake relative to the prefent and
former {tate of the Indian allronomy. Ld

The following extra& trom Ballie’s ancient aftronomy, —
centrafted with the more careful and recent invettigations of
our own countrymen in India, will ‘be fufficient to convince
the reader on what a flight foundation*this vifionary theory —
reits for fupport. 4 mY

* That which does ‘moft honour'to the afttonomy of the —
Indians, is their methed of calculating eclipfes: They pers
form this with great celerity and precifion. shine

“ The Brahmins feem to be machines mounted to calcus _
tate eclipfes. Their rules are in verfe, which they recite
during .the computation. They make ufe of cowries, a —
fpecies of flicll, which 1s ufed for money in India. Ge

‘« This method of calculation has the advantage of being —
eafy and expeditious; but the fteps cannot be retraced:
they are deflroyed as the computation advances; and if'an
error fhould occur, the whole mu{t be recommenced. —

« Yheir proceedings feem to poflefs an extraordinary
fimplicity. ‘The theory of the moon, ‘tlie molt complicated
of our modern theories, does not with them require a te=
dious cr embarraffing calculation. They find the diameters’
of the fun and moon by a very fimple procefs, ‘which b
fhail infert here as a curious example of thefe extraordinary —
rules. ‘They affume the apparent diurnal motion of the —
moon, and divide it by 25. The refult of the divifion, —
‘multiplied by 60 and divided ‘by 25, gives the aétual dia-
meter of the moon. They calculate the diameter of the -
fun, by multiplying its ‘real diurnal motion by 5, and di-
viding it by 9. It is impoffible to avoid thinking that thefe
‘takles or rules of the Brahmins belong to fome learnetl

‘theory, |

ECLIPSE.

theory, the principles of which are now conéealed under a
blind routine, which by confiderable fill is at prefent ren+
dered fimple and eafy.

“ What is moft aftonifhing is, that thefe tables of the
Brahmins are perhaps of 5000 or Gooo-yeats antiquity.
. ‘ Notwithitanding thofe who oceupy themfelves with
altronomy, that is to fay, the Brahmins, may have a cor-
re notion of the new and full moon, the people, plunged
into the moft profound ignorance, fill explain its phafes
their own way. They pretend that the moon is filled with
ambrofia, and that the gods take their repafts from it, which
ie the caufe of the diminution of its light. The regularity
of the return of thefe phafes announces that the provifion
_ is carefully renewed, and that the gods have very regular
appoetites.”” ‘

» Mr. Davis, to whom we are indebted for a moft intelli-
geat and accurate account of the metliod by which the
Hindu aftronomers calculate eclipfes, is of opinion that
the Hindu fcienece is as well known now as it ever was
among them, though perhaps not fo generally, by reafon
of the httle encouragement men of feience mect with, com-
pared with what’ they formerly did, under theit native
rinces. The fame writer is of opinion, that the Pandits,
barned in the JyGtith Saftra, have truer notions of the form
of the earth, and of the economy of the univerfe, than are
aferibed to the Hindus in general; and that they muft re-
je&t the ridiculous belief of the common Brabmins, that
eclipfes are oceafioned by the intervention of the monfter
_ Rahu, with many other particulars equally unfcientific and
abfurd. But as:this belief is founded on implicit and pofi-
tive declarations, contained in the’ Vedas and Puranas, the
divine authority: of which writings no. devout Hindu can
difpute, the altronomers have, fome of them, cautioufly
explained. fuch paffages in thofe writings as difagree with
the principles of their own fcience ; and where reconciliation

was impoflible, have apologized as well as they could for

propofitions neceflarily eftablifhed in the pra@tice of it, by
obferving that certain things, as ftated in other Saftras,
“« might have been fo formerly, and may be fo ftill; but for
aftronomical purpofes,‘altronomical rules muft be followed.”
Others, with a bolder fpirit, attacked and refuted unphi-
lofophical opinions. Bhafcara argues, that it, is more rea-
fonable to fuppofe the earth felf-balanced in infinite {pace,
than that it fhould’be fupported by a feries oF animals, with
nothing affignable for the Jaft to reft upon. And Nerafinha,
in his commentary, fhews that by Rahu and Cetu, the
head and tait of the monfter, in the fenfe they generally
bear, could only-be meant the pofition of the moon’s nodes,
_ and the quantity of her latitude, on which eclipfes do cer-
_ tainly depend: but he does not therefore deny the reality
of Rahuw and Cetu; on the contrary, he fays, that their
actual exiftence and prefence in eclipfes ought to be believed,
and may be maintained as an article of faith, without any
prejudice to aftronomy.

‘hus it appears, that though the hiftory of eclipfes,
like that of every part of the altronomy of the ancients, is
involved in confiderable obf{curity, there is no reafon to fup-

_ pofe it of antediluvian origin. The firft eclipfes, particularly
of the fun, if total or confiderable, muft haye excited ex-
treme terror; and many ages mutt have paffed away, before
mankind could have been led to the difcovery of their caufe.
The nature of the folar eclipfe was probably the firft that
was underltood, and that of the moon a fubfequent difco-
very. To watch thefe phenomena, to difcover the caufe
why they did not happen every month, and to mark down
‘the circumftances under which they appeared, in order to
seduce them to fome form for future prediGion, feems to

have been the only obje& of the aftronomy of many of thé
early nations. The Chaldzans are faid to have watched the
heavens without ceafing ; and their aftronomers relieved each
other, like centinels, that no eclipfes might efcape them.
In following this fyftem, they became acquainted with cer-
tain ufeful periods, which in time brought about a repetition
of the fame phenomena: but further than this their know-
ledge never extended. Of the nice modifications which
were required to correét this method, they feem to have
been entirely ignorant. Solar eclipfes {eem to have been
negle&ed, as too abftrufe and irregular to have been reduced
to any given law; and we find that Hipparchus, who afii-
duoufly collected the moft ancient eclipfes he could depend
on, from the records of the Chaldzan aftronomy, was
obliged to confine himfelf to lunar eclipfes alone. This cir-
cumftance would lead us to fufpe& that there was but little
reliance to be placed on the fuppofed prediGtions of ancient
eclipfes, which are faid to have happened on remarkable oc-
cafions. The prediétion of am eclipfe by Thales (faid to
have taken place during a battle between the Lydiaxs and
the Medes) was moft probably made long after the event.
Perhaps we might carry our fcepticifm ftill farther, and
doubt the exiftence cf any eclipfe at all: for when once
great events were fuppofed to accompany eclipfes, tradition
would eafily fupply eclipfes to accompany great events.

To underftand the doétrine of eclipfes, it is neceflary to
have a clear idea of the nature of the folar and lunar orbit,
and of their apparent points of interfe@tion, called the nodes.
Though the moon’s orbit is infinitely nearer to ws than the
apparent folar orbit, yet its projection, or perfpective re-
prefentation of it on the great concave furface of the heavens,
1s a great circle ofthe fphere. If the lunar orbit was in the
fame plane as the folar orbit, it would have the fame repre-
fentative circle in the heavens, namely, the ecliptic; but
the lunar orbit is inclined to the apparent orbit of the fun,
in an angle of about 5°; and though thefe orbits can really
have no common points of conta&, from their great diftance
from each other, yet the great circles which reprefent them
in the heavens interfeé& each other in two oppofite points,
which are called the nodes.

New moon is defined to be that fituation of the moon,
when it has exaétly the fame longitude as the fun. This
phafe may take place at any part of the lunar orbit, either
in the nodes or at any diftance from them. In the firit cafe,
fhe will appear to pafs over the difc of the fun; but ifat the
conjunGion, or time of new moon, fhe fhould be at fome
diftance from the node, as is ufually the cafe, fhe will be
invifible to us, being wholly enveloped in the rays of the
fun; but were fhe vifible at this time, we fhould fee her
dire&tly under or over the fun; and the diftance would be
the greater, the farther the moon was from the node: but
this diflance never could much exceed 5°, or the angle ex-
preffing the inclination of the two orbits.

Publ vider is that pofition of the moon, when her Jongi-
tude differs 12 figns, or exaétly half a circle from that of the
fun; that is, its longitude is the fame as the longitude of
the centre of the earth’s fhadow, if we fuppofe it extended
till it meet the ecliptic, ‘This phafe of the moon may take
place likewife in any part of her orbit; fhe may therefore be
above, below, or in the centre of the earth’s fhadow; ia
which latter cafe, being deprived of the light of the fun by
the interpofition of the carth, the will be eclipfed. From
this general jiluftration, we fhall now proceed to inveftigate
thefe phenomena more minutely, beginning with Invar
eclipfss, which are much’ the eafieft to undefftand. The
calculations that are incident to folar, eclipfes do not inyolve
aby of the bigher branches of mathemeti¢s: the printiples

3&2 5a

E€LIPSE.

en which they depend are very fimple, but the difficulty
arifes from the great number of contiderations which arife,
and which caufe no {mall perplexity even to the experienced
eftronomer.

Of an Eclipfe of the Moon.

The earth being an opake body enlightened by the fun, it
neceflarily projects a fhadow into the regions of {pace in a
contrary direétion.; when it fo happens that the moon, in the
scourfe of her revolution about the earth, falls into this fha-
dow, fhe lofes the fun’s light, by which alone fhe is vifible,
and appears to us eclipfed.

Let us {uppofe two ftraight lines drawn from the oppo-
fite pasts of the folar difc, tangents to the furface of the
earth, as AB, ab, (fig. 75.) thefe lines will reprefent
the limits of the fhadow, and as the fun is mach larger
than the earth, thefe lines will meet at a point, and crofs
each other behind the earth, and the fhadow will thus take
the form of acircular cone. When the moon enters this
Shadow, and a part of its dife is ftill enlightened by the fun,
this part is not terminated by a flraight line; it has the form
of a luminous crefcent, the coneave part being turned to-
wards the fhade. ‘The fame circumftance happens when
the moon begins to quit the fhzdow.

When the moon approaches the terreftrial fhadow, fhe
does not lofe her ight fuddenly, but it gradually becomes
more and more faint, till the obfcurity arrives at its greateft
intentity.

To comprehend this phenomenon, we have only to attend
tothe figure, and obferve that an opake body may ,be fo
placed between an obje& and the fun, as only to intercept a
part of his light (fuppofe the objet at M), it will then be
lefs illuminated than if it received the whole of the light,
but more fo than if it was placed at min total obfcurity.
"This intermediate ftate, comprehended in the angular {pace
EBConone fidethe wmbra, and F B Con the other, is
called the penumbra. This is the effect which is obferved to
take place on the entrance of the moon into the terreftrial
fhadow.

To find the limits of this penumbra, let two lines be
drawn, as Ae, a E, touching the furfaces of the fun and the
earth, fo as to crofs at a point c between them, the angles
EBC, cbc, will determine the {pace occupied by the pe-
numbra, for at a point fituated without this fpace, the whole
difc of the fun will be vifible, but to a point M within it,
enly a part A/ of the fun’s dife will be vifible, and the vi-
fible portion will diminilh from the line E B totheline CB,
when it will entirely difappear; confequently the penumbra
will gradually increafe fromits firft limit E B tall its fecond
BC, when it will be united with the umbra.

When the moon enters compleatly into the fhadow cf the
earth, wedo not quite lofe fight of it; ats furface is {till
faintly illuminated'witha reddifh light, fomething fimilar to
that refle&ted by clouds after the fetting of the fun, this
arifes from the folar rays that have been refragted by our
atmolphere, and afterwards inflefted behind the earth. For
thofe rays which are not enough refrated to reach the furface
of the earth, continue their courfe through the atmofphere,
and if rot entirely abforbed byit,are infleted towards apoint,
in the fame manner as by a convex lens. ‘The light thus re-
fleGied behind the earth is very confiderable; confidering only
one.luminons point of the folar dife, it can only project
one ray to every point into the furrounding f{pace, but by the
medium of the terreftrial atmofphere, a cone of luminous
points is colleted behind the earth, and an object placed in
the focus of this cone would be more {trongly illuminated

than by the dire&t light of the fun. Every point of the

fun producing 2 fimilar effe&, the length and extenfion of :

the terreftrial {hadow are much diminifhed, and if the atmo-
{phere did not abforb a very great proportion of the fun’s
rays, the light refle€ted from the dife of the moon in a lunar
eclipfe would exceed that of the full moon. We may next
confider the meafuresof thefe appearances more precifely
and the circumltances which mutt occur to produce them, Z
-The firit thing to determine in this inveftigation is. the
lengih of the conical fhadow projeG&ted behind the earth, to
find if it always extends to the orbit of the moon, omitting
the effect of the atmofphere of the earth.
Let S be the centre of thefun, T that of the earth, fup-

pofed {pherical, A B a tangent to the earth and fun forming

the limit of the perfe&t umbra, S 'T the axis of the cone, and
T c the prolongation of thiscone, which it is required to
determine. Ifthe ftraight line A T be drawn tothe centre
of the earth, the angle S TA willbe the apparent diameter
of the fun, the angle T A B will be its horizontal parallax,
and as the firit of thefe is the exterior angle of the triangle
TAC, the angle T C B will be equal to theangle ST A—
TAB, orthe femi-diameter of the fun minus its horizontal
parallax, ‘T'hie length ‘IC may now be eafily determined,
for in the right-angled triangle CBT, theangle C and fide
T Bare both known. Therefore the length of the conical
fhadow varies with the apparent diameter of the fun, and
confequently with its diltance from the earth. The dif-
tance of the centre of the earth from the fummit of the cone
is a8 follows. It is exprefled in terms of the terreftrial
radius.

©’s Perigee 2 : = 212.873
©’s Mean diftance - - 216.237
©’s Apogee - - - 220.207

For if D be the apparent. diameter of the fun, E the hoe ~

rizontal parallax, R the radius of the earth, CT=R.

D
As the angle gts E is always very fmall, we may fub-

ftitute its fine, for thefe calculations do not admit of exe

treme precifion: but then we mult fubftitute for radius the —

number of feconds it contains, namely, 206264.’8; we
fhall then have the diftance of the fummit of the cone from

the centre of the earth, C T=R. od If for D
: ere
we take its three values from the tables when the fun is pe-

rigee, mean diftance, and apogee, we fhall obtain the quan-
tities as given above. a
By infpection of thefe values it appears, that the cone
becomes longer as the diftance of the fun increafes.
The greatelt diftance of the moon from the earth does not
exceed 63,941 raditof the earth, (fee Distance,) which
is much lefs than the preceding quantities, fo that the

earth’s fhadow alwaysextends much farther into {pace than -
the orbit of the moon, confequently if this orbit was in the

plane of the ecliptic, there would be every monthan eclipfe
of the moon.

_ To calculate the magnitude and duration of an eclipfe, it .
is neceflary to know the diameter of the terreltrial fhadow

at the place where.it is traverfed by the lunar orbit. Let
L/ be this orbit, fuppofed circular, the angle LTC
will meafure the apparent femi-diameter of the fhadow feen

from the earth, and will be equal to the difference of the

anglea

onde

ad

EC LIPS E.

angles TLE, TCL. But the firft of thefe angles is the
horizontal parallax of the moon, and the fecond is equal to
the femi-diameter of the fun minus its horizontal parallax,
as we have already demonftrated. ‘Thefe anges being
known, give the angle LTC, or the femi-diamerer of the
fhadow. * :

‘Po find it, we mult add the parallax of the fun to the

- parallax of the moon, and take from their fum the femi-di-
ameter of the fun; that is, the femi-diameter of the fha-

dow is always equal P + p — os

By calculating its value from the known parallax of the

moon atits greatelt, lealt, and mean diftances, we obtain the

following table.

Table of the Jemi-diameter of the terreffrial foadow at the
an diftanee of the Moon.

Moon’s apogee SE CPR
Sun’s perigee. J so in‘mean diftance 40 40
Moon’s perigee 7 45 15)
Py Moon’s apogee - 37. 1gB
“cats be { Moo in ee diflance 40 «562
apne uence") Moon’s perigee - 45 31
Moon’sapogee 4 = 38 9
Sun’s sprgte-{ Moon in mean diftance 4L 12
Moon in perigee = 45 40

The greateft apparent diameter of the moon not exceeding
$3' 30", we fee that it may always be contained in the ter-
reftrial fhadow, whichconfiderably exceeds it. Therefore,
every time that the moon paffes through the centre of this
fhadow, it will be totally eclipfed.

The time that the moon will remain in the fhadow de«
pends onthe difference between her diameter and that ef the
fhadow. ‘To compute this time, we mutt calculate this
difference, and determine from the horary motion of the
moon the time fhe will employ to defcribe it.

Hitherto, we have only confidered the dimenfions of the
umbra; the limits of the penumbra are next to be deter-
‘mined.

“Let Ad (fg. 76.) be a ftraight line, at the fame time

_atangent to the earth and the fun, L/ reprefenting the
Tunar orbit, the angle 7 TC will be the diltance of the
enumbra to theaxisC T, but this angle being exterior to
the triangle eT / is equal to the {um of the two interior;
‘and oppofite T/c, /c'T. ;
~ The firft of thefe is the horizontal parallax of the moon,
thé fecond equal to cA T + cT A, or the femi-diameter
of the fun plus its horizontal parallax, therefore the angle
CT is equal to the fum of the parallaxes of the fun and
moon + the femi-diameter of the fun.
The magnitude of the penumbra is found by fubtraGting
» the femi-diameter of the umbra from the above quantity.
But this femi-diameter is equal to the fum of the parallaxes
of the fun and moon minus the femi-diameter of the fun;
confequently the diameter of the penumbra is equal to the
diameter of the fun. We muft next confider what alterations
will be produced in thefe refults by the effect of the carth’s
atmofphere. rte neta
~The umbra,. as determined above, has for its limit the
_yadius AB, which touches the correfponding furfaces of
the earth and fun; C is then the fummit of the umbra. But
_ if we take into confideration the effect of the atmofphere of
the earth, the ray of light AB will be refra&ted at the
oint B, and continuing its path will converge to fome
point nearer the earth thanthe point C. A {pectator placed
beyond this limit, would, by the effe& of refraétion, not
nly fee the luminous border of the fun’s difc, but a lu.

‘

minous zone of it; by receding farther from the earth ths
dife of the fun tranfmitted through the atmofphere will be
vifible ia the form of a luminous ring, receding fill farther,
the rays emerging from the centre of the fun will no longer
touch the furface of the earth, but pafs higher up in the
atmofphere ; and laftly, by increafing ftill more the diltanae,
the exterior limb of the fun will begin to be difengaged
trom the terreltrial atmofphere, and will appear direCily and
without refraction.

To determine thefe different limits, imagine a ray of light
SE, (fg. 77.) proceeding from the limb of the fun, and
jeft touching the furface of the earth at B, the curve de-
icribed by this ray abouc the earth will be fymmetrical on
each fide of B, that is, if So be its direGion when it enters
the atmofphere, o L will be its dire@tion when it paffes out
of it, and the angles BT 1, BI, formed with the tangent

_T 4, will be equal to each other; but the angle B TI, or

DTS, is very nearly equalto DBS, or the horizontal
refraction, becaufe the point I is very little elevated above B.
The angle B +L T is likewife very nearly equal to the hori«
zontal refraétion, confequently the angle S I A, which ex-
preffes the inflexion of the ray, Is equal to BT I + Br,
or to double the horizontal refra@ion.

The effect of the atmofphere, therefore, is to augment by
this quantity the apparent femi-diameter of the fun: hence,
in computing the diltance of the fummit of the umbra from
the centre of the earth, the femi-diameter of the fun muft
be increafed by double the horizontal refra&tion, and with
this correétion alone, the fame formulx may be employed
that have been demonftrated above. If inftead of confider-
ing the ray of light S B as coming from the exterior limb
of the fun, it be fuppofed to proceed from any point what-
ever of the difc, at a given diftance from the centre; fub-
ftituting this diftance for the femi-diameter of the fun, we
fhall have the diftance from the earth at which this point
begins to appear, and thus may he found the fucceflive
zones which will begin to be vifible at every corre{ponding
diftance. :

_ If the horizontal refraGtion be called r, the fame notation
being continued as above, the diltance of the fummit of
the fhadow from the centre of the earth C T will be

R
equal 5——— » and the femi-diameter of the fhadow
—+ar—L ‘

P+p—D —2r. Ifnow = be fuppofed to exprefs the

diftance of any given point in the dife from the centre, we
may find by the firft formula the diftance at which the given.
point will begin to appear on the edge of the terreftrial fur-
face. Making D =o we fhall have the diftance at which
the fun begins to be entirely vifible, furrounding the earth
like a ring. On this principle Du Sejour has computed the
following table.

Sun's Mean Sun's
erivce iftan o
Perigee, | Diftance. Apogee.

Limb of the fun beginning to
appear - - -

4 the dife of the fon at the cir-
cumference of the earth - |

4 of the dife © at the circum- } |
ference of the earth -

2 of the dife © at the circum-
ference of the earth lage |

The whole dife of the © fur-

rounding the earth like a ring

|
42,013) 41,842

{2,228

40,502) 46,408

52,230) :

59,820

ECLIPSE.

‘The leah diftance of the moon being 57,660, and the
greatcft 63,664, in the moft unfavourable circumftances,
even at the centre of the fhadow, a {petator on the furface
of the moon would ftill fee half the dife of the fun through
the atmofphere of the earth.

This {ufliciently explains, why, in a total eclipfe of the
moon, her difc is ftill enlightened enough to be vilible, and
we muff attribute to the thicknefs of our atmofphere, and
to the vapours it contains, the caufe of the great diminution
of light which.fometimes makes the moon almoft entirely
difappear. ‘

It was, perhaps, an effe&t of this kind which Sauflure
obferved on the Col du Geant, when he faw, during fummer
nights, the horizon furrounded by a kind of luminous ring,
the fmall depreffion of the fun below the horizon might
compenfate the fmallnefs of the diflance from the earth at
which the {pe@ator was placed; and this confideration
agrees very well with the phenomena of twilight. See
Crepuscutum, and Twiricnrt.

In the above explanations the moon has been fuppofed
exaGtly placed in the axis of the terreitrial {hadow, and fhe
would be fo placed in every oppofition if her orbit coincided
with the plane of the ecliptic, but fince the moon is fome-
times elevated above, and fometimes deprefled below this
plane, it may happen that it will only enter partially into
the fhadow of the earth, or juft towch it with her limb, or
even pafs without touching it. In the firft cafe, the eclipfe
is partial, in the fecond, it takes the name of an appulfe ;
a total eclipfe is when the moon is entirely plunged in the
fhadow, and the eclipfe is central when the centre of the
moon coincides with the axis of the conical fhadow.

' Central eclipfes can only happen when the moon, at the
moment of oppofition, is in the plane of the ecliptic, and
confequently in one of her nodes.

For a total eclipfe, it is fufficient that the femi-diameter
of the fhadow exceeds the latitude of the moon, augmented
-by her apparent femi-diameter.

That there may be a partial eclipfe, it is fufficient that
the femi-diameter of the fhadow exceeds the latitude of the
moon, diminifhed by her apparent femi-diameter. If thefe
two quantities are equal, the moon will touch the fhadow,
and there will only be an appulfe; if the fecond furpaffes
the firft, there will be no eclipfe.

The latitude of the moon depends on its diftance from the
nodes of its orbit; it augments as its diftance from thefe
points increafes; the diftance from the node may, therefore,
be calculated, at which an eclipfe becomes impoffible: this
is called the ecliptic limit. To do this, we muft felect the moft
favourable circumiances, or-thofe which give the diameter
of the moon, and the terreftrial fhadow, the greatett poflible
-values; the fum of thefe two quantities will give the greateft
poffible latitude at which the moon can be eclipfed. Having
found this latitude, we may determine the diftance from the
node which correfponds to it; this is done by the folution of
a right-angled {pherical triangle, formed by the lunar orbit,
the ecliptic, and the circle of latitude; in this triangle one
of the fides is the latitude above found, the angle is the
obliquity ef the orbit, which we mutt take at its leaft value;
the fide oppofite the right angle is the greateft diftance from
the node. Since thefe refpeétive pofitions of the moon and
fun are connected together, by the law of their motions, it
is not eafy to determine the preeife inftant in which the
re-union of all thefe circumitances fhall be the moft favour-
able to produce an eclipfe, and it can only be effeéted by
comparing toyether a great number of fimultaneous pofitions
of the two bodies. Accordiag to Delambre (who has taken
to the account the-effect of the atmofpherical refraétion ),

there cannot happen an eclipfe of the moom whem the dif.
tance from the node furpaffes 13° 4o!, and there certainly
will be an eclipfe when the diltance is lefs than 7° 47!
Between thefe limits, the exiftence of the echpfe will de-
pend on the particular pofitions of the fun and moon, and
to decide the queftion we mult have recourfe to exact cal-
culation in which thefe circumftances enter, but the pre-
ceding refults are always extremely ufcful, becaufe they
fhew at once. a number of oppofitions in which no eclipfe
can happen, fo that it only remains to calculate the others
to find what fpecies of eclipfe (if any) will take place.

Of an Eclipfe of the Sun.

An eclipfe of the fun is produced by the interpofition of
the moon between that luminary andthe earth, tor which
reafon it can never happen at any other time than at the con-
jun@tions or new moons. Notwith{tanding the moon is ine
comparably lefs than the fun, yet from its nearnefs to.usit fo
happens that its apparent diameter differs very little from
that of the fun, and even fometimes exceeds it. Suppofe
an obferver fituated in the contisnation of a ftraight line
that unites the centres of the fun and moon, he will tee the
former of thefe bodies echpfed. If the apparent diameter
of the moon furpaffes that of the fun, the eclipfe will be
total, and the obferver will be entirely plunged in the cone
of fhade which is proje&ted behind the moon: if the diame-
ters are equal, the point of the cone will terminate at the
earth’s furface, and there will be a momentary total eclipfe.
If the diameter of the moon be lefs than that of the fun,
the obferver will fee a zone of the {ua furrounding the moon
like a ring, and the eclipfe will be eentral and annular.
And laftly, if the obferver on the earth’s furface is not exe
actly in the line joining the centres, the eclipfe may be par-
tial, that is, a part of the folar dife may be hid, while the
remaining part continues perfectly vifible.
which are rare, are remarkable for the darknefs which accom:
panies them, and which they fpread over different parts of
the furface of the earth, in the fame manner as the fhadow
of a cloud carried by the winds, {weeps over the mountains
and the plains, depriving them for fome inftants of the light
of the fun.
ftances, may laft about five minutes.

The {malleft apparent diameter of the fun is 31! 30’; the
diameter of the moon in its mean diftance is 31! 25", that is,
lefs than that of the fun; there cannot, thercfore, be a total
eclipfe when the moon is beyond the mean diitance, LEclipfes
of the fun are likewife modified by the height of the moon
above the horizon, which increafes her diameter. (See Die
AMETER.)
lax, may fo much augment or diminifh the apparent diltance
of the moon from the fun, that an eclipfe may be feen by
one obierver at the earth’s furface, at the fame time that no
{uch phenomenon happensto another. For example, if the
horizontal femi-diameters of the earth and moon diifer very
little from each other, an eclipfe may be annular to thofe
countries who obferve it in the morning or evening, and
central to thofe who obferve it at noon, where the fun and
mvon are elevated above the horizon. ~ In this, eclipfes of
the fun differ from thofe of the moon; the latter are the
fame to all places where they are vilible, but the former are

fo modified by the pofition of the obferver, by the different —
diftances of the fun and moon from the earth, and from the |

different diftances of the moon from the node, that they are

fubject to extreme variations; and: from the number of ele- —

ments on which they depend, the calculation of their appear=
ances is very difficult. The diameter of the moon, obferved
in a folar eclip{e, appears fomething lef than at other Hines 5

; this.

Total eclipfes, .

This total darknefs, under favourable circume |

This change, combined with the effe& of paral- -

ECLIPSE,

this is the effe& of the irradiation, the luminous circle that
furrounds the lunar dife diminifhes.a little its apparest mag-
nitude; the exat quantity of this irradiation is not yet
precifely afcertained.

To calculate the Phafes of an Eclipfe of the Moon.

_ The firft thing to be done, is to find the time of the mean
oppofition, to get which from the tables of epaéts, amongft
the tables of the moon’s motion, take out the*epact for the
year and month, and fubtra& the fum from 29° 12" 44’ 3”,
one fynodic revolution of the moon, or two, if neceffary, fo
that the remainder may be lefs than a revolution, and that re-

‘mainder gives the time of the mean conjunétion, If to chis
we add 14‘ 18" 22’ 1.4, half a revolution, it gives the time
ofthe next mean oppofition; or if we fubtrast, it gives the
time of the preceding mean oppofition. If it be leap year,
in January and February fubtraét a day from the fum of the
epacts before you make the fubtraG@ion. When the day of
the mean conjunction is O, it denotes the laft day of ‘the
preceding month.

Example. "Vo find the time of the mean new and full
moons in February 1795.

Epaé 1795 =) ee Srey Olina!

February - eo fekbitThortls 57
10.22 22 Tf
29 12 44 3

Mean new moomn e« 138 14 21 49
Ig VS 221.4

Mean full moon = of Bu8D 59-4726

a

To determine whether an eclipfe may happen at oppo-
fition, find the mean longitude of the earth at the time of
mean oppotition, and alfo the longitude of the moon’s node.
Then, according to M. Caffini, if the difference between
the mean longitudes of the earth and the moon’s node be lefs
than 7° 30/, there muff be an eclipfe; if it be greater than
14° 30!, there cannot be an eclipfe; but between 7° 30! and
34° 30!, there may, or may not be an eclipfe.

M. Delambre makes thefe limits 7° 47’ and 13° 21!.

Example. ‘To tind whether there will be an eclipfe at the
full moon, on February 3d, 1795.

- Sun’s mean longitude at 3° 19"

weneitgol 4 7 HO: i= - mialiaetatag? af go's

oe» Mean longitude of the earth - 4 13°27 20.8
Longitude-of the moon’snode- 4 8 1 48.5

oe

© 0 5 25 32.3.

.

. ‘
. Difference. - =

Hence there muft be an eclipfe.

Examine thus all the new and full moons fora month be-
fore and a month after the time at which the fun comes to
the place of the-nodes of the lunar orbit, and you will be
fare not to mifs any eclipfes. Or, having the eclipfes for
the laft eighteen years, if you add to the times of the middle
‘of thefe eclipfes 18” 10°, or 11" 7" 33/, it will give the times
when you may expect the eclipfes will return. ,To the

‘time of mean oppofition, compute the true longitudes of °

the fun and moon, and the moon’s true latitude, and find
_ from’ the tables-of their motions the horaty motions of the
‘fan and'moon in longitude, and the difference (d) of their
Dorary motions is the relative horary motion of the moon
- ae

in refpe& to the fun, or the motion with which the moon
approaches to, or recedes from, the fun. Find alfo the
moon’s horary motions in latitude, and fuppofe at the time
(¢) of mean oppofition, the moon is at the diftance (m) from
oppoiition, Vhen d.:-m:: 1% 2 the time (w) between ¢
and the oppofition, which added to or fubtraéted from the
time ¢, according as the moon is not yet got into oppofition,
or is beyond it, gives the time of the ecliptic oppolition.

To find the place of the moon in oppofition, let 7 be the
moon’s horary motion in longitude: then 1° : a ::m¢
the increafe of the moon’s longitude in the time aw, which
applied to the moon’s longitude at the time of the mean
oppofition, gives the true longitude of the moon at the time
of the ecliptic oppofition. ‘The oppofite to that mult be
the-true longitude of the fun. Find alfo the moon’s true
latitude at the time of oppofition, by faying 1”: w :: the
horary motion in latitude : the motion in the time w, which,
applied to the meon’s latitude at the time of the mean op-
pofition, gives the true latitude at the time of the true oppo-
fition. In like manner, you may compute the true time of
the ecliptic conjunétion, and the places of the fun and moon
for that time, when you calculate a folar eclipfe. With
the fua’s horary motion in longitude, and the moon’s in
longitude and !atitude, find the inclination of the relative
orbit, and the horary motion upon it.

To do this, let L M (fig. 78.) be the horary motion of the -

moon in longitude, SM that of the fun; draw M O perpen-
dicular to L.M, and equal to the moon’s horary motion in la-
titude. Take S4= Ma and parallel to it, and join La,
L4; then La is the moon’s true orbit, and Ld its relative
orbit in refpe@ to the fun. Hence, LS (the difference of
the horary motions in longitude,) : S 4 (the moon’s horary
mation in latitude) :: radius: tan. bL S, the inclination of
the relative orbit, and cof. LS: radius:: LS: Ld, the
horary motion in the relative orbit.
calculations are thus:

Log. S4 + 10 — log. LS ='log. tan. LS,

Log. LS + 10 — log. cof. 6 L S-= log. Lb.

M. De La Lande obferves, that if we add 8” to the dife

ference of the horary motions in longitude, it wiil give the
horary motion in the relative orbit: for in a right-angled'tri«
angle, of which the bafe is the difference of the horary
motions in longitude, (which is about half a degree,) and the
angle at the bafe about 53 of adegree; the difference be-
tween the bafe and the hypothenufe wilt always be about 8”.

At the time of oppofition, find from the tables the moon’s
horizontal parallax, its femi-diameter and the femi-diameter

of the fun, the horizontal parallax of which we may here -

take'= 9”.

‘To find the femi-diameter of the earth’s fhadow at the
moon, feen from the earth. Let A.B be the diameter of
the fun, TR the diameter of the earth, O and C their
centres; draw AT, BR, to meet at I, and join OCI.
Let FGH be the diameter of the earth’s fhadow at the
diftance of the moon, and join OT, CF. Now the angle
FCG= CFA —CIA,butCIA=OTA—TOC;

therefore FCG = CFA — OTA + TOC; that is,

the angle, under which the femi-diameter of the earth’s fhadow
appears at the moon, is equal to the fum of the horizontal paral-

laxes of the fun and moon, diminifhed by the apparent Jemie -

diameter of the fun.

In eclipfes of the moon, the fhadow is found to be a little
greater than this rule gives it, owing to the atmofphere of
the earth, ‘This augmentation of the femi-diameter is, ac-
cording to M. Caflini, 20”; according to M. Monnier, 30” 5
and according te M.de la Hire, 60’ Mayer thinks the

corrections

By logarithms the -

ECMAPSE:

e@orreétion is about .+,th of the femi-diameter of the fhadow ;
or, that you may add as many feconds as the femi-diameter
contains minutes. Some computers always add 50”; but
this muft be fubjeé& to fome uncertainty. :

As the angle CLT (=OTA — TOC) is known, we
have fin. TIC: cof. TIC :: TC: Cl, the length of the
earth’s fhadow.

If we take the angle AT O = 16! 3”, the mean femi-
Giameter of the fun, TOC = 09”, the horizontal parallax
of the fun, we have CIT = 15’ 54”: hence, fin. 15’ 54”:
cols ns gu ore t6:2 il Ces Cilgana noes Ee

Let PQ ( fig.97.)reprefent the fetionof theearth’sfhadow
atthe moon, C N theecliptic, N L the moon’s erbit. Draw
C.» perpendicular toC N, and Cm perpendicular to NL;
and let the moon at m ju{t touch the earth’s fhadow at r ex-
ternally, fo that Cm may be the fum of the radii of the
moon and earth’s fhadow. Then to determine when this
happens, we may take the angle at N = 5°17’, which is
very nearly its value in all eclipfes; the inclination of the
Junar orbit being at that time always greateft, as will after-
wards be fhewn. Hence, fin. 5° 17! : rad. :: fin. CM:
fin. CN. Now the greateft value of Cm is about 1° 3! 30";
hence the correfponding value of CN = 11° 34!. When
therefore C N is greater than that quantity, there can be no
eclipfe. According to M. Caflini, if the latitude, C2, of
the moon, at the time of the ecliptic conjunétion, exceed
the fum of the femi-diameters of the earth’s fhadow and
moon by 18", there wiil be no eclipfe; but if it do not ex-
ceed that fum by 16”, there will be an eclipfe. If Cm=
Cr — rm, or the limbs touch internally, the eclipfe will be
juk total: hence, if the diftance of the moon’s node from
the place of the earth be lefs than the computed value of
CN in this cafe, there muft be a total eclipfe of fome dura
tion. If, therefore, it was before doubtful, and it now
zppears there will be an eclipfe, proceed as follows to com-

ute it:

Let APB be that half of the earth’s fhadow where the
moon paffes through, NL the relative orbit of the moon ;
vene figure reprefenting a partial eclipfe, the other a total
ene. Draw Cmr perpendicular to NL, and let = be the
-centre of the moon at the beginning of the eclipfe, m at the
yniddie, x at the end; w at the beginning of total darknefs,
«wv attheend. Alfo, let AB be the ecliptie, and Cn per-
pendicular to it. Now, in the right-angled triangle Cmn,
we know Cx the latitude of the moon at the time of the
ecliptic conjunction, and the angle Cnm the complement of
the angle which the relative orbit of the moon makes with
the ecliptic: hence, radius : cof. Cmn:: Ca: nm, which
we call the redu&tion; and radius: fin. Cnm:: Ca: Cm.
By logarithms, the calculations are thus:

log. nm.

Log. cof. Cnm + log. Cn — 10 =
= log. Cm.-°

Log. fin. Cam + log. Cn — to

The horary motion of the moon upon its relative orbit
being known, we know the time of defcribng ma, by
faying,- : mn:: 1": the time of defcribing mz. The com-
putation of this is molt readily performed by logiftic loga-
‘sithms.

Hence, knowing the time of the ecliptic conjun@ton at n,
we know the time of the middle of the eclipfe at m. Next,
in the sight-angled triangle CM, we know Cm and Cz,
the fum of the femi-diameters of the earth’s fhadow and the

moon, to find z=, which is done thus by logarithms. As
mz= VC2—Cr? = VCx Tag ee : Oe = Cm, the

Jog. of ma = £. log. Cz + Cm + log. Cz—Om

Hence, the horary motion of the moon being known, we
know the time of defcribing zm, which /ubireced from the
time at m, gives the time of the beginning ; added, gives the
time of the end. Inthe fame manner, in the right-angled
triangle C mv, we know Cm and Cv, the difference of the
femi-diameter of the earth’ fhadow and moon: hence, by loga-

rithms, the. log of mv = £.log.Cvu+Cm-+ log. Cu—Cm,
from whence, as before, we know the time of defcribing
mv, which /ubtraded from the time at m, gives the time of
the beginning of total darknefs; and added, gives the end.
The magnitude of the eclipfe at the middle is reprefented by
tr, which is the greateft diftance of the moon within the
earth’s fhadow ; and this is'meafured in terms of the diameter
of the moon conceived to be divided into 12 equal parts,
called digits or parts deficient; to find which, we know
Cm, the difference between which and Cr gives mr, which
added to m#, or if 7m fall out of the fhadow, take the differ-
ence between mr and mz, and we get#r. Hence, to find
the number of digits eclipfed, fay mf: tr :: 6 digits, or
360! (it being ufual to divide a digit into 6o equal parts,
and call them minutes) : the digits eclipfed. If the latitude
of the moon be north, we ufe the upper femi-circle; if
fouth, we take the lower.

If the earth had no atmofphere, whea the moon was
totally eclipfed, it -would-be invifible; but we bave fhewn,
that by the refraGtion.of the atmofphere, fome rays will be
brought to fall upon the earth’s furface; upon which ac-
count, the moon will be vifible at that time, and appear of
a dufky red colour. M. Maraldi thas obferved, that in
general the earth’s umbra at a certain diftance is divided by
a kind of penumbra, from the refraGtion of the atmofphere.

This will account for the circumftance of the moon being
more vifible in fome total eclipfes than in others. It is faid,
that in the total eclipfes in 1601, 1620, and 1642, the
moon entirely difappeared. An eclipfe of the moon, arifing
from its real deprivation of light, it muft appear to begin at
the fame inftant of time to every place on that hemifphere of
the earth which is next the moon,

Hence it affords a very ready method of finding the dif-
ference of longitudes of places on the earth. ;

The moon enters the penumbra of the earth before it
comes to the umbra, and therefore it gradually lofes its
light; and the penumbra is fo dark juft at the umbra, that
it is difficult to afcertain the exa@t time when the moon’s
limb touches the umbra, or when the eclipfe begins.

When the moon has-entered into the umbra, the fhadow
upon its difc is tolerably well defined; and you may deter-
mine, toa confiderable. degree of accuracy, the time when
any {pot enters intothe umbra. Hence, the beginning and
end of a lunar eclipfe are not fo proper to determine the
longitude from, as the times at which the umbra touches
any of thefe fpots.

Example 1—A computation of a partial eclipfe of the
moon, on February 3. 1795. For the meridian of the
Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich. ’

The time of the full moon is 3° 19" 59’ 47”.6: It ap-
pears by the rule already given, that there will be an
eclipfe.

By computation, the mean time of the ecliptic oppofition
is at 12" 46’ 18"; from which fubtraét the equation of time,
14’ 20”, and we have 12” 31’ 58”, the apparent time at ,
Greenwich.

To this time compute the moon’s place in the ecliptic, —
and it will be found 4° 15° 15'57”, the oppofite point to ~
which is 19° 15° 15! 57”, the place of the’ dun; samp :

alfo the moon’s latitude Cn, and it will be found 37’ 390” N.
afcending. ‘ : i ‘

. By the tables, the horary motion of the moon: in latitude
is 2! 57", the horary motion of the fun is 2’ 32, and of the
moon 32! 9! iniongitude ; hence the horary motion of the
moon from the fun ia longitude is 29’ 37”, confequently,
the horary motion of the moon from the fun on the rela-
tive orbit is 29'45!; alfo the inclination of the relative
orbit is 5° 41’ 27”. The reduction mis 3’ 44", reduce
this into time by logiftic logarithms, and the operation is thus:

3! 4qll - = - = 1.2001
J il a SOR eee | O-aOag
7 32 time of defcribing mn. - 0.9074

The neareft approach C m of the centres is 37! 28”, From
#2" 31! 58", fubtraGt 7’ 32", and it leaves 12" 24’ 36”, the
middle of the eclipfe.

By the tables, the horizontal parallax of the fun is 0’ 9”,
and of the moon 56'30!. Alfo, the apparent femi-diameter of
the fun is 1616", and of the moon 15/24". Hence hor. par.
© + hor. par. ¢ — femi diam. © + 50" = 41/13", the
fcmi-diameter of the earth’s fhadow increafed by 50" for
refraGtion.

Hence, femid. € +

femid. @’s fhadow 56! 37! = 3397"

Neareft approach of

centres = = 37 28 = 2248
Sum a = - 5645 — log. $.751664
Diff. - : - 1149 — log. 3.060320
2)6.811984.
Log. of 2546!'.8 = 42! 26.8 mot. of half
duration - = - - - 3.405092

Reduce this into time by the logiftic logarithms.
ORE Eas : > * 0.3047
4227 = - at ee 0.1503

BP 25f3e"half duration = = 0.8456

Subtra& this from and add it to 125 24'26", and we get
20" 58! 49" for the beginning, aud 13" 50! 3" for the end,
- From Cr = 41! 13", fubtra&t Cm = 37! 28", and we get
mr = 3!45'; hence mr + mt = rt = 19! 9" the parts
deficient, confequently 15! 24": 19! 9": :. 64, or 360! : 74
27! 36" the digits eclipfed. Far
By logiftic logarithms the calculation is thus :

19g! log. + 1 - - 1.4960
15 24 ? c ° 0.5906
yf 2! 36! - 3 - - 0.9054

Hence the times of thie eclipfeare Feb. 3, 1795.

The beginning at 12 2420} Apparent:
Middle - - 12 24 26 time at
End - - - 13 50 3J Greenwich.
Duration - - 2 5 tena

; Digits eclipfed - 7°27! 36" on the moon’s
fouth limb, as reprefented in fg. 80, which was conftructed
for this eclipfe. WE

Example 2.—A computation of a total si of the moon on
December 3d, 1797, for the meridian of the Koyal Obfervatory
at Greenwich. |

. It appears that there will be an eclipfe at this full moon,

ou, XII,

ECLIPSE.

By computation, the mean time of the ecliptic oppofition is
3° 16" 16! 46”, to which add 9! 18”, the equation of time,
and you get 3°.16" 26! 4" for the apparent time. '

‘Yo this time compute the moon’s place in the ecliptic, and
it will be found to be 2' 12° 35! 19”, confequently the fun’s
placeis 812° 35! tg”. Compute alfo the moon’s latitude
Cn, and it will be found 4! 55" S. decreafing.

By the tables the horary motion of the moon in latitude
is 3/15",.the horary motion of the fun is 2!32”, and of
the moon 35! 14” in longitude, hence the horary motion of
the moon from the fun ia longitude is 32'42", conlequently,
the horary motion of the moon from the fun on the relative
orbit is 32! 50"; alfo, the inclination of the relative orbit
is 5° go! 34".

The reduction 2 m is of 29"; reduce this into time by
the logiftic logarithms, and the operation is thus :

32" 50!! - mb oe 0.2618

o 29 _ : aaa 2,0939
+

© 53 time of defcribing mn - = 1.8321

The neareft approach C m of the centres is 4! 54".

To 16° 26! 4" add 53", and it gives 16" 26! 57" for the
middle of the eclipfe. By the tables, the horizontal paral-
lax of the fun is o! 9, and ofthe moon 59! 9". Alfo the
apparent femid. of the fun is 16/17", and of the moon 16! 6”.
Hence hor. par. © + hor. par. ) — femid. © + 50”
= 43' 51", the femi-diameter of the earth’s fhadow in-
creafed by 50" for refraétion. Andas Cr (= 43! 51")
is greater than C m +4- ms (= 21') the eclipfe mutt be total.

S id. femid. '
Da lbediege > SL yes st SeaLoT

Neareft app. of centres 4 54= 204
Sum . : - 3891 tlog. 35900612
Difference > : 3303 —log. 3.5189086

2)7.1089698

Log. of 3585” = 59' 45" mot. of half duration 35544849

Reduce this into time by the logiftic logarithms; but
becaufe the fourth term, in this cafe, would come out a
greater quantity than that to which the table exteuds, we
will take the half of 59’ 45”, and then double the con-

clufion :
32! 50” 0.2618
29 52-5 - 0.30285
5+ BAS = 0.04105

Hence 1° 49! 11" is the half duration ; which fubtra@ted
from and added to 16" 26’ 54", gives 14" 37! 46” for the be-
ginning, and 18" 16’ 8” for theend. We find the time of
half the duration of total darknefs thus :

Semid. @’s fhadow

— femid. 2 AE) TOO!
Nearelt app. of the
centres - 454 = 204
Sum . - 1959 — log. 3.2920344

Difference =» 137L — log. 3-1370375

2)6.4290719

_—_——__—

‘

Log. of 1639” = 27! 19” mot. of 4 dur. of
total darknefs- « - . 2
sak

32145359
Reduce

ECLIPSE.

Reduce this into time by the logiftic logarithms.

52! 50" . - - - 0.2618
27 19 - : = 0.3417 ae
49 55 half duration of total darknefs 0.0799 ©

Subtra& this from and addit to 16" 26! 57", andit gives
15" 37! 2" for the beginning of total darknefs, and 17° 16’ 52”
for the end.

From C r= 43’ 51", fubtrat Cm = 4’ 54", and we get
mr = 38’ 57”, to which add ¢ m= 16' 6”, and we get
tr = 55' 3" the parts deficient. Hence 16! 6": 55’ 3”
:: 6°, or 360', : 20° 31! the digits eclipfed.

The operation by logiftic logarithms is thus :

55 3 log. +3 = "1.0374
16 6 - > 0.5713
20° 310 - - 0.4661

--——

Hence the times of this eclipfe are December 34, 1797.

The beginning at - 14°39'46"
Total darknefs begins 15 37 2| Apparent
Middle . - - 16 26 57 > timeat

Total darknefsends = 17 16 52 | Greenwich,
End of the eclipfe a 26 TOR TO Oy

Duration of total darknefs 1°30! 50!!

Duration of the whole eclipfe 3 38 22

Digits eclipfed - 20°31! oll

If the time correfponding to the difference between the
meridian at Greenwich and that of any other place be ap-
plied to the times here found, it will give the times at that
place.

In this prefent year, 1S09, there occurs but one vifible
eclipfe, and that is of the moon, 29th April. The com-
putation of its elements is as follows.

To compute the partial’eclipfe of the moon, which will
happen 29th April, 1809.

Ecliptic oppofition happens 12" 41’. The moon’s motion
in longitude for the preceding 12 hours was 7° 29! 26", and
for the fucceeding 12 hours 7° 31/47". The mean 7°30! 36",
which divided by 12, gives 37! 33" forthe moon’s horary
motion in longitude. If we take from this the fun’s horary
motion, 2'26", it will leave 35'7" for the horary motion of the
moon from the fun, and which augmented by 8" is Bot r SH,
which is the relative horary motion of the moon.

The horary motion of the moon in latitude is 3! 27",
To find the inclination of the )’s orbit,
Log. 207” = hor. mot. ) in lat. = 2.3159703
Co. log. 2115" = hor. mot. ) inlong. = 6.6746895

_—_—_—_—____..

S4a5z0" = 8.9906598

And 84 24 40 = its complement = Cx m.

To find the reduction 2m, The latitude ) = 33! soll,
Rad, : cof, 84° 24! 40! :: 33! 50” = 20! 30! : ma.
Log. 2030 = 3.3074960
Cof. 84°24! 40" = 8.9885139

197" = 2.2960099 = 3! 19",

This muft be reduced into time by logifiic logarithms thus¢.

geez! - - 1.2615

35 15 : = . : 0.2310
5 36 (time of defcribing mn) 1.0308
From - 12° 41! ool
Take - 5 36.

12 35 24 middle of the eclipfe.

—_——

Hor. par. © - : - 0" oa! oF
Hor. par. ) ° - ° 614 I0
‘ 61 1
Semi-diameter ©) . - 15 54
“* 45 24
Add for refra@tion > = ae
46 14

Semi-diameter fhadow . -

The neareft approach of the centres mC = 33/ 35".
Semid. ) + femid. of G fhadow = 62! 54” = 3774"

Neareft approach of centres . 33:35 = 2005
Sum - Log. 3.7626035 - = 5789
Diff. - Log. 3.2452655 - =) en

7-0078693
3191" = 53' 11" = 3.5039346 = motion in half duration,

Logiftic log. 0° 35/15” es 623K

GS eur - 20524 _
I 30 31 - 0 8214

Middle of eclipfe being - 12" 35! a4"
Half duration - - I 30 3r
Beginning - - : ay TT Wie ea
End = EI. Spec = 14 5 55
From C r—1C m+ femid. )\ = 33 5x" as

+ 16! 40" E = = « — 50’ 357

Take C m= )’s fhadow Sree = 46 14

Remainder = the uneclipfed part - 4 21

16' 40" : dig. 6 :: 4! 21": Aigits uneclipfed.
Or, 16 40: 6::
69 60 -

1000

740
6

4.440
60

26,400

Digits eclipfed 10° 26! = 64 + 4¢ 26!.
Graphical Method of computing the above Eclip/e for April 29;
4 1809. ;
With a convenient fcale of minutes and feconds, (which,

for praGtical purpofes, may be taken from a common ruler,
; divided

12! 20"= 16! 40"— 4! 20F «

1.

cm

ce

.

-Qiided into inches and tenths,) take A C = femi diameter of
the umbra = 46’ 14", and with this radius defcribe the circle
'- ABD. Draw Cx perpendicular to AB, and make it
equal to the latitude of. the moon = 33! 50". Make 4
Cn N = complement of the angle/which the relative orbit
of the moon makes with the ecliptic = 84° 24’ 40”, and
‘produce Nato L. With a radius equal to the tum of the
femi-diameters of the moon and the earth’s fhadow = 62!
54, fet off Cz, Cx; and let fall the perpendicular Cn;
and with the centres x, m, z, aud with a radius equal to the
femi-diameter of the moon = 16! 4o!, defcribe the circles
reprefenting the moon. To find the beginning, middle, and
end, the point 7, 12” 41/, the time of the ecliptic conjunction
muft be marked, and fet off from, both ways, an ex-
~ tent equal to the borary mation of the moon upon N L.
This interval fhould be divided into as many equal parts as
it will conveniently admit of, and thefe divifions continued
- to xandz. The times correfponding to the points x, m,
and z, fhew the beginning, middle, and end of the eclipfe.
And if ¢r be meafured upon the fcale, it will thew the digits
eclipfed.

This method will give the time fufficiently near, if it is
only required to predié& the eclipfe, as the time may be de-
pended on toa minute, if the radius C B- ia fix or feven
inches. The fame method may be employed if the eclipte
is total. n

The latter part of this method may be more ealily under-
flood, by referring to the plate where the whole operation is
reprefented with its correfponding fcale. See P/. XI.

Jig. 81.
To calculate an Eclipfe of the Sun.

The calculation of eclipfes of the fun, for any particular
place, is much longer and more difficult than that of lunar
eclipfes, on account of the confiderations of parallax which
neceflarily enter into them. The parallax differs for every
part of the earth; fo that an eclipfe of the fun would have
a different appearance to different countries. An eclipfe of
a minute of a degree, and continuing for 20! of time, may
occur at a fpot 6o miles diftant from a place where no
eclipfe is vifible. On the contrary, an eclipfe of the moon
would appear of the fame magnitude to all the places where
it is vifible ; for the moon, really lofing its light, is dark to
the whole world. ;

If we were placed on a point at the furface of the moon,

“when'it is eclipfed, and we wifhed to calculate the manner
‘in which this eclipfe would appear in this point, determined
from the moon, we fhould equally fall into the difficulty of
parallax ; for the eclipfe, which would then be an eclipfe of
the fun, taking place fucceflively and differently at the

~ different points of the Junar furface, the parallax mutt be

- calculated for that part of the moon where the fpectator is
‘fituated.

There is a great variety of methods that haye been de.
vifed by'different altronomers for calculating eclipfes of the
fun ; but as they all, more or lefs, involve the principle of
projeGtion, as a preparatory ftep, it will be neceflary to de.
Yeribe the method by which this projection is ufually effeed.
One of the beft projections devifed for this purpofe, was firft

iven by our great aftronomer, Flamtlead, and is thus
deferibed by Mr. Vince:

On the Projedion for the Conflrudtion of Solar Eclipfes.

As the ecliptic is inclined to the equator, and cuts it in
two oppofite points, the fun keeps continually approaching
to one pole, and receding from the other by turns, ard

ECLIPSE.

therefore to a f{petator at the fun, the poles muft appear
and difappear by turas. When the fun is on tbe north fide
of the equator, the north pole mutt appear; and when on
the fouth fide, the fouth pole: When the fun is in the
equator, the plane of illumination is perpendicular to the
equator, and, confequently, the poles will lie in the cir-
cumference of the circle of illumination; when the fun

‘comes to the tropic, the pole will appear in the middle of

its path over the circle of illumination ; and when the fun
comes to the next equinox, the pole will appear on the other
fide of the circle of illumination. When the fun gets on the
other fide of the equator, this pole will difappear, and the
other will appear in like manner. Hence, to,a {peGator at
the fun, the apparent motion of the'pole P ( fig.82.)is the fame
as if the axis P p of the earth had an annual conical motion
PrQs, pngm, about an axis G O I’, perpendicular to the
ecliptic E OC, the angle P O G being equal to the greateft
declination. of the fun. As thefe circles, Pr Qs, pngm,
are parallel to the ecliptic, their planes will pais through
the fun, and therefore to a {pectatorat the fun, the apparent
motion of the poles will be in the ftraight lines PQ, pgs
and as P moves as faft in the circle Pr Qs as the fun docs
in the ecliptic, if P be the place of the pole at the equinox,
and we take the arc Pv equal to the fun’s diftance from
that equinox, and draw vo perpendicular to PQ, o will be
the apparent place of the pole at that time, It is manifelt
that Pv may be. fet off upon any circle defcribed on PQ.
Hence, alfo, the angle which the axis vO w makes with
the plane of illumination muft be equal to the declination of
the fun. As this apparent motion of the pole over the en«
lightened dife of the earth is caufed by tbe motion of the
earth in its orbit, the motion of the pole over the difc will
be in a direétion contrary to the diurnal motion of the difc ;
if, therefore, P be the pofition of the pole at the vernal
equinox, and Pr Q be its motion over the difc of the earth
to the next equinox, the diurnal motion of the difc will be
made in the contrary dire€tion.

When the fun, and confequently the fpectatcr, who is
fuppofed to be at the fun, is in the equator, the {peCtator
being in the plane of the equator, and, as to fenfe, in the
plans of all the circles parallel to it, they will all appear to

e projected upon the circle of illumination into right lines.
parallel to each other. But when the fun, and confequently
the {pe€tator, is out of the equator, the equator, and all the
circles parallel to it, being feen obliquely, will appear to be
projected into ellipfes upon the plane of illumination, as the
eye may be conlidered at an infinite diftance; and as the ©
eye has the fame’ relative fituation to all thefe circles, the
ellipfes muft be all fimilar. When the fun ison the north
fide of the equator, that part of tbe ellipfe which is the
projection of that part’ of the circle which lies between the
north pole and equator on the enlightened bemifphere will be
concave tothe pole ; but when the fun is on the other fide of
the equator, that part will be convex. That is, let P (fg. 83.)
be the north pole on the enlightened hemifphere, the fun being
on the north fide of the equator, and vx yz, amba, the
ellipfes into which the equator and any parallel to it are
projected ; thea amd. is that part of the ellipfe which the
place on this parailel defcribes in the day, and the other part
bna is that which is defcribed in the night ; and the place
is at mat 12 at noon, and at 2 at 12 at midnight. In this
cafe, the other pole p miuft be conlidered as being on the
other, or dark fide of the earth. But if P be fuppofed on the
dark fide, and confequently p on the light fide, or if the fur
be on the fouth fide of the equator, 2 will be 12 at noon,
and m will be «2 atmidnight. For if P, (fig. 84.) be the axis,
1 N the plane upon which the circle g2 is to be projeGed, E

‘ 8 Gr the

ECLIPSE.

+.the fun on that fide next to the north pole ; then, drawing
Lem, Ex}, the poiot @ anfwering te noon, the fun being
on the meridizn, is projected at m, andthe point 6, anfwering
to midnight, is projected at'ag but when the fon is on

, the other fide of a d,asat 2, ais projeGed to 7! and } to ta! ;
therefore 2! reprefents noon and m! midnight. On account
6f the @reat diftance of the fun, compared with the radius of
the earth, the ines E a, Eb, and ea, ed may be confidered
as parallel. and therefore the circle a 6 is orthographically
projeied upon the plane LN into an ellipfe, whofe minor
a¥18 is 277, or mm! n'.

The next thing to be done is to determine the magnitude
of the ellipfe ato which the circle 2b is proje@ed, and its poti-
tion ‘upon the plane of illumination. Let Pp (fig.85.) re-
prefent the axis.of the earth, asbta circle of lautude to any
place, LL. PN» the meridian paffing through the fun, and
1, ON the plane upon which the projection is made; then
she angle LO P is equal to the fun’s declination ; draw am,
é2, vr, perpendicular to L O, and man is the minor axis of
the ellipfe; let »s be that radins of the circle 25 which is
parallel to the: plane of projetion, and it will be projeGted
mto a line equal to itfelf, and confeqnently it will be the
major axis: hence 2 vs, or 2 va, or 2 col. lat. is the major

_ axis of the ellipfe; but mx (the projection of ad upon LN)
2 2:: fin. maé, or POL the dec. : radius; that is, the
, axis thejor : axis minor :: rad. : fin. declination. And to
find the diftance Or from the centre of projeétion to the
centre of the ellipfe, we have, rad. = 1 : cof. vOrthe
dec.:: vO: Or = vO x cof. dec. = fin. lat. x cof.
dec. But the radius of the projeGion is the horizontal
parallax of the moon, diminithed by the horizontal parallax
of the fun; the radius, therefore, thus expreffed, being
multiplied by the quantities, whofe values are expreiled
when radits is feppoied to be unity, give the value in terms
of that radius; hence, if hor. par. ) — hor. par. © = 4,
then 4 x cof. lat. = the femi-axis major of the ellipfe;
A x cof. lat. x fin. dec. = the femi-axis minor; and
Or=h x fin. lat. x cof.dec. Thus we have gottea
the dimenfions and poiition of the ellipfe in terms of the
fadius ef projection. Hence we have the following con-
RKruGtion for the.apparent ellipfe deferibed by any place on
the earth’s furface to a fpeGtater at the fun.

Let GCFE (jig. 86.) be that half of the earth which is illu-
minated, EC the plane of the ecliptic, G O F’ perpendicular
to it; take GQ = GV equal to the fun’s greateft declina-
tion, join Q V,-and on it defcribe the femi-circle VK Q;
and take V / equal to the fun’s diftance from the vernal
equinox correfponding to the pole at V, and draw 4 P per-
pendicular to VQ, and P is the place of the pole, which
* we will fuppofe to be on the enlightened dile of the earth.
Put c = cof. V4, 2 = fin. V G, m = its cofine, to radius
unity; then

PoseV <:¢82
eV: OG::n:1
<7 CeO A=) icc, Xie sibs

hence Pe= AX CX.

Alfo, 4 x m= Oc; hences x mth xc xX ni tad.
cxn

2 tan... PO, — =c X tan. 23° 28! = 04341208

m
x ¢ Draw POs, and upon OP take Or = 4 x fin.
lat. x cof. dec. ; draw bra perpendicular to O P, and
takera =rb=h x cof. lat. andrm=rn=h x col.
fat x fin. dec. and defcribe an ellipfe amd n, and it will re-
prefent the apparent diurnal path of the place to a fpectator
at the fun, for the given declination of the fun. If x and =
be the points where the ellipfe touches the circle GC FE,

the part xambx will be on the illuminated part of the
earth, and therefore vifible to a fpectator at the fun, and
the part zn x on the dark part, P being the north pole, and
the fan’s deciination north ; bet if the declination be fouth,
xn will be the part on the illuminated fide of the earth, and
zbmasx on the dark part. Let the decimation be north,
and a the weft fide of the dife; then, to find where the
given’ place on the earth’s furface, is at any time, we may
obferve, that the place defcribing the circle which is pro-
jected into the ellipfe amdn moves uniformly in that circle,
from the uniform motion of the earth about its axis; let,
therefore, ay bea circle ; then, if every ordinate de dimi-
nifed in the ratio of yr: mr, thé-circle will be proje@ed
into the elipfe am ; this femi-circle may, therefore, repre-
feot the half of the diurnal motion of the given place, fo far
as it is neceflary to obtain the correfponding pofitions of the
place inthe ellipfe. For, divide the femi-circle ay d into rz
equal parts from a, at 7, 8; 9, 10; 11, L2, I; 25 35 45 5, 65
reprefenting the pofitions ot the given place from a at fix
o’cleck in the morning, to Jat fix m the evening, and thefe
figures will reprefent the politions of the given place at the
refpeGtive hours denoted by the figures; and if the dotted
lines be drawn perpendicular to @ 4, the correfponding points
denoted by the fame figures will reprefent the politions of
the place in the ellipfe. This ellipfe may be very accurately
deferibed, by diminifhing each ordinate of the circle perpen-
dicelar to ad im the ratio of yr to m7, by taking a proper
number of ordinates, and then deferibing a curve through all
the points; ‘acd if thefe lines be continued to the other half
of the ellipfe, the hours, as there marked, will correfpond
to the pofitions of the giver place. If each divifion of the
femi-circle be divided into 10 equal parts, and ordinates be
drawn to a6, the ellipfe will be divided into every fix mi-
nutes; and if the {cale be large enough, and thele divifions
on the ellipfe be fubdivided into fix equal parts, the ellipfe
will be divided into minutes, for there will be no oceafion
to ufe the circle for this ]a& fubdivifion. Thus, we can
always find the apparent pofition of any place on the carth’s
furface to a {peftator at the fun.

Draw 11<v and 11d perpendicular to ry; then 11
= 11d is the fine of 15° to the radius ra; and, by the
principles. of projection, yr: mri: yd:mw, therefore, as
y dis the verted fine of 15° to the radius yr, mw mutt be
the verfed fine of 15° to the radius mrs hence, if we
take the fine and veried fine of 15° to radius unity, and
multiply them into ra and rm refpectively, they will give
the values of 11 cv and mw; and it rm be muitiplied-into
the cofine of 15°, it gives rw. The fame fer any other
angle. j

It has been proved above, thatOr=h x fin. lat. x cof. dec.
andra=4 x cof.lat.; hence, Or: ra:: fin, lat. x cof. dec. :
fin. lat. x cof. dee,

cof. lat.
= ra x tan. lat. x cof. dec.; therefore, if +a and eof.
dec. be conftant, Or varies as tan. lat. Alfo, the radius of
projection muft vary inverfely as the cofine of the’ latitude.

Having determined-the fituation of the ellipfe for any one
latitude, in refpect to the centre of proje&ion, as the cllipfes
for all latitudes are fimilar, if the declination be given, we
may make ufe of the fame ellipfe for all latitudes, only by

cof. lat.; confequently, Or =ra x

altering Or in a proper ratio; for, if ra and the declination -

remain conftant, rO varies as the tangent of latitude.
Hence, take rO: 7 O! as the tangent of the latitude for
which the projection was made ;: tangent of any other lati
tude, and O! will be the centre of projeGion, whofe radius
is alfo known; and @ mdz is the ellipfe for that a

2- et

>

-

~

EC LIPS fF.

Let e be any pofition of the given place, and join
eQ; then the angle under which E O appears at the fun
is the fun’s horizontal parallax; alfo the angle under
which ¢ O appears at the fun mutt be the parallax im altitude
at the pomt ¢, for the fun being vertical to O, the are cor-

_ refponding to ¢O is the zenith diftance of the fun at the

given place, and e O isthe fine of that are from the nature
of the projeGtion; but the hors parallax : parallax at any al-
‘titude :: rad. ; fine of the zenith dillance:: OE: Oc;
hence if O E reprefent the horizontal parallax, Oe will re-
prefent the parallax in altitude at ce. Alfo ase reprefents
the zenith of the given place, eO reprefents the vertical
ci:cle pafling threugh the fun, The ufe of this projeStion is
to conftruct the phafes and times of a folar eclipfe, as we
fhall now proceed to.explain.

Let S( fig 57.) be thecentre of the fun, xv the enlightened
hemifphere of the earth, which we muft conceive to be perpen-
dicular to SC; draw SD, SV, tangents to two oppofite
points of the caith, and let amdn be the apparent ellipfe
deferibed by any point m on the eacth’s {urface ; let O C be
-the diftance of the moon from the earth, and vd, a’m'd'n!
be the projection of V D, amin upon a plane at the moon
perpendicular to S O, to an eye at S, and a'm'd'n' will be the

* apparent motion of the centre of the fun at S to the {peGa-
tor defcribing ambn. The curve a’m')'n' may be con-
fidered as an ellipfe; for the angle DSC being only 83”,
D 5S, CS may be reckoned as parallel, and therefore the pro-
jection of D V upon a plane parallel to it may be confidered
asan orthographic projection, and confequently the two
figures may im all refpects be confidered as fimilar, Let
LM be the orbit of the moon; then if we know at any time
the point of the ellipfe amdn where the fpectator is, we
know the correfpouding point where the centre of the
fun is in the ellipfe a'mn'l’'n'; if therefore we determine at
the fame time the point where the moon is in its orbit L M,
‘we fhall know the apparent fituation of the moon in refpect
tothe fun. Hence if we find two points, one in the ellipfe
‘a'm'b’n' where the centre of the fun is, and another in LM
where the centre of the moon is at the fame time, and about

» thefe centres, with radii equal to the apparent femi-diameters
of the fun and moon, we defcribe two circles, they will re-
prefent the apparent fituations of the twovdifcs. If that of
the moon fall upon the fun, it fhews how much the fun is
eclipfed at that inftant. Now the angle OVv=COV —
‘OSV, that is, the radius of projeGion is equal to the dif-

"= ference of the horizontal parallaxes of the moon and fun.
The projeftion Oe’ of Ce is the parallax in altitude of the
‘moon from the fun, {uppofing the moon to be at the fame
altitude 2s the fun; for the radius O o reprefents the dif-
ference of the horizontal parallaxes of the fun and moon, or

the horizontal parallax of the moon from the fun; and as

;

a?

the parallax of cach varies as the fine of the apparent ze-
mith diftance ; the diflance, the cifference of the parallaxes
muft vary as the fine of their common apparent zeni‘h
‘@iftance; hence Ow : Oc’ :: difference of the hori-
‘zontal parallaxes : difference of the parallaxes at their com-
mon apparent altitude; therefore, if Ov réprefent the third
term, O ¢ will reprefent the fourth. In an eclipfe of the

fun, therefore, this will be nearly true, but not accurately fo,

except when the fun and moon are at the fame altitude.
_ The place of the pole of the earth is here fuppofed to be
fixed during the time of the ectipfe, and confequently the
earth is fappofed to be immoveable for that time; the fun’s
declination is alfé fuppofed to be conftant for the fame time ;
but as thefe circumitances do not take place, the projeéted

thy ein of the fpeGtator will not be accurately an cilipfe.

rn
Wi

de la Caille obferves, that in this proje€tion, all the er-
_ ¥ors ariling from the finite diftances of the fun and moon are

fuppofed to be compenfated, by making the fem?-diamcter
ot the proj2€tion equal to the difference of their horizontal
parallaxes ; whereas only a:part of the lines fhould be <i-
minifhed in that ratio. The fun alfo not being et an inft-
anite diftance, the projeétion will not be an accurate ellipfe.
The {pheroidical figure of the earth is-alfo here not con-
fidered. All thefe cireumftances tend to render the method
of det-rmining the phafes of an eclipfe by this contru&ion
fabje& to a certain degree of inaccuracy; but if the con-
{truétion be mad2 upon a large feals, it will be fufficient'y
accurate, whea we only want to predi&t an eclipfe. If Sbe
a fixed flar, the fame conftru€tion will give the time of its
occultation by the moon. In this cafe, as the fixed flar
has no parallax, the radius of projz€tion is equal to the ho-
rizontal parallax of the moon.

To calculate an Lclipfe of the Sun for any particular Place.

Waving determined that there will be an eclipfe fomewhere
upon the earth, compute, by the altronomical tables, the true
longitudes of the fun and moon, and the moon’s true latitude,
at the time of mean conjuntion ; find alfo the horary mo-
tions of the fun and moon in longitude, and the moon’s ho-
rary motion in Jatitude; and compute the time of the
ecliptic conjun@tion of the fun and moon, in the fame manner
as the time of the ecliptic oppofition was computed. At
the ume of the ecliptic conjunction, compute the fun’s and
moon’s longitude, and the moon’s latitude; find alfo the
equatorial horizontal parallax of the moon from the tables
of the moon’s motion, and reduce it to the horizontal, pa-
rallax for the given latitude, from which fubtraét the fun’s
horizontal parallax, and yon get che horizontal parallax of
the moon from the fun; reduce alfo the apparent latitude
of the place on the {pheroid to the latitude on a {phere.

To this reduced latitude of the place, and the correfpond-
ing horizontal parallax of the moon from the fun, (which we
here ufe inftead of the horizontal parallax of the moon, as
we want to find what effec the parallax has in altering their
‘apparent relative fituations,) at the time of the ecliptic con-
jun&icn, compute the moon’s parallax in Jatitude and longis
tude from the fun; the parallax in latitude applied to the
true latitude gives the apparent latitude (L) of the moon from
the fun; and the parallax in longitude fhews the apparent
difference (D) of the longitudes of the fun and moon.

Let S be the fun, (fig. 88.) EC the ecliptic; takeSM =
D, draw MN perpendicular to M S, and take it = L, then
N is the apparent place of the moon, and SN= V D?+ L?
is the apparent diltance of the moon from the fun.

If the mocn be to the eaft of the nonagefimal degree, the
parallax increafes the longitude ; if to the welt, it diminifhes
it, hence if the true longitudes of the fun and moon be equal,
in the former cafe the apparent place will lie from S towards
I, and in the latter towards C. To fome time, as an hour,
after the true conjunction if the apparent place be towards
C, or if the moon be to the weft of the nonagefimal degree ;
cr before the trie conjunction if the appasent place be to-
wards E, or if the moon be to the eat of the nonagefimal
degree, find the fun’s and moon’s true longitude, and the
moon’s true latitude, from their horary motions ; .and at the
fame time compute the moon’s parallax in latitude and
longitude from the fun ; apply the parallax in latitude to
the true latitude, and it gives the apparent latitude (/) of
the moon from the fun; take the difference of the fun’s and
moon’s true longitude, and apply the parallax in longitude,
‘and it gives the apparent diftance (d@) of the moon from the
fun in longitude. From S fet off SP=d,andto EC
ere& the perpendicular PQ equal to /, and Q 1s the appa-
rent place of the moon.at one hour from the true conjunc-

tion; and SQ Wa +P js the apparent diftance of the
moon

ECLIPSE. B

« é
near to the apparent conjunction, that is, within 10 or 1§ mi»

moon from the fun; draw the ftraight line NQ, and
it will reprefent the relative apparent path of the moen,
cenfidered as a ftraight line, in general it being very nearly
fo; its value alfo reprefents the relative horary’ motion of
the moon in the apparent orbit, the relative horary motion
in Jongitude being M P.

The difference between the moon’s apparent diftance in
longitude from the fun at the time ot the true ecliptic con-
junction, and at the interval of an hour, gives the apparent
horary motion (r) in longitude of the moon from the fun ; the
difference (D) between the true longitude at the ecliptic
conjunétion, and the moon’s apparent longitude is the appa-
rent diftance of the moon from the fun in longitude at the
¢rue time of the ecliptic conjunGion ; hence r: D:: 1
hour : the time from the true to the apparent conjundtion,
confequently we know the me of the apparent conjunétion.
To find whether this time is accurate, we may compute
(from the horary motions of the fun and moon) their true
longitudes, and the moon’s parallax in longitude from the
fun, and apply it to the true longitude and it gives the ap-
parent longitude, and if this be the fame as the fun’s longi-
tude, the time of the apparent conjunétion is truly found ;
af they be not the fame, find from thence the true time, as
before. To the true time of the apparent conjunétion, find
the moon’s true latitude from its horary motion, and com-
pute the parallax in Jatitude, and you get the apparent la-
titude at the time of the apparent conjunGion. DrawS A
perpendicular to C E and equal to this apparent latitude; then
the point A will probably not fallin NQ; firft let it fall
in Q.N, to which draw S B perpendicular, and N R paral-
lel to PM. Then knowing NR (= PM), and QR
G2 MN), we have

NR:RQ:: rad.: tan. QNR,or ASB
Sin, QNRirad.:: QR: QN

The time of defcribing NQ in the apparent orbit being
equal to the time from M to P in longitude, N Q is the ho-
rary motion in the apparent orbit.

Radi: fn. ASB::AS:AB.
Rade? cof. ASB:: AS:SB.

At the apparent conjunétion the moon appears at A,
swhich time is knowns; whenthe moon appears at B, it is at
ts neareft diftance from the fun, and confequently the time

s that of the greateft obf{curation, (ufually called the time
©Ff the middle,) provided there is an eclipfe, which will al-
ways be the cafe when S B is lefs than the fum of the ap-
parent femi-diameters of the fun and moon. If therefore it
appears that there will be an eclipfe, we proceed thus to
find its quantity, and the beginuing and end. As we may
confider the motion to be uniform, QN :AB:: the time

of defcribing NQ=: the time of deferibing AB, which
added to or fubtracted from the time at A, (according as the
apparent latitude is decreafing or increafing,) gives the time
of the greateft obfcuration. Or inftead of taking QN,
and the time of defcribing it, we may take Avn.and the
correfponding time, which will be more accurate.

From the fum of the apparent femi-diameters of the fun
and moon fubtraé&t BS, and the remainder fhews how much
of the fun is covered by the moon, or the parts deficient ;
hence, femid. © : parts deficient :: 6 digits: the digits
eclipfed. If SB be lefs than the difference of the femi-dia-
meters of the fun and moon, and the moon’s femi-diameter
be the greater, the eclipfe will be fota/; but if it be the /e/*,
the eclipfe will be annular, the fun appearing all round the
moon; if Band S coincide, the eclipfe will be central.

Let A fall out of QN; and to incveafe the accuracy,
6

nutes, calculate the apparent longitude mS of the moon
from the fun, and the apparent latitude ma; draw nr pa-

4

rallel to Siz; and in the triangle Amr, find the angle Adr —

which is equal to ASB, and compute SB, AB as before.
But except in cafes where very great accuracy is required,
this is unneceflary. If NQ were a perfeé& ftraight line, the
firft operation would give the correct values of AB, BS.
Kepler, in an eclipfe in 1598, found a curvature of more
than 3/ in three hours, becaufe the moon was very near the
nonagefimal. Inthe eclipfein 1764, M. de la Lande found
a curvature of 26", but he does not fay in what time. It is
owing to this circumiftance, that is, the curvature of NQ,
that it is neceffary to find another point near to A, in order
to determine accurately the values of AB, SB. Having
determined the value of SB, and the time of the greatcit
obfcuration, we thus find the beginning and end. ;

Produce, if neceflary, Q.N, and take SV, SW equal to
the fum of the apparent femi-diameters of the ‘fun and
moon, at the beginning and end ref{peCtively ; then BV =
Vv SV? — Sb (B being now fuppofed in QN), and BW
= / SW? — Sb’; thento find the times of defcribing
thefe fpaces, fay, as the houriy motion of the moon in the
apparent orbit, or NQ,: BV :: r hour: the time of de-
feribing VB; and NQ: BW:: x hour: the time of de-
{cribing BW, which times refpetively fubtraG@ed from and
added to the time of the greateit obfcuration, give nearly
the times of the beginning and end. But if accuracy be
required, this method will not do; for it fuppofes VW to be
a ftraight line, which fuppofition will caufe errors, too con-
fiderable in general to be negle&ted, and will never do where
great accuracy is required. It may, however, always ferve
as a rule to affume the time of the beginning and end.
Hence it follows, that the time of the greateft obfcuration
at B, is not neceffarily equi-diftant from the beginning and
end.

If the eclipfe be total, take Sv, Sau equal to the differs
ence of the femi-diameters of the fun and moon, and then
Bu =Bw= V Sv? — SB’, from whence we may find
the times of defcribing Bv, Bav, as before, which we may
confider as equal, and which applied to the time of the
greateft obf{curation at B, give the time of the beginning and
end of the total darknefs.

To find more accurately the time of the beginning and end
of the eclipfe, we muft proceed thus (fig.89.) At the eftimate

-ed time of the beginning, find, from the horary motions, and

the computed parallaxes, the apparent latitude MN of the
moon, andits apparent longitude MS from the fan, and we
have SN = ./5M?* + MN’, and if this be equal to the
apparent femid. ( + femid. © (which fum call S) the efti-
mated time is the time of the beginning ; but if SN be not
equal to S, aflume (as the error direéts) another time at a
{mall interval from it, Zefore, if SN be /e/ than S, but afters
if it be greater ; to that time compute again the moon’s ap-
parent latitude mn, and apparent longitude Sm from the
fun, and find Sn = “Sm? + mn’; and if this be not equal
to S, proceed thus; as the difference of Sz and SN : the
difference of Sn and SL (= S) :: the above affumed interval
of time, or time of the motion through Nz, : the time
through 7L, which added to or {ubtraéted from the time at
n, according as Sn is greater or lefs than SL, gives the time
of the begianing. ‘The reafon of this operation is, that as
Nz, 2L are very {mall, they will be very nearly proportional
to the differences of SN, Sm, and Sn, SL. But as the
variation of the apparent diftance of the fun from the moon
is not exaétly in proportion to the variation of the differences
of the apparent longitudes and latitudes, in cafes where the

utmoft

ECuInS

\

" moft accuracy is required, the time of the beginning thus

found (if it appear to be not corre&t) may be corredted, by
affuming it for a third time, and proceeding as before.
correction, however, will never be neceflary, except where
extreme accuracy-is required in order to deduce fome con-

. fequences from it. But the time thus found is to be con-
fidered as accurate, only fo far as the tables of the fun and
moon can be depended upon for their accuracy ; and the belt
lunar tables are fubjeét to an error of 30" in Jongitude,
which, in this eclipfe, would make an error of about a mi-
nute an half in the time of the beginning and end. Hence
accurate obfervations of an eclipfe, compared with the com-
puted time, furnifhes “the means of correéting the lunar
tables, as will be afterwards explained. In the fame man=
ner, the end of the eclipfe may be computed.

Example—To compute the Times of the Solar Eclipfe on April 3,
1791; for the Royal Olfervatory at Greenwich.

The time of the mean conjunction is April 3, 2° 58! 15”
Mcan time, at which time we find
Mean long. of the fun -

Long. of the the moon’s defc. node

fo TAM Tah
0 22 14 44

0 10 23 28

Mean long. of © from @’s node

Hence there muft be an eclipfe fomewhere upon the earth.

To the mean time of the new moon, compute the fun’s
and moon’s true longitudes, and they will be found to be
o* 13°47! 43", and os 14° 49! 24''; compute alfo the moon’s
true latitude, and it will be found to be 38’ 49" N. defcend-
ing. At the fame time, the fun’s horary motion is found
to be 228", the moon’s horary motion in longitude is 30’
12", and in latitude 2! 46" decreafing; hence the moon’s
horary motion in longitude from the fun is 27! 44!"

- By proceeding as before direfted, we find the mean time
of the ecliptic conjunGion of the fun and moon to be 3° o*
44 48', from which fubtra&t 3718" the equation of time,
and it gives the apparent time 340" 41/30"; at which time,
the fun’s and moon’s longitude in the ecliptic is 0° 13° 42'
14/'; and the moon’s true latitude is 44! 59" N. defcending.
The horizontal parallax of the moon is 54’ 46", and of the
fun, 9!'; hence the horizontal parallax of the moon from the
fun is 54! 37"; therefore the moon’s parallax in longitude
from the fun is — 20! 56", and its parallax in latitude from
the fun is — 33’ 44"; hence — 20! 56’ is the apparent dif-
tance of the moon from the fun in longitude ; alfo the ap-
parent latitude from the fun is 11! 15" north.

As the moon is to the weft of the nonagefimal degree, af-
fume 1 hour after, or 3° 1° 41! 30", at which time (from
the horary motions of the fun and moon) the fun’s true
longitude is found to be o* 13° 44/42!, the moon’s true
longitude on the ecliptic o° 14° 12’ 26', and true latitude
42! 13" north defcending. The moon’s parallax in latitude
is — 30’ 41"; hence the moon’s apparent latitude is 1! 32/5
alfo its parallax in longitude from the fun is — 28’ 50! but
the moon’s true longitude exceeds the fun’s by 0° 27! 44";
therefore the apparent diftance of the moon from the fun in
longitude is — 1!6". Hence,

Moon’s apparent dift. in long. at 0° 41!30"—= —20! 56!
atl 4130=— 1 6

Apparent hor. mot. ¢ from © in long. 19 50= MP.

* Hence 19! 50! : 20" 56" :: x hour : 1" 3! 20", which
added to the time of the true conjunétion o” 41! 30", gives
1" 44’ 50", the time of the apparent conjunétion. Alfo the
RQ; hence

“lt —

apparent horary motion in latitude is 17" =

QNN is very nearly equal to MP.

_*

This ~

At this tine (from the horary motions) the fun’s true
longitude is found to be o* 13° 44!-50!, the moon’s of 14°
14’ 7", and the moon’s true latitude 42’ 4"; hence the
moon’s true longitude is greater than the fun’s by 29! 17".

The moon’s parallax in latitude from the fun is — 30' 32",

and in longitude — 29! 15"; hence the moon’s apparent
latitude is t1° 32" north; alfo the apparent longitude from
the fun is 29/17" — 29' 15 = 2", which is what the moon’s

apparent longitude exceeds the fun’s true longitude.

This difference fhews the apparent conjunét‘on, foynd
above, to be very nearly true; and to get it accurate, fay,
1g! 50": 2":: 1 hour: 6!, which (as the moon’s apparent
longitude is the greater) fubtra&ed from 1" 44’ 50! gives
1" 44’ 44", the true time of the apparent conjunétion, at
which time the moon’s apparent longitude is o° 13° 44! 50",
the fame as the fun’s true longitude, that not having fenlibly
varied in 6” of time. The apparent latitude is 11! 32.25.
Now at 1” 41' 30! the moon’s apparent diltance in longitude
from the fun has been fhewn tobe 1’ 6"; and at 1° 44’ 44!"
the longitude of the fun, and the moon’s apparent longitude
are equal; therefore in 3/14” the apparent motion of the
moon from the fun was 1’ 6’ = 66”; let this = Sm, or ar;
alfo at 1° 41! 30", the apparent latitude mz = 11’ 32", and
at 1° 44’ 44" it was 11/32/25 = SA; therefore Ar=
o%.25. Hence,

66!': oll_25 :: rad.:: tan Anr, or SAB = 13" 1!
As the angle Azr is fo very fmall, we may take An = rn-
= 66" without any fenfible error; and for the fame reafon
SB may be taken = SA = 11! 32!!,
Rad; 2 fin. 13’r"':: 11! 32": AB =-2li6

Hence An= 66" : AB= 2".6 :: 3! 14" : 8! the time
through BA, which taken from 1° 44! 44" gives 1° 44! 367
the time of the greateft obfcuration at B.

The moon’s horizontal femi-diameter is 14! 56", and its
altitude at the time of the greateft obfcuration (determined
by a globe, which is fufficiently near for this purpofe) is:
about 38°, hence the augmentstion of the diameter is 9",
confequently the apparent femi-diameter of the moon is 15!

", which added to 15! 59" the fun’s femi-diamer, gives 31°
4", from which fubtraé&t S B = 11! 32", and the remainder
is 19! 32" the parts deficient ; hence 15! 59! : 19! 31" :: &
digits; 7719'57" the digits eclipfed at the time of the
greateft obfcuration.

To find the time of the beginning, we muft firft get the
time nearly. The value of SB = 11! 32! = 692"; and as
the apparent femi-diameter of the moon is now 15' 6", we
have SV = 31! 5! = 1865"; hence BV = 1732". Now
as MP is, in this cafe, nearly equal to QN, we may, for
the purpofe we here want it, ailume the apparent horary
motion of the moon from the fun in the apparent orbit equal
to that in longitude, which is 19! 50’ = 1190"; hence
r1go": 1732" :: t hour: 1" 27! 20", which fubtradcted from.
1" 44! 36" (the time at B) gives o” 17! 16! the time of the
beginning, nearly. Let us therefore aflume the beginning,
at o° 17/, at which time we find (from the horary motions
of the fun and moon). the fun’s true longitude to be o° 13°
41' 15", and the moon’s o* 13° a9! 55", whofe difference is
11 20" their true diitance in longitude; but the moon’s pa-
rallax in longitude is — 17'45"; hence their apparent diftance
in longitude is 29! 5" = 1745". At the fame time the moon’s
true latitude is 46/7", and its parallax in latitude — 35! 10".
hence the apparent latitude of the moon from the fun is 10!
57"; therefore SN = V 17457 + 6577 = 1864" = 31! 4",
which being lefs than 31! 5" fhews that the eclipfe is begun.

Let us next affume o" 16/; and by proceeding in the fame
manner, we find Su = 1883" = 31' 23"; therefore the
eclipfe is not begun,

Heace

ECLIPSE.

Hence gi! 23! ig thal = 10! 991! 5M gates rls.
1 minute : 3, which fubtraéted from o” 19/, gives o" 16!
57! for the beginning of the eclipfe.

If to 1” 44! 36" we add 1° 27! 20", we-have 3" 11! 56!!;
we will therefore aflume 3" 12! for the end; and by pro-
ceeding as before, we find the apparent diflance of the moon
from the fun in longitude to be 30! 37", arid the moun’s ap-
parent latitude ro! 48!"; hence the moon’s apparent diltance
from the fun is +/ 18377 + 6457 = 1945" = 32' 28"; but
the fum of the apparent femi-diameters of the fun and moon
is now 31! 2!'; confequently the eclipfe is ended.

Let us next affume the time 3" 6’, and the apparent dif-
tance of the moon from the fun in longitude is 28! 28", and
in latitude 10! 55’; hence the moon’s apparent diltance
from the funis / 1708* + 655° =
fore the eclipfe is not ended,

Hence 32! 28 — 30! 29! = 1' 59" : 31! 2! — 30! 29! =
33" :: 6; 1' 39", which added to 3" 6!, gives 3" 7! 39!' for
the end.

Hence at the Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich, the tables
give the time of the eclipfe on April 3, 1791,

1829! = 30! 29", there-

Beginning = of 16! 57"
Greatett obfcuration 1 44 36 papparent time.
End 4 3.7 30 -

* Digits etlipfed - 74109! 57"

If it be required to compute the-eclipfe for any other
place, inftead of the latitude of Greenwich, ufe the latitude
ofthe place; and reduce the apparent time at Greenwich
to the apparent time at the place, according to the difference
of the meridians,

To find what point of the fun’s limb will firlt be touched by
the moon, let P (fiz. go.) be the pole of the ecliptic KS, Z
the zenith, S, M, the ceutres of the fun and moon when their
limbs are in contac at a, and draw MD perpendicular to
ES. PZ is the altitude of the nonagefimal degree, and
SPZ is the fun’s diftance from that point, both which are
found in the computation of the parallax ; alfo M D is the
apparent latitude of the moon; hence, 2

Rad. : tanP Zs: fin. SP Z : tanP SZ

Tan. SM: rad. :: tan. DS: cof. DS M
Tf L be thelongitude of the nonagefimal degree, then ZS D
= 90° — PSZ; when the fun’s longitude is between L and
L + 180°; otherwife, ZS D = 90°+ PS Z; and ZSD
+ MS D (according as the moon’s vifible Jatitude is fouth
or north) gives ZS M, the diftance of the point of the limb
of the fun firft touched by the moon from the higheft point
of the fun’s difes

In thiseclipfe, PZ = 50° 7!, and SPZ = 25° 16!; hence
PSZ = 27° 3!, which, in this cafe, added to go, gives 157°
3'=Z SD; alfo DSM = 20° 42!, which, (as the moon’s
apparent latitude is north) fubtraéted from 117° 3/, gives
ZSM = g6° 21/, the moon’s diftance from the zenith of the
fun at the beginning of the eclipfe. In like manner, the
diftance at the middle and end of the eclipfe may be found,
and thence the apparent path of the moon over the fun’s
dife in refpe& to the horizon may be deferibed.

In the computation of this eclipfe, the moon’s true lati-
tude and longitude was at firft computed from the tables,
and afterwards determined from the horary motions; but
as the horary motions may be fubjceé& to a {mall variation in
the duration of an eclipfe, in cafes where the utmoft accu-
racy is required, the true latitude and longitude fhould be
computed every time from the tables; in fuch cafes, the de-
cimals of the feconds fhould alfo be taken into confideration,
which in this example were omitted. When we want only
to prediét an eclipfe, the method here pra@tifed will always
be fufficiently accurate, the error being always very {mall,

compared with the error to which the tables are fubjed)
which may, at its maximum, be 30” in longitude.” We have
followed the fame method in computing the occultation of
afixed ftar by the moon; that computation, therefore, may,
if neceffary, be rendered more corre& in the fame manner.

To conffrad a Solar Eclipfe by the Principles of Projedion.

According to this proje€tion, the apparent ellipfe defcribed
by any point on the earth’s furface, to any eye at the centre
of the fun, is projeéted upon a plane at the moon perpendi-,
cular toa line joining the earth and fun; and the point of
the ellipfe of projeétion, correfponding to any point of the
other ellipfe where the fpeftator is, 1s the point where the
centre of the fun appears to the fpeétator. The centre of
projection isin the ecliptic. If the lunar orbit be pro-
perly laid down and divided, fhewing where the centre of,
the moon is at any time, we fhall then have the relative
fituation of the centres of the fun and moon at any time
feen from the given place of the fpe€tator. From thefe
principles of projeGlion, we thus conftruct the folar eclipfe
which we have here calculated; afluming fuch elements as
are neceflary, from that calculation.

Takea radius OE (fig.o1.) equal to 54! 37”, thedifference
of the fun’s and moon’s horizontal parallaxcs, and divide it
into minutes, and deferibe the {emi-circle E G C reprefenting
half the cricle of projeGion, E OC reprefenting the ecliptic,
to which draw OG perpendicular. Find P, the, projeéted
north pole; from the feale OF, take Or = 54! 39” %
fin. lat. x cof. dec. and ina line perpendicular to Or fet off
both ways r6 = 4 x cof. lat. and rm = rn2=h x cof. lar.
x fin. dec. and defcribe the ellipfe m6n6, and divide it into
hours; and then fubdivide thofe hours which you will want
to make ufe of, as far as you conveniently can for the fize of
the figure. From the feale take Ow equal 44' 59", the
moon’s true latitude north defcending at the time of the
ecliptic conjuntion, and draw Law M, making an angle with
O vw equal to 84° 18’, the complement of the angle which the
relative orbit makes with the ecliptic, on the /e/t fide, if the
latitude be north or fouth decreafing, and on the right, af
increafing; in this example it is on the left fide; and Law M
will reprefent the mocn’s relative orbit. Mark upon the

ad

moon’s orbit, at the point v, 41/ 30”, that being the time ~

after 12 o’clock at which the true ecliptic conjunétion hap-
pens; and with an extent = 27' 52", the horary motian of
the moon from the fun in its relative orbit, fet off the hours
each way from v, and fubdivide them into minutes, ar as far
as the fize of the figure will permit. Now to find the time
of the middle of the eclipfe, take the compafs, and find, by
trial, what two correfponding times, as at's and x, upon the
ellipfe and moon’s orbit, are neareft together, which will
give the time of the greatef ob/curation, becaufe the centres
of the fun and moon are then at the leaft diftance. ‘To find
the time of the beginning, take, with the compafs, from the
feale, an extent equal to 31! 5”, the fum of the femi. diameters
of the fun and moon, and by trial find two correfponding
times, as at s and#, at that diltance, and it gives.the time of
the beginning; and if you find two corre{ponding times, as at
y and w, at the diftance 31! 2”, the {um of the femi-diameters
at the end, it gives the time of the end; or you may omit
the variation of the diameter of the moon in the interval.
For the beginning muft be when the centres of the fun and
moon arrive at the diftance of the fum of their femi-diame-
ters; and the end mutt be when they have receded till they
have got to that diitance. To find the ‘digits eclipfed at
the greateft obfcuration, take eu from the fcale, and fay,
ze:eu:: 6 digits: the digits eclipfed. ‘To find the digits
eclipfed at any other time, take, with the compafs, the in-
terval at that time on the ellipfe and on the moon’s 7
a

!

%

* . Me clriBber. .

gn apply it to the feale, and then fay, xe: that diftance ::
6 digits : the digits eclipfed.

_ If by taking the interval of two cotrefponding times, it
appears that it is always greater than the fum of the femi-
diameters of the fun and moon, it fhews that there will be
no eclipfe at that place. -

From this conttrution, the pofition of the moon in ref{peét
to the zenith of the fun’s difc may be found, and thence the
spparent path of the moon over the fun in refpect to the hori-
won. Fora line drawn from O (fy. 92.) to any point of the el-

; lipfe, where the {pectator is, being vertical, from the prin-

at
:

_ -eclipfe appear to begin at different times.

ciples of the projection, the angles O¢s, Oz x, Owy, thew
the angulardi#ance about the centre of the fun from its vertex,
to the centre of the moon at the begiuning, middle, and end of
the eclipfe. Hence, let C be the centre of the fun Z dda,
Z its zenith; and make she angles ZC P, ZCQd, ZCR
= Ots, Oz x, Owy refpectively; take CP, CR equal
to the fum of the femi-diameters of the fun and moon,
dCs= the digits eclipfed, and SQ =aP, and with the
centres P, Q. R, and radii Pa= Qs = R24 equal to the

- femi-diameter of the moon deferibe three circles, and they

will reprefent the fituaticn of the moon at the beginning,
middle, and end of the echpfe, in refpeét to the vertex Z
eof the fun, and confequently in refpe& to the horizon ;
ence, if we defcribe a circle through P, Q, R, and with
the fame radius defcribe rs ¢ parallel to it, it muft very

»mearly reprefent the boundary of the eclipfe, er of the ex-
treme part of the moon’s hmb as it pafles over the fun, in
refpe& to the horizon.

Tie eclipfe may alfo be thus calculated from the pro-
jeGion. Affume the time at ¢ of beginning, as determined
by the conftruétion; draw fc perpendicular to OP, and
jon 07,05. The time fromtto m being given, convert
it into degreea a°; then fin. a x rb =¢c, and cof. a? x
rm=rc, but Or is koown, hence Oc is known; there-
fore, in the right-angled triangle O c#, we know Oc, ct, to
find cO+z, and Of; but POvwis piven, therefore, cO+ +

POw=1Ovis known; alfo Ow and the angle O vs are
knowWa by the conftraction; and the time from s to v being
‘given, and alfo the roon’s relative horary motion in L M,
we knyw vs; hence, in the triangle Ovs, we know Ov,
vs and the angle Ovs, to find Os, and the angle vOs;

hence, we find Os = 7O0v7-+ 40s; and lailly, in the tri-

sangle +Os, we know ¢ O, @ noth the angle Os, to find

ts, and if this be equal to the fum of the femi-diameters of’
" taal Bak
_* the fun and moon, the aflumed time is true; if it be not equal

. to the fum, affume another time for the beginning, and tind
another value of fs. In like manner we may find the end.

; But this method is not fubje& to the fame accuracy .as the
method of calculation which we have diready given.

» Sir I. Newton fuppofes that the aberration of rays in the
focus of a telefcope makes the image appear greater than it
ought; and hence different telefcopes will give different
meafures of the fun’s diameter, and confequently make the

That telefcope
which gives the diameter the leaft, is the malt perfet infiru-
ment. The excellent tranfit telelcope at Greenwich makes
“the diameter of the fun lefs by 6” than that given by Mayer
in his tables, as Dr. Mafkelyne has found by his ebferva-
tions. The diameter of the {un affamed in theile caleula-
“tions has, therefore, been taken 6” Icfs than that which Mayer
determined. M. du Sejour fuppofes that the rays of light

_ ‘ceming from the fun are inflecied as they pafs by the moon,

which he attributes to the refraction which they fuffer in

paffing through the moon’s atmo{phere; on this aceount the

apparent contaét of the limbs will not take place fo foon as
~~ Vox. XII.

it otherwife would; this would be the°fame as a diainutinn
of the moon’s diameter: which of thefe hypothefes ought to
be admitted, M. du S-jour endeayoured to determine from
the obfervations of Mr. Short, on the folar eclipfe, April 1,
1764, upon the diftance of the horns of the muon, but he
could deduce nothing fatisfaGtory, trom thence. He fup-
poled the infleCtion 3’.291, and the diameter of the moon
to be diminifhed by the fame quantity, and calculated upon
each {uppolition a great many diftances of the horns, and
compared them with the obferved diitances; but he could
not decide between the two hypothefes. An infleGion of
1”.3 and a diminution of 1.5 of the femi-diameter, he found
would fatisfy fome obfervations, and he feemed to. think
this conclufion moft likely to be neareft the truth; but he
came at laft to no determination upon the fubje@. All the
requifite obfervations feem not to be capable of being made
to that degree of accuracy which is neceflary to fettle fo
nicéa matter. M.du Scjour, therefore, propofed the fol-
lowing method to determine whether the rays of light pafling
by te limb of the moon fuffer any deviation. Take a
tele[cope mounted upon a polar axis, with a wiré mi-
crometer annexed to it. When two ftars come into the
field of view together, and one of them is to be eclipfed by
tke moon, open the wires and bring one ftar upon one of the
wires, and the other far upon the other, and thus follow the
{tara antil one of them be eclipfed, and at the inftant before
it difappears, obferve whether its diftance from the other ftar
is changed, that is, whether it be off the wire, the other ftar
remaining upon its wire; if this be found to be the cafe, the
rays muit have {uffered a deviation. (Traité Analytique,
p- 420.) We do not find that an obfervation of this kind bas
been ever made. :

To trace out the Path on the Surface of the Earth, where the
Lclipfe will be central, or for any Number of Digits,

Let EACD (fg. 93.) be the enlightened hemifphere of
the earth, O the centre ot the difc, or that point to which the
fun is vertical ; EO C the plane of the ecliptic, OG perpend's
cular to it; P the north pole; join PO, and let LM re-
prefent the path of the centre of the penumbra, conceived
to be upon the plane into which the dife would be ortho»
graphically projected ; then, from the nature of that projec«
tion, the angles at O upon the furface will be equal to the
angles into which they are projected. Now, the’ place
ipon’ which the centre of the moon is projected, is mani«
feftly that point on the earth where the eclipfe is central,
becaufe the projcGtion is made by lines drawn to the centre
of the fun. Let Z be the projcéted centre’of the moon at
any time, or the real ceutre of the penumbra, and PB any
given meridian, Now, we know Ow the mocn’s laritude
at the time of conjunGtion, and theangle Ov Z; and asthe

‘time, when the centre’of the penumbra is at Z, is given, the

time through Zv is known, and the relative horary motion
of the moon being known, v Z will be known; hence ye
can find Z O, and the angle Z Ow; find the angle POw,
and we fhall have the angle PO Z. Now confider P O and
ZO as two circles upon the earth’s furface, then the angle
POZ between them is equal to the angle P O Z of pro.
jection, and therefore knowns alfo the arc P O is the com-
plement of the {un’s declination ; and to find the are Z Q,
we mut confider Z O in the projection to be the fign of the
arc projected ; hence the are ZO is that whofe fine is to
radius as OZ to O A, therefore we know the jine of the
are ZO, and confequently we get Z O itfelf; hence, ia
the fpherical triangle O PZ, we know PO, OZ, and the
angle PO Z, to find PZ the complement of the latitude of
the place where the eclipfe is.central Vind alfo the anes
y OPZ;

34

ECLIPSE.

* the angle O PB (the fun’s diftance from the meridian) is
known ; hence we know the angle B P Z, the longitude of
the point Z from the meridian P B; therefore the latitude
and longitude of Z being kaown, the point Z is deter-
mined where the eclipfe was central at the given time.
Make this calculation for every quarter or half hour, for ail
the time the penumbra is defcribing de, and you will trace
out upon the furface of the earth the path of the centre of
the penumbra, or that tract where the eclipfe is central. If
we bring Z to d, we get the place where the fun rifes cen-
trally eclipfed ; and if Z be brought to e, we fhall find
where the fun fets centrally eclipfed. If Z coincide with 7;
we get the place where the fun is centrally eclipfed upon
the meridian. Let y be the centre of the penumbra when
it firft touches the earth, and x the centre when it leaves the
earth, and draw O w perpendicular to L M. Then, knowing
O'v and the angle Ow w, we can find Ow and v2 Ow;
alfo Oy = fem:d. G -++ femid. penumb. known; hence, in
the right-angled triangle yO cw, we get the angle » Ow,
and therefore we know yOw; and POv being already
found, we know 40 P; hence, in the triangle O P, we
know 40 (= go°), P.O, and the angle PO; hence we
find Pd the complement of the latitude of 4; find alfo
O Pd, and we get 4 P B the longitude of 4, from the given
meridian P B ; thus we get the place d where the eclipfe firft
begins at the fun iting. In like manner we get the place a
where the eclipfe laft ends at fun fetting.

Example.—In the folar eclipfe, which we have here com-
puted, let it be required to find that place upon the earth’s
furface where the fun is centrally eclipfed at one o’clock,
apparent time at Greenwich. In this cafey Ov = 44!
59", and the angle Ov Z = 5° 42!, and as the time at v
is 41! 30", and the centre of the penumbra is at Z at one
o’clock, the time through v Z = 19! 30", which gives v Z
= 9! 3"; hence ZO = 35' 59", the angle OZ v = 81°
22!, and ZO v= 13° 56’. Now, the radins OG = 54!
56! hence the are O Z upon the furface (correfponding
to its projection = 35! 59!) = 41° 4'; allo PO = 84°
3o!, and P Ow = 23°22'; hence POZ = 9° 26!; confe-
quently PZ = 45° 43', the complement of which is 44°

*x7!, the latitude of the place ; allo Z PO = 8° 51’; but
at one o’clock, apparent time at Greenwich, its meridian
B P makes an angle of 15° with PO, Greenwich being
upon that meridian at 12 o’clock ; hence BP Z = 23° 51'
the longitude of the place, weft from Greenwich. In like
manner may any of the other phenomena be calculated.

Draw O W(fg. 94.)perpendicular to LM, and takeoc=ve
equal to the {um of the {emi-diameters of the fun and moon,
anddraw def, xey parallel to LM; then dfand xy will
mark out the boundaries of the eclipfe, or the places where
the limbs of the fun and moon juft appear in conta&t. So
that if we take the moon at any place Z, and draw Zr per-
pendicular to df, and compute the latitude and longitude of
the point r inthe fame manner as we did that of Z in the
laft article, it wil] give the place where the limbs of the fun
and moon appear in contaét outwardly. If we take Z ron
the other fide of L M, we hall, on that fide, get the place
where they appear in conta&. If we do this for every
quarter or half hour, we fhall trace the path over the furface
of the earth where the limbs of the fun and moon appear in
conta&, or the boundaries of the eclipfe ; thus, we can lay
down upon the earth’s furface that traét over which the
penumbra pafles. If cw be divided into twelve equal parts,
and ¢ # be taken equal to three of them, for inftance, and
34s be drawn parallel to L M, and the place of r’ be com-
puted, it gives the place where the fun will be three digits

-OPZ; then the time at the meridian P ane

eclipfed ; and in like manner as before may the tra& on the
earth’s furface be marked out where the fun will appear
three digits eclipfed ; in the fame manner, we may trace out
the path for any number of digits. If va2= vd, andab
be the difference between the apparent diameters of the fun
and moon, and waz, gh be drawn parallel te L M; then,
if the diameter of the moon be greater than that of the fua,
the fpace between «vx and gh is the limit for the total
eclipfe ; but if the diameter of the fun be the greater, it
will be the limit of the annular eclipfe. This method of
delineating the lines of the phafes upon the earth’s furface
fuppofes that the apparent neareft diltance of the centres of
the fun and moon, or of the correfponding horns upon the
relative orbit of the moon and upon:the eclipfe, is in a line
perpendicular to the moon’s relative orbit ; but this is not
accurately ‘true, and therefore the delineation cannot be
accurate. This line will have different pofitions at different
places for the fame phafe. M. du Sejour propoles, therefore,
to take the mean angle. He found an error of 3° 33.5 in
longitude, and of 35' 49! in time of the contaé, for the
latitude of 16° 57’, by fuppofing it to happen upon a pere-
pendicular to the relative orbit.

M. dela Lande has given the following graphical method.
Draw LM on a ‘feparate piece of paper, and divide it, fo
that by moving it you may bring any hourto v. Then if,
for inftance, the orbit be moved to the right till the time of
falling on v be one hour Jater than that for which the con-
ftruction was firft made, it is in a proper pofition for a place
15° to the eaft of that place. Let pg be any parallel of
latitude, and divide it into hours, &c. then move the orbit
LM until, with an extent of compals equal to the fum of ©
the femi-diameters of the fun and moon, you can make the
points fall on the fame hour both on pg and LM, and at
the fame time that it fhall be the fhorteft diftance between
any two correfponding hours on pg and LM; then the
difference of the hours fhewn at v in confequence of the
removing of the orbit fhews the longitude of the place from
that for which the projeGtion was made, and the parallel
pq fhews the latitude ; therefore the place on the earth’s
furface is determined where the limbs juft come into conta@ty
and alfo thetime. This we may repeat for as many parallels
of latitude as we pleafe, and thus trace out the curve on the
furface of the earth where the limbs juft come into conta&.
In like manner, if we take an extent of compafs th of the
fun’s diameter lefs, we may trace out the path where the
fun is one digit eclipfed ; and fo for any other phafe.

But the general phenomena may be much more eafily, and
with fufficient accuracy, determined by a common globe thus,
Bring the fun’s place S to the brazen meridian P V, (fig. 95.)
fet the hour index to 12, and bring the fun to the zenith;
and from that point on the globe, extend a thread S W per
pendicular to the ecliptic EC. Upon a {mall ftraight rod
IM let there be a moveable circle ad4m, whofe centre r
is in the middle of the rod, and let its radius be to the radius
of the globe as the femi-diameter of the penumbra is to the
horizontal parallax of the moon, Let there be two moves
able upright pieces attached to the horizon of the globe,
and capable of being fixed at any two points ; at a diftance
S v equal to the moon’s latitude at the time of the ecliptic
conjunction, let the rod L.M cut the thread in a plane
touching the globe at S, and making an angle Mv S equal
to the angle which the relative orbit makes with a perpen~
dicular to the ecliptic, as before directed ; and in this fitua-
tion let the rod be fixed to the above-mentioned pieces, ate
tached to the horizon ; let alfo LM be divided into time, —
the time at the point v being that of the ecliptic conjunc«
tion; and let the horizon of the globe be fixed ony j

ay

- BE Ca) 1 Pe E.

raJlei to the horizon ; and upon a fine thread ab fufpend a
foiall conical weicht, with an acute vertex ; every thing

being thus prepared, we proceed thus; firlt premifing, that

the circle TE VC (coinciding with the horizon of the
globe) contains all the places where the fun isin the horizon,
the weftern hemifphere containing thofe where the fun is
rifing, and the eaftern where the fun is fetting.

Carry the centre of the penumbra to r. where you find,
by fufpending the line from its periphery, that its projection
would juft touch the earth att; thea turn the globe till the
index fllews the fame hour as the point r, and the point ¢ at
that time is the place firft touched by the penumbra, and
the eclipfe there begins at fun-rife. Carry the centre of the
penumbra to s, a quarter of an hour forwards, for inflance,

‘and fet the globe again to that time ; and with the line find

the points x, w, where the proje@ion of the circumference
of the penumbra would interfe& the circle TC VE, and
#, Ww, are two cther points where the eclipfe begins at fun-
rife. By proceeding thus through the weftern part, we may
find as many points as we pleafe, where the eclipfe begins at
fun-rife, and by drawing a curve through them, we get the
tra& on the earth’s furface, where the eclipfe begins at the
rifing of the fun. But when x comes into the eattern part,
we get the places where the eclipfe begins at fun-fet ; con-
fequently the curve pafling through them is‘a continvation
of the curve which paffes through all the places where the
eclipfe begins at fun-rifing, provided the whole of the penum-
bra does not fall upon the earth at the middle of the eclipfe ;
that is, if O be the middle of the general eclipfe, and OT
be perpendicular to LM in the projeG@tion, when OT is
lefs than the radius (R) of the penumbra. If OT = R,
the curves touch, and if O Tbe greater than R, they are
feparated ; becaufe the penumbra then pafles over a part of
the earth after it leaves the weftern fide before it comes to
the eaftern, and therefore in that interval the fun is not

eclipfed to any part of. the circumference TE VC.

Draw dra perpendicular to LM, and ac patallel to it;
and when w comes to ¢, the interfetion manifeftly begins
to go back, and the part add will then cut TC V, and
therefore the interfeGiions will fhew the points in the horizon
where the eclipfe ends at fun-fet; for the velccity of the
penumbra being greater than that of the earth about its
axis, the penumbra muft leave the point which it then
touches. And for this reafon the eclipfe begins where b/ a
cuts’ T’CV. Hence, as ¢ isa point where the eclipfe ceafes

begin at fun-rife and begins to end at fun-fet, the curve

ewing the places when the eclipfe begins at fun-rifing is
continued into the curve, which fhews the places where the
eclipfe ends at fun-rifing; and as x and w meet again on
the eaftern fide of the earth, the*curves there meet again.
When, therefore, O 'T is lefs than R, (fig.96.)we have acurve.
The velocity of the parts of the earth, from its rotation,
being greateft towards the equator, the ovals will be more
open towards A and B than towards C.

HOT=R, (fg. 97-) the two ovals touch ; but that
nearefi the pole is double.

If O'T be greater than R, (fg. 98.) the two ovals will be
detached ; but if the perpendicular D z,on LM (inthe pro-
jetion, )be lefs than R, the oval nearelt the pole will be double.

wo curves A B, CD, touching the ovals, and formed by
the projeGtion of a and 4, will thew where the limbs of the
fun and moon were in contact. . cre

If LM fall beyond the earth, or if O lie on the other

fide of T, the curve will be like fg.95, until Dx be

greater than R, in which cafe the curve becomes a fimple
oval; and when O [= R, the oval vanifhes. Thefe cir-
cumitances, which were given by M. Delambre, appear
from this method of delineation,

The proje&ion of ba will give the middle of the eclipfe.
The weltern part of TCV, which is cut by da in the pro-
jection, is the point where the eclipfe is in the middle at
fun-rife; and where the eaftern part of the horizon is cut by
it, it fhews the point where the middle of the eclipfe is at
fun-fet. When a comes to ¢, the globe being adjufted to
that time, c isa point of the former kind, but here the
eclipfe is only fora moment, or rather there is no eclipfe;
the moon’s limb only touching that of the fun. As the
umbra advances, a4 will cut [CV at fome other point,
as w; to the time denoted by the centre r, adjuft the globe,
and w is the place upon the earth where the middle of the
eclipfe is at fun-rifmg. And thus we may find any number
of fuch places,and draw a-curve,as B D A. (fig. 96.) pafling
through all the places where the middle of the echpfe is at
the rifing of the fun. As-the line, in this cafe, muft be
fufpended from da, it will be more convenient to have the
penumbra divided into two parts through ad, fo that they
may be feparated.

To trace out the centre of the penumbra over the earth,
bring, by the line, the centre to coincide in the projection with
TCV ate, (fg. 95.) and adjutt the globe to that time, and
e will be the place where the centre of the umbra firlt touches
the earth. Carry on the penumbra, a quarter of an hour
for inftance, and adjuft the globe to the time, and project
the centre upon the earth, and it gives the point where the
eclipfe is central at that time. Find thus as many points as
you pleafe, and draw a curve through them all, and you
get the path of the centre of the penumbra over the earth,
fhewing all thofe places where the eclipfe was central. . _

If the penumbra be formed by 12 equi-diftant concentric
wires, the phenomena of any one of the digits may be traced
out in the fame manner; that is, we can find, for inftance,
all the places where the fun is three digits eclipfed at its
rifing and fetting, and the tra&t where the {un is three digits
for the time of the’ eclipfe. Che globe here ufed fhould be
one which has the hours marked on the equator.

The method of tracing out the different curves was, we
believe, firft given by M. dela Caille im his Aftronomy.
M. du Sejour has given an analytical method of laying down
the curves in his Traité Analytiqne. But thefe are matters
rather of curiofity than of any real ufe in aflronomy. If we
place the circle E TC V perpendicular to the horizon, and
vertical to S; a ftrong lamp be fixed in the principal focus
of a double convex lens, fo that the rays may be thrown pa-
rallel upon the globe and perpendicularto ETCV, tha
fhadow of the penumbra will give the pointe of projection
required, inftead of the plumb line. ‘T'hus we make a com-
mon globe anfwer the purpofe of an ecliptareon, invented by
Mr. Fergufon, and defcribed ‘in his Attropomy. See
Ec iipsareon.

As the analytic method of making aftronomical calcula.
tions is by many preferred to any other, we fubjoin the
following formula, which will be found one of the moft
convenient that has been yet invented.

Let all the points to be cor fidered be referred to three
axes, perpendicular to each other, according to the method
in ufe among modern geometricians.

Let a line, paffing from the centre of rhe earth to that of
the eclipfed planet, be taken for the axis of the y’s; a line
perpendicular to the firft, in the plane of the ecliptic, for
the axis of the x’s, anda third line perpendicular tothe two
others for that of the z’s. The pofitive y’s will be dire&ed
towards the planet, the pofitive x’s to the left, following
the order of the figns, and the pofitive z’s, above the plane
of the ecliptic, towards the north pole. 4

Following the example of Dionis du Sejour, a plane pegs
pendicular to the axis of y, fhould be made to pals through’

3Z2 the

ECL PPS ek.

the centre of the moon. This may be called the plane of
projection, and the apparent fituation of the centre of the
planet, as feen from the piace of the obferver, is to be de-
termined upon it. This being done, nothing can be more
eafy than to calculate the apparent diitance of the centres,
which is the lait refult of the problem.

rf. Let @ be the longitude of the planet, L its lati-
tude, 9! thelongitude of the moon, 4 its latitude; X, Y,
and Z, the co-ordinates. Taking the diftance of the earth
for unity, thefe equations will be eafily found by a fimple
transformation of the co-ordinates.

X = fin. (¢'—9!) cof. L!.

Y= fin. L, fin.) + cof. U/, cof. 1 cof. (o! — 9.)

Z = fin. L', cof. & — cof. L, fin’ L cof. (¢' — 0.)

Tt will be feen bereafter, that ehe value of Y ‘is not re-
quired. With regard to the values of X and Z, they will
aflume this form:

"X= fin. (9 — 9) —2 fin. (OH — 9) fine FY!

Z = fin? (l!— LY) + 2 fin? (* — =) fin. 4 cof. Ll’;

which may be afterwards reduced to this form, which wiil
be found fufficieatly approximate :
X = (9'— 9) —2 (Cre fin’ 54.

‘ Me Meee
Z = (lo — +) + 2 fin. ( 5 ) fin. U.

And as the terms of the fecond order will be always very
{mall, they may be taken by infpeGtion in {mall tables of
equations, which are eafily calculated. Thofe which com-
pofe table 95, of the collection inferted at the end of the
firft volume of De La Lande’s Altronomy, and which are
here given, may be employed; thus thele quantities may
be obtained by a very [imple calculation, or almoft without
calculation.

od. If we call p that radtus of the earth which paffes
through the place of the obferver, #, the angle which it
makes with the plane of x2, 8, the angle which its pro-
jection in the {ame plane makes with z; x, y, and =, the
co-ordinates of the place of the obferver, we fhail have, by
formulas well known,

ro
%

p cof. a fin. 8,

p cof. «cof. B.

4y =p fin. «,

And it is not difficult to imagine, that of thefe two
angles, « and 8, the firlt expreffes the height of the planet
above the horizon, and the fecond the parallactic angle
made by the vertical and the cirele of latitude.

3d. If we imagine a vifual ray pafling from the eye

of the obferver to the centre of the planet, expreffing by ¢

and ¢ the co ordinates of the point where it meets the plane

of projeaion, refpectively parallel to the axes of the x’s and

z?s, and by R the diftance from the planet to the earth, we
thall eafily find,

il

R—Y
Sane yp x
gobi Ra ZY
c= Res; Ze.

But calling the horizontal parallax of the moon #, that
of the pianet =, it will be evident that

Pea
I
Re
Then fubftituting thefe values, as well as thofe of x, y,

and x, fuppofing afterwards Y = 1, and negleGting in the
denominator the term m fin. « as very {mall, compared to
unity, we fhall find :

— (p — r) cof. a, fin. £.

{= (p—7) cof. a, cof, 8, very fimple expreflions. If

then the line, which joins the centre of the moon, and the
apparent place of the centre of the planet upon the plane of
proje€tion, be called /, we fhall have 7/= y [(X—&)*
tana 4),

Now this line may be confidered as perpendicular to the vi-
fual ray of the obferver. On the otherhand, the diftance of
the jatter from the plane of proj-@ion is equal to Y —y. The
expreflion for the apparent diltance of the centres then walé

1
be

Y-y

. Moreover, let D be the horizontal femi-diameter

D P é Sect
F will be this femi-diameter, augmented

for its altitude. Let A be the femi-diameter of the planet;

pie solae } D
the fum of the apparent {emi-diameter wiil be Y +A.
ae

of the moon;

But when this fum becomes equal to the apparent diftance,
the eclipfe will be cither at its beginning or end. At each

of thefe two moments

] : D
G35 will be equal wy + A, or

multiplying the whole by the denominator Y —y, fup-
poling Y = 1, and fabftituting the value of y, we thall get
/=D+A—pAfin. a. Nowthe terms A fin. 2 never
will exceed-15"; it may therefore be taken by infpeGtion of
atable. Thus the whole is reduced to the calculation of
the quantity L, which exprefles the apparent diftance of the
centres meafured on the plane of projection.

To explain better the advantage of this method, it is res
duced to a fpecies of table, which may be compared with
that given by M. Cagnoli in his Trigonometry.

Let it be required whether at a given moment the eclipfe
is commenced. Find for this moment

The longitude of the planet - - etiaa
Its latitude - - - 4
Its right afcenfion -

Its declination — = zi Site ee -
Its angle of pofition ~ - - - - -

Its horizontal parallax - - = 2
Its horizontal femi-diameter ~ - =
The longitude of the moon - -
Its latitude - - - PRS
Its horizontal ‘p2rallax - = - -

Its horizontal femi-diameter - - -

The geocentric latitude of the obferver’s place

The right afcenfion of the middle ef the heavens
Make fin. « = fin.a fin. a + cof. r cof. cof. (m —<c}

fn. S __ cof a fin. (m —e)~
—
€= (p— =) cof. @ cof. 8
& = Ctang. B
X= ¢!— 9 —2(¢'— ¢) fin. Y?
Z=v'—14 afi? (¢'—¢) fin. p.
(Terms of the fecond order become equal to nothing in

eclipfes of the fun, and in other cafes may be taken by in-
fpection of the little tables.)

i eee
Tang. Mee
xe

+

g
iy
as
$
L

~~ =

é
n
i)
2
a
m

col. a

l= Let the fum of the hori-

~ coli M-
zontal diameters be D + A. In eclipfes of the fun, fubtra&
the fmall quantity pA fin. «, which we take by infpeGion of a
table, the remainder compared with the value of L. will fhew
whether or not the eclipfe is already commenced.
Tare

Dae

; ECLIPSE.

Tasce to be ufed in calculating Solay Eclipfes,

Redu@ion to a great Circle which is to be fubtracted from the. Difference of Longitude of the Moon and the Sun, or
a Star.

Latitude of the Star which is in Conjunction.

J AES a a a i ne ee oa
“ u a P W " i “ M a“ “ i “ “ i “ “
9.0 | O10 | OL | Ot for | Or | or | 0.2 | Oa | 02 | 0.3 $o3 | 03 | o4] o4] 0.5 | 0.5
O50 1050), ("OL T O.1 o2 0.2 O3 03 O4 2.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 o7 O77 | 0.3 o.9 1.0
0.0 | 0.1 | OF | 0.2 | 03 | 0.3 | 04 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.7 [0.8 | og | 10 LinEg| Gke2 iy) *steates| we bes
0.0 | Of | 0.2 40.3 | Og | O'5 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.8 | Og | T.o | 1.2 yee Tay | 00.0 m8 | 2.0
OFOW| Ost 5] Ox2ls)) OFF Zp O85 [0.67] 067 1 Oc8) | 2.0) Pee |g ote dag) a7 L.8) | 2-1 | 2.3 | 2.5
Oto O21) "0:2/ | 10-4 180.6. f\iol7 | 9:8) - 0) | 1/21 1-37 Deh | eB» |, 200) 2.2%) -205-] 2.9 3.0
HO AO. NOI Ora (MOLOMOnStAll Ta@: NUTCZ9 | Mege] b:60 A TB yle2saghl aagiiitl 226 ibil2.6s |wGedy lin ges
@.0 |) 0.2))) 013 9)/20,6 0-7 || 09 {pas T 1630] 0.5 | TB] 2.0 | 2:3 | 2.6 | 3.0 | 3.3 | 3,0] 4.6
@.0) {0.2 9 | 014 oF Go. Bare i MIke Ultas | a gWl aol 2.8) Wie.6 Hes eis li gai lles.70) VAud ledeg
Q.0 | O12 | Og FOV OL! | MeDA eT 4o 1] M661 | TO 2.2 | 286) |) 29 113.38 3-7 114-1} 4.6.1 520
Oro) } Gg ti torre e.8 yi ro! |nger amber 8 | 2.n | 2.6 Mee | 3.2) BO rhea. |igc Pose] 5-5
Ot] 0:2 -| 0.5 +1 0.9 1 LT oireg nde 2.0 ° | aes Nhe Nae 3657 14.0 lotege |) §-0) Jo G05 1.6.0
Cal) || Gssun FOMRM| OfOMM. 214] are BN eeky | 25 “Neto eZ .3 dt 3.8 y llag ALBIN] 15240 5) Ox
Ob P'e.3 /| 0:6!) |f-r0" |e x9" 16 ON NEz.2¢ |, ZAM ANON) 4) Torte ined, Ling Obie Oxd.) | a7
Onn) 0.3 110.6) | 1.x | t.4 | 3.7 25 | 29 13-4 13-9 | 44 1.5.0] 5-5: 1 06.2 | 68 | 7.5
CeO OW O07) foros) a1. O) reS yea 2.6 | s.r gO]! gan oh qe! -peginlie5,0)| 6.6.) «7:3 UhI'B.0
Oot) | org: [ocpe feta | 1.0.) 4.9 | 2ege] 28 | a: 1 3x8) | gag) [ogee fb 5.6 | 6.3)| 7.0} 7.8. 8.6
Oi C-An PO? (F.3 |otsmael Pasar t 2IGLEZ.0 || Brion A Oils. SiMneONr Opi li Tad Saav te Our
OnleO4 (0.8, Fed | Mamie e226 t seul | geo Sapien Merson lps), 6.3 TOW ss: [O57 Ne Ond
OT HOF WkOse Oke NEO) 238)22.8. .|3.3. | Stow leaker tl 5.6m |eoBil 6.6) | o7eqriie S.2-Hn9.0 \1Oat
Ol | ONG /FOLg S|) Beg PTO aq} 12.961 3.5 | ae gee fgg | Or 1sSgn ||. 768 |: 8-7 |. 9.6) 10.6
Opt) | 9.5.) O.9) |) 1.0°"| 220° | ae Quo 3.6 | aioe i4ko, Higa fp Oud |) 30) 08.7 sb ome) 10.0 | ated
Omen Osh iNO.9)-| Te7 2.0 |2:6 | |*3.2) easel Amaoah Baw |) 53) (26.7 1a 7. Ol wScbe| | Ossi) TO:e Nl TO
GUL 0:6 [1.0 |) 1-7 |} 2.2 >| 2.7 as eeOrMed. Ores .4. 90.2 || 7-0 127.9) 1 18:0 |) O19") 11.0. | P24
0.1 | 0.6 | 1.0:} 1.8 | 2.3 | 2.9 | 355 |g} 48") 5.6 | 6.4 | 7.3 | 8.3- | 9.2 | 10.3 | 11-4 112.6
OD iter E69: || Zeal gko | SIO tawern | Grouch Ow | O27) 760 | B:6B1O.O5| Fog) /aoreos | 1 ZiT
0.6 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.4 | 3-7 | 4.4 | Fe2 16.0 | 6.9 |'7:9 | 8.9, }10.0'} 11.1 [12.3 | 13.6
Oy NOTES C20! 12.6 362 48 on avON |e 61g Ze2. | G2 2 [10.4 10.5 | 12.8 | 14.1
GO| Tee ash) Bo Relea ees Mg. OF 165) eer hy! 808% "9.67 TO 7 2 | 14.6
OG) Wr. Baa | 28) | Bagh AEN]. ARON | HeGiy 6.71 7.7 | S88 [9.9. partion Fae ye!

o ae anay,

/

1
P)
a8
4

ECLIPSE.

The greateft number of eclipfes that can happen in one
year is feven; in which cafe five are of the fun and two of
the moon, as in the year 1757: the leaf number that can
happen is two, and then they are each folar: this happened
in 1767, 1781, 1785, and 1792: generally in the fpace
of 18 years there are 70,eclipfes, 9 of the moon, and
41 of the fun. According to Caffini no lunar eclipfe can
happen farther than 142° from the node, and there will be
an eclipfe if the diftance islefs that 73°. Delambre mekes
the limit 13° 21! and 7° 47/.

The obfcurity during a total eclipfe of the fun is not quite
equal to a very dark night, the fars of the fecond magnt-
tude, and a few perhaps of the third only appear, if the fua
is near the meridian, Venus and Mercury are feen near him
in great {plencour.

According to M. S-jour, the greate duration of a total
-eclipfe of the fun is 7’ 58", and 12/24" of an annular eclipfe,
but it is not in the places where the eclipfe is central that
the duration is the longett.

A total ecliple of the fun is a very rare occurrence in a
friven place. T.ouis XV. was defirous of knowing how
many eclipfes wou'd happen in a eertain number of years;
and it appeared that at Paris, between 1769 and 1900,
there would be 59 vifible eclipfes, without one bing total 5
and one orly annular on the oth O&. 1847. Veryconfiderabie
eclipfes will happen in England on O&. 9, 1847 ; March 15,
1858; Aug. 19. 1887; April 17, 1912 5 April'8, 19215
Feb. 15; 1961; Avg. 11, 1999.

Since eclipfes depend on the pofition of the fun and moon
with refpeé to the nodes, it is obvious that when they are
in the fyzygies, and have the fame fituation with refpe&
to the nodes, the eclipfes will return and appear as before.
The {pace of time after which the fame eclipfes return aga
is called the pericd of eclipfes. Now as the nodes have a
retrograde motion of 193° every year, they would pafs
through all the points of the ecliptic in cighteen years and
225 days, end this would be the regular period of the re-
turn of cclipfes, if any complete number of lunations were
performed in it without a fraétion, but this is not the cafe.
“However, in 223 mean lunations after the fun, moon, and
nodes have been once in a line of confun@ion, they return fo
nearly to the fame ftate again, that the fame node which
was in conjun@tion with the fun and moon at the beginning
of thefe lunations will be within 28! 12" of the line of con-
junGion, when the lait of thefe lurations is completed ; and
in this period there will be a regular return of eclipfes, till
it be repeated about 40 times, or about 720 years, when the
time of the nodes will be 28! x 40! from the conjunétion,
-and will confequently be beyond the ecliptic limits ; this 1s
called the Plinean period,or Chaldean era. It contains, ac-
cording to Dr. Halley, 18 Julian years, 11 days, 7 hours,
43 minutes, 20 feconds; or, according to Mr. Fergufen.
a8” 1197" 42! 44". -In an interval of 5577 21° 18" 11! 51",

in which there are exa€tly 6890 mean lunations, the con- -

junétion or cppolition coincides fo nearly with the node, as
not to be diftant more than 11". If, therefore, to the mean
time of any folar cr lunar eclipfe, we add this pericd, and
make the proper allowance for the intercalary days, we fhall

have the mean time of the return of the fame eclipfe. ~ This

pericd is fo very near, that in 6000 years it will’ vary no
more from the truth, as to the reflirution of eclipfes, than
SE minutes of a degree.

The curiofity of aftronomers has been exceedingly grati-
fied within thefe few years, by a number of very interelting
communications that have been given to the world relative
to the ftate of the Hindu aftronemy, amd particularly as to
aheir methods of calculating eclipfes: it has been obferved

v

*

in the introductory part of this article, how entirely Bailly
{eems to have been miltake2 in his opinions on this fubjeét.

Some difference of opinion ftill exiits among the learned
as to the precife date of the Hindu tables, but all agree
that they are very farfrom being founded on antediluvian
tradition. Pa;

We are indebted to Mr. Davis for.2 moft intelligent ac-
count of the method of calculating eclipfes. As it contains
much novelty, afd throws great light on the fyftem of that,

very fingular race of mankind; we fhail conclude this arti- —

cle by fubjoining his account of it.

Hindu Computation of an Eclipfe.

Let it be premifed that the pofition of the fun, moon, and
nodes, by calculation, wili on the firft of next Vailac’h be
as here reprefented in the Hindu manner, excepting: the
charaters of the figns.

By infpeGion of thefizure, (Plate XIL. fig. 99.) and by
confidering the motion of the fun, moon, and nodes, it appears
that, when the fun comes to the fign Tula (Libra) corre-
fponding with the month of Cartic, the defcending node will
have gone back to Aries; and that confequently a /unar
eclipfe may be expected to happen at the end of the puruima
tit hi. or time of full moon, in that month. ;

Firft operation —To find the number of mean folar days
from the creation to fome part of the purnima tit’ hi in Carticy
of the 48qrft year of the Cali Yug. <

Years expired of the Calpa to the end of

the Satya Yug, * - - - 197078400@
Dedu& the term of Brahma’s employment {

in the creation, - - = - 17064008

From the creation, when the planetary mo-_

tious began, to the end of the Satya
Yug, - - - - - 19537200¢0
Add the Treta Yug, - » - 1296000
Dwaper Yug, - - - 86400¢
Prefent year of the Cali Yug, - 4890
—__—

From the creation to the next approaching
Bengal year, - - - 19558848G0
Or folar months, (x 12) - “= 23470618680
Add feven months, ~* - - - 42
23470618680

As the folar monthsin a Yug, 51840000, are to the in-
tercalary lunar months in that cycle, 1593336, fo are the
folar months 43470618637, to their correfponding interca-
lary lunar months 721384677 ; which added together, give
24192003364 lunations. ‘This number multiplied by thirty,
produces 725760100920 tif his, or lunar days, from the cre-
ation to the new moon in Cartic; to which add fourteen

ti? his for the fame, to the purnima ti’his in that month ~

725760100934. Then, as the number of #i*hisia a Yug,
1603000080, is to their difference exceeding the mean folar
days in that cycle (called e/chaya ti’his) 25082252, fo are
725760100934 iit his to their excefs in number over the folar
days 11556217987, which fubtraéted, leaves 7144040829475
as the number of mean folar days from the creation, or when
the planetary motions began, toa point of time which will
be midnight under the firlt meridian of Lanca, and near the
time of full moon in Cartic. In the year of the Cali Yug
4891, correfponding with 1196 Bengal ftyle, and with the
month of October or November (hereafter to be determined)
in the year of Chrit 1789. The firft day after the creation

: . being

e-
e

HOMES -E.

‘being Ravi-var, or Sunday, divide the number of days by
feven for the day of the week, the remainder after the di-
vifion being two, marks the day Soma-var, or Monday.

Second operation,—For the mean longitude of the fun,
moon, and the afcending node. Say, as the number of
mean folar days in a Maha Yug is to the revolutions of any
planet in that cycle, fo are the days from the creation to even
revolutions, which rejeét, and the fraction, if any, turned
goto fines, &c. is the mean longitude required.

ift. Of the Sun.

Revolutions. Sines. 9° ’ ff
714404082947 X4320000 848 Aken Hig
Derr iqyo1ye28 44
ad. Of the Moon.
mesesotaet x x 57753330 _ 6147888255)o 21 21 58 56
1577917828 (2 147 255) 5 J
3d. Of the Moan’s Apogee.

714404092947 x 488203
1577917828
Corredion of the Bija add.
gacswiioti x 4
1577917828

== (221034460) Ir 5 311335

= (———) © 37375228
79 6 3

Ir

qth. Of the Moon's Afcending Node.

934404082947 X 232238 __ f ges
“Genig17838 (105147017). 4 27 494
Corredion of the Bija add.
714404082047 x 4 (Lee) roa 37 62 28
~ 1577917828 Beat
4 29 27 40 28
5th. Of the Sun’s Apogee.
7 82947 x 38
eee 94) 6307" C= 5751-0) 2171715—

1577917828

Dedué for the
longitude ef | Mean longitude
Bhagalpur as} for midnight at
* 80°50! of} Bhagalpur.

equator eaft.

!
A

Mean longitude

for midnight un-

der the meridian
of Lanea.

oi
212

6 21 42 35 12

oon, — 21 21 58 56) 1934 |—921 2 25 —
Node, 429 27 40 28} — 4 4 29 27 36 —
Bun’s Apozee, | 2 17 17 15 —linconfiderable] 2 17 17 16 —
Moon’s Apogee,|11 7 9 6. 3] — 9 fll 7 857 —

- * "This longitude, affigned to Bhagalpur, is erroneous ;

but the error does not in the leaft affect the main obje& of
the paper.

Third operation—For the equated longitude of the fun
and moon, &c.

1h. Of the Sun.

‘The mean longitude of the fun is 6* 21° 42! 35” 12!” of
the apogee 2 17 17 15, the difference, or mean anamoly,
4° 4° 25! 20"; its complement to 6 fines or diftance from
the perigee 1°25°34! 40", the equation for which is re-

;

quired. This may either be taken from the foregoing tables
tranflated from Macaranda, or calculated in the manner ex-
pleined as follows :
2825'31"x 20°
3438
= 14! 30"to be fubtrated from the paridhi degrees in
fama ; 14°—14! 30"=13° §3! 30", the circumference of epi-
20, ditnalise oSacl age
cycle in this point ef anomaly ; and pee eee 3"
a
= 108! 61" the fine of the angle of equation, confidered as
equal to its arc, or 1° 48! 6", to be deducted from the mean,
for the true longitude ; 6° 21° 42! 35!'—1° 48! 6" = 6° 19°
54! 29" for midnight agreeing with mean time; but as, in
this point of anomaly, the true or apparent midnight pre-
cedes that eftimated tor mean time, for which the computa-
tion has been made, a proportionable quantity mult be de-
ducted from the fun’s place, which is thus found: fay, as
the minutes contained in the ecliptic are to the fun’s mean
motion in one day 59/8", fois the equation of his mean to his
true place 180! 6", to the equation of time required, o! 18'*
8" x 1o8!6" :
( =) and 6° 19° 54’ 29"—29!—18"= 6° 19*
54/11" the fun’s true longitude for the apparent midnight.
For the fun’s true motion. The co-fine of the fun’s dif-

1941/ol1" x 1343 3m

The fine of 1° 25° 34’ go! is 2835/31" and

tance from the perigee is 1941/0! 1!"’, and

= 74! the cofine of the epicycle, an 8
1' 16" equation, to be added to the mean for the true
motion, 59/8! + 1! 16" = 6o!! 24" per day, or 6o!! 23H
per danda.

2d. Of the Moon. ,

The moon’s mean longitude for the mean midnight is
o° 20° 2! 25", which exceeds her mean longitude for the true
108 x 790 I 35

21600
difference of time between the mean and true midnight
0° 21° 2! 25!'—3! 57" = © 20 58 28 mean longitude, for
which the anomaliltic equation is to be found. Place of the
apogee 11°7° 8! 55" and the moon’s drtance from it 1° 13°

midnight, but =

3! 57!', her motion in the

49 33”. The fine of the latter, | 2379! 30" by:
the rule before explained Sagrerccce = 13! 5", and.

32°— 13 51" x 2379'39"
300

equation equal to its arc, or 3° 30" to be fubtracted, 0° 20!

58! 28!"— 3° 30’= 0° 17! 28" 28!" the moon’s true plage,

agreeing with the true apparent midnight.

For the moon’s true motion. The co-fine of her diftance
from the apggee 2479 13. Circumference of the epicycle
31°46! of x 24.79'13""_

360° ma

The moon’s mean motion from her apogee is

eQoleall Slant

790'35"—6l41"= 784" 54",and SSH X SOT 49! 53!"

2°O

the equation of her meanto her true motion, to be fub-

tracted, 790 35—49 53 = 740 42 the moon’s true motion
per day, or 740" 42"! per danda.

For the place of the moon’s apogee reduced to the appa=
rent midnight. ‘The motion of the apogee is 6! 41" per day,
JOB! O" OE RN a) | arp Ca AE
ere 7 eae ae) JL 8! 57! 2" = 11° 7° 8! 55" ite

place,

= 210! the fine of the angle of

31° 46! g!, and 21847" co-fine in
the epicycle.

For

ECLIPSE.

For the fame of the node. Its motion fer day is 3! 10",
ro! 6! x 3! sai '

and

tS LD 5 Oo ae! " i? °
iGo es 20° 27" 36! rMl —iato9

27! 35/its place;

The true longitude and motion, therefore, for the appa-
rent time of midnight at Bhagalpur, 714404082947 folar
days after the creation, or commencement of the planetary
motions, wilibe

’ | Longitude.

Motion per day.

—

ashy ONN ae slat rou
jOf the Sun, {5 19 54 71 60 24
Moen, ; | — 17 28 28 740 49

Sun’s Apogee, |» 2317 -17 rs inconfiderable
Moon’s Apogee, | rt 7- 5 55! 6 41
Moon’s:Node, | 4 29 27 35] Apes

Second operation.— Having the longitude end motion as
above, to determine the /i#’/i and time remaining unexpired
to the-inftant of oppofition, or full moon.

The moon’s longitede fubtraéied from the fun’s, leaves
5° 27° 34! 17", or 10654! 17", which, divided by 720!
the minutes in a mean #i’/i, quotes fourteen even HP his Ex-
pired, and the fra€tion, or remainder 574/17", is the por-
‘tion expired of the 15th, or purnima ti? /t, which fubtraéed
from 720!, leaves 145’ 43" remaining unexpired of the fame;
which, divided by the moon’s motion fer danda from the
fun, will give the time remaining unexpired from midnight
to the inftant of the full moon with 2s much precifion as the
Hindu attroncmy requires. Deduct the fun’s motion
60! 24" per danda from the mcon’s 740! 42!", the remain-
der 689!3!", is the moon’s motion from the fun ; by this di-
vide the part remaining unexpired of the purnima tit hi
145! 43" :

145! 43"=524550!" D- —P-
680"8" = 4o8re"—** 5!

therefore 12 dandas, 51 palas after midnight will be the end
of the purnima tit’ hi, or initant of oppofition of tke fun and
moon. :

Fifth operation —Having the inflant of oppofition as above,
to find the true longitude and motion of the fun and moon,
the latitude of the Jatter.and the place of the node.

Add the mean motion of each for 12° 51° to the mean
place, found before for the true midnight; and for the
mean places fo found, compute again the anomaliltic equa-

tions. This being but a repetition of operation the third
is‘unneceflary to be detailed. Tue feveral particulars are as
follows:
Mean lonzi- 'Mean longi-"| Ee True longi- |
2 tude for mid-j tude at full 4qua~ jude at full |
night. } moon. te moon. |}
feo) whe oy Un 1 Pa or yh
Of the Sun, { 6 21-42 17, 6 22 54 17}1 4750169207 7
Moon, J— 20 58 28/— 23 47 47/3 40 20)— 90 7 27
Moon's Apogee,!11 7) $.55|10 7 ao -O3f es |
Moon’s Node, | 4 29 97 35| 4 29 28,16|———_| ee
| i |
|Mean motion. Equatien. pat ioe De |
full moon,

2 aa —_—

! " ! " i win
| Of the Sun, 598 x P 46 60 24
| Moon, 790 35 — 47 28 5aDT |

Sf

Hence it appears that, at the oppofition, the moon will
be near her defcending node; for, 4° 29° 28'17"x6'=
10° 29° 28/16", the place of the defcending nodein antes
cedentia, and 12*— 10° 29° 28' 16"=1° 0° 31/44" its longi-
tude according to the order of the figns, and 1° 0° 31! 44!
20° 7! 27'"'= 10° 24! 17! the moon’s diftance from her de-
{cending node, which, being within the limit of a lunar
eclipfe, fhews that the moon will be then eclipfed. For her
latitude at this time, fay, as radius is to the inclination of
her orbit'to the ecliptic, 4°.30! or 270', fois the fine of her
diftance from the node 620! 57", to her latitudeof 45! 45"

22 70L x 620! a)

(5 3438! , :

Sixth operation —Yrom the elements now found, to com-
pute the diameter of the moon and fhadow, and the duration
of the eclipfe.

Yojan.
The Sun’s mean diameter is - 6500
Moon’s - - - 480
Earth’s - - - 16c0
San’s mean motion, - 59'S"

_ Moon’s, - - - 79° 35
Sun’s true motion, - Go 24
Moon’s, - . - 443-9
Moon’s latitude, - 3.2

As the moon’s mean motion is to her mean diameter, fo
is her true motion to her true diameter for the time of op.
- 2 .
~ tel a
RAS ES 11 Yojan, which, divided by 15
799-35 :
quotes 3o! 5" of a great circle. ey en
Asthefun’s mean motion is to his mean diameter, fo is
his true motion to his diameter at the inftant of oppofition

pelition

Y
607 24" 6500
CTE
‘As the moon’s mean motion is to the earth’s diameter, fo
is the moon’s equated motion to the Suchi, cr a fourth num-
ber, which muit be taken as the earth’s diameter, for the
purpofe of proportioning its fhadow to the moon’s diflance

. * 1600 x 743° 9"
and apparent diameter S143 7

= 6639 14 Yojan. ‘

3 S085
Suchi. 3
Equated diameter of the fun, 6639 14
Ofthe earth, +. <5 = 1503 56 :
Difference, 5039 14

As the fun’s mean diameter is to the moon’s diameter, fo
is the difference above 5039 14, toa fourth number, whicb,
deducted from the Suchi, or equated diameter of the. earth,
leaves the diameter of the earth’s fhadow at the moon,

x W
Sox 5039 14 j
=e 372 7 and 1503 56 — 372 7 AoE AS

Yojan, which divided by fifteen, quotes 75! 27! of a great
circle for the fame.
From the half fum of the diameters of the moon and fha-

A tg atl ten >

a7" 520 E
dow for A = 5! 46" fubtra& the moon’s latitude
48!"45", the remainder is the Chch’anna, or portion of the

moon’s diameter eclipfed, 4! 1 ofa great circle, and by the

nature of a right-angled triangle, the {quare root of the dif-
ference of the fquares of the moon’s latitude, and the half
fum of the diameters of the fhadow and moon, will be the

eh ks “path

= 1503 56 Yojan, the’

es

path of the moon’s centre, from the begining to the middle
of the eclipfe.

z The diameter of the fhadow is, 7 ey)
: Of the moon, . = - Zor 5
Sum, - 105 a

Half fum, “52 46

The moon’s latitude is, = 56-45

752 40° X 48 45° = 20! 11", which divided by the
moodn’s motion fromthe fun, quotes the half duration of the
¢clipfe in dandas and palas; or Hindu mean folar hours,

aE aay, Ber, WG

20! ri" 1211! F :
— = £ 46 255 which doubled, is 3 32 50,

693"! 43°
the whole duration of the eclipfe; which will be partial, the
moon’s latitude being greater than the difference between
the femi-diemeters of the moon’s dife and the earth’s fhadow.

Sewenth operation. —To find the pofition of the equinottial
eolures, and theace the declination of the fun, the length
of day andnight, and the time counted from fun-rife, or
hour of the civil day when the eclipfe will happen.

ift. For the ayananfa or diftance of the vernal equinox from

Periods.

600 :
(271650) 8 4°

the rit of Mefha, 24424082047 x 600_
1577917828
g1' 30! 52! of which take the bhuja 8° 4° 31/30! cot
G or 2" 4° 31! 30" 52!" which multiply by three and divide by
° U " "t
es, ot 3! = 52" x 3
~ the prefent age is added to the fun’s longitude, to find his
diftance from the vernal equinox. ‘The fun’s equated longi-
fude is'62 19° 54" 11", and 6° 19° 54! 1 4+ 19° a1! 74 =
7° 9° 15! 38" his diftance from the vernal equinox.
24. Forthe declination, right afcenfion, and afcenfional
difference. The fun’s place is 7* 9° 15'38", and 1°9° 15/ 38",
his diftance from the actumnal equinox ; the fine of which

= 19° 21! 27!" the ayananfa; which in

clination 24°, termed the paraniapacramajya 1397', fo is
2174/41 to the fine of his declination 883! 4o", the arc
corre{ponding with which, in the canon of fines, is 14° 53',

a. By art age ] py Ate ay
SS = 883! 40") - The equinodial fhadow

i. 34%3
at Bhagaipuris 5, 30, and,as the Gnomon ef twelves angalas
is to the equinoctial fhadow, fo is the fine of the declination

A- oY
. 833'40" ‘
383, 40, to the chhitijya, 5 Seas 4o5'1". And as
y)

- theco-fine of the declination is torhe radius, fo is the chhitijya
+t ; & 405 1 X 3438
to the fine of the chara, or afcenfional difference, rene
he 3322

= 419! 4": itsarcis 479! 56" the afcenfional difference.

{ 3d. ‘For the length of the day and night.

‘The modern Hindus make their computations ijn mean
folar time ; the Surya Siddhanta direéts, that they fhould be
made in fidereal time. A fidereal day conzains fixty
dandas; each danda, fixty viculas; and each vicnla fix re-
{pirations, in all 21600 re{pirations, an{wering tothe minutes
of the equator. A nacthatra day is exceeded in length by
the favan, or folar day, by reafon of the fun’s proper motion
in the ecliptic, the former meafures time equably, but the
Jatter varies in its length from the inequality of the fun’s mo-

_ tion, and the obliquity of the ecliptic. "The fun’s equated

_ motion for the middle of the eclipfe was found 60! 24"; and
4 Vou. XII.

is 2174! 41", and as radius is to the fine of the greateft de--

EFEL@IPS EF.

the oblique afcenfion for the eizhth fiza from the vernal
equinox, ta which he will be found at that time, is taken
from the forezoing table 543 pelas, or 2085 refpirations.
As the number of minutes contained in one fine 1800, isto
the number of refpirations, or the arc of the equater in mi-
nutesanfwerlig to the oblique afcenfion of the fine, the {un is
in 2095, a8 above, fois the equated motion 63! 24", tothe
excefs in refpirations of the favan or folar day over the nac-

ane af ”
2058! x 60! 2.4 :
= = =69'3", which, added

fhatra or fidereal day

1809
to 21Goo! gives the length of the folar day. by civil account
from fux-rife to fun-rilesfidereal time 21669 3 refpirations.
Trom one fotrth of this dedu@& the afcentional diferenee,
the fun being declined towards the fouth pole, for the femi-
diurnal are ; and add it for the feminoéiurnal arc : the former
i 4997'19", and the latter 5937! 11"; which may be se-
duced to dandas, or Hindu hours, by a divifien of 360.
DP? Deas
Hence half the day is 13 52 53, and half the night 16 12 52.
The whole day added to half-the night fhews the hour
ey
counted from the preceding fun-rife to midnight 43 53 38,
to which add the time at midnight unexp’red of the puraima
tit*hi, forthe hour of the civil day currefponding with the
middie of the eclipfe. . The hour from midnight to the end
. DP
of the purnima ti?’ hiis already found 1251 in mean folar tims,
and to reduce it to fidereal time, fay, as 21600! is to 21500f
D P D P
x 5918", fo is 12 51, to fidereal hours 12 53,° cqual to
D P
2 51 folar hours.

DV P
From the preceding fun-rife to midnight is 43 59 —
At midnight will remain of the purnima ti hi, 12 53 —

Hour of the civil day at the middle of the?
eclipfe, - - - - - FIPD®

Dedu& the-half duration, - 2k 1°46 25

Beginning of the eclipfe : - - 85

Add the whole duration, —_— = - i Be 3

‘ se

End of the eclipfe, - . - - 58.38 25

Dey
And the day and night containing together 60 11 30,

DP Y
the eclipfe fhould end 1 33 5 before fun rife, according te
this calculation.

The frit day of the creatign, according to the Hindus,
was Ravi-var, or Sunday: the number of daya tor whieh
the ebave calculation has-beea made, is 714494082047,
which, divided by feven, the number of days in a week, are
12057726135 weeksand two deys; the aftronomical day
therefore of Sama-var, or Mondey, will end at midnight
preceding the eclipfe; but the Sonm-var by civil computa-
tion will continue tothe nexten(uing fun-rife; and this Somae
var, by calculating the number of days elapfed from the in-
{tant the fun entered the fign Tula, to his advance of 19° 54!
on that fizn, will be found to fallon the roth of the month
Cartic, anfwering to the third of November. j

The time of the full moon and the curation of the eclipfe,
found by this computation, differ confiderably from the Nau-
tical Almanac. ‘lhe Siddhanta Rahafya and Grabalaghava,
comparatively modern treatifes, are nearer the truth, yet far
from corre&t.. The Hindus, in determining thefe pheno-
mena, are fatisfied when within a few minutes of thetrue time.

4A A com:

/

ECLIPSE,

an
ha

_A comparative Statement of this Eclipfe as prediGed in the Nantical Almanac, with computations of it made by
. different Hindu books. Thofe marked (*) are made for different meridians, the lait wé believe for Tirhut.

Surya Siddhanta -

Tables of Macaranda -

* Grahalaghava,
Siddhanta Rahafya -

Surya Siddhanta =
Tables of Macaranda

* Grahalaghava,
Siddhanta Rahafya es

Nautical Almanac a

Surya Siddhanta - ~

Tables of Macaranda -
* Grahalaghava_—-
Siddhanta Rahafya >

* Grahana Mala, a Catalogue of

Nautical Almanac ™

Names.

‘

K:quated longitude for midnight at Bhagalpur,
fuppofed in 8° so! E. from Lanea, and 88° E.
from Greenwich.

The Node.

The Sun. The Moon.

° ' pias 5 ° a ”
- 6 19 54 11 — 17 28 28 I — 31 44
., . 019 55 9 ame Teepe) A) Lye p32 ea

6-19 54 29 |) = 17:16:25) 1 = 27 35

Add to each the aynasanfa 19°21! 27" for .
the longitude counted according to European altro-
nomers from the equinoctial eolere.

tI]

.
'
~r “I
Ko}
-
Gn
nn
n
H
OV
iss)
“Mr
on
vn

Eclipfes

s Oneal sth s ° ! i]
= tes 7 GOUSNZS) in tisds Oe 40055
- - Firi.gut:.36 16), 51436

19 49 2

From midnight to the
middie of the Eclipfe.

. Wie eh H. M. S$ D>) Pia Vie

= a= 5 9 12 3 12° 50

= Ge Oe

S = SENSO 14'S Oke gees
: EEE Meee (Paci esse ory) ih ee IS

- 16 6 —{| 6 262 5 26 —

- - 16 — 37 6 24 5 5 22 2%

Duration of the
Kclipfe.

Hindu time. |Englifh time.| Hindu time.}Eagiith time.

I 19 53 Il

19 53 54

|
ee OR 7; ;
}

——_—_

19) 45239

—

H. MS
Deg Ss
I 46 20
I 56 36
I 49 16
2 10 24

STRUYK’s

L op ae P SE.
| STRUYK’s CATALOGUE OF ECLIPSES. ¢

Bef.|Eclipfes of the Sun anc Middle| Di its H Aft. |Eclipfes of the Sun and - Middle} Digits
Chr. Moon feen at M. & D. tM pelleted Chr. M ron feen at M. & D. try Mo. clipfed
721 {Babylon )|March rol10 434} Total ff 45 /Rome Reijuly 3322) ea 5 7
720|Babylon D\March 8lir 56/'1 5} 46|Pekin fi\July 21/22 25] 2 . 1c
720 |Babylon - ) |Sept. t]10 18] 5 = at} 46 Rome )|Vec 31] gye 52 Total
621 Babylon »)) April 2118 22) 2 36 49 Pekin & May 20] 7. 16/10 §
523 Babylon Dijuly xr6lr2 447) 7 -24)f 53 |Canton f|March §8|20 q2jir. 0
502 |Babylon DINov. rolr2 27) 1 524) 55 |Pekin 3 |fuly i2\2t° 50} 0 4c
491 |Babylon .. DJApril 25/12 12) x 44t} 56}Canton #3(/Dec. - - 25] 0 28) 9 204
431 |/Athens : Auguft 3) 6 35lr1 — off 59 Rome Cs|April 30) 3° 8/10 38
425 |Athens “—""""1)|OGober 9} 6 45] Total }f Go }Canton *|OGober 13] 3 31/10 30
424/Athens — t:|March 20/20 17| 9 - ctf 65 }Canton ¥|Dec. 5]21 5p|fo 23
_ [473 |Athens D\Augu 27/10 15] Total | 69 |Rome D|OGober 18]10 43/10 49
7 | 406)/Athens D\April 15] 8 50] Total {} 7o/Canton G|Sept. 22/21 13) 8 26
) 1404 |Athens #:/Sept. alar 12! 8 4cif 71 |Rome D|March 4) 8 32/°6 .c
$403 [Pekin el/Auguk 28} 5 53\10 golf 95 /Epvhefus s|May 21 | Te. '¢f
394 |Gnide re) Augult 13/22 pry yy 1215 Alexandria DjApril 5/9 16/1 44)
383 |Athens D\Dec. - ‘22 19 6) 2 144133 |Alexandra ») May 6j11 - 44] “Total
382 |Athens DiJune 18] 8 5g) 6 15}h134)Alcxandria D|OSober20/nk 510 Ig
382 |Athens D\Dec, . 12/ro 21) Total #f 136 |Alexandria +] D|March <> 5/5 56) 5 17
3641Thebes Sa\July 12/23° 51) 6 rch} 237 |Bologna S/April 12|\————} ‘Total
357 |Syracule %4[Feb. 28)22 —=| 3 33[{238|Rome |fejApril, 1/20 20) 8 45
357 \Zant D/Auguit 26) 7 29] 4 2144290 |Carthage : je\May 15) 3 20/1 2c
340\Zant - £2\Sept. 14/18 —|Q clf304|Rome 7) jAuguk 3 | 9 36) Total
334 |Arbela D\Sept. 20/10. 9} Total }} 316 |Conitantinople t|Dec. 3el1g 53) 2. 15
310 |Sicily Ifland Ha/Auguft 14/20 5i10- 22))334|Toledo ©. \July —-7/at noon|Centraly .
219 |My fia D)\March 19/14 5} Total | 348 |Conftantinople €:|OGtober S]19° 24) 8 0
218 |Pergamos {D\Sept. | rifing | Totai ff 360 |[fpahan 4Auguh 27/18 « o|Central
| | 217 |Sardinia elFeb. il t 57| 9° Off 364|Alexandria DINov. 25/15 24) Lotalf.
203 |FruGni %|May 6) 2 52) 5 40H gor |Rome DiJune i Total |
| | 202 |Cufhis $:|OGtober 18/22 24) § off gor |Rome )|Dec. 612 275) Lotral
| 201 |Athens D\Sept. 22! 7 -14) 8 58h} 4o2}Rome ~ ) |June 1| 8 i43|10..5 2
2co0|Athens D|March 19/13 9| Total }f 402 |Rome S\Nov. 10/20 33/19 30
200 |Athens D\Sept. r1}14 48} Total j 447 |Compoftello LiiDec. 23] 0 46) 1
| 198 |Rome SlAugut 6 45t |Compottello D\April m6 34/19 5
| 190 |Rome { 18|March 13/13 —lrx _ cht 451 |Compoftello D\Sept. 26] 6 go) o 2
_ [188 |Rome el\July 16/20 38)10 43%) 458 |Chaves Gi\May 27|23 “16/18 53
‘| 174 Athens DjApril golrg 33] 7» 141462 |Compoftello » D\March 3/13 * 2|mr 11
[168 |Macedonia D\June 21) & 2} Total ff 464 |Chaves CelJuly r9l19- 11o 15h
{441 |Rhodes DiJan. 27110 = 8] 3. 2644 484. |Conftantinople se\Jan. ~ 3Zl19 53\10° ©
_ J 104 |Rome July rS)22 --olrt 521} 486|Confantinople |May - rol pr rol 5. 1505
63 |Rome t ) |O&ober 27} 6 22] Total tj 497 |Conttantinople SApnl 181.6 5/17. 57
60, |Gibraltar $4/March 16) {etting |Central} 512 |Conftantinople %\June 28)23 % 8] 1 5
.54|\Canton 2e|May 9| 3°41] Total |} 538} England $e\Feb. 14/19 —| 35123
[+51 |/Rome March =| 2 12! 9 Oo} §40| London %\June 19/20 15) 8 -—
4248 |Rome D\Jan. = 18}ro ~— oo} Total $577 | Tours Y|Dec. 10/17 28} 6 °° 46
245 |Rome D |Nov. a 14... —| Total jf 58:1 |Paris DiApril 4i13 + 33/6 42
36 |Rome u:¢|May 3 52} 6 47}1 582 |Paris D\Sept. x7}12 41} Total
.g1|Rome a Anal sd fetting |Gr.Ecl }} 590 | Paris ) |Ogtober 18] 6 “gol-g 25)
|) 29 |Canton sk) Jan. 6) 4 «2|sr | off 592 |Conftantinople <4/March 1822 | 6/10 '- ©
| 28 |Pekin Se\June 18/23. 48} Total |} 603 |Paris ss|Auguft 12/3 girs, 2€
26 |Cantoa t/OGober 23] 4° 16]11 154] 622-|Conftantinople 1) |Feb. ijrr 28) Total
“| 24 |Pekin ts|April. — 7] 4 1a|-2 . cf} 644 |Paris Ae | Nov. 5) 0 30|-9 53
|. 16 |Pckin té|Nov. 1] 5 13|.2 - 81680 |Paris DiJune * 17/42 go] Total
“| 2/|Canton ¢4/Feb, 120 Sixx ©42}| 683 |Paris DjApril 16l1c° go} Total
‘JAft. 693 |Conttantinople 2|OGober 4/23 54/11. 54
Chr, 716 |Conftantinople’ | D |Jan. 13|°7. —| Total
» 1|Pekin *s\June 10} r rojrr 43h) 718 Coo tento ee ‘ 1&3 June 3|'r x15] Total
5 |Rome (c3|March 28) 4°,.13).4 14511733 | England ws We|Auguft 13)20- —j11) 1
| 14|Panonia ) Sept. ~ 26/17 15) Total }1:734 |England 1) |Jan. 23)14 7} Total
“27 |Canton es\July 22) 8 56) Total #}752|England *' AW Duly. 3¢lng 0 Te
} 3o0|Canton © \8e|Nov. 13]19 20]10 gohi753|England ~ + Jeune Slo2 o § 35h
1 40|Pekin /April 30] 5 50) 7 7 34))753|\England -._ . Vyjjan. 23113 =| Teal

ECLIPSE. ;
STRUYK’s CATALOGUE OF ECLIPSES.

Af. |iclipfes of the Sun and

(Chr. | Moon feen at le
——

——

| = |
Middle} Digits 8A ft.!Eclipfes of the Sun anal Middle} Digits
M. pb 5 a :

1. & D H. M.leclipfect}Chr. Mosc feen at | sc locke

H. M. echipfed

|

760| England iAuguft 15} 4 —} 8 15$1023}London #5\Jan 23123 2g
760\L.ondon b|Augu& 30] 5 5olt0 4chtto3c|Rome D\Fcb, 20frr 43} Total
f 7641 England =| une 4jat noon} 7 1544103 1}Paris >|Feb. olir 51! Total
770}London D\Feb. 34) 712} Total }fr033|Paris D | Dec. bjur ri} 9-37
774)/Rome 2olt4 37\ix §8}}1034|/Milan ») {June 49 s, Total
784{London i Wig 2 Total §{1037|Paris ElApril 17)20 45}10 45)
787 \Conftantinople 14|20 43) 9 473}1030}Auxerre €:|Auguk 21|23 4clir 65
796\Confantinople 27|16 22] Total jf1012/Rome D |Jan. 8|16 36) Total
| Soc}Rome 15} 9 Cito 17p{rog4|Auxerre ) |Nov. 7|16 12)10 1
807|Angoulefme Iol2t 241 9 g2ffros4}Cluny #:|Nov. © >21|23 I2len —
S07 }Paris 25|13 43) Total §}1056)Nuremburg ) )Aprit 2|12 9} Total
S07| Paris 21\10 2<| Total {f1063)/Rome ) |Noy. $}12 16 Total
8og\Paris 1521 33) 8 S8tiro7s;Aughurgh D|OSober 7j10 33) Total
t Sog| Paris 25} 3 -—| Total }}ro8c|Conttantinople p|Nov. 23|1t 12) 9 36
810}Paris 2<| 8 —| Total }}:082}London D|May I4\10 32/10 2
S10}Paris 3c} o 12) Total f:0S6/Conftantinople teiFeb. 16) 4 7| Total
| 8ictPuris 1a} 8 al Total }1:0Sg|Napks > [June 25,6 6) Total
812}Conftantinople 13] 2 13) 9 —|t1093/Auzfargh Glsept. 22\:2 gslr0 12
813|Cappadocia a\l7 5|10 3.5}41096|Gembluors y\Feb, tolrG6 4 Total
S15|Paris 5t 5 4 | Total fJr09¢;Augfurgh DjAugult 6) $ 21) Total
$1)Paris 6lnS --| 6 “s5p41cg8|Augiburgh |Dec. 25 25,10 12
820}Paris 2:| 6 26} Fotal flrogo|Naples DINov. 36 58| Total
38) 7 55} Total }t1103/Rome DiSept. ¥7 18} Total
3ol15 —| Total [frro6}Erfurd Dijuly 17 2Sirr 5
24113 45! Total }jrro7jNaples ) |Jar. Ic 16} Total
30} 6 xclxr = SffrroglErfurd G|May 31 gol1o 2c
4 ee —} 4 24ffcric}London » |May 5 5i| Total
D{OSober 24} rt trr3\Jerafalem :|March 18 o| g- 12
DJApril 18) 9 ! DjAugult 17 5, Total
£3 May 4123 Dijune 15 26} Total
€:\Oaober 1713 )|Dec. 0 51} Total
D|March 29)14 DINov. 29 4644 71
)\March 109} 7 )jSept. 27 47{| Total
D\March 29115 ‘)|March 24 2c| 3 49
d jO Gober 14/16 D{Feb. 4318 39
$73) Paris &|OGober 29 1 © Auguft -10 29,9 58
883}ArraQa - bijuly 23) 7 D{March 3 14} Total
4 8Sq\Conftantinople GyApril _ 3i27 diFeb. 20 41 3. 23]
Sy1jConftantinople t ©) Auguit 7\23 )|Dzc, ~ 22 11} Total
gos\Arraéia DjAuguf 2/15 7) Total jl1142/Rome DiFeb. 11 17} &. 30
go4|Londoa » |May gil1z 45 Total }jr143}Rome D|Feb. 36) Total F
goa! London D\Nov. 25) 9 0} Total }{1r47|Auranches =¢|O Sober 25 38) 7 208°
gi2}London D\Jan. 6\r5. -12| Total {fr 149] Bary >|March 25 5415 2048
g26| Paris D\March 3ilt5 17} Total {jx15i|Eimbeck D |Auguk 28 44 2g ‘
93 4\Paris GlApril 16) 4 golrr 36 [r152|Augfbargh £i\Jan. 26 42irh :
939| Paris July 181g gs5i1o 7} f1154|Paris Dijuse 26 1\ Total |
95 5{Paris DiSept. liz 18) Total j{s154)Paris )|Dec. 21 gor 4 42
gouRbemes &iiMay 16j20 13| g _18}r155|Auranches Dijune 16 45,0 5
970\Conttantinople 3¢|May 7/18 38ltr 22)}1160)Rome DiAuguft 15} 7 53) 6 49
976| London Dijuly 33/15 7) Total }}r161)Rome DjAuguk 7 15| Total 5
985|Meffiua July 20) 3 §2| 4 ropir162)Erfurd D|Feb. 1 40) 5 56L-
9SgiContftantinople @i\May 23816 5418 4o 1162|Erfurd DiJuly 27 30] 4 1p
ggo|Fulda DIApril 12\10 22| 9 — 5}\1163\Mont Caffin #\July 3 40} 2 OF
ggo\Fulda D\OGober 65 girt 108}1164\Milan ) June o}| Total
9go\Conftantinople ©:|OQober 21} 0 45tro 116$|London DiSept. x8l14 oo} Total ee
ggs\Angfburgh D\fuly r4lrx 27) Total fir172!Cologne DiJan. 11/13 31] Totalh
1009) Ferrara D\OGober 6)11 38) Total }}1176)Auranches DiApril ~ 25,7 2} 8 6f
fiorc|Mcfiina \March 18)°5 41) 9 12 1176| Auranches D\OGober solrt 20} 8 538
1016) Nimeguen DiNov. 16}16 39} ‘Total }]1178}Cologne . D|March 5} fetting| 7 52
1017|)Nimeguen &|OGober22| 2 8} 6 —|1178)Auranches pjAuguft 29113 52] 5 38
ro2c\Cologne ) |Sept. 11 _38|. Total ff

178\Cologne (Sept. 12)— Io 54

Aft.|Eclipfes of the Sun and
Chr. floon feen at
1179\Cologne
150] Auranches
£181} Auranches
t181|Auranches
1185|Rhemes
1186|Cologne
1186|Franckfort
1187/Paris
(187| England
4189|England
119i |Eng'and
(192\France
1193|France
1194/London
1200|London
1201|Londoa
1204\Engiand
T204|/Saltzburg
1207|Rhemes
1205|Rhemes
t211\Vienna
1215\Cologue
1216}Acre
r216|Acre
1218}Damiétta
1222|Rome
1223 Colmar
1228|Naples
1230|Naples
1230|London
1232)Rhemes
1245|}RKhemes
1248)}London
1255|London
40155|Conttantinople
1258/Aug {burgh
1261\Vienna
1262|Vienna
(262|Vieuna
1263|Vienna
1263|Augfburgh
1263|Vieona
1265|Vienna
1267|Conftantinople
1270|Vienna
1272\Vienna
1274] Vienna
1275|Lauben
1276|Vienna
1277|Vienna
1279|Franckfort
1280|London
1284|Reggio
1290|Wittemburg
1291\London
1302|Conftantinople
1307|Ferrara
1309|London
1309|Lucca
1310| Wittemburg
1310| Torcello

~<~——-.-

STRUYK’s CATALOGUE OF ECLIPSES,

M. & D.

SS

)|Augul 18)14
é\Jan. 28} 4
&s\fuly 13) 3
)|Dec. 22) 5
|May 1] 1
piApril ~— 5}, 6
April 20) 7
)|March 25]16
#2|Sept. 321
p |Feb. z\10
«| Tune 23).0
p\Nov. 20/14
p|Nov. 10} 5
w3\April. 22) 2
D|Jan. 2\17
DiJune = £7415
pjApril 15j12
) |ORober 10) 6
(Feb. 27/50
y |Feb. 245
pINov. 21) 13
> |March 16)15
ilFeb. 1S}ar
p\March 5) 9
diely 99
1 p (\OGober 22/14
plApril 16] 8
#;|Dec. 27} 9
gs{May = 13117
DINov. 32113
#;j)OGober 15} 4
eiiJuly — 24)17
D [June 7 8
Difuly 2019
dé(Dec. 30] %
p}May = 18x
&%;|March 31|22
p|March 4] 5
p |Augutt goj14
p|Feb. 241 6
jAugul 5) 3
) |Augult 20} 7
D|Dec. 23116
&\May 24/23
t:|March 22[18
) |Auguft ro} 7
) jJan. 23\10
) |Dec. 4| 6
DINov. 22/15
) |May 18
w{April 12) 6
)|March 1712
D|Dec. 23/16
GajSept. —4\19
D|Fceb. r4}10
> Jan. 14\10
&lApril 2jaz2
D\Feb. — 24)17
D {Auguft 21]10
faiJan. 31) 2
)|Feb. 14) 4

ECLIPSE.

28) Total

13 ro! Tercello

t

14|10 ayes Wittemburg
15] 3 abil 7 12|Plaifance

55} 4 404]1313|Torcella

53, 9 of'n3.16)Modena

—| Total {1132 :|Wittemburg
19] 4 off: 322 Florence
L738. 42 11324 Florence

54| 8 611324) Wittemburg
—| 9 —411327\Conftantinople
2o/n1 324] 328)Conitantinople
—| 6. —}!1330}Florence

45
2| 4
4

Total
oro 20)
ro} Total
Total
Total
15|rr 36
33}7 4
461k 3)
3} Total
pilin wee to)
a Total
219 34
2914 25

i
Total
Total
2}|Annul,
17| Total
9 §
Total
Total
2} 6 29
24|tI 17

9

;| Total
TI}IL 40
10 40}
27} 8 53
9 25
4 29)
Total
Total
IQ.1 1,0
Total
Iibg 13
Io 30
2) Total
Total
° (54
Total
Total
2\10 10
8l10 20

Tol

71431

a9
27| Total 11330 Conttantinople
6 401}1330\Prague
35111331|Prague
Total }1133 1|Prague
Total }!

1333) \Vittemburg
1334\Cefena
1341}Conftantinople
134.1|Con{tantinople
1342|Conftantinople
1344) Alexandria
1349| Wittemburg
1354|Wittemburg
1356|Florence
1301|Conttantinople
1367/|Sicnna
1389|Eugibio
1396|Augfburgh
1396)Aug{burgh
1399| forli
1406|Conftantinople
1406|Conftantinople
1408] Forli

1409) Conttantisople
141o}Vienna

14.15| Wittembur
my Branckine
1421|Forli
1422|Forli
1424|Wittemburg
Forli
1433|Wittemburg
1438] Wittemburg
144.2|Rome

1448) Tubing
1450|Conftantinople
1457|Vienna

1460] Auttria
1460/Auftria
1460|Vienna
1465|Vienna
1461|Rome
1462|Viterbo
1462|Viterbo
1464\Padua
1465|Kome
1465|Rome
1469|Rome
1485|Norimburg

Moon feen at

Middle} Digits 1 Aft.|Ecliples of the Sum and}
A. M Jeclipfzds! Chr.

»)

Muy

eich ceoh ve cOuhecGvGvGivewsSyey

wee Hweuyr vee yr eM eee

j

Middle

Digits
M. & D. H. M.|eclipfed
Auguk rohi5 33) 7 1
Joly —4)'9 49) 323
Dec. 14} 7 19}, Total
Dec. 3) 8 58 34
lO&eber 1/14 55] Lotal
| Jone 25)18 Wal 17
May, 2c|t5 24} Total
May. 9| 6 = 3, Total
April 2316 35) 8
Auguh 31|18 26) Total
Feb. a5it3 ziti
June 30/15 - 101 7 34
July 16,4 5|10 43
Dec. 25|15 40} Total
Nov. 269)20 26) 7 41
Dec. wii8 —lr —
May 1413 —\!0 1
April , 19|10 33} Total
}Nov. 23]12 23} Total
Dec. 8i22, 15] 6 30
May 20/14 27} Total
O&eber 648 4cl 8 55
June = 30/12 20} Toral
Sept. 1620 4518 43
Feb. 16)11 43} Total
May 422 158° §
Jan. 16] & 27} Total
Nov. 37 = -§ |, Tonal
Jan. 14,0 16), G 22
June = 2r}sy ro} Total
Oétober 2g} 9 43/9 —
June 1130 lO Bt
June or5ir8 tr 38
O@ober r5l2t 47/9 32
April 15} 3 1l10 48
March 20|13 13} Total
Juae 6| 6 43} Total
March. 25)22 Sled. 45
Feb. 17] 8 2} Total
Feb. O18 2611 7
June 26) 3 57/11 2
Feb, - 322 “4l R39
June 47) 5 —| Total
Sept. 15/20 59) 8
Dec. 17) 3 56] Total
Auguft 28}22 23)8 53
July 24/7 19) Total
Sent. 314-17} Total
July 317 3115 33
July 1717 $2l1r 19
Dec. 27/13 3¢) Total
Juse = 22/1r ~- 50} Total
Dec. 17 Total
June ltrs —|7 38
Nov. 21/0 10:2 6
April 21/12 43} Total
Sept. 20) 5 15/8 46
Oétober 4} 5. 12) Total
Jano. 2717 9g} Total
March 16) 3 53/15 —

ECLIPSE.

Various machines have been contrived to explain and il-
luitrate the doétrine of eclipfes. In all the mathematical
fhops are to be found telluriums and lunariums, which are
faid to be made for this ~purpofe’s for which, in fa&, they
are utterly unfit. For thofe converfant on the fubjeét,
machines are unneceflafy ; for thofe who are not, particularly
young people, thefe machines are only calculated to give
them erroneous notions. What little difficulty there is in.
the general principle, that requires this kind of illuftration,
is not to fhew how there is an eclipfe, but how it happens
that moft often there is not: now, in the above-mentioned
inftruments, the moon is in eclipfe for nearly one-half of the
month, and the fun during the remainder. This great de-
fet arifes from the impropriety of attempting to introduce
the fun, moon, and-earth, on one machine, intended to
illuftrate appearances in altronomy, the particular modifica-
tions of which depend altogether on the relative magnitudes
and diftances of the bodies which produce the phenomena.

In the leétures which were given this’ year at the Royal
Taftitation by Mr. Pond, a machine was exhibited, which
was entirely free from thefe obje€tions. The fun was alto-
gether omitted, and fuppofed to be at a great diltance, for
inftance, a mile: by this means, the magnitudes of the
earth and moon, and the proportionate dimenfions of the
lunar orbit, were-preferved. ‘The machine being adjufted
for the prefent year, the moon revolved round the earth at
her proper diltance, and became, in the courfe of the year,
twice eclipfed on the days marked in the ephemeris. “An
index, pointing to the fun, carried a fmall circle of card,
reprefenting the folar ecliptic limit: twice in the courfe of
the year the moon came within the circumference of this
card, indicating that there would be a folar eclipfe. The
machine is extremely’ fimple in its conftruGion :. it was made
under the dire@ion of Mr. D. Adams of Fleet-ftreet, by
Mr. R. Newman,'a very intelligent and ingenious workman,
who is very well known in his profeffion. \

The following defcription, illuftrated with a plate, will
give the reader a perfect idea of the nature of it, ’

Defcription of the Machine, to illuflrate the Phenomena of
Eclipfes.

This inftrument has the earth in the centre, half an inch
in diameter, on which is fixed a piece of black wood, about
15 inches long, to reprefent the fhadow of the earth from
the fun: this earth, with the fhadow, has a revolution on
its axis in°365 days 6 hours. Underneath the earth, on the
fame centre, is a focket going round in 27 days 8 hours, on
which is fixed an arm for carrying a {mall ball, to reprefent
the moon, 15 inches in length, that the moon may pals
clear of the end of the earth’s fhadow. This ball, which
reprefents the moon, is about one-third the diameter of the
earth.

Underneath the focket that carries the moon is another
focket, going round retrograde, or contrary to the figns in
the ecliptic, in 18 years 225 days, on which is fixed a circle
with the moon’s nodes, and latitude for every part of her
orbit. This circle inclines to the ecliptic in‘ an: angle of
5° 18!, giving the moon’s orbit an angle of 5° 18! with the
ecliptic.

Underneath the focket that carries the moon’s orbit, and
near the large plate on which is engraven the figns and de-
grees of the ecliptic, and the months and days of the month
an{wering thereto, is a focket, carrying round an index, to
fhew the {un’s place in the ecliptic, in 365 days 6 hours.
This index points to the day of the month and fun’s place
in the ecliptic through the year.

On the arm that carries the above index is fixed a circle,

divided into 293" for fhewing the moon’s age in any part
of her orbit. ¥ poet

On the ecliptic plate is a circle, divided into twice 12
hours, for fhewing the hour of the day or wight, by an
index that moves round by the machine in 24 hours.
| ’Yhbis inftrument is conttruQed for fhewing the mean time
of all the new and full moons, and folar aod lunar eclipfes,
for any given year.

The above being the particulars of the different parts of
the machine, we fhall now fhew that the machine, fo cone
firu@ed, will exa&ly anfwer the intended purpofes. }

Tn the firft place, the earth being half an inch in diameter,
and the moon nearly one-third the diameter of the earth,
the true proportional diftance cf the moon from the earth
will be about 3o times the diameter of the earth, equal to
15 iaches. ‘

The moon moves round the earth, from any particular
meridian to the fame: meridian again, in 27 days 8 hours,
(the moon’s orbit inclining to the ecliptic 5° 18’;) but from
the fun to the fun again, in 29 days 12 hours; the fun
having gone about 28° in the ecliptic, while the moon mekes |
one’revolution round the earth, and overtakes the fun again
in about 2 days 4 hours after paffing the fame meridian on
the earth it fet out from: the fun, with the annual index
moving round in the exe@t time with the earth’s fhadow,
throws the earth’s fhadow always in its true place.

To find the time that the new and full moons acd eclipfes
will happen, on any given year, by the machine.—Firlt, by
an ephemeris, find the exaét time of the firft new or full
moon in January; fet the annual index to the day of the
month in the ecliptic; bring the earth’s fhadow oppofite the
fun; if for new moon, bring the moon by turning the
winder exaétly between the fun and earth; but if for full
moon, bring the moon oppofite the fun, with the earth be-
tween the fun and moon; fet the hour-index to the time in
the hour-circle; then find the place in the ecliptic of the
afcending or defcending node, and fet to its place in the
ecliptic. - This done, the inftrument is rectified for ufe.

We will now fuppofe the inftrument fet to the firft new
moon in January: turn the winder, until the moon comes
oppolite where it fet out from, which will be about the 15th
‘day of the moon’s age, in the circle of 292’; the annual
index will point out the day of the month of the full moon ; +
and the hour-index, the hour the moan is full; turn the
winder, until the moon comes exaétly between the fun and
the earth, and you will have the exa&t time of new moon;
and fo on, for every new and full méon throughout the year.

As no folat eclipfe.can happen but at new moon, nor
lunar eclipfe can happen but at full moon, continue turning
the winder, until you fee the moon enter the end of the
earth’s fhadow, and the annual index will fhew the day, and
the hour-index will fhew the hour, the firft lunar eclipfe will
happen on that year, for then the moon will be in the node
of her orbit; and when the moon comes between the fun
and earth in her node; it will be the firft {clar eclipfe; and fo
on for every eclipfe through the year. At new or full
moon, when: there is no eclipfe, the moon will pafs cither
above or below the earth’s fhadow, according to the moon’s
latitude at the time. :

In the figure (fig. 100.) in which this machine is re-
prefented, E's reprefents the earth’s fhadow, Ex a fine
wire or index in the fame ftraight line as the fhadow, which
always points to the fame place. Thearm carrying the moon
has a hinge, by which means it always falls, and runs upon a
{mall wheel on the inclined plane, which reprefents the moon’s
orbit; the plane of the dial-plate reprefents the plane of the
ecliptic, The reit will eafily be underltood by infpeGion.

ECLIPTA,:

%

«

7

a

on the fouth.

0 F
ECLIPTA, in Botany, from exrerw, to be deficient, allud-

ing, as it fhould feem, to the want of acrown, or wing, to
the feeds, one of the chief charaéters that diftinguifh it from
WVerbefina, with which it Wad formerly been confounded by
Linnzus himfelf. Linn. Mant. 2.157. Schreb. 569. Willd.
Sp. Pl.v. 3. 2217. Juffl. 187. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 2. Gertn.
t. 169. (Eupatoriopbalacron, Vaillant Mem. de Il’Acad.
des Sc. for 1720. Dill. Elth. 138. t. 113.) Clafs and
order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fuperflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite,
oppofitifolie, Linn, Corymbifera, Juff.

Gen, Ch. Common Calyx of many lanceolate nearly equal
leaves, in a double row. Cor. compound, radiated ; florets
of the radius very numerous; female ftrap-fhaped, ex-
tremely narrow ; thofe of the diflkc hermaphrodite, tubular,
four-cleft, creét, nearly onthe outfide. Stam. (in the latter.)
Filaments four, very fhort; anthers forming a cylinder.
Pift, (in the fame.) Germen oblong; ftyle moderately
long ; ftigma of two fpreading lobes. Germenin the female
florets triangular; flyle and ttigma as in the others. Peric.
hone, except the permanent calyx. Sved of the difk oblong,
compreffed, crenulated, obtufe, naked ; of the radius trian-
gular, oblong, crenulated, obtufe, naked. Recept. flattifh,
clothed with very narrow upright feales.

Obf. At differs from Verbefina in having the florets of the
dif four-cleft, and naked feeds ; and from Cotu/a in its {caly
receptacle. {

Ei, Ch. Receptacle chaffy.
of the difk four-cleft.

The number of {pecies in Willdenow is feven, annuals of
avery mean afpe@t, growing on watte, cr cultivated ground,
in the Eaft Indies, or warmer parts of America. Their
ftem is branched. Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, or ovate,
acute, ferrated, rough, more or lefs talked. Flowers {mall
and inelegant, whitihh, or yellowifh, on long, fimple, flender,
Jateral, axillary, or terminal, ftalks. Scales of the calyx
broad and hairy. Michaux defcribes one fpecies, his E.
brachypoda, Fi, Boreal. Amer. v. 2. 130, as having the
florets five-cleft. EE. ere@a, from South America, and E,
profrata, from the Eaft Indies, have been introduced into
our ftoves, certainly rather for curiofity than ornament. E.
punélata is faid to afford'a juice which turns black, when ex-

ofed to the air, and is ufed by the negroes in the Welt
ndies to deepen the colour of their fkin.
-. ECLIPTIC, Ecuipricus, fomething belonging to
eclipfes. All new and full moons are not ecliptic, 7. e,
.eclipfes do not happen every new and full moon, though
~ there be then an interpofition, either of the earth between
the fun and moon, or of the moon between the fun and
earth. The reafon is, that the interpofition is only as to
- longitude, and not as to latitude. The fun is always in the

Secd-down none. Florets

ecliptic, but the moon is not; fhe deviates from it above five

* z 3
"1 degrees, and 4, fometimes on the north fide, and fometimes

But every five months, or thereabouts, fhe
cuts the ecliptic ; and it 1s only about thofe times, that there
- ‘carbe eclipfescither of the moon or fun. ‘The places where-
in the cuts the ecliptic, are called the nodes of the moon.
See Ecuipse. , :
Ecuirric bounds, or limits, are the greateft diftances from
the nodes at which the fun and moon can be eclipfed. Sce
_ Eeuipse.
Ecuipric digits, digiti ecliptic: See Dicits. ;
"| Ecutipric, in Afronomy, a great circie of the {phere
~ inwhich the fun detcribes its annual courfe.
It is fometimes defined the projeétion in the heavens of
the line defcribed by the centre of gravity of the earth and
moon, as feen from the centre of the fen. e
. To have determined the exaét path deferibed by the ap-
ve a.

ECL

parent motion of the fun, muft have required the continued
obfervations of many centuries. The path of the fun, refults

‘ing from the combination of its annual and diurnal motion, is,

in fact, a {piral, and may be reprefented by winding a thread
round that part of the celeftial globe which comprehends the
annual motion of the fun,«beginning at either folftice, and
making as many turns between it and the equator, as the fun
employs days to traverfe that part of his annual path. But
the diftance between the confecutive threads would not be
equal ; they would almoft coincide with each other near the
fol{tices, and wouid gradually widen as they approached the
equator. Au obferver at the pole, if it were habitable,
would fee the whole of this {piral; and it is eafy to conceive
how familiar he might be with this phenomenon, withou

any idea of fuch a circl: a3 the ecliptic ever fuggelting it-

fe'f to his imagination.

This {piral mation of the fun may be congcived as pros
duced by a motion nearly uniform, combined with a re&i-
linear motion extremely uncqual. It may be reprefented
by drawing a line on the celettial globe from the equator to
the folflice, the globe being, at the fame time, fuppofed to
be in motion round its axis; but the line muft not be drawa
with a uniform motion, but gradually retarded as the tracing
point approaches the folftice.

This may feem a very complicated way of arriving at a
knowledge of the ecliptic; but we muft recolle&, that the
problem 1s really: reprefented to us in this form. by nature.
The Greeks were acquainted with the irregular {piral above
defcribed long before they had any conception of the exift=
ance of fuch a curve as the ecliptic. With them the diffi-
culty of the problem confilted in reconciling this irregular
motion of the fun, from north to fouth, with that fimplicity
they were accultomed to attribute to the operations of nature ;
and. they were at a lofs to conceive what impediment the fun
met with in his path that could thus retard his progrefs, and
compel him to return. Their philofophers, who had more
imagination than judgment, explained this phenomenon fome=
thing in this manner. ‘They fuppofed that the fun, as he
approached the north, was impeded in his’courfe by the in-
creafing thicknefs of the atmofphere, which, by continually
increafing the difficulty of his progrefs, at length induced
him to alter his courfe; that when, on his- progrefs back
again towards the fouth, he croffed the equator, finding
there the climate more congenial to his nature, he proceeded
with vivacity ; but on again approaching the more intempe-
rate regions, he found the climate fo contrary to his nature,
that he was again compelled to return.

Though the explanation of the phenomena, arifing from
thefun’s annua! and diurnal motion, was knownto the Eaftern
nations at a very early period of antiquity ; yet the merit of
the difcovery, has by fome writers been attributed to Anaxi-
mander, an aftronomer of the Jonian fchool, who flourifhed
about 600 years before the Chriltian era. He was a dif-
ciple of Thalea, who feems to have acquired bis kriowledge
from the aftronomers of Egypt. Both Thales and his fuc-
ceflors explained the motion of the fun as we do at the pre-
fent day. They-appear cifin&ly to have underftood how
the above-mentioned {piral arofe from the fimple combination
of two circular motions.

The nature of the ecliptic being once underftood, the
next object was to determine its inclination to the equator.
The mott ancient inftrument for this purpofe was, no doubr,
the gnomon, or upright pillar to calt a fhadow of the fun; the
length of this fhadow was obferved throughout theyear, parti-
cularly at the folitices, by which means the fun’s greatelt and
lealt altitude was obtained : half of this difference, namely,
half the difference between the altitude at the longeit, te

the

HC LIP WE.

the altitude of the fhorteft day, was evidently the obliquity
of the ecliptic. © This being once determined, it became re-
quitite to devife fome metnod of placing this circle in its
pofition on the celeftial {phere ; for, we fhouid obferve, that
none of the preceding obfervations give us any infight into
the true fituation of the equinotial points in the heavens.
It was eafy to determine, by the foregoing methods, the
fituation of the fun at any moment, with refpeé& to the equi-
noGtial points ; but to place the ecliptic on the fphere, it
was requifite to know, at the fame moment, the fituation of
the fun, with refpe& co fome given ftar.

Before the invention of the pendulum this was an opera-
tion of great difficulty ; for the fun never being vitible, at
the fame moment, with any of the fixed ftars, it was not eafy
to meafure his diftance from any of them. ‘The ancient
aftronomers had recourfe to the moon as an intermediate ob-
ject of comparifon. he moon is often vilible at the fame
time with the fun; st was, therefore, practicable to meafure
the diitance from the fun to the moon; they then waited
till the fun defcended below the horizon, and then meafured
the diftance between the moon and any remarkable ftar, and,
by allowing for the motion of the moon in its orbit during
this fhort interval, they thus accomplifhed their purpofe.
Modern aftronomers effe& this by comparing the meridian
tranfit of the fun with that of the principal fixed fers, and
thus determine the right afcenfion of each. See Transit
and Ricgur Ascension.

This great circle of the fphere being once placed in its
proper pofition among the conttellations of the fixed ftars,
according to the method above defcribed, it was natural to
f{uppofe 1¢ would retain its pofition conftantly the fame ; but,
when practical aftronomy had attained to fome ccnfiderable
degree of perfection under the a‘tronomers of the Alexandrine
fchool, Hipparchus, by comparing his obfervations with
thofe of his predecefiors, obferved, that the ecliptic had cer-
taiuly changed its fituation relative tothe equator. If this
difcovery of Hipparchus appeared to him entircly new, (and
ahereis no reafon to doubt it,) it is a proof of the great de-
cline of aftronomy in Egypt an his time; for certainly this
phenomenen, now called the preceffion of the equinoxes,
muft have been known, in fome form or other, to the more
early aftronomers, as the effect of it is to render inaccurate the
rules laid down by ancient authors for the regulation of the
feafons. Ancient zodiacs, likewile, prove that the ecliptic
and equator were known to interfe&t each other, in points
very different from thofe determined by the predeceflors of
Hipparchus. There is, however, fome obfcurity in thefe
zodiacs; the equator and ecliptic are not laid down in the
diftin& manner they are on our globes, but often in a rude
and unintelligible manner. One of thofe, however, lately
found in Upper Egypt, feems to refer to a period about
2000 years before the Ciniftian era. The writings of
Hefiod, from fimilar confiderations, appear to refer to the
year goo A. C.; therefore, the effeéts of this phenomenon
muft have been known: but, perhaps, before the time of
Hipparchus, they had never been attributed diftinGly to
their proper caufe. ‘The ecliptic, being divided into four
equal parts by the equinodtial and folfticial points, the fun
was naturally fuppofed to defcribe them in four equal por-
nens of time; for the ecliptic, being a great circle, and
every part of acirele bearing the fame relation to its centre,
what reafon could be given why the fun fhould defcribe
equal portions of the ecliptic in unequal periods of time ?
Yet Hipparchus, when he came to examine more attentively,
than had been done before, the circumftances of the fun’s
motion, found, that the fun took above cight days more to

2

perform the fummer half than the winter half of the ecliptic:
the time of his paffieg through the two equinoxes was like=
wife unequally divided by the folftices. This unexpected
penomenon led to a more math¢ matical inveftigation of the
nature of the fun’s orbit. Hipparchus, and fucceeding
aftronomers, explained this phenomenon, by fuppofing
it was only an optical illufion, caufed by the carth’s
being placed in an eccentric pofition relative to the orbit of
the fun, which they imagined to be a perfect circle, deferibed
with a motion, likewile, perfe&ly uniform : this theory con-
tinued, till the beautiful difcovery of Kepler demonttrated
the fun’s apparent orbit to be an ellipfe, and that the ceutre
of motion was in one of the foci. In this ellipfe, the fun
deferibes equal areas in equzl times. But in either hypo-
thefis, there are two points of the apparent orbit of the fun,
in which he is at iis leaft and greateft diftance from the
earth; thefe points are called the perigee and apogee. To
complete, therefore, the theory of the ecliptic, it was necef-
fary to determine the fituation of thefe two points. This
was doze by Hipparchus, who determined the pofition of
the perigee, about 150 A.C. to precede the winter fol-
flice. ;

Thefe points, like the equinoétial points, do not remain
at reft, but their moticn is in an oppofite direfion. It was
A bategnius, an Arabian aftronomer, who flourthhed in the
middle ages, who firlt difecvered the motion of the perigee;
it advances 15” with refpect toa given fixed flar, and 65”
with refpe& to the equinbxes.

The great ¢ircle inthe heavens then, which we call the
ecliptic, is the perfpeCtive reprefentation of the apparent
orbit of the fun, and neceflarily partakes of all the irregue
larity of the original, in whatever relates to the fun’s motion.
We thus fee the reafon why the feafons are divided unequally,
for the winter and fummer half year can never be equal,
but in the rare occurrence of the coincidence of the perigee
with the vernal or autumnal equinox. It isa very curious
circumftance, that this coincidence did aftually take place
at the period in which chronologitls place ihe creation of
the world, that is, about the year goco A.C. Each hemi-
{phere of the earth had then an equal portion of the light
and heat of the fun, but asthe perigee continued to ad-
vance on the ecliptic, the northern hemifphere gradualiy
obtained the greatelt fhare, and about the year 1250 at até
tained its maximum of advantage; fisce that time the ad-
vantage in favour of the northern bemifphere, though fill
very confiderable, continues to diminifh, and will.do fo till
the year 6470, when the perigee will coincide with the ver-
nal equinox, and produce again a perict equality between
the two hemifpheres. After this period, the foutbern
hemifphere will obtain the advantage, and preferve it in the
fame manner during another period of upwards of ten thou.
fand years.

But thefe are far from being the only irregularities to

w

}
7

which the folar orbit is fubje&t, and which find their core

re{ponding ones in the ecliptic.

It not only continually changes its obliquity with refpeé&
to the equator, but aifo its pofition relatively to the fixed
flars. Its pofition has varied flowly in the courfe of many
ages, fo that its moft northern point is now more remote
from the pole ftar than it was in the time of Eratofthenes,
who obferved its place 230 years before the birth of Chrift. It
appears from La Grange’s calculations, that the limit of its
greateit variation among the fixed ftars is about 10° or 12°,

but the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator never can

differ more than two or three degrees, fince the equator will
follow, in fome meafure, the motion of the ecliptic.
‘On

per A,

a

ROLuipnre- -

On the Obliguity of the Ecliptis.

_ Sufficient proofs may be drawn from ancient obfervations
of. the diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic ; but whe-

~ ther the fact wee known to the ancient altronomers, from a
comparifon of fill more ancicnt obfervations, may admit of
fome doubt. Herodotus relates that the Egyptians hada
tradition that the ecliptic was once perpendicular to the

equator; this we know could not be true, but it indicates
a theory of continued diminution, which might eafily have
affumed the form of a tradition; but confidering what exact
obfervations mult have been neceflary to have eftablifhed
this theory, it is not impoffible that it was only a fortunate
conje&ture.

Prolemy exprefsly fays (Almag. I. rz.) that he found,

during many years, the diftance of the tropics 47°, with two-
thirds of a majer portion, (or of a degree, ).and three-quar-

_ters of a minor portion, (or of a minute,) that is to fay,
47° 40' 45", the half of which is 33° 50! 22”.

This, he adds, is nearly the fame refult which was found
by Eratolthenes, and of which Hipparchus has made ufe;
for the diftance of the folftitial points is according to
them, +7 of the circumference of the meridian; which makes
it 23°51! 20”, about 256 years before our era.

Ptolemy gives, at the end of his book, a table of fhadows
under different parallels ; it is there fhewn that the height of
the gnomon being 6o parts, the length of the fhadow at
Marleilles was 205. This determination is attributed to

_ Pytheas. Thefe ancient obfervations agree very nearly in
giving the obliquity of the ecliptic 23° 51', 200 years be-
fore our era. If this obliquity be compared with that which
is aGtually obferved, 23° 28/, a diminution of 69" every cen-
tury is difcovered.

Riccioli endeavours to prove that the obliquity of che eclip-
tic was then only 232”; but lie could not poffefs proofs fuf-
ficiently demonftrat:ve to contradi& four ancient obfervations,
which, could be eafily made at leaft within an error of ro!.

It is true, that confulting Pappus of Alexandria, who
lived 200 years after Ptolemy, the obliquity of the ecliptic is
found nearly the fame as it is at prefent; but it is by ad-

- mitting the interpretation of Commandinus, which Vinde-

linus thought fhould not be relied on. Befides, Pappus was

not fo correét an obferver as Eratotthenes, Hipparchus, and

’

termination of the obliquity of the ecliptic.

From the year 106 before our era, the’ Chinefe aftrono-
-Mers give as a known principle, the obliquity of the ecliptic
_ 24 Chinefe degrees, which is 23° 39! 18”; this quantity is
- lefs than that of the Greeks; but it proves, neverthelefs, a

diminution in the obliquity of the ecliptic, which even agrees.

with many modern obfervations, and gives a diminution of
| 35"every century.
_ _Albategnius, who lived about the year 880, fays that he
_obferved the zenith diftance of the fun on the meridian, at
_ Ara&e, to be 59° 36! in winter, and that the feaft was
12° 26!, from which he concludes the obliquity of the eclip-
tic 23°35’. This obfervation was made with a very long and
accurate ftafl: 40” muft be added to it for the effc& of
_ refraction, minus the parallax, and we fhall get 23° 353! for
- the obliquity of the ecliptic about the year goo; we fhould
infer from this a diminution of 50” every century. This
_obfervation differs but little from that of Almamoun; the
- diminution which it gives is a medium between thofe which
are deduced from more ancient obfervations. Edward Ber-
~nard has produced many other obfervations from the Arabiana
on the obliquity of the ecliptic, in the Philofophical Tranf-
ations of 1684, They may be found likewife in a long
me VOL. XI,

?

23° 28! 35"

Ptolemy, and his obje& was not to give an altronomical de-

memoir given by M. De la Lande on this fubje&, in the
Mem. de l’Acadéemie, 1780.

By the obfervations of Co-cheou-King it is found to
be 23° 32! 12”, for 1278. .

By thofe of Waltherus, made at Nuremberg, La Caille
finds it 2° 29' 47” for 1490. (Mem. Ac. 1757.) There
refults from hence a diminution of g4”inacentury,

According to Tycho Brahe, the obliquity of the ecliptic,
in 1587, was 23° 31! 30”; but calculating ali his obferva-
tions more correétly, it is found to be 23° 29’ 30”, which
gives the diminution 44”.

The obfervations of Hevelius give for 1660, 23° 29! 0"
a diminution of 46” in a century. P. Ximencs, by means
of the gnomon at Florence, conftrun&ed about 1480, found
34". (Mem. 1780.) The* younger Caffini, by the ob-
fervatiéns of Richer, made at Cayenne in 1672, found the
obliquity 23° 28’ 54”; and by thofe made by his father,
made with the gnomon, at St. Petrcni, 23° 29° 0”. This
is what he employs himfelf in his tables. ‘The obfervations
of Richer have been difcuffed by M. Le Monnier. (Mem.
Ac. 1769 and 1774.) They feem to give a diminution of,
33” in a century.

Flamiteed aifo, in 1689 and 1690, found by repeated ob-
fervations, the obliquity of the ecliptic 23° 28’ 56”; 8” muft
be taken from it, and we fhall obtain the mean obliqnity for
1690, 23° 28! 48”, a quantity greater by 30” than that
given by all moderna obfervations, and which gives the dimi- .
nution 47”. He examined the obfervations of Waltherus,
Tycho. Riccioli, Hevelius, Mouton, Richer, De }a Hire,
and Margraf, and he always found the fame reiult from
thofe nearef to cach other, as well as from thofe moft diftants
but the fyftem which Fiamftced had embraced, made hint,
perhaps, give the preference to thofe obfervatious which were
favourable to it. aig

Bianchini, in 1703, found tHe obliquity of the ecliptic
Horrebow, by the obfervations of Reaumur,
made in 1709, finds 23° 28! 47”

The younger Caffini, by obfervations made in the left cen-
tury, atthe obfervatory of Paris, finds the diminution 632”.
(Mem. ?Acad. 1778. Connoiff. des Temps. 1781.) M.
Mechaia, by a great number of comparifons, found it 39”
in 1780. M. De La Lande confiders that 33” reconetles
the greateft number of obfervations. Mem. }’Acad. 1780.

Dr. Maikelyne, by the obfervation of many foiltices, with
excellent inftruments, from 1765 to 1772, finds the mean ob-
liquity for the ift of January 1769, to be 23° 28' 8”:
(Phil: Tranf. 1787.) If this be compared with that found
by Bradley for 1750, 23° 28! 19”, adimisution of 55” or 54”
ina century is found. M. Hornfby finds 58” fiace 1774. The
obfervations of Aimamoun, Albategoius, Co-cheou King,
and Hevelius, give 50”. he theory likewife gives 50”,
when the mafs of Venus is taken according to M. De .
la Lande. ‘ ;

The new folar tables publifhed by the Board of Longi-
tude, at Paris, fuppofe the obliquity 23° 27’ 57” for the
year 1800. According to Piazzi it is 23°27' 56” 3; and
Dr. Mafkclyne found 23° 27! 56”.6, by obfervations ef the
three folftices of 1800, 1802, and 1803. Mr. Pond, by
fome obfervations made with an aftronomical circle, by
Troughton, at Weftbury, found the obliquity, in 1800, te
be 23° 24! s6".5. 2

Delambre’s obfervations were made with the repeating
circle of Borda, for twelve different folftices, and from his
determination the French tables were conftru&ed.

It is, then, proved by obfervations made on the obliquity of
the ecliptic at every period, as well as by the latitudes of

4B fav

9
“2

-

ECLIPTIC.

ftars mentioned by Ptolemy, that the ecliptic approaches
the equator, as may be feen by the following table, in which
the obfervations of altronomera of all ages have been col-
le€&ted together.

Years before
Chrift.

324 23° 40! 23!"

230 and 140/23 51 20

after Chrift
140
832
880
git
999
1004
1007
1104
1140
1290
3300
1363
1460
1463
1476
1510
1525
1570
3570
1570
1584.
1594
1627
1630
1646
1655
1653
106
1655
1660
1672
1686

Author’s Names. Obliquity

- Pytheas
Eratofthenes and Hipparchus

Ptolemy
Almamoun
Albategnius
Thebat
Abul Wafi and Hamed
Perfian Tables in Chryfococca
Albatrunius
Arzachel
Almzon
Choja Naffir Oddin
Prephatius the Jew
Ebn Shattir
Purbachius and Regiomontanus
Ulugh Beigh
Waltherus
Corre&ted by refraction, &c.
Wernerus
Copernicus
Egnatio Danti
Prince of Heffe
Rothmanus and Byrgius
Tycho Brahe
Corre&ied
Wright
Kepler
Gaffendus
Ricciolus
Corrected
Hevelius
Corrected
Caflini
Mouton’s, corre&ted, &c,
Richer, corrected
De Ja Hire
Corre&ted
Flamiteed
Bianchini
Roemer
Louville
Godin
Bradley
Meyer
Hornfby
Nautical Almanac
‘ Ditto
Dr. Mafkelyne’s obfervatiens
Piazzi
Mr. Pond
Delambre with repeating of

NON

NN &

Bw YK YN YN ww WY

web Ww

N

2
z
2

3 2
3
3
oh
3
Eye)
ine
3
Sie
3
3
3
3
3
23
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Bee
3

bv

wy N YS YPN Bb

1690
1703
1706
1715
1730
1750
1750
1772
1779
1800
1800
1800
1800
of Borda, mean of many hun- 18c0
dred obfervations

It remains now to give a phyfical explanation of this phe-
gomenon, agreeable to the principles of attraction.
Euler was the firft perfon who demonftrated that the at

traGtion of the planets upon the earth ought to produce this
effe&t. Inegalites de Saturn. Memoires de Berlin, 1754.
Pieces de Prix, vol. vii.

M. De Ja Lande has given the demonftrations and cale
culations at full length in the Mem. de l’Acad. 1758, 1761,
and 1780. M, De la Grange has given others in the Mem,
de Acad. 1774.

Whenever two planets move round the fame centre in the
fame direétion, but in different planes, each of thefe planets
makes the node of the other retrograde upon its orbit. Let
us fee what ought to take place upon the earth in confe-
quence of this derangement, and let us take, for example, the
attraGtion of Venus onthe earth. Let EDO (Piet XII.
Afronomy, fig. 101.) be the equater, EGN the ecliptic,
N V Q the orbit of Venus, fo that the earth advances from
E to N along the ecliptic, and Venus from Q to N in its
orbit. The attra@tion of Venus on the globe of the earth
caufes the point N to retrograde to V, that is to fay, that
the node of the ecliptic on the orbit of Venus advances ina
contrary direétion to the motion of the earth. i

The ecliptic will then change its fituation, and will pafs
from N to DV, without the inclination being affe@ed, that
is to fay, fo that the angle V may be ftill equal to the angle
N, but that the retrogradation of the node of the ecliptic
upon the orbit of Venus may be equal-to the quantity N V
ina year. Now the equator E Q does not change its fituae
tion by the influence of which we are {peaking, becaufe the
rotation of the earth is independent of its annual motion, and
that the attraGion of the planets is not fenfible on the axis of
our {pheroid. Thus the ecliptic EN, inftead of cutting
the equator at the point E will, the fucceeding year, bilcét
itin D. The equinoétial point E will advance the quantity
ED along the equator, or the quantity EC along the
ecliptic. And this alteration in the fituation of the ecliptic
will, in time, change the longitudes and latitudes of all the
fixed ftars, and the inclinations of the planetary orbits to the
ecliptic.

i atriangle ENQ, in which the angles Q and N are
conftant, and in which the fide N Q varies; for example,
2,39, as that feems indicated by the obferved diminution
in the obliquity of the ecliptic of half a fecond a-year; the
change ED, which will refult to the other fide EQ, is

equal soe = aS a perpendicular DG be let

fall on the ecliptic EG N, the {mall quantity EG will be
equal ED, cof. E, therefore multiplying the preceding
value of ED by cof. E, we fhall get 2” fin. N, cof. EN,
cotang. E, for the quantity EG, by which the equinoGial
point has moved along the ecliptic by the aGtion of Venus.
As to the change which the arc of the ecliptic DV under-

goes at its other extremity V, it is ufelefs to pay attention ©
to it; it only affe@s the longitude of the node V_ of Venus

on the ecliptic, but does not change the longitudes of the
other ftars which are reckoned from the equino@tial point

EorD. Thefe longitudes are only changed becaufe the

equinox and the ftar do not vary their pofition equally, with
re{pect to this node, reckoning along the ecliptic; befides
the quantity required is much fmaller than ‘the total change
of pofition of the ecliptic. ‘

The fame refult may be found by confidering the poles of
the three circles, the circumferences of which have been in-
veftigated. Let E be the pole of the ecliptic (fig. 102.); P the

pole of the equator, or of the earth; V the pole of the orbit |
of Venus. The motion of the ecliptic on the orbit of Venus —
produces a motion of the pole of the ecliptic round the pole —

of the orbit of Venus, and it is the fame thing to fay, that
8

that

>

wale

ECLIBIFIC.

that ecliptic has a retrograde motion of 5” on the orbit of
Venus, or that the pole of the ecliptic retregrades round
the pole of the orbit a quantity E M, the value of which is 5”
of the circumference of the {mall circle E MN, the radius of
which is the dillance between the poles of the ecliptic and
of the orbit of Venus.

In the fpherical triangle PVE, the two fides PV
and VE are conftant, while the remainder varies by the
motion of the pole E, in the circumference E M N, from

_hence it follows that the variation of the angle P, of the

; MX EM fir. XEM
{mall angle EPM, is = a's al aa

2” fin. EV, fin. KEM _ 2” fin. EV, cof. PE V

fin. PE iy “fn. PE

the triangle PB E the variation of P -is to that of E as

» but in

* yadius is to the cofine of PE. Therefore the variation of

the angle PE B, which is the fame as that of the angle
PEYV, is = 5" fin. E V, cof. P E V, cotang. P E, which
is the fame as the preceding formula; for E V is equal to

* the inclination of the orbit of Venus; PE is equal to the
“obliquity of the ecliptic,.and the angle PE V_ 13.equal to

the longitude of the node of Venus, becaufe it is the angle
formed at the pole of the ecliptic E, by the colure of the
folftices E P, which is go® diftant from the equinoxes, and

_ the circle EV, ‘which paffes through the poles of the orbit

of Venus, and which is 70° fromits node, This change of

“the angle PEB is the quantity by which the colure of the
folflices E P changes its place in taking the new fituation
MP, and confequently the change ef the colure of the equi-

nox¢s, which is always at right angles with that of the fol-
“ftices: it is therefore the quantity by which the equinoc-
tial point departs from the line E M BC, which is fuppofed

*to be fixed during the time which the pole takes to traverfe

“the {mall fpace EM. This equinoétial point being always
at the extremity of an arc of go°, or of a circle of latitude

perpendicular to EP, and the pofition of which changes

as well as the pofition of the colure EP, all the celettial
longitudes which are reckoned from the equinodtial colure,
will change by this quantity, which will be, confequently, a
part of the preceffion of the equinoxes.

: In the triangle PE V the variation of the fide PE is
equal to 2” fin. EV, fin. PE V; this is the quantity by
-which the obliquity of the ecliptic varies every year by

- the ation of Venus.

Sobftituting for VE its value 3° 23’ 35”, and for the

“angle E 74° 26’, the longitude of the node of Venus in

1750, and multiplying by roo, we fhall find 30”.88 for

the quantity by which the obliquity diminifhes in a century

from the action of Venus alone.
Making the fame fubititution in the other formula, which

_ eexpreffes the change in the angle E, we fhall get 2” fin. 3°

cof, 74°, cot. 238° = 0.0887 for the quantity which the

cangle E (fig.102.) or the point D ( fig. 101.) varies every year,
_ -by the action of Venus, that is to fay, that the preceffion

of the equinoxes diminifhes 8”.87 every century by the
ation of Venus.

The quantity by which the longitudes and latitudes of the
fixed ftars vary from this alteration in the pofition of the
ecliptic, may be calculated in the fame manner. It may be
demonttrated, that if the pole of the equator revolves round
the pole of the ecliptic, the inequality of the pofitions of

the {lars along the ecliptic is equal to L fin. 23°, fin. RA,

tang. declin. in which expreffion L reprefents the precef-
‘fion in longitude, that is to fay, that in general the inequa-
Jity of the pofitions reckoned upon the revolving circle is

a

equal to the motion of the revolving pole, multiplied by the
fine of the diltance 6f the two poles, by the fine of the
diftance of the ftar from the node of the two circles, mea-
fured along the revolving circle, and by the tangent of the
diftance of the revolving circle. If we apply this theorem to
the motion of the pole of the ecliptic round the pole of
Venus, we fhall get for the change of longitude, which
refults to a fixed ftar every year, 5” multiplied by the fine
of the inclination of Venus, by the fine of the diftance of
the far from the node of Venus, meafured along the ecliptic,
and by the tangent of the latitude of the ftar.

The change in the declination of the fixed ftars is equal
L fin. 23°, cof. RA. Hence it appears, that where the
pole of the equator revolves round the pole of the ecliptic,
the change in the diltance of a flar from the equator, or
from the revolving pole, is equal to the motion of this pole,
multiplicd by the fine of the diltance of the two poles, and
by the co-fine of the diftance of the ftar from the interfec-
tion of the two circles meafured along the revolving circle.
This expreffion, applied to the prefent cafe, fhews, that if
the pole of the ecliptic turns round thé pole of the orbit of
Venus, the change in the diftance of a {tar from the ecliptic,
or its latitude, is equal to the motion of the ecliptic, multi-
plied by the fine of the inclination of the orbit of Venus,
and by the co-fine of the diftance of a ftar from the node of
Venus, meafured along the ecliptic.

Let us call D the diftance of a ftar from the afcending
node of a planet, or the longitude of a flar minus that of
the planet’s afcerding node, I the inclination of the planet’s
orbit, L the latitude of the ftar, M the motion cf the pole
of the ecliptic round the pole of the planet, or the change
N V (fg. 100.) of the planet’s node along its orbit ; we thail
get M fin. 1, fin. D, tang. L, for the change of the ftar in
longitude, and M fin. I, cof. D, for the change in Jatitude.

The formula for the motion of the nodes (fee Nove, )
being applied to each planet, gives the a€tual motion of the
node of the ecliptic on the orbit of each planet: this is the
value of M in the preceding expreffions. |

The quantity D, or the diftance of a ftar from the node
of it, is variable, om account of the motion of the nodes of
each planet, and that of the ftars in longitude, but from the
flownefs of thefe motions, and the fmalloefs of the quantities
that are to be determined, the diftance D may be confidered
as invariable for ene century.

To obtain D, the place of the node of each planet for
1750 muft be taken, and it muft be taken from the longi-
tude of the ftar; the inclination mult be taken equal to I,
the value of M is given by the motion of the node of the
ecliptic on each orbit; thus, knowing the latitude of the
ftar, we have all the data required for finding the value of
thefe two formulas.

For example, we fiad 6’.983 for the a&tion of Jupiter
for one year. This is the value of M; its inclination is
1° 18! so” = I; then M fin. I = 0”.1601; its node is at
3° 7° 56! of longitude; therefore the change of latitude M,
fin. I, cof, D = 0”.16 cof. (longit. — 98°.)

This expreffion may be put in a more commodious form,
by confidering that the co-fine of the difference of the two
arcs is equal to the produé of the co-fines, added to that of
the fines; now the co-fine of 98°, is equal to that of 82°
taken negatively ; we fhall therefore get o”.16 cof, (longit.
— 98°) = — 0”.16, cof. 82°, cof. long. + 07.16, fin, 82%,
fin. long. = 0”,1586, fin. long. — 0”.0211, cof. longit.

Employing the motions of the nodes, and the inclinations
of each of the other planets in the fame manner to obtain
the value of this formula M; fin. I, cof, D, and multiplying

4B2 the

ECLIPTIC.

the annual motion by roo, we get the fecular motion of
the northern ftars, in Jatitude, from the 2&ion of each
planet, fuch as they have been given by M. de la Lande,
in the Mem. de I’ Acad. for 1758. 1761, 1750, according to
different fuppofitions for the mafs of each planet. The fel-
lowing numbers are thofe which he has given, and are the
fame as.thofe of M. dela Grange (Mem. de Berlin, 1782),
with the exception of Venus, the mafs of which M. dela
Lande has diminifhed about one quarter, in orderto find the
fecular diminution in the obliquity of the ecliptic 50” in
round numbers.

Saturn 1/39 fin long. — o!.53 cof. long. of the far.
Jupiter 15.86 2 Tt
Mars 1.03 -+- 0.95
Venus 30.88 + 8.87
Mercury 0.84 + 0.53

Total + 50").00 fin. long. + 8/!.03 cof, long.

The figns change for the ftars which have fouthern lati-
tudes, The change of fines muft alfo be obferved.

This expreffion is the fame as 50”.64 fin. (longit. + 9°
"

9!,) becaufe aS = tang. 9° 7! 26"; for, if we call this
0

quantity of 9° y, and the co-efficient required, x, we fhall
get for o° of longitude 8.0 = x fin. y, and for go° 50" =

gil fin.
x cof. y; therefore, x = = seh therefore, z
fin. y cof. y col
git ollo
pai = tang. 9° 7! 26", and x = arar == \,0!l6as

Example.— Sirius had 3° 10° 38’ longitude in 1750; mul-
tipiying the 50” of this formula by the fine of 79° 22!, we
fhall get qo". and multiplying 8!.03 by the cofine of 79°
o2!, taken negatively, we find 1.5 ; the difference is 47".6.
This is the fecular diminution of the latitude of Sirius in this
century.

It would be neceflary to know thefe quantities for more dif-
tant centuries; for example, inftead of 3° 8°, which is the place
of Jupiter’s node, its longitude 2° 20° muit be fubitituted for
the year 50, If the motion of the node of Venus, 14° 38’,

be equally taken into confideration ; the change of latitude -

in the firft century of our era will be found 46.66 fin. long.
+ 20!.41 cof. long. This quantity is different from that
which has been found for this century ; and it is by taking
a medium, that the fecular change of the fixed ftars in lati-
tude may be found, from the age of Ptolemy to the prefent
time. LBefides, this change in the firft century depends on
the motion of the nodes of each planet, which is yet but
imperfectly known; therefore, this effect cannot be deter-
mined wit precifion. :
The fame numbers will ferve to find the change in the
longitude of the fixed ftars, M fin. 1; fin. D, tang. L;
becaufe it is fufficient to change the words into fie and co-
JSine of tongitude, and to multiply the whole by the tangent of
the latitude of the ftar. The value for the firft century of
eur era, and for that in which we are, is as follows: The
figns are for northern ftars, and the fign minus indicates a
diminution of longitude, (— 46'.7 cof. long. + 20/4 fine
Jong.) tang. latit. year 50; (— 50.0 cof. long. + 8!.03
fine long.) tang. latit. year 1750. Thefe expreffions are
equivalsnt to — 50!.93 cof. (long. + 23° 372’) tang. latit.
year 50; A — 50".64 cof. (long. + 9° 7!) tang. lat: year
1750. The change in the fign of the tangent of this lati-
tude fhould be attended to when the ftar is fouth.

The change of the figns of the cofines and fines fhould
alfo be obierved, Thus, for Sirius, the longitude of which is
3° 10° 38!, and the latitude 39° 33! fouth, we fhall get —
50" cof. long. + g!.2 3 becaufe the cofine of 3* 10°
changes its fign, and + 8!.03 fine long. = +. 7!.9, the
fum is -+- 17.1, which, multiplied by the tangent of 39?
33', which is negative, gives — 14".1 This ts what mutt
be taken from the preceffion 1° 23! 45": to obtain the mean

motion of Sirius 1° 23/31". "The real preceffionisheretaken, ~

and not the mean, becaufe the equinox and the ftar, each
having their proper motion, both muft be taken into con-
fideration 5 thus, its longitude diminifhes by 14'"in this cen-
tury, from the attration of the planets on the earth, inde-
pendent of the gencral caufe of the preceffion, and of the
particular derangement of this ftar.

The motion in longitude and the motion in latitude, deter-
mined by the preceding formu'e, nearly agree with obfer-
vation, as may be feen, by comparing the pofitions which
are in the ancient catalogue of Ptolemy, with thofe which are
obferved at prefent. We fee, for example, that the firlt far
in Auriga, which, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, has 36° latitudes
is 30° 409! in’ Flamfteed’s catalogue ; on the contrary, the
fourteenth ftar of Gemini, which is fouth of the ecliptic. has
1° 30! latitude in Ptolemy’s catalogue, and only o° 56! in
Flamfteed’s. It is the fame with the latitude of almoft all
the ftars. The differences of longitude appear equally
changed, in a manner perfe€tly confonant to this theory.
Between the twenty-feventh ftar of the Great Bear, and the
tenth ofthe Dragon, of which the latitude is $1°45!, we find
a difference of longitude lefs by 1° 21! than it is in Ptolemy’s
catalogue ; becaufe, one of the ftars has augmented in longi-
tude, while the other has diminifhed.

‘Thefe differences can only be perceptible in flars that have
confiderable latitude; it is nothing for thofe fituated in the
ecliptic. q

In the general formula for the preceffion of the equinoxes,
(fee Precession,) there is one part, L cof, 234°, common
to every ftar ; in thiscafe, it would be equal to M coh EV;
this part indicates only that the line E V is more advanced
than MY, by the quantity M cof. EV; thisis the motion
of the node of the planet, or of the pole E, referred to the
ecliptic. :

If an arc of a circle E MBC be drawn perpendicular to
EV, and coinciding with the {mall arc EM, this will be
the circle of latitude which paffes through the node of the
orbitof Venus. Thechange in longitude of a ftar S, found
by the preceding formule, is the difference between the angle
SEP, and the angle SMP; part of this difference arifes
from the variation of the angle E, in the triangle SC E, in
which the fide S C and the angle C are conftant; this varias
tion is equal EM fine E, cotang. ES. But, befides thig
change of the ftar S, relatively to the circle EM C, there is
that of PE, or of the colure of the folftices, which paffes
from the fituation P E into that of PM; the angle PEB
changing itfelf into the angle P MB, is the variation of the
angle E in the {pherical triangle PB E, in which P B, and
the angle B are conftant. ‘Thus, this quantity is E M, fin,
PEB cotang. EP; it is common to all the ftars, and isa
part of the preceffion. 5

The change of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and that of the
angle PE.B, which is the change of longitude common to alk
the points.of the heavens, may be found in the fame manner
as we fhould find the variation in longitude of a {tar at P;
that is to fay, that in the preceding formule we may con-
fider the pole of the equator asa ftar, of which the longitude

wo

SF + tam jaf tol

a a ee a er

ECLIP WIC.

¥a go®, and its latitude'66° 32!, and we may find, by the
fame formule, how much it changes, relatively to the move-
able pole of the ecliptic, whether in longitude or latitude.
We fhall get 50!’ for the variation of the ecliptic in this cen-
tury, and 4.6".7 for the firft century.

The change of the pole in longitude is found by the fame
method to be 8!'.03 tang. 66° = 18". This is the diminu-
tion of the preceffion of the equinoxes, which the action of
the planets produces in this century by difplacing the eclip-
tic, or the orbit of the earth. This would be 26'.1 accord-
ing to M. Dela Grange. This difference arifes from his
making a different {uppofition relative to the mafs of Venus.

M. De la Place has given more general and rigorous for-
mule for thefe calculations. (Mem. de Acad. 1788.) The
following gives the variation of the ecliptic for any number of
years ns beginning from 1700;°932!.56 cof. 17/7086 n —
3140".34 fin, 92".8412 n, fuppofing the change to be 50! in
this century. The fecond term changes its fiyn for the
years anterior to 1700: thus for the year 300 before our
era, 17''.7686, multiplied by 2000, give 9° 52! 17!'.2, the co-
fine of which multiplied by 932.56 gives 918!.75; the fe-
cond term is + 983."r19; the term 932.56 mutt be taken
from the fum, which takes place when 2 = 0, or in 1700 ;
there remains 969'.38, which muft be taken from the mean
obliquity of the ecliptic in 1700, 23° 18! 43"; and we get
23° 44! 52", which differs but little from that employed
by M. De la Lande in the folar tables, This formula
gives 46".26 fecular for the variation, 2000 years ago} it is
46".0 according to the tables of M. De la Lande. -

In the table which we have annexed the fecuiar variation
of the obliquity of the ecliptic is affumed 52".1 for the pre-

‘ fent century, and 48!.5 for a period 2000 years back.

The obliquity of the ecliptic is likewife fubject to a pe-
riodic change from the effet of nutation. (See Nurarion.)
This inclination increafes to 9? when the node is in Aries ;
the pole is thenin A (jig. 103.) ; the diftance of the poles
E A becomes greater by 9! than when the node is in Capri-
corn or Cancer, and is greater by 18! than when the node
is in Libra, and the pole in C. The obliquity of the eclip-
tic, in 1774, was-23° 27! 57"; in 1784, 23° 28! 10"; not only
it has not diminifhed 5", as it ought to have done, but it has
augmented 13", which gives 18" more for the effeét of nuta-
tion alone, which is equal to AC.

When the pole of the earth is in O, the obliquity of
the ecliptic is EO or EH, and the nutation is equal to
PH; the arc A O, or the angle A PO is equal to the lon-
gitude of the node, and P H is the cofine of it; now P H
as equal 9" fine O D, or g" cof. AO; therefore the nutation
PH = + 9! cof. of the node, or g! multiplied by the co-
fine of the longitude of the moon’s node.

This is the change which Dr. Bradley remarked in the
variation in declination which the ftars fituated near the fol-
ftitial colure had experienced during 19 years.

This nutation ought to be fubtraéted trom the mean or
uniform obliquity, while the moon’s node is between three
and nine figns: it is additive in the firft and fourth quarter
of the moon’s longitude.

It is now feveral years fince mapy aftronomers who have
been inthe habit of conftantly obferving the fun at the
fummer and winter folttices for the purpofe of afcertaining
the obliquity of the ecliptic have noticed, that they ob-
tained a different refult from their winter and fammer ob-
fervations. The firft aftronomer who noticed this circum-

“ftance was Dr. Slop, who fuperintended the grand duke’s
obfervatory at Pifa, The inftrument he ufed was a fix feet
mural quadrant conftrncted by Siffon; as his determination

was founded on a comparifon with flars that paffed on the
fame parallax, this difcordance could not be attributed to
any error in the divifions of the inftruments. The moft
plaufible fuppofition was, that it arofe from fome tempos
rary expanfion which periodically affected the inftrumeut
in fimilar fituations of the fun. This occurrence took place
for many years: the difference obferved varied from 6" to
12, About the year 1790 the above aftronomer received
a letter from Oriani, and the aftronomers at Milan, who had
begun to obferve the folftices with a fuperb mural quadrant
of eight feet radius, made by Ramfden,’ in which they re-
marked, that to their great furprife they found a difcordance
they could not explain in the determination of the obliquity
of the ecliptic, as deduced from the fummer and winter fol-
{tices. Neither of the above aftronomers made thefe circum-
ftances known to the public at that time, conceiving they
arofe from fome accidental derangement of their inftruments,
which time would explain. ‘They were communicated in
converfation to the perfon who has favoured us with this ac-
count when in Italy.

It was at this period that Piazzi began to obferve at
Palermo with the great aftronomical circle made by Ramf-
den. The fame perplexing occurrence happened to him,
though he was quite ignorant of the fame thing having oc-
curred to the altronomers above-mentioned. Finally, the
French aftronomers in ufing the repeating circle of Borda,
which gave the altitude of the fun with greater accuracy
than any inftrument before invented, met with the fame em-
barraffment before the obfervations of Piazzi were publithed.
Mr. Pond, who obferved feveral folftices at Weftbury with
a very capital circular inftrument made by Troughton, found
likewife the fame difcordance, and the difference was very
nearly the fame as the mean of that found by the French and
Italian aftronomers; the obliquity appearing about 10” greater
in fummer than winter. It may appear furprifing that no
notice has been taken of this in the Greenwich oblervationss
it can only be accounted for by fuppoling that fome devia-
tion in the quadrant, has caufed one error to counterba-
lance another. In the Philof. TratifaGtions for 1806,
Mr. Pond has givenan inveftigation of the {tate of this in-
ftrument, which has been fince confirmed by a mechanical
examination by Mr. Troughton, by which it appears that
the weight of that fine inftrument has, in the courle of time,
caufed it to deflect from its original form, and to give a con~
ftant error, which increafes as the obferved objects ap-
proach the horizon, (See Dr. Mafkelyne’s Obf. tor 1807,
where a table of correétions is given.)

The caufe of this want of coincidence in the fummer and
winter obfervations is by no means eafy to be explained ; 1t
has been propofed as a prize by fome foreign academies,
but no fatisfactory explanation has yet heen given. The
French aftronomers, to reconcile their obfervarions, alter
both their latitude a {mall quantity, and Ukewife the mean
refraGtion as eftablifhed by Dr. Bradley, but M. Piazzi ob-
jeGs to this, and very properly obferves, that bis table of
refraétion was founded on his own obfervations made with
the fame inftrument. Befides, this fuits all latitudes, and it
feems probable, that this difcordance would be found ge-
neral, as by the above account it feems to have happened to
all thofe aftronomers who had inftruments fufficiently accu-
rate to dete@ it. It has been fuggefted by M. Piazzi that
it may be conneéted with fome peculiar modification of the
refraétions of the fun’s rays which may differ from thofe: of
the ftars. Not being able to offer any fatisfatosy conjec-
ture on the fubjeé&, we can only prefent the above flatemeng
of this curious fact to our aitronomital readers.

5 Tanes

E G 1p

_ Pasve of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic for forty Centuries,
w.th its Secular Variation.

Mean Obliquity. a
A.C. 900" | 23° so! 26".2

Soo 23° 49 ° 39.6 46".9
700 23° 48° 52.7 47.2
ace ifr a 3k ei ng AC
ele) 23. 47 18.0 47.9
09 23° '46 30.1 48.2
BIg) 23, 45 41.9 48.5
xieie 230 44 53-4 48.9
Too | 23° 44 4.5 49.1
Hale S 23° 43 15-4 49:3
A.D. Adele) 23 "Az 26,4 49-7
200 23 41 30.4 49.9
390 23-40 46.5 5Q.1
400 23 39 56.4 50.3
500 230.30) 2 Osa 50.5
600 23° «38 15.6 50-8
£00 23. 37 «24.8 51.0
Soo 23. 36° 32.8 Cpen:
920 23° 35) 42-7 5143
190090 23 34 51.4 gl 4
B® Golo) 23 34 0.0 51 35
scp ec oliek hip gts 5167
1300 23 32 16.8 51.8
OD 23 31 25.0 51-9
1500 23 30) 33.1 2.0
16c0 23° 20 4t.1 52.0
1700 23-28 49.1 52.1
1800 23. 27 57.0 52.1
Igco 23° «27 5.0 52-L
2000 23 26 12.8 52.2
2100 23° 25 20.6 2.3
2200 23 24 28.3 52.2
2300 2B ig Zou gO 52.2
2409 23° 22 43.9 52.2
2500 23 21 51.7 52.2
2600 23 20 59.5 52.1
2700 23 20. Fad 2.5
2800 23 19 15-3 52.1
2go0 23 18 23.3 52.0
3000 Zeer ees Das 52.0

Ecuieric, Poles of the, See Pour.

Ecuipric, Reduéion to the. See Revuction.

Ecureric, in Geography, &c. is a great circle of the
globe cutting the equator under an angle of 23° 28’, See
Goze.

The terreftrial ecliptic, therefore, is in the plane of the
celeftial. ecliptic; like which it has its equinoGtial and fol-
fitial points, and is bounded by tropics.

ECLOGARII, among the Ancients, were perfons who
HdeleGed the belt pieces af the hooks they read, which, for
that veafon,. were. called eclagues, or fele& pieces. . See
sicLoagus.

BAGHE,
ECLOGUE, Exroyn, in Poetry, a kind of paftoral coms

polition, wherein fhepherds are introduced .converfing to-
gether. The eclogue is properly an image of the pattoral
hfe.

The beauty of the eclogue, M. Fontenelle obferves, is not ©
attached to what is rural, but rather to what is calm and
eafy in the rural life.

Yet there are ecloguesin Theocritus of a lofty chara&ter;
and Virgil has fome in the fublime ftyle: the eclogue, ~
therefore, occafionally raifes its voice. Yet M. Fontenelle
efteems it a fault in fome modern poets, to have put matters
of high concern in their eclogues, and to have made their
fhepherds fing the praifes of kings and heroes. The fen-
timents in eclogues, the fame author obferves, fheuld be
finer and more delicate than tbhofe of real fhepherds; only
their form fhould be as fimple and rural as can be. But
this fimplicity excludes none befidea glaring and exceflive
ornaments. : ;

Since the eftablifhment of the academy or affembly of Ar-
cadians at Rome, about the year 1690, the talte for
eclogues has been greatly improved among the Italians.
Thole gentlemen, who are the flower of the wits of Italy,
take the name of the fhepherds of Arcadia, and wil! not
allow their aflembly to be treated as an academy. ‘They
have each of them a poetical name, which is always that
of fome fhepherd; and apply themfelves particularly to
eclogues, as pieces moft proper to their profeflion. See
AcADEMY. ‘

The word eclogue is formed from the Greek sxioyn, chaice.
So. that, accordiag to the etymology of the word, eclogue
fhould be no more than a {elect or choice piece; but cuftore -
has determined it te a farther fignification, viz. a little ele-
gant compoiition in a fimple natural ftyle and manner.
Idyllion and eclogue, in their primary intention, are the
fame thing: thus the Idyllia, Estuary, of Theocritus, are

pieces written perfectly in the fame vein with the Ecloge of

Virgil.

But cuftom has made a difference between them, and ap-
propriated the name of eclogue to pieces wherein fhepherds
are introduced fpeaking; idyllion, to thofe written like the
eclogue, in a fimple natural ftyle, but witheut any fhepherds
in them. Some imagine the name eclogue to have beer
originally attributed to fuch poems as were written in imie
tation of others; fuch as the Eclogues of Virgil, which are
only imitations of Theocritus. ;

Others are of opinion, the word was firft formed from eZ,
eyes, goat, and reyes, difcourfe, g. d. a converfation or dif.
courfe of goats, or goatherds. But Ruzus, in his notes on
Virgil, thinks they would then have made it A:yonoyia, ego«
/ogy, rather than eclogue; or, at lealt, the word would have
been written in Greek with os, and in Latin by a, not e.

Barthius advances another opinion, viz. that the name

eclogue was given to all poetical compofitions that were of

a moderate length, though too fhort to give them the name
of books; and that hence it is that Statius, in the epiftle at
the head of the third book of his Sylvz, and in the preface
of his fourth book, calls his poems eclogues, though he had
not called them fo in the title.

Aufonius, in the preface to his Cupid crucified, calls alfo
his idylls eclogues. Cruquius alfo, in his comment on Horace,
declares that he had feen very ancient manufcripts, wherein
the fatires of the poet are called eclogues; in which he is
feconded by our learned countryman, Mr. Baxter. See
Pastrorau Poetry. ;

Ecrocus isalfo applied to certain compofitions in profe.
Thus we read of the eclogues of Diodorus, of Polybius, of

? Ctefias,

>
‘-

EC’O

Ctefias, Theophraftus, Strabo, &c:
word only fignifies extra or colle@ion.

ECLOPES, in Botany, Gertner, t. 169.
HANIA.

ECLUSE, L’, in Geography. See Sruts.

Eciuse, Fort de ?, or Fort de la Clufe, a {mall town of

“France, in the department of the Ain; 12 miles W- of Geneva,
on the river Rh6ne, or rather, near the place where the
Rhéne, lofing itfelf among rocks, difappears, as it were,
under ground, and re-appears at no great diltance,

ECLYSE, in the Greek Mujfic, was lowering the mode,
or an alteration of the enharmonic genus, when a ftring was

accidentally lowered three diefes below its ufual ftandard.

-ECLYSIS, from exrvw, J faint, a word ufed by the an-
cient Phyficians, for a general faintnefs and feeblenefs of all
parts of the body. Hippocrates ufes it for a lofs of voice,
with a general decay of ftrength, and in fome other places,
for a great weakening of the body, by violent difcharges of
Kool.

ECMARTYRIA, Expuoerveiz, in Antiquity, a kind of
fecond-hand evidence, admitted in the Athenian courts. It
was not founded on the knowledge of the witnefs himfelf,
but on that of another perfon, who had been an eye-witnefs
of the fa& in queftion, but was at this time either dead, or
in a foreign country, or detained by ficknefs; for, except in
fuch cafes, the allegations of abfent perfons were never taken
for lawful evidence. Pott. Archwol, Grec. lib. i. cap. 21.
tom. i. p. 117.

ECMELES, founds in the Greek Mu/ic, which, like
thofe of fpeech, were-inappreciable, and in tune with no
fixed tones of the mufical feale; confequently, they could
furnifh no melody. This term was oppofed to emmeles, or
mufical founds.

- *ECNEPHIAS, from & and 1:¢@-, @ cloud, a word ufed
by Galen, to exprefs a peculiar fort of fever, which, he
fays, was at once hot and humid, and which he therefore re-
ome by the name, to the fun breaking out from a watery
cloud.

ECOBROGIS, tn Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Galatia. Anton. Itin.

“ECOMMOY, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Sarthe, chief place of a canton in the
diftri& ef Le Mans, with a population of 2662 individuals,
The canton contains 11 communes and 12,998 inhabitants,

of a territorial extent of 220 kiliometres.

“ECORCHEUR de Mapacascar, in Ornithology, the
name given by Buffon to the Lanius Curvirofiris, which fee.

“ECOS, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the de-

artment of the Eure, chief place of a canton in the diftriA of

Hes Andelys; nine miles S. of Gifors, with only 360 in-

habitants. But the canton has a population of 9748 indi-

viduals, difperfed in 33 communes, on a territorial extent of

245 kiliometres.

_ ECOUCHE’, a {mall town of France, on the river
Orne, in the department of the Orne, chief place of a canton
in the diftri& of Argentan, and fix miles W. of that place.
It contains 1492 inhabitants. ‘The canton has an extent of
190 kiliometres, with 24 communes, and a population of
11,765 individuals.

-ECOUEN, a {mall town cf France, in the department
of Seine and Oife, chief place of a canton in the diftri& of
Pontoife, with a population of 992 individuals. The can-
ton comprifes 22 communes, with ro,508 inhabitants, on a
territorial extent of 110 kiliometres.

ECOUIS, a {mall town of France, in the department of
the Eure; fix miles N. of Les Andelys, in a country which,
till the revolution of 1789, was called La Vexin Normand,

In which fenfe the
See Ret-

Lally Oe

ECOUTE’, in the Manege, is ufed for a pace, or motion
of a horfe, when he rides well upon the hand and the heels,
is compaétly put upon his haunches, and hears, or liftens, to
the heels or {purs; and continues duly balanced between the
heels, without throwing to either fide. This happens when
a horfe bas a fine fenfe of the aids of the hand and heel.

ECPHONESIS, Extwvness, in Rhetoric, the fame with
L£xclamation ; which fee.

ECPHORA, from «x, out, and Qzew, I bear, projedlure,
in Archite@ure, vfually denotes the line, or diftance, between
the extremity of a member, or moulding, and the naked of
the column, or other part its projects from.

Some authors, however, account the ecphora, or projeture,
from the axis of the column; and define it to be the right line
intercepted between the axis and the outermolt furface of a
member or moulding. See Proyecture.

ECPHRACTICS, Ex@pexzinx, in Medicine, fuch reme=
dies as have a faculty of opening and unftopping the veflels
through whichthe humours are to pals; or which incide
and attenuate tough vifcid humours, and thereby promote
their difcharge. They are the fame with aperients and de-
obftruents.

The word is formed from the Greek sxQpaccsy, to free
from obftrudions ; of sx and Qpzcew, obfiruo, fepio.

The chief fimple ecphractics, are the little centaury,
wormwood, agrimony, hyffop, chamedrys, bark of tamarifk,
roots of capers, fcolopendrium, &c.

ECPHRAXIS, is taking away obftruGions in any part.
Blancard.

ECPHYSESIS, from « and @urxw, J breathe, is a dif.
eafe in which the patient breathes thick.

ECPHYSIS, of ex and ¢u», J produce, in Anatomy, is any
proc-fs that coheres with, or adheres to a bone.

ECPIESMA, Exricya, from ex and amseles, I prefs, in
Surgery, a kind of a fraéture of the fkull, &c. wherein there
are feveral {plinters, that prefs and diforder the inner mem-
branes. See Fracture.

ECPIESMUS, Exmecpos, in the ancient ‘writers of Aedi-
cine, a word ufed to exprefs a diftemperature of the eye,
which confifts in a very great prominence of the entire globe
of the eye, which is, as it were, thruit out of its focket, or
orbit, by a great flux of humours, or an inflammation.

ECPLEROMA, of ex and rAypow, J fll, in the writings
of the Ancient Phyficians, the name given toa kind of cufhion
of leather, ftuffed with fome firm fubftance, and fitted to the
cavities of the arm-pits, ufed in reducing luxations of the
humerus.

ECPLEXIS, from mranzow, [am diflurbed, a word uled
to exprefs a tran{port of mind, proceeding from fome fudden
perturbation. Hippocrates and Galen ufe the word to fig-
nify a ftupor, or ftupefaétion, in which the patient lies with-
out motion, without {peaking, or flirring, and with his eyes
open.

_ECPNEUMATOSIS, in Medicine, the fame with ex-
iration.
4 ECPNOE, from e and wvw, J breathe, a word ufed, by
medical writers, to exprefs that part of refpiration, in which
the breath is expelled out of the lungs.

ECPTOMA, from exminrw, J fall out, a word ufed by
the ancient phyficians in three or four different fenfes. It
is fometimes made to exprefs a luxation or diflocation of
a bone. Sometimes it is ufed for the falling off of any cor-
rupted part, fometimes for the exclufion of the fecundines
after child-birth, and fometimes for a falling down of the
womb, oradefcent of the omentum or the ioteftine into
the fcrotum.

ECPTOSIS, in Surgery, the fame with luxation.

ECPUCTICA, .

EGF
ECPUCTICA, from excuzw, J fuppurate, in the Materia

Medica, are condenfing medicines.

ECPYE!MA, in Surgery. This word is derived from «x
and suo, pus, /uppuration, an abfcefs.

ECREGMA, from exonywys, L break off; in Medicine,
properly the name of a. part, piece, or fegment of any thing ;
but Hippocrates has, in fome places, ufed it as the name of
an eruption. ‘

ECRITHMUS, from «, without, and fs6205, number, an
irregniar pulfe, which cbferves no method, nor number, ingi-
dent to any age. ,Blancard.

ECSARCOMA, in Surgery, a flefhy excrefcence. The
term is derived from ex and capt. flefh.

ECSTASIS, in JAZedicine, is underftood in a different
fenfe by different medical writers. Sauvages confiders it as
diftin from catalepfy, inafmuch as the limbs are rigid, and
retain the pofition in which they happen to be at the infant
of the feizure; whereas, in the catalepfy they are flexible,
and retain any polition, into which they are moved by ex-
ternalferce. In this acceptation, however, the ecftafis muft

* be. confideted merely as an imperfe&t or fpurious Cara-
Lepsy. under which head we have already mentioned it.
(See Sauvages Nofol. Method. clafs vis genus 25.) Vogel,
Burferius, and others, view it in this light, and give the ap-
pellation of ecitafis to that varicty of catalepfy, during the
paroxy{m of which the patient avers that he witnefled ex-
traordinary vifions, and is faid to {peak in unknown languages,
and even to prophefy future events. ¢ Quidam cataleptici,”
fays Vogel, “ /imul ecfatici fiunt durante paroxy{mo, atque
mira phantafmata, vifiones divenas, confortium angelorum
enarrant;. linguas, quas non didicerunt, loquuotur, fi fabula
vera; quin et futura prenunciare vicentur.”” (De cog-
nofe, et curand. precip. corp. humani afieét. § 569.) In
this fenfe the word ecftalis feems to be fynosymous with
Trance, which fee. ;

ECSTATICI, thofe who labour under.the affection
termed Ecsrasts.

Eesratici, Exsarixor, from -efisnus, 2 am entranced,
in Antiguity, a kind of diviners, who were caft into trances
or ecitafies, in which they lay like dead men, or afleep, de-
prived of all fenfe and motion; but after fome time, return-
ing to themfelves, gave ftrange relations of what they had
{een and heard. Pott. Archeal. Graec. lib. ii. cap. 12.
tom. I. p. 302.

ECSTROPHIUS, from sexsp:@s, J iurn out, a name

given by the ancient writers in /edicine, to any thing that

threw out the internal tumours of the piles, fo that exter- -

nal remedies might be applied to them.

ECTENZ, in Ancient Geography, a people who, ac-
cording to Paufanias, firit inhabited the territory of Thebes
in Bectia.. Ogygus is faid to have been their firft king,
whence Thebes obtained the appellation of Ogyges. Thefe
people, being exterminated bya plague, were fucceeded by
the Hyautes.

ECTHESIS, in Church Hiffory, a name which the em-
peror Heraclius gave to a conteflion of faith publifhed by
himin 630. : :

The werd is Greek, execss, and fignifies expofition. :

. Tne ecthefis favoured the error of the Monothelites, and
efabithed only one will and one operation in Jelus Chrift.
Herschius publithed it at the inftigation of Athanafius, chief
of the Jacobites, Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, and Ser-
gius, patnarch of Conftantinople, by whom it was com-
poled ; but the Roman church deemed it heretical, and
reje€icd it in a council held at Rome, A.D. 639, under
the pontiff John IV. though Honorins, in ipite of his mfal-
Lbility, bad approved it.;.and another edit.was iflued, fup-

Boor

preffing the e&hefis, called the Fyfe, which foon after’
fhared the fame fate. : !

-ECTHLIMA, from exfaSw, J prefs cut, an ulceration
atifing from a violent compreffionin the furface of the fkin.

ECTHLIPSIS, in the Latin Profody, a figure whereby
an mis retrenched, or eut off, chiefly at the end of a word,
when the followii:g word bezins with a vowel, or an 4,

The word is Greek, eaulis, which fignifies eljfon.

Thus, in mulium ille, & terris jadatus & alto. Virg.

In feanning the verfe, we drop the # at the end of mul-
tum, and only make three fyllables in the two firft words,
mult-il-[e. ;

Some account the eéthlipfis a poetical licence ia the Latin:
verfification ; but, in reality, the elifion of an m final, when
the following word in the fame verfe begins with a vowel, is .
a matter of neceflity, not licence. ;

Anciently the s was likewife retrenched before a confo-
nant; as facundu fuogue, for facundus, &c. In reality, the
mand s were peculiarly rough and harfh tm the Latin pro-
nunciation; as appears from Quintilian; and it was this
that led the poets to retrench them at. the ends of their
words, as the like caufe induced the French to drop their
é feminine before a word beginning with a vowel, to avoid
the hiatus, or concourle of vowels. :

ECTHYMA, from ex$un, J break out, in Medicine, a name

iven by Hippocrates to any puftule, or cutaneous eruption.

ECTHYMOSIS, of «, ex, and Suyos, animus, mind, a
vehement agitation and dilatation of the blood and fpiritss
fuch as happens in extraordinary emotions of joy. ;

ECTODURUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of ©
Rhetia, in Vindelicia. Piolemy. > 12

ECTOMIAS, from «xr», J cut of; a name ufed, by
the ancient phyficians, to exprefs a ca{trated animal. _

ECTOPIA, in the nofolegy of Sauvages and Cullen, ~
is the appellation of an order of difeafes, which are charac= ,
terized by tumours, occafioned by the removal of fome part —
of the body from its proper fituation. ‘This order ae
the varieties of hernia, or rupture, of prelap/us, and of luxa=
tion, all of which are defcribed at length by Sauvages.
Ciafs 1. ord. 6. : :

ECTRIMMA, from exzpiS», J rub off; excoriation or
galling. Hippocrates has ufed the word particularly to
expreis exulcerations in the fkin about the os facrum, cons
traéted by lying long in one pofture, in cafes of fra€tures oF -
the thigh, or in lingering illnefles, in which the patient is —
confined to his bed for a long time. 1a a

ECTROPIUM, (exiporioy, from exer, to divert,) &
tnrning out of the eye-lid. The lower one is the moft fubs
je& to this difeafe, the upper one being very feldom af-_
feted. The difplaced eye lid hangs down over the cheeky —
and does not apply itfelf properly to the eye-ball; confee
quently, the inner farfece of the eye-lid becomes turned out,
while the lower portion of the globe of the eye remains
uacovered. This part of the eye, and the fenfible lining of
the eye-lid itfelf, in confequence of fuffering inceffant irri-
tation from expofure to the ait, and the ftimulus of the
extraneous particles always fulpended in the atmofph
very foon become affected with chronic inflammation, whic
is not only attended with pain, a continual dilcharge
tears, &c. but ‘aifo with a preternatural rednefs and fi
ling of the membranous lining of sthe difeafed eye-lid. _
length, the inner farface of the latter part, in general, |
ali its natural appearance, becomes thick, callous, dry,
infenfible, and looks like an excrefcence at the lower pi
of the eye.

The turning out of the eye-lid alfo obftruGts the paflag
of the tears to the inner canthus, and hinders them fro

‘i ' enteribg

oa are

ECTROPIUM.

entering thé pundta lacurymalia. Hence, befides the above
complatats, and the very confiderable deformity which an
etropium occafions, the patient has the additional annoy-
pace of an inceflant flux of tears from bis eye.
_ -The molt frequent caufe of the difeafe is, either too great
a relaxation and {welling of the lining of the eye-lids, or
elfe too-great a contraCion and fhortening of the fkin of
thefe parts, or of that on the adjoining part of the face.
Hence, in refpeé to caufes, there aré two kinds of eGro-
pium; one depending upon a fwelling of the lining of the
eye-lid,. which {welling occafions a feparation of the edge of
the palpebra from the globe of the eye, and, at laft, turns
the infide of the eye-lid completely out; the other arifing
from a contraGtion of the flcin of the eye-lid, or adjacent

parts, in confequence of which fhortening of the integu-

ments, the margin of the eye-lid firft becomes drawn further
from the eye, and, fubfequently, inclined quite outward.
Scarpa remarks, that the morbid {welling of the lining of
the eye-lids, which caufes the firft [pecies of e€tropium, (put-
ting out of prefent confideration a fimilar affeétion incidental
to old age,) anfes moltiy from a congenital laxity of this
membrane, afterwards increafed by obftinate chronic ophthal-
mies, particularly thofe of a {crotulous nature, in relaxed un-
healthy fubjeéts. Sometimes the difeafe is the confcquence

of the fmall-pox, which has feverely affe&ed the eyes.

While the difeafe is confined to- the lower eye-lid, as it
molt commonly is, the. linirg of this part may be obferved
rifing in the form of a femi-lunar fold, of a pale red colour,
like the fungous granulations of wounds, and intervening
between the eye and eye lid, which latter it in fome mea-
fure turns outward. When the fwelling is afterwards
occafioned by the lining of both the eye-lids, the difeafe
aflumes an annular fhape, in the centre of which the eye-ball
feems funk, while the circumference of the ring prefles and
curs outward the edges of the two eye-lids, fo as to caufe
both great uneafinefs and deformity. In-each cf the above
cafes, on prefiing the fkin of the eye-lids with the point of
the finger, it becomes manifcft that they are very capable of
being elongated, and would readily yield fo as entirely to
coxer the eyeball, were they not prevented by the inter-
vening {welling of their membranous lining.

Beiides the very confiderable deformity which the dHeafe
produces, it occafions a continual difcharge of tears over the
cheek, and what is worfe, a drynefs of the eye-ball, fre-
quent exafperated attacks of chronic ophthalmy, incapacity

to bear the light, and laftly, opacity and ulceration of the
- cornea,

The fecond fpecies of eGropium, or that arifing froma

- eontraGtion of the integuments of the eye-lids, or neighbour-

tng parts, is not unfrequently a confequence of puckered
fcars, produced by the confluent {mall-pox ; deep burns; or
the «xcifion of cancerous or encytted tumours, without a
Safficient quantity of fkin having been faved; or, laftly, the
diforder is the effe& of malignant carbuncles, or any kind of
wound attended with much lofs of fubftance. Each of

thefe caufes is quite! fufficient to bring on fuch a contraétion

‘3 of the fkin of the eye-lids, as to draw thefe parts towards

the arches of-the orbit, fo to remove them from the eye- ball
and turn their edges outward. No fooner has this circum-

ftance happened, than it is often followed by another

equally unpleafant, namely, a fwelling of the internal mem-
brane of the affected eye-lids, which afterwards has a great
fhare in completing the eG@ropium. The lining of the cye-

_ lids, though trivially turned ovt, being continually expofed
eo the air, and irritation of extraneous fubltances, foon
- fwells and rifes up, like-a fungus.
~ like tumour covers a part of the eye-ball; the other puthes

One‘tide of this fungus-

© Vou. XII.

the eye-lid fo confiderably outward, that its edge is not un-
frequently in contact with the margin of the orbit. The
complaints, induced by this fecond {pecies of eétropium, are
the fame as thofe brought on by the firlt; it being noticed,
however, that in both cafes, whenever the difeafe is very
inveterate, the fungous {welling of the infide of the eye-lids
becomes hard, coriaceous, and, asit were, callous.

Although, in both fpecies of eGropium, the lining of the
eye-lids feems equally fwollen, yet the furgeon can eafily
diftinguifh to which of the two {pecies the difeafe belongs.
For, in the firft, the fkin of the eye-lids, and adjoining:
parts, is not deformed with fcars, and by prefling the eye-lid,
which is turned out, with the point of the finger, the part
would with eafe completely cover the eye, were it not for
the intervening fungous {welling. But, in the fecond fpes
cies of e€tropium, bcfides the obvious cicatrix and contrac-
tion of the fkin of the eye-lids, or adjacent parts, when an
effort is made to cover the eye with the affected eye-lid, by
prefling upon the latter part with the point of the finger,
it does not give way, fo as completely to cover the globe,
or only yields, as it ought to do, for a certain extent; or
elfe it does not move in the Jeaft from its unnatural pofition,
by reafonof the integuments of the eye-lids having been fo
extentively deftroyed, that their margin has become adherent
to the arch of the orbit.

From a comparifon of the two fpecies of e@ropium, it
clearly appears, that the cure of this difeafe cannot be ac.
complifhed with equal perfeGtion in both its forms, and that
the fecond fpecies is even, in fome cafes, abfolutely in-
curable. For, asin the firft {pecies of eAropium, the difeafe
only depends upon a morbid intumefcence of the internal
membrane of the eye-lids, and the treatment merely confifts’
in removing the redundant part; art poffeffes many effica-
cious means of accomplifhing what js defired. But in the
fecond fpecies of e¢tropium, the chief canfe of which arifes
from the lofs of a portion of the fkin of the eye-lids, or
adjacent parts, which lofy no known artifice can reftore;
furgery is not capable of effeéting a pérfc& cure of the
malady. The treatment is confined to remedying, as much
as poflible, fuch complaints as refuit from this kind of ec-
tropium, and this can be done in a more or lefs fatisfaftory
manner, according as the lofs of fin on the eye-lid is little
or great. Cafes, in which fo much fkin is deficient that the
edge of the eye-lid is adherent to the margin of the orbit,
are to be abandoned as incurable. ‘ Si nimium palpebre
deelt (fays Celfus) nulla id reftituere curatio potelt.”” (lib. 7.
cap. 7). Hence, in treating the fecond {pecies of tAropium,
the degree of fuccefs attending the cure may always be efti-
mated -by remarking to what point the eye-lid admits of
being replaced, on being gently pufhed with the end of the
finger towards the globe of the eye, both before and after
the employment of fuch means as are calculated to effect an
elongation of the fkin of the eye-lid; for it is to this point,
and no further, that art can réduce the part that is turned
our, and permanently keep it fo replaced. With refpe& to
the treatment of the firlt fpecies of eGtropium, when the
difeafe is recent, the fungous {welling of the lining of the
eye-lid ‘is not confiderable, and, confequently, the edge of
the eyeslid not much turned ont, and, in young fubjeéts, (for
in old ones the eye-lids are fo flaccid, that the difedfe is irre-
mediable, ) it may be cured by deftroying the fungous furface
of the internal membrane of the eye-lid, with the argentuin
nitratum, which is tobe done as follows. The furgeon mult
evert the whole of the affeéted eye-lid with his left hand, and
with his right wipe it dry with a picce of rag; then he is to
tub the cauttic forcibly over the whole furface of the fungous
Twelling, fo a8 to form an efchar. And, that the patient may

4C fuffer,

ECTROPIUM.

fuffer-as little as poffible, an affiftant is inftantly to apply a
little oil to the burnt part, immediately when the cauftic is
removed, by which means the argentum nitratum will be
_kept from diffolving in the tears, and {preading over the
eye. Should, however, any part of the cauttic be diffolved.
and give the patient pain, the fargeon or attendasts muft
immediately wath the irritating fubftance away, by re-
peatedly bathing the eye with new milk, The cauterization
3s to be repeated for fevera! days in fucceflion, until the ar-
gentum nitratum has produced a fuffictent deftrution of the
internal membrane of the eye-lid, and of its fungons furlace,
particularly near the tarfus. Afterwards bathing the eye
with plain water, or barley-water and mel. rofe, will prove
fufficient for healing the fore om the infide of the eye-lid.
The refult of fuch treatment will be, that in proportion as
the wound within the eye-ld heals, the gaping of the eye-
lid will gradually diminifh, and its edge at lait return into
its natural pofition. Scarpa informs us, that- this plan of
eure can only be fuccefsfully put in practice in cafes in which
the eGtropium is flight and recent. To remedy the confi-
derable and inveterate form of the firft {pecies of the difeafe,
in an expeditious and effeiual way, the quickeft and fafeft
plan-is, to cut away the whole of the fungous {welling
clofely to the mufcular fubftance on the infide of the eye-lid.
The patient being therefore feated, with his head a little
inclined backward, the furgeon with the index and middle
finger of his left hand is to keep the eye-lid fteadily turned
out, and, holding a {mall pair of curved {ciflars with convex
edges in his sight, he is completely to cut off the whole
fungofity of the internal membrane of the eye-lid, as near
as poffible to its bafe. The fame operation is then to be
repeated on the other eye-lid, fhould that be affected with
the feme diforder. 1f the excrefeence fhould be of fuch a
fhape that it cannot be exaétly iacluded between the edges
of the feiffars, it mutt be raifed as much as poffible with
forceps, gr a double pointed hook, and diffeGted off at its
bafe, by means of a {mall biftoury with a convex edge.
The bleeding, which occurs at the beginning of the opera-
tion, as if it would be copious, ftops of itfeif, or as foon as
the eye is bathed with cold water. The furgeon is then to
apply the dreffings, which are to confift of two {mall com-
prefles, one put on the upper, the other on the lower arch
of the orbit, and over thefe the uniting bandage, in the
form of the monocuius, or fo applied as to comprefs and
replace the edges of the affected eye-lics, in order to make
them cover the eye. On the firlt removal of the dreffings,
which fhould take place about twenty-four or thirty hours
after the operation, the furgeon will find the whole, or
almoft the whole of the eyelid in its natural polition. The
treatment fhould afterwards confit in wafhing the uicer
ou the infide of the eye-lid with fimple water twice a
day, or elfe with barley-water and mel. rofe, until it is
completely weil. If towards the end of the cure the wound
fhould aflume a fungous appearance, or the edge of the
eye-lid feem to be tog diftant from the eye ball, the wound on
the infide of the eye-lid muft be rubbed feveral times-with
the argeatum nitratum, for the purpofe of deftroying a
little more of the membranous lining, fo that when the cica-
trization follows, a greater contraction of it may draw the
edge of the eye-lid nearer the eye. In the mean time pro-
per fteps fhould be taken with a view of removing the caufes
by which the eétropium was originally induced. Chronic
ophthalmy, anda weak and varicole ftate of the veffels of the
conjunétiva, are frequently concerned. Seni aed
In the fecond fpecies of eGropium, or that originating
from a contraction of the fkin of the eye-lids, or adjacent
parts, Scarpa obferves, that the indication is not different

74

from what it is in the cafe already defcribed. In the fame ~-
manner, as the fhartening of the integuments has occafioned
a turning out of the eye-lid, the deftru@ion of a part of its
internal membrane, and the confequent cicatrix, may res
place the eye-lid in its natural pofition. However, as the
part of-the fkin, which is loft, can never be regenerated, and,
in whatever degree the eye-lid is fhortened, fo it muft per=
petually continue, even after the moft fuccefsful operation s
it follows, that the fecond fpecies of eGropium can never be
fo completely cured, as the firft. Although the eye-lid may
be reftored to its natural pofition, it will always remain
fhortened in a degree proportioned to the quantity of: fkin
which is deficient. But, Scarpa very accurately explains,
that, in a great number of cafes the eG@ropium feems to be
more confiderable than might be expected, confidering the
little portign of theinteguments which is wanting. The Italian
profeffor refers this circumftance to the increafe of the e@ro=
pium always happening, when once the affeGtion has com-
menced, and caufed by the fwelling of the lining of the
eye-lid. In this manner, the turning out of the part is ren-
dered complete, even when the contra@tion of the fkin would
produce a very partial etropinm.

Scarpa aflures us, that, in thefe cafes, the operation proves
fuccefsful in a degree, which inexperienced perfons would
never fuppofe. When the fungous thickened portion’ of
the membranous lining of the difeafed eye-lid has been cut
away, and its edge broucht near the eye-ball, the fhortening
of the eye-lid, which now continues, is fo trivial, compared

‘with the grievances and deformity which it occafioned while

the part was turned out, that the eGtropium may be re-
garded ag being quite relieved. Hence, when the fhorten=
ing of the integuments of the affected eye-lid is not fo very
great, as utterly to prevent it from being brought up again
and partially covering the eye-ball, the furgeon ought always

to have recourfe to the operation which we have above
deferibed. ‘The curved feiffars, or the convex-edged bifs
toury, or both, may be ufed according to circumftancesi
When the difeafe has been of very long duration, and the
lining of the eye-lid has become indurated and callous, the
part aficcted with eGropium fhould be covered for a few
days before the operation, with a foft bread and milk poul+
tice, with a view of rendering it lefs rigid.

Scarpa lays it down as a pofitive and demonftrable truth;
that dividing the fears in the fikin, which have fhorteneds
and turned the eye-lid out, never produces any permanent
lengthening of the part, and, of courfe, no lafting benefit: —
This author accurately notices, that the fame-circumftance
may be remarked, after large deep burns on the fkin of the
palm of the hand and fingers. In thefe cafes, when the
parts have healed, the fingers become immediately bent, not< —
with tanding the greateit pains may haye’been taken to keep.
them continually extended during the whole of the. treats
ment. The fame circum{tance may alfo be frequently no-—
ticed after burns of the faceand neck. Fabricius ab Aquas
pendente knew very well how ufelefs it was to make a femi- —
lunar divifion of the integuments, with a view of reGifying 4
their fhortened ftate, and the turning out of the eye-lids.
This writer recommends ftretching thefe parts with pieces
of adhefive plafter, applied on them and the eye-brow, and.
firmly tied together. ae

Whatever beneficial effe€&is may be produced in this man=
ner, Scarpa has learnt, from experience, that equal 3
arifes from the employment of the bread and milk poulti
for a few days; then ufing oily liniments, and, laitly, the
uniting bandage, put on in fuch a way, asto ftretch the con-
traéted eye-lid, tn a contrary dire€tion- to that in which the
part is drawn by the cicatrix. f

’ Whes.

E.¢ U

» When the operation is to be performed, Scarpa diredts
that the patient, if an adult, isto fit down in a chair, and, if
a child, it is to be laid ona table, with its head a little ele-
vated, and well fupported by the affiftants. The operator
is next to take a biftoury with a convex edge, and make
an incifion of proper depth, into the lining of the eye-lid,
along the tarfus. He muft ufe great caution to avoid
wounding the punéta lachrymalia. The edge of the
divided membrane is now to be raifed with a pair
of forceps, and detached, by means of the knife, from
all the inner furface of the eye-lid, until the feparation is
made as far as the place where the membrane is about to
leave the eye-lid, and cover the front of the eye-ball, under
the name of the tunica conjun@tiva. The furgeon is now to
raife the detached part of the membrane {till more, and then
cut i away with the fciflars, near the deepeft part of the
_ eye-lid.

OA comprefs and the uniting bandage are to be afterwards
applied, with a view of promoting the return of the eye-lid,
affected with eGtropium, towards the eye-bal'!. When the
Gteffings are changed, a day or two after the operation, the
eye-lid will be found to have refumed, in a great degree, its
natural pofition, and the deformity to be materially dimi-
nifhed. i

The operation is feldom followed by any difagreeable

fymptoms, fuch as vomiting, pain, violent inflammation, &c.
Should vomiting happen, however, Scarpa flates, that it may
be relieved by an opiate clyfter. Inflammatory fymptoms
are to be leffened by applying foft emollient poultices to the
part, and employing antiphlogiftic means in general, until
fuppuration has begun on the infide of the eye-lid. The
part is then to be wafhed, twice a day, with barley water,
containing a little of the mel. rofe. The wound may alfo
be now and then touched with the argentum nitratum, fo
as to keep the granulations from becoming too high. Sag-
gio di Offervazioni e€ d’efperienze fulle Principali Malattie
degli Ocehi. Venezia, 1802, Richter’s Anfangfgr. der

Wuandarzn. Band Q. .

ECTROTICA, from extirpucnw, IT caufe to mifcarry, a
pame given, by the ancient phyficians, to {uch medicines as
have a power to occafion abortion. .

ECTYLOTICS, Exzvawrixe, from ex and rvros, callus, re-
medies proper to confume and eat off caliufes, warts, and
other excrefcences, formed on the fleh.

_- ECTYPE, Exzvre;, among Medallifls, an embofled
‘figure, or impreflion of a feal, ring, or medal; or a figured
copy of an infcription, or other ancient monument.

_ The word is Greek, apyeruxev, denotes the original, or
model ; evruxov, the copy, or image, moulded, or ftruek in

creux; and exruroy, edlypon, the image in relievo, or em-
boffed.

Ecryre Craticular. See Ansmorrnosis.

ECU, or Escu, the French crown. See Crown, Escu,
and Coin.

Ecu Ancient, in Heraldry, a term fignifying the ancient

fhield. By this they mean the antique triangular-fhaped
fhield, on which the arms of the noble families of France

have been painted. ‘This fhield is to be feen on old gems,
and fome ruins; but the modern fhield, which is {quare, and
rounded and pointed at the bottom, has banifhed the ule of
this.

ECUEILLE!, in Geography, a fmall town of France, in
the department of the Indre, chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&® of Chateauroux, with a population of 1200 indivi-
duals. The*canton has a territorial extent of 245 kilio-

metres, on which there are 13 communes, and 5695 inha-
bitants,

EDD

ECUR, or Icur, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, placed by Ptolemy in N. iat.
16° go’.

ECURIE, in the Manege, the covert place for the lody-
ing, or houfing of horfes. The word is French, We ule
{table in common difcourfe.

ECURY. See Equery.

Ecury fur Coole, in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department of the Marne, chief place of 2 canton, in
the diftri& of Chalons-fur-Marne. It has only 355 inhabit~
ants, but the canton contains 30 communes, and a popula-
tion of 7242 individuals, on a territorial extent of 440 kilio~
metres. ,

ECUSSON, in Heraldry, an inefcutcheon, or little efcut-
cheon. See Escurcueon.

ECUYER, in the French Manege, is ufed for the riding
matter. Sometimes it denotes certain officers formerly in the
king of France’s houfhold, who helped the king in mounting
his horfe and alighting, and followed him ot horfe-back, and
carried his fword. "Thefe are called ecuyers de quartier.

Gentlemen ufhers to the queen of France, and the matters
of the horfe to princes, and perfons of quality, are alfo called
ecuyers. Befides thefe, there are others, cailed ecuyers
cavaleadours. See Cavatcapour.

ECZEMA, (from éx:w, to boil out,) a hot painful erup-
tion, or puftule. Mr. Pearfon implies, by mercurial eczema,
a particular kind of eruption, occafioned by the employment
ofmercury. See ErytTHema.

ED, io Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Welt Gothland ; 33 miles N. of Uddevalla—Alfo, a town
of Sweden, in the province of Smaland; 80 miles N. of
Calmar.

EDA, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pcloponnefus,
in Meffenia. Suidas.

Epa, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Warmeland; 40 miles N. of Carlftadt—Alfo, one of the
Oikney iflands, about 7 miles long, and half a mile to two

“miles broad ; fituated about 8 miles N.N-E. from Pomona.

N. lat. 59° 2’. Long. 0° 33’ E. of Edinburgh.

EDAM, or Eypam, a {mall but populous town of the
kingdom of Holland, in the department of the Amftel,
fituated about 9 miles N. of Amtterdam, and 6 S. of Hoorn,
not far fram the Zuyder Zee, with which it communicates
by means of a canal. E. long. 5°. N. lat. 52°53'. There
are a great many fhips built at Edam ; it has a good timber
trade; but it is chiefly noted for its cheefe trade, being the
chief mart for all the cheefe made in North Holland, and
remarkable forits red crntt. ‘

EDBO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Upland ;
30 miles E.N.E. of Upfal,

EDDA, in Antiquities, is a fy tem of the ancient Icelandic,
or Runic mythology, containing many curious particulars of
the theology, philofophy, and manners of the northern na-
tions of Europe ; or of the Scandinavians, who had migrated
from Afia, and from whom our Saxon anceftors were de-
fcended. Mr. Mallet apprehends that it-was originally.com-
piled, foon after the Pagan religion was abolifhed, as a
courfe of poetical le&iures, for the ufe of fuch young Ice-
landers as devoted themfelves to the profeffion of a f{cald, or
poet. It confifts of two principal parts; the firit containing
a brief fyftem of mythology, properly called the Edda’; and
the fecond being a kind of art of poetry, and called Scalda,
or Poetics. The moft ancient Edda was compiled by
Soemund Sigfuflon, furnamed. the Learned, who was born
in Iceland about the year 1057. This was abridged, and
rendered more eafy and intelligible about an hundred and
twenty years afterwards, by Suorro Sturiefyn, who was

AL 2 fupreme

EDD

fupreme judge of Iceland in the years 1215 and 1222; and
it was-publifhed in the form of a dialogue. He added alfo
the fecond part in the form of a dialogue, being a detail of
different events tranfated among the divinities. The only
three pieces that are known to remain of the more ancient
Edda of Semund, are the Volufpa,.the Havamaal, and the
Runic chapter. The Volufpa, or prophecy of Vola, or Fola,
appears to be the text, on which the Edda is the comment.
It contains, in two or three hundred lines, the whole fyltem
of mythology, difclofed in the Edda, and may be compared
to the Sibylline verfes, on account of its laconic yet bold
ftyle, and imagery and obfcurity. It is profeffedly a revela-
tion of the decrees of the Father of nature, and the ations
and operations of the gods. It defcribes the chaos, the
formation of the werld, with its various. inhabitants, the
funGtions of ihe gods, their moft fignal adventures, their
quarrels with Loke, their great adverfary, and the vengeance
that enfued ; and concludes with a long defcription of the
final ftate of the univerfe, its diffolution and conflagration,
the battle of the inferior deities, and the evil beings, the re-
novation of the world, the happy lot of the good, and the
punifhment of the wicked. - The Havamaal, or ‘ Sublime
Difcourfe,” is attributed to the god Odin, who is fuppofed
to have given thefe precepts of wifdom to mankind ; it is
comprifed in about a hundred and twenty ftanzas, and re-
fembles the book of Proverbs. Mr. Mallet has given feveral
extraéts of this treatife on the Scandinavian ethics. ‘The
Runic chapter contains a fhort fyftem of ancient magic, and
elpeciaily of the enchantments wrought by the operation of

Runic charaéters, of which Mr. Mallet has alfo given a {pe-

cimen. A manufcript copy of the Edda of Snorro is pre-
ferved in the library of the univerfity of Upfal; the firft
part of which hath been publifhed, with a Swedifh and Latin
verfion, by Mr. Goranfon. ‘The Latin verfion is printed as
a fupplement to Mr, Mallet’s Northern Antiquities, The
firft edition of the Edda was published by Refenius, profeflor
at Copenhagen, in a large qaarto volume, in the year 1665 5
containing the text of the Edda, a Latin cranflation by an
Icelandic prieft, a Danihh verfion, and various readings
from different MSS. Mr. Mailet has alfo given an Englifh
tranflation of the firft part, accompanied with remarks ; from
which we fearo, that the Edda teaches the doctrine of the
Supreme, called the Univerfal Father, and Odin, who lives
for ever, governs ail his kingdom, and direéts the great things
as well as the fmall; who formed the heaven, earth, and air ;
made man, and gave hima {pirit, or foul, which fhall live,
after the body fhall have mouldered away ; and then all the
jut hall dwell with him in the place called Gimle, or Vin-
golf, the palace of friendfhip; but wicked men fhall go to
Hela, or death, and from thence to Niffheim, or the abode
of the wicked, which is below in the ninth world. It in-
culcates alfo the belief of feveral inferior gods and goddefles,
the chief of whom is Frigga, or Frea, 7. e. /ady, meaning
hereby the earth, who was the fpoufe of Odin, or the Su
preme God; whence we may infer, that, according to the
opinion of thefe ancient philofophers, this Odin was the
a¢tive principle, or foul of the world, which, uniting itfelf
with matter, had thereby put it into a condition to produce
the intelligences, or inferior gods, and men, and all other
creatures. The Edda likewife teaches the exiftence of an evil
being, called Loke, tie calumniator of the gods, the artificer
of fraud, who furpaffes all other beings in cunning and per-
fidy. It teaches the creation of all things out of an abyfs, or
chaos; the final deftruétion of the world by Gre; the ab-
forption of the inferior divinities, both good and bad, into
the bofom of the grand divinity, from whom all things pro-
ceeded, as emanations of his Saale and who will furvive all

EDD

things ; and the renovation of the earth in an improved ftate;
Fables 1, 2. 10. 16.33. Fora farther account of the Edda,
fee Mallett’s Northern Antiquities, vol. ti. 1770, paflim.

EDDANA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia, fituated
on the Euphrates ; built by the Pheenicians, who eftablifhed
in ita colony. It is faid to have derived its name from
Eddanos, the chief of the colony.

EDDARA, atown of Arabia Deferta. Ptolemy.

EDDISH, or Eapisu, the latter patture, or grafe, which
comes after mowing or reaping ; otherwife called ear-gra/s,
earfh, and etch.

EDDISTO, in Geography, a river of America, in South
Carolina, which runs into the fea by two ftreams, called N,
and S. Edditto ; the former 16 and the latter 25 miles S.W.
of Charleftown.

EDDRED-S[, a fmall ifland in the Red fea, two

leagues from the coaft of Arabia. N. lat. 17° 10!, E. long. »

41° 33'.

EDDY, or (as it is more commonly ufed in the plural)
Eddies (from the Saxon ed, backward, again, and ea, wa-
ter), in Hydrodynamics, denotes the irregular movements of
water, or of wind, viz. thofe deviations from the principal
direétion of the whole ftream, which are occafioned by ob-
ftacles of any kind. And when thefe irregular motions bee
come rotatory or circular about 2 certain centre, then they
are more particularly called whir/pools. .

Eddies in navigation, in, hydrodynamics, or in hydraulics,
are highly deferving the attention of the feaman and of the
engineer, on account of their being often produétive of very
ferious confequences. The principal caufes upon which
they depend are the momentum of a fluid in motion, and all
forts of impediments to the direétion of the fluid. ‘This will
be eafily underftood by attending to the annexed figure,
which reprefents a river, or ftream of water, flowing to-
wards W. (Plate I11. Hydraulics, fig. 3.) From A as
far as B the channel is regular, and the water rung
uniformly through it. Near B, a part of the tiream,
mecting with the obitacle C, is forced to alter its courfe
in the direétion a 4, whence, acquiring a momentum in
that direction, it proceeds a certain way towards c; but
the other part of the ftream A B, which has not met with
any folid obiftruGtion, crofles in great meafure the direGtion
abc, which produces an eddy, and the two parts of the
ftream obftru@ each other. From the ruffling of the fur.
face of the water, or from the motion of light bodies floate
ing upon the furface, this obftru€tion may be ealily per-
ceived. Farther on, the water pafles from the narrow part
O R into the broader channel PQ, and its momentum will

enable it to move on in the fraight dire¢lion ed; but, in ©

confequence of the attraétion between the particles of water,
it will drag part of the water at ¢, towards d, which occas
fions a depreffion of the level of the water about e; hence
the water runs from the adjacent parte f, g, to fupply that
defect, and thus a curvilinear, or whirling motion dfge, is
produced. The velocity of the water, then, is’ checked not
only in confequence of its paffing from a narrow into a larger
channel, but likewife in confequence of the above-mentioned
eddy ; when thefe whirling eddies are pretty ftrong, both at
fea and in large rivers, a depreffion is'always obferved about
the centre thereof, which fometimes is very covfiderable, and
becomes very dangerous to fmall veffels, for they are fome-
times {wallowed up by it.. Mackenzic (in the Phil. Tranf.

+ eee

ve

ae

re

for 1749) fays, that eddies of this whirling kind, with a cas

vity of two or three feet, which fometimes {wallow up fmall
boats, may be broken and filled up by throwing in an oar.

The eaufe of the hollow in the middle of thefe whirls, and of —

~

the abforption of boats, &c. will be pointed out in the fequel,

The

Roop

The inequalities of the bottom of a rivér are hkewife
productive ot fimilar derangements in the motion of the water.
Thus, for inftance, when the motion of the {tream is rapid,
and the bottom, or bed, of it rifes abruptly in fome particular
part, a fenlible rifing of the water may be perceived over it,
and in many fuch cafes, even fand or mud is forced up to
the furface of the water at that particular place.

At fea, and efpecially amongtt iflands, or in channels, the
eddies arifing from tides, currents, winds, &c. are fo very
frequent, fo uncertain, and fo impetuous, particularly in
flormy weather, as to render the navigation extremely dan~
gerous. Several fpots are peculiarly remarkable for fuch ir-
regularities of motion, and they are, for that reafon, weil
known to all experienced failors. The Eddyftone rocks,
near Piymouth, well known for the light-houfe which is
built upon one of them, are faid to have obtained their
name from the great and powerful eddies that do almoft at
all times take place among them. But eddies have alfo
been obferved in open feas far from any land, where they
are produced by the oppofition of the wind to a current,
or to the tide, or to a {well occafioned by a previous wind.
When a veffel is failing, unlefs it proceeds with the ftream,
the eddies which are formed by it are very evident, and they
may be perceived for a confiderable way behind the veflel.
The feamen call that eddy, which feems to throw the water
on the rudder of a thip under fail, the dead water.

- In pipes, conduits, or aquedudts, all forts of bendings,
internal contractions, elongjitions, enlargements, and pro-
jections, of the conduting pipe, diminifh the quantity of
difcharge, more or lefs, according to the number and form
of fuch irregularities ; fharp angular bendings hindering the
motion of the fluid, more than thole of a regular curvature.
The caufe of this retardation is undoubtedly owing to the
eddies, and tothe croffing of the various parte, or (as they
are otherwife called) filaments of the fluid, which, according
to what has been faid above, mult neceffarily take plzce at
thofe irregularities : for all eddies and crofs directions mutt
unavoidably deftroy part of the moving force. This pro-

_ duéction of eddies in the infide of pipes may be rendered fuf-
ficiently evident, if an irregular glafs tube be applied to a
pretty large veffel full of water, and:if with the water there
be mixed fome particles of pounded amber, or other fub-
ftance, whofe {pecific gravity differs but little from that of
water; as thefe particles will eafily thew the irregularities
of the ‘motion of the water in its paflage through the glafs
“tube,

Whenever an irregularity of the fhape of the aperture, or
fome particular conformation of the veffel; (or even an ob-
ftacle to the ftream at fome diftance from the aperture, )
compels the particles of the fluid to run obliquely to-
wards an aperture, a circular motion is readily communi-
tated to the fluid, and an hollow whirl, or eddy, ia formed
above the aperture. By this circular motion the par-
ticles of the fluid acquire a centrifugal force, in confe-
qnetice of which they endeavour to recede from the cen-
tre, or from the axis of motion, where, of courfe, a hollow
is formed, which is larger or fmaller, according as the rota-
tion of the fluid is more or lefs rapid. When the whirling
motion is pretty confiderable, if any light bodies float upon
the fluid, they will be readily drawn towards the centre,
and then downwards towayds the aperture; for fince the
fpecific gravity of the fluid is greater than that of thofe
bodies, the fluid will acquire a greater degree of centrifugal
force, and will recede farther than thofe bodies from the
axis of the whirl. This may be eafily obferved in a com.
‘mon funnel, when water or other fluid is running out of it,

It needs hardly be obferved, that fuch eddies as occur in

EDD

water, mutt likewife take place in other fluids under fimilar
circumftances ; due allowance being made for their different
fpecific gravities, tenacities, denfities, clafticities, &c.
_ The eddies, and whirls, of air are fo commonly met with
in the ftreets of a town, efpecially when the wind is prett
brifk, and they are fo often indicated by the fmoke phic
iffues out of chimneys, as to require no farther illuftration
in this article. Amongft feamen, the eddy wind is that
wind which is returned, or beat back, from any fail.
EDDYSTONE, or Eppystone-Rocfs, in Geography,
the name of a clufter of rocks fituated in the Englifh chan-
nel, at the diftance of about 14 miles from Plymouth-found,
lying nearly in the direétion of veffels coafting up and down
the channel; they formerly proved very dangerous, and many
veflels were caft away onthem. To guard againft thefe dif-
alters, it was deemed neceflary to erect a light-houfe here;
but to effeé& this in acomplete and permanent manner, fo as
to refilt ftorms and‘afford light, was a tafk of extreme dif-
ficulty. ‘The rocks are fo peculiarly expofed to the {wells
of the ocean from the fouth and welt, that the heavy feas
break upon them with uncontrolled fury. Sometimes, after
a ftorm, when the fea is apparently quite f{mooth, and its
furface unruffled by the flighteft breeze, the growing f{well,
or under current meeting the flope of the rocks, the fea
beats tremendoufly upon them, and even rifes above the
light-houfe, overtopping it for the moment as with a canopy”
of frothy wave. Notwithftanding this awful fwell, Mr.
Henry Winftanley undertook, in the year 1696, to build a
light-houfe on the principal rock, for the reft are under wa-
ter ; and in 1700 he completed it. So confident was this
ingenious mechanic of the ftability of his edifice, that he de-
clared his with to be in it during the moft tremendous
ftorm that could arife. This with he unfortunately ob--
tained, for he perifhed in it during the dreadfyl -ftorm
which deftroyed it Nov. 27, 1703. Another light-houfe,
of a different conltru&ion, was erected of wood on this rock,
by Mr. John Rudyard, in 1709: which being confumed by
fire in.1755, a third, of ftone, was begun by the juftly
celebrated Mr. John Smeaton, April 2, 1757, and finifhed
Aug. 24, 1759, which has hitherto withitood the attacks
of the moft violent ftorms. The rock, which flopes towards
the fouth-weft, is cut into horizontal iteps, into which
Portland ftone and granite are dove-tailed and ftrongly ce-
mented: for Mr. Smeaton difcovered that neither could be
ufed exclufively, as the former would be fubje@ to the de-
predations of a marine animal, and the working of the latter
would have been too expenfive. He therefore ufed the one
for the internal part of the ftru€lure, and the other for the
external. Upon the principle of a broad bafe and accumu
lation of matter, the whole, to the heiglit of thirty-five feet
from the foundation, is a folid mafs of ftones engrafted inte
each other, and united by every poffible augmentation of
ftrength. The light-houfe confifts of four rooms, one over
another, with a gallery and lanthorn at the top. The {tone
floors, which are flat above, but concave below, are pre-
vented from prefling agajnft the fides of the building by a
chain let mto the wails. The edifice is eighty feet in height ;
and has now ftood fifty years, during which time, though
frequently aflaulted by all the fury of the element, it has
with{tood the moit violent attacks without fuftaining the
fmalleft injury : and, in all probability, as Mr. Smeaton faid,
nothing but an earthquake can deftroy it. The wooden
part was burnt in the year 1770, but renewed in 1774. Its
fituation is long. 4° 21!W. Lat. 50° 3.N. . For an in-
terefting, fcientifie account of this ftru@ure, and for much
ufeful information concerning fimilar buildings, the reader is
referred to Smeaton’s * Hiftory, &c. of Eddyftone Light-
houfe,”?

EDE

-houfe,’”? with plates, 8vo. Many additional particulars rea
fpeCting it are-recorded in the ‘* Beauties of Ragland and
Wales,’’ vol. iv. :

Eppysronz,a rock on the coaft of Patagonia. S. lat.
48° 30’. W. long. 64° 56!

EDDYVILLE, a po& town of Ameriea, in the ftate
of Kentucky, and county of Livingiton ; 821 miles W. by
§. from Wathington.

EDEBASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor. in Lrcia. Steph. Byz.

EDELBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auftria ; 6 miles E.S.E. of Bavarian Waid-
hoven.

EDELINCK, Gerarop, in Biography, was an engraver
of confiderable eminence, a member ot the French royal
academy of painting and fculpture, and one of the conttel-
lation of diftinguithed artifts that fhed Jultre onthe reign of
Louis XIV. He was bora at Antwerp, but refided at
Paris after the year 1665, where he was honoured with the
title of Chevalier, and had, by the king’s appointment, an
apartment in the Gobelins, He engraved both portraita and
hiftory with admirable {kill His portraits are chiefly thofe
of artifts and men of {cience ; and fome of his hiltorical en-
gravings are very large, particularly his‘ Crucifixion,”” and
his ** Tent of Darius,” both after Le Brun, and an ‘¢ alle-
gorical’? engraving in honour of the king. He died at Paris,
at a very advanced age, in the year 1707. For {ome further
particulars of this artift, fee Frencu School of Engravers.

EDELING. See Epuirine, and ATHELING.

EDELMANN, Joun Friep., born at Strafbourg,
1749, a harpfichord mafter, and compofer for that in-
firument, long refident at Bruffels. He had a_ lively
finger and played his own pieces with great neatnefs and
fpirit. But his ftyle of compofition would now be called
flimfy and rattling. It is a bad copy of Schobert’s nervous
Symphonic ftrains. Emanuel Bach’s refinements in melody,
and fcience in harmony and modulation, had not reached
Bruffels, or, at leaft, touched the heart of Edelmann, when
he compofed any of his leffons which have come to our
knowledge. We believe this mufician, who had the cha-
raéter of an innoxious goad natured man, much efteemed by
his pupils, had removed to Paris previous to the revolution,
in the horrors of which he was early involved, and fuffered
under the guillotine at Strafbourg ; we never heard why,
except that it was Rober{pierre’s pleafure.

EDELSTEIN, in Geography, atown of Silefia, in the
principality of Neifle; five miles S. of Ziegenthals.

EDEMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, in the
tribe of Naphtalt.

EDEN, Land or Country of, in Scripture Geography, a dif-
tri&t or province of Afia, in which was ‘ Paradife’’ or the
«* Garden of Eden.?? Whe word Z£den, according to its
primary meaning inthe Hebrew language, denotes pleafure
or delight; and hence it was ufed asap appellative for fe-
veral places, whofe fituation was peculiarly pleafant and de-
lightful. Such was the Eden, or Beth-Eden, mentioned by
the prophet Amos (ch. i. v. 5.) which, as Huet, bifhop of
Soiffons, thinks, was a valley fituated between the mountains
of Libanus and Antilibanus, in that part of Syria, of which
Damafcus was the metropolis. Some have fuppofed that
the paradife of our firft parents was fituated in this valley;
and they have been induced to adopt this opinion by having
difcovered in its vicinity a town called “ Paradifa,’’ and
mentioned both by Pliny and Ptolemy. ‘There isalfo a vil-
lage called Lden, near Tripoli in Syria, feated on mount
Libanus, near. which were the river Adonis aud the cedars
ef Lebanon. Maundrel alfo mentions this village. In this

ED#F

place fome have fought the fite of the terreftrial ps
radife. But in order more precifely to afcertain the Gtu-
ation of the ‘* Garden of Eden,”’ thofe who acquiefce in the
literal defcription of it given by Mofes, refer to his account
of it, and inveltigace the country in which it was fituated by
the attendant circumflances, which he has recited, (Sze
Gen, ii. 8—14.) From the feripture account it appears, that
the Eden, in which was planted the garden of paradife, lay
on ariveror fingle channel, which out of Eden was parted
into four heads or rivers, called Pifon, Gihon, Hiddekel,
and Perath or Euphrates. We are, therefore, to inveltigate
fome fingle charinel or river, common to thefe four rivers;
fuppofing that their courfe has not been materially altered
in fubfequent times, and particularly by the cataftrophe of
the deluge. Pifon, the ficlt of thefe rivers, compaffeth,
fays the facred hiltorian, the whole land of Havilah, where
there ts gold; and the gold of that land is good: there is
bdellium and the onyx-flone. in order to difcover this land of
Havilah, we find that it is mentioned in two other places of
{cripture, viz. Gen. xxv. 18. and 1 Sam. xv. 7. In both
thefe places we may well fuppofe; that the expreffion ** from
Havilah unto Shur’? denotes the whole extent of that part
of Arabia, which lies between Egypt to the weft, and

a certain channel or river (which empties itfelf inte the Per=.

fian gulf) to the.eaft. Shus appears to have been the weftern
extremity of this part of Arabia, (Exod. xv. 22.) which
came up tothe bottom of the Red fea or Arabian gulf,
and fo joined on to Esypt. Havilah, therefore, was the
ealtern extremity of this part of Arabia. Moreover, facred
and profane authors have highly commended the gold of
Arabia. (See Ezek. xxvii. 22, 23. Diod. Sic.1. ii. and iit.)
As for the bedolach, or bdellium, mentioned by the hifto-
rian, writers have differed concerning the meaning of the
term; fome having fuppofed that it fignificd pearls, and
others, that it was a peculiar kind of gum. Both thefe,
it is faid, are to be found ia the land of Havilah, The fea
about Baharen, an ifland in the Perfian gulf, which fea lies
next tothe land of Havilah, has always abounded with
pearls of the fineft kind ; as we learn from the teftimonies
of Nearchus, one of Alexander’s captains, Ifidorus of
Charax, Pliny, Arrian, Elian, Origen, Benjamin of Na-
varre, Teixeira, a Portuguefe, and many other modern tras
vellers. If by bedolach or bdellium we underitand a gum,
this is likewife found imthe land of Havilah, as we learn from
Diofcorides, Ifidorus, Galen, Pliny, Strabo, Arrian, &c. &c.
Precious ftones have been alfo found from time immemorial
in the fame country. (See Ezek, xxvii.a2, 23.) Nearchus,
Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny, teftify to the fame fa@, and
Pliny, in particular, faya, on the authority of the ancients,
that the onyx-ftone, if we underfiand this to have been the
‘© {choham” of the text, was no where elfe to be found but
in the mountains of Arabia. It further appears, that a
channel, or river, called by Mofes Pifon, bounds Havilah
eaftward, and difcharges itfelf into the Ferfian gulf, and
confequently an{wers to his defcription. Betides, as Mofes
is f{uppofed to have written his hiftory in Avabia Petra, of
fome place nearly adjoining it, this river was the neareft to
him of the four rivers which he names, and, therefore, it 18
natural to imagine, that it muft be the firit which he would
mention. The etymology of Pifon, derived from pu/ch, to
be full or increafe, or from po/cha, to {pread itfelf, corres

{ponds to the fituation of this river, for the tides in this part —

of the Perfian gulf are fo violent and fo high, that no
trenches furnifh a-fufficient defence againft their irruption
into the neighbouring grounds, which are foft and low. No
name could be more appropriate to that channel, which was
apt fo often to overflow, as that of Pifon. oe

EDE

OF the fecond river Mofes fays; the name of ihe fecond river
is Gihon 5 the fame is it that compaffes the whole land of Cufb.
As Pifon was the firlt river with refpeét to the place where
Mofes was writing, it is natural to imagine, that Gihon,
being the fecond, was the river next to it, and the moft
eafterly channel of the two, into which the Euphrates, after
its junction with the Tigris, is again divided. The name
Coth did formerly belong to the country wafhed by this

_eafterly river. By the Greeks and Latins it was called Su-
fiana,* andit is now called Chuzeftan or Chufiftan, evidently
indicating its original appellation Cufh.

The third river isthus deferibed ; and the name of the third
viver is Hiddekel, that is it which goes before Affyria. Hiddekel,
the Hebrew name, is rendered by the LXX interpreters Ti-
gris; and that this was the Hiddekel of Mofes has been ar-
gued fromthe etymology of the word Tigris. In the Levant
they call it Diglath ; and if we take away the afpiration from
Hiddekel, we have the word Dekel, which the Syrians
termed Diklat, called by Jofephus and the Chaldee para-
phratts, and alfo by the Arabians and Perfians Diglath,
and by the modern orientals Degil and Degolah, by Pliny
Diglito, and by the Greeks, inltead of Digli, Tigris.
Hence it isinferred, that the names Tigris and Diglito are
one and the fame, varied according to the diverfity of dia-
leéis or languages. The method obferved by Mofes in
reckoning up thele four rivers is alfo alleged as a prefump-
tive argument, that the Hiddekel is the Tigris. Having
named the Pifon andthe Gihon, it was natural for him to
return towards the place where he was writieg, and to
mention the firft river he met with on his return, and this was
the Tigris. Befides, the river Tigris a€tually runs along
Affyria, the province or diftri& furrounding Niniveh the ca-
pital, foconfidered with refpe& ta the place where Mofes
was writing.

As to the fourth river, or the Euphrates, it would na-
turally be the laft mentioned by Mofes. This river and
the Tigris join together into one channel, which is after-
wards divided again into two channels, the wetterly one of

- the two being the river Pifon, and the eafterly one the river
Gihon. Now, the country of Eden was fituated on the com-
-mon channel of thefe four rivers; andthe words of Mofes
obvioufly timate, that the Garden of Eden, or the terref-
trial paradife, lay on the fingle channel, which is common to
all the four rivers, for from thence, that is, out of Eden, # was
arted and became four heads. Some other circum{tances
2 been adduced in order to afcertain the fituation of Eden;
The fertility of the foil has been alleged as affording a con-
curring argument in favour of the diltriét to which it has
been now referred, It has been farther argued, that Mofes,
by faying the garden was planted ea/fward in Eden, defigned
to mark out to them, in what part or place of the land of
Eden, Paradife was fituated. Since, then, Paradife lay in
the eafterly part of the land of Eden, and the river that
watered it ran through that province before it entered into
Paradife, it mutt follow, that Paradife was fituated on one
of the turnings of thisriver, that goes from weit to eaft,.and
probably at the eafterly end of the foutherly branch of the
lowett great turning, taken notice of by Ptolemy.

It has been imagined that the “* Garden of Eden” was the

original of thofe curious gardens, which the princes of the

Fait caufed to be made, and by which they would reprefent,

this delightful fpot. Such was that golden garden valued at

500 talents, which Ariftobulus, king of the Jews,.prefented;

unto Pompey; and which Pompey afterwards carried in tri-

umph, and confecrated to Jupiterinthe capitol. It has been

alfo apprehended, that the conformity between the words

*% Garden of Eden’? and “ Garden of Adon’? feems to fhew,,

E DE

that to the garden of Eden was owing the rife of thofe gay.
dens confecrated to Adonis, which the Greeks, Egyptians, and
Affyrians, planted in earthen veffels and filver bafkets, for the
purpofe of adorning their houfes, and which they carried
about in their proceffions. Hence it has likewife been fup-
pofed, that the poets formed their ‘¢ Fortunate iflands,” the
‘ Elyfian fields,” the ‘* Meadows of Pluto,’? and the gar-
dens of the Hefperides, of Jupiter, and of Alcinous, as well
as thofe of Adonis. Wells’s Geography of the Old Teila-
ment, vol. i, Shuckford’s Creation and Fall of Man.

Even, in Geography, atown ef Germany, in the circle
of Weltphalia, and county of Rietberg; one mile E.S.E.
of Rietberg. /

Even, a river of England, which rifes in Weftmoreland,,
on the borders of Yorkthire, traverfes the county of Cum-
berland, and difcharges itfelf into an.arm of the fea, called
Solway Frith ; about feven miles below Carlifle. :

Eben, a river of Scotland, which runs into the Tweed,
not far from Coldftream.

Epen, a poft town of America, in Hancock county, and
ftate of Maine, incorporated in 1796, taken from the north--
erly part of mount Defert ; 764 miles eafterly from Wath-
ington.—Alfo, a townfhip of Orleans county, in the ftate of
Vermont, N.W. of Craftfbury, which adjoins to it. ;

EDENBURG,,. a.town of Hungary, 29 miles S.W. of ’
Prefburg, and 36 S..of Vienna.

EDENBERRY, a town of Ireland, in King’s county ;:
29 miles W. of Dublin.

EDENKOBEN, a {mall town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Tonnerre, chief place of a canton in the dif-
tri& of Spire, with a population of 3014 individuals.. The
canton has 26;comwunes, and 16,468 inhabitants.

EDENTON, a diftri&t of America, on the fea coaft of
N. Carolina, bounded N. by the ftate of Virginia, E. by the.
ocean, W. by Halifax diftrit, and S. by Newbern. It is
fubdivided into nine counties, viz, Chowan, Pafquotank,.
Parquimins, Gates, Hertford, Bertie, and Tyrrel. It con-
tains 56,956 inhabitants, of whom 21,632 are flaves. The
lands in-this diftria& are level, rich, and well watered, and
produce abundance of wood, chiefly pine, oak, cyprefs,
and juniper.

EpEnTon, the ¢apital of the above diftrit, is a poft town:
and port of entry, fituated at the head of a bay on the N.
fide of Albemarle found, and at the N.E. fide of the open~
ing of Chowan river. It contains more than 150 wooden
buildings, and 1302 inhabitants, of whom 713 are flaves,. Its
public buildings are an ancient’ brick epifcopal church, ax
court-houfe, and a gaol. ‘The profperity of this town,,
though its fituation is favourable for trade, has been re=
tarded by itsinfalubrity. Itis g7 miles N. of Newbern and
440 S.S,W.. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 36° 6’. W. long.
ye
A EDER, atown of Africa, in Morocco,-on the coaft of
the Atlantic;, 10 miles N.E. of Cape Cantin.—Alfo, a river.
of Bohemia, which runs into the Elbe, at Leitmeritz.—
Alfo, a river) of Germany, which runa into the Fulda;
feven miles. S. of Caffel.

EDERIC, a town of. Afia, in the country of Tibet 5.
40 miles S.S.E..of Tofun-Hetun.

EDERITZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and principality of Anhalt-Cothen.; four miles. S.
of Cothen,

EDESHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of the:
Upper Rhine, and bifhopric of Spire; 14 miles W. of Spire.

EDESSA, in Ancient Geography, a city of Afia, in Ne»
fopotamia, and the capital of Meenas: which formed a.
part of Ofrhoené; feated on the bank of a {mall river called,

Scisrtusy

EDE

Scirtus, N.E, of Zeugma, and E.S.E. of Samefata. It was
zbout 70 miles beyond the Euphrates, into which the Scirtus
difcharged itfelf Edefla is faid 10 have been one of thofe
numerous cities, which were built by Seleucus Nicator about
300 years B.C. It was once a place of great celebrity,
and famous for a temple of the Syrian goddefs, which was
one of the richeft in the world; and hence it was denomi-
nated Hierapolis, or the holy city. During the inteltine
broils, which greatly weakened the kingdom of Syria, Au-
garus, or Abgarus, feized on the city of Edeffa, and its
fruitful territory, which he eretted into anew kingdom,
flyling himfelf king of Edeffa, and wanfmitting the fame
title to his polterity. He left this {mall principality in a very
flourifhing condition, and was fucceeded by his fon Ab-
garus II,; the name of Abgarus being common to ail the
kings of Edeffa.. ‘his prince made himfelf mafter of the
province of Ofrhoené, and entering into an alliance with
Pompey again{t ‘Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, fup-
plied his army with provifions. Inthe Parthian war he pre-
tended to take part with Craflus, but maintaining a private
correfpondence with the enemy, contributed to the great
overthrow which the Romans fuftained at Carrhe. Trem
him the royal authority defcended to Abgarus III. a prince
_celebrated by ecclefiaftical hiftorians on account of the letters
which are fuppofed to have pafled between him and our
Saviour. (See Ancarus.) We learn from St. Antti,
(apud Aug. Epift. 230.) that our Savicur promifed Ab-
garus that the city fhould be impregnable; and Evagrius
(Hit. Ecclef. b. iv. c. 27.) obferves, that although this
circumftance was not mentioned in our Lord’s letter, it was
the common belief;) which was much confirmed, when
ofrhoes, king of Perfia, having fet down before it, was
abliged to raife the fiege. The deliverance of the city is
afcribed to the picture of Chrift, which was the perfeé im-
preffion of his face.on linen, and which being expofed on the
rampart, ferved asa palladium to the befieged. ‘This image
was revered as a pledge of the divine promife already men-
tioned, that Edefla fhould never be taken by a foreign enemy.
After this important fervice, the image of Edefla was pre-
ferved with refpe& and gratitude. ‘This fable, as Gibbon
imagines, (Rom. Emp. vol. ix.) was invented between the
years 521 and 594, moft probably after the fiege of Edefla
in 540, Abgarus V. reigned in the time of the emperor
Claudius, and joined C. Caffius, governor of Syria, who had
been ordered by that emperor to place Meherdatee on the
throne of Parthia; but abandoning the Romans in the heat
of an engagement, he occafioned the defeat of their army.
Abgatus V. was contemporary with Trajan, and was de-
~ clared by him friend and ally of the Roman people. But he
afterwards deitroyed and burnt the city of Edefla.. Another

prince of the fame name reigned at Edeffain the time of the:

emperor Severus, and having affilted him in his wars in the
Eatlt, attended him to Rome, where he was received and en-
tertained with extraordinary pomp: and fplendour. But:
being afterwards fufpefted by Caracalla of holding a cor-
refpondence with the enemies of: Rome, and being fummoned
to juftify himfelf before the emperor, he was, by his order,-
confined, and his kingdom reduced to a Roman province.
The emperor Julian took oceafion, on account of the difor-
derly condu& of the Aviane in this city, to confifeate the
whole property of the church, and to diftribute it among
the foldiers. In the time of the crufades, towards the'clofe of
the x1th century, count Baldwin, being called to the affift-
ance of a Greek or Armenian tyrant, who had:been fuffered
under the Turkith yoke to reign over the Chriftians of Edefla,
accepted the charaéter of his ‘fon and champion; but no
fooner was he introduced into the city, than be inflamed the

EDG
people to the mffacre of bis father, occupied the throre and
treafure, extended his conquelts over the fouth of Armenia
and the plain of Mefopotamia, and founded the firtt prin-
cipality of the Franks or Latins, which fubfifted 54 years
beyond the Euphrates. About the middle ef the 12th cen-
tury, Zenghi, {on of Alcantar, a valiant Turk, having com-
menced his military career by the defeat of the Franks at
Antioch, proceeded to the hege of Edefla, and after 25 days,
he ftormed the city, and recovered from the Franks their
conquefts beyond the Euphrates.
_ Epessa, in Geagraphy, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Macedonia, near the Viftricza, called by
the Turks «* Moglena” ; 316 miles W. of Conftantinople.
N. lat. 40° so’, E. long. 22° 3/.

EDESSENUM, the name of a famous collyrium,
reckoned among the number of the monohemera, or fuch as
cured certain diforders of the eyesin one day. Itisfuppofed
to have had its name edeflenum from the city of Edeffa,
where it’ was firft invented, and in great ufe. Its compo-
fition was this: take gum arabic, tragacanth, farcocolla,
acacia, and ftarch, of each two drams; opium, four dramas ;
cerufe, eight drams; cadmia, fixteen drams; thefe were all
te be reduced to a fine powder, and afterwards mixed with
a fofficient quantity of water, to be uled to wath the eyes.

EDETA, Liris, in Ancient Geography, a very ancient
town of Spain, fituated towards the fouth, et feme diftance
on the left of the river Turia, N.W. of Valercia. It has
given name to the £detanz, whole territory extended from
the Iberus «o the river Kucar, and was bounded by Celtiberia
on the welt, and on the eaft by Heriaonia. This territory
contained, befides Edeta, feveral other towns, as Salduba or
Saragofla; Cclfa below Salduba, and on the oppofite fide of
the river; Belia, Carthago Vetus, S. of Celfa; Turbula or
Tervil, near Albaragin, where the Edetani were defeated by
Quintius Minucius, A.U.C. 557; Segobriga or Segorbe,
on the right bank.or the Morvicdro; Saguntum or Morvi-
ecro, deltroyed by Hannibal and reftored by the Romans,
famous for its clay ; and Valentia or Valencia. ~

EDFUERIM, in Geography, a town of Norway; 36

miles N. of Berga. :
EDGAR, in Biography, one of the moft difinguifhed
of the Saxon kings of England, was fon of Edmund.. Wher
he was but 13 years old, he was placed by the infurgents,
who kad rebelled agaiatt bis brother Edwy, at their head,
and upon the death of Edwy he fuccceded peaceably to the
throne, in 959. The monks and Dunftan had been the
inftruments of Edgar’s elevation, and to them he gave great
powers, allowing them the government of all monatfteries
inftead of the fecular canons, who were accufed of a general
diffolutenefs of manners. This prince, however fubfervient
to the monks in religious concerns, never gave the civil and
military concerns of hiskingdéom out of his own hands. He
maintained a large body of troops to repel the invafions of
the Scots, and fitted out a navy, which he always kept
under {triét difcipline, to prevent any attack of the Danes:
hence he fecured the fubmiffion of the little independent
princes of Wales and Ireland. One ef the moft remarkable
circumt{tances in the reign of Edgar, is the extirpation, or at
leaft, the great diminution of wolves in the fouthern parts

of the ifland. This he effected by commuting the punifh- —

ment of certain crimes for a fine of wolves’ tongues, and by
exchanging a tribute in money from Wales for a payment of
the heads of thofe animals, Edgar, in the monkith hiftories,
is celebrated for his piety, but he was a man of very licen-
tious morals. - As his reputation allured a great number of
foreigners to his court, they imported all the vices. of their

refpective countries, and contributed to-encourage the king’s _

licene

EDG

licentioufnefs, and to corrupt thefimple manners of his fub-
jedis.. One of his amours has afforded an interefting fubjec
foratragedy. Elfrida, daughter of Olgar, earl of Devon-
fhive, .was highly celebrated for her beauty; the report
reached the king, who fent his favourite, the earl of Athel-
wold, to difcover if the praifes beftowed upon her were fuch
as her beauty claimed. The earl found it too great for him
to withitand. He fatisfied the king by a falfe report, that
it had been greatly exaggerated, and then obtained leave to
matry her asa very rich heirefs. Edgarfoon difcovered the
artifice, and defired to be introduced to his wife, who, per-
haps, ambitious of being the wife of the king rather than of
one of his ‘ubjeéts, difplayed her perfon in the moft ftriking
manner, - Edgar, tranfported with rage, drew Athelwold to
# retired place ina wood under pretence of hunting, ftabbed
‘him with his-own hand, and fhortly after married the widow.
King Edgar, fays judge Blackftone (vol. iv.), who, befides
{iis military merit, as founder of the Englith navy, was alfo
a moft excellent civil governor; obferving the ill effects of
three diftin& bodies of laws, viz. the Dane-lage, Weft=
Saxon-lage,and Mercian-lage (fee Common Law), prevailing
@t once in {eparate parts of his dominions, projeGtedand begun
what, his grandfon king Edward the Conteflor afterwards
completed, that is, one uniform digeft or body of laws to
be abferved throughout the whole kingdom; this was pro-
bably no more than a revival of king Alfred’s code, with
fome improvements fuggefted by neceflity and experience ;
particularly the incorporation of fome of the Britifh, or ra-
ther Mercian cuftoms, and alfo fuch of the Danith as were
reafonable and approved, into the Weft-Saxon-lage, which
was the ground-work of the whole.

-EDGARTON, in Geography, a port of entry and poft-
town of Maffachufetts, and chief town of Duke’s county,
fituated E. of the ifland of Martha’s Vineyard. The fertile
ifland of Chabaquidick is within the jurifdi€tion of Edgar-
ton, and has a {mall trade to the Welt-Indies. It is 100
miles S.S. E. of Bofton, incorporated in 1671, and con-
taining 1226 inhabitants.

EDGCOMB, formerly /’rectown, atownhhip of America,
in Lincoln county and ftate of Maine, E.S. E. of Wifcaf-
fet, containing 989 inhabitants. It was incorporated in
4774, and is diftant 180 miles N. by E. from Bofton.—Alfo,
a county of Halifax diftri& in N. Carolina, bounded S. by
Pitt county, S.W. by Wayne county, and Tar river, which
affords a communication with feveral counties in the ftate,

-W. by Nath county, and E. by Martin and Halifax coun-
ties. It contains 93893 inhabitants, of whom 3580 are
flaves.

EDGCUMB-Bay, «a bay on the N. E. coalt of New
Holland. 8. lat. 20°.

Epccume-J/land, one of the clufter called ** Queen
Charlotte’s iflands,”” in the South fea, fo called by Capt.
Carteret in 1767. It has a fine pleafant appearance, and
lies in S. latitude 11° 10'. E. long. 165° r4!.

EDGE in-with a ship, in the Sea Language, is faid of a
chace, that is'making up to it.

Ence away, is to decline gradually from the fhore, or
from the line of the courfe which the thip formerly fteered,
when fhe fails nearer the direétion of the wind, or J/arger
before the wind.

EDGECOMBE, Mount, in Geography, a high round
mountain, fo called by Cook in 1769, fituated upon the
main land §. W. by S. of the ifland of Mowtohora, in the
South Pacific ocean, and not far from the fea. It ftands in
the middle of a large plain, and on this account is the more
confpicuous. §, lat.'37° 59'. E. long.193° 7!.

Evcrcume, Cape, a cape on the welt coaft of North

Vou, XII.

EDI

Ameticay in the north’ Pacific ocean. It is a point of

land that fhoots out froma rdund elevated mountain, cal'ed

by Capt. Cook, in 1778, ** Mount Edgecumbe.’® N. lat.
7°°3t. Evdonp. 224° 9!

EDGEFIELD, a diftri& of South Carolina, in Ame-
rica, bounded N: by Saluda river, which feparates’ it from
Newbury difthi@, 5S. W. by Savannah river, which divides
it from the ftite of Georgia, 'and W. by Abbeville. © This
diftriét is about 45 miles long and 24 broad. The poft-office
in this diftrié, called ** Edgefield court-houfe,” is 20 mies
from Abbeville court-houfe, 25 from Augufta, and 60 from
Coijumbia. d

EDGEMONT, a townfhip of America, in Delaware
county, Pennfylyania, containing 509 inhabitants.

EDGEWARE, a town of England, in the county of
Middlefex, on the borders of Hertfordhhire, with a weekly
market on Thurfday ; 8 miles N. W. of London.

EDGHILL, the name of an elevated place in Warwick«
fhire, fituated about 14 miles from the town of Warwick,
and near the village of Kineton, or Kenton. It is memo-
rable in the military annals of the kingdom fora battle fought
here in the time of the civil wars between king Charles and
the parliament: on which occafion nearly 150 perfons were
killed in the field, among whom were feveral of the nobility.
It occurred Oétober 23, 1642, and the monarch’s army
proved victorious. They afterwards marched to Banbary,
took poffeflion of its caftle, and then proceeded to Oxford.
Mr. Jago, in a poem entitled “ Edge-hiil,”* has related
many interefting events concerning this engagement, and
has defcribed the features of the country with much felicity
and propriety.

ear this place is the noted vale'of Redhorfs, fo called
froma figure of a horfe cut on the fide of ahill. The figure is
fuppofed, by Mr. Wife, who has written a differtation on
the fubje&, to have been cut in commemoration of the va-
lorous feats performed by Guy, earl of Warwick, who pof-
fefled Fulbrook caftle in the vicinity.

EDGINGS, in Gardening, rows of fhrubs, ‘herbs, or
flowers, placed by way of borders around beds, comparti-
ments, &c. Vor the edgings of compertiments, box feems
the mott proper. See Box.

EDHILING, Enuixiinevs, an ancient appellation of
the nobility among the Anglo-Saxons.

The Saxon nations, fays Nithard, Hiit. lib. iv. is divided
into three orders, or clafléa of people; the edhilingi, the
frilingi, and the laézi; which fignify the nobility, the free-
men, and the vaffals or flaves.

Inftead of ¢dhiling, we fometimes meet with athelinz, of
zxtheling, which appellation was likewife given to the king’s
fon, and the prefumptive heirof the crown. See ATHELING.

EGHIR, in Geography, a town of ‘Hindoottan, in the
country of Golconda, 10 miles W, of Rachore, and 75 S.W.
of Hydrabad, 2

EDICT, an inftrument, figned and fealed by a prince,
to ferve as a law to his fubjeGs.

Ediéts have no room in England, wheré the enafting of
laws is not lodged’in the king, but in the parliament.

In the Roman law we find frequent mention of the -
edi of ‘the praetor, guod pretor edixit, which was a phrafe
appropriated to the ordinances of the prztor; though it was
fometimes alfo ufed on other occafions.

Thefe occafional edits of the pretors fupplied-the filence
or ambiguity of the laws. ‘l’his ancient prerogative of the Ro«
man kings was transferred, in their ré{pective offices, to the
confuls and diétators, the cenfors and pretors; and a fimilay
right was affumed bythe tribunes of the people, the ediles, and
the pro-confuls, At Rome, and'in the provinces, the duties of

4D the

EDI

the fubje&, and the intentions of the governor, were pro-
claimed, and the civil jurifprudence was reformed by the an-
nual ediéts of the fupreme: judge, ‘the prztor of the city.
As foon ds he afcended his tribunal, he announced, by the
voice of the cryer, and afterwards in{cribed on a white wall,
the rules which he propofed to follow in the decifion: of
doubtful cafes, and the relief which his equicy ‘would afford
from the precifé rigour of ancient ftatutes. A’ principle of
difcretion, evér congenial to monarchy, was introduced
into the republic: the art of refpcéting the name, and elud-
ing ‘the efficacy of the laws, jwas improved by fucceflive
pretors ; fubtleties and fi€tions were deviled to defeat the
piaineft meaning of the decemvirs, and where the end was
falutary, the means were frequently abfurd, A jurifdiction
thus vague and arbitrary was expofed to the moft dangerous
abufe: the fubftance, and alfo the form of jultice were often
facrificed to the prejudice of virtue, the bias of laudable
affeGion, and the grofler feductions of intereft or refentment.
But the efrors or vices of each pretar expired with his an-
nual office ; and the temptations of injultice were removed
by the Cornelian law, which compelled the pretor of the
year to adhere to, the letter and {pirit of his firft proclama-
tion. It was referved for Adrian to accomplifh the defign,
which had been conceived by Czfar; and the pretorthip of
Salvius Julian, an eminent lawyer, was immortalized by the
compofition of the ‘ Perpetual Edi&.’? Dion Caffius fixed
the perpetual edi& in the year of Rome 686. (tom. 1.
1, 36.), This well digefted code was ratified by the emperor
and fenate; the long divorce of law and equity was at
length reconciled; and inftead of the twelve tables, the
perpetual edi@& was fixed as the invariable ftandard of civil
jurifprudence. This perpetual edi& was formed by a {elec-
tion from all the ancient edi&ts of pretors, and Adrian or-
dained that this fhould be always confidered as a law, from
which no deviation fhould be allowed.

The celebrated ** Edi& of Milan’? was announced by
Conftantine about five months after the conqueft of Italy,
A. D.. 313, as.a folemn and authentic declaration of his
fentiments, and was the means of reftoring peace to the Ca-
tholic church. In the perfonal interview of the two wettern
princes, Conftantine, by the afcendant of genius and power,
obtained the ready concurrence of his colleague Licinius ;
the union of their names and authority difarmed the fury of
Maximian ; and after the death of the tyrant of the Eat,
the ediét of Milan was received asa general and fundamental
Jaw of the Roman world. The Latin original of this edi&
is preferved by Czxcilius (De Mort. Perfecut. c. 45.) ; and
Eufebius (Ecc. Hitt. 1.x. c. 3.) has given a Greek tranfla-
tion of it, which refers to fome provifional regulations. The
wifdom of the emperors provided by this editt for the refti-
tution of all the civil and religious rights of which the
Chriftians had been fo: unjuftly deprived. It was enaéed,
that the places of worfhip and public courts, which had been
corfifcated, fhould be immediately reftored without any
expence. ‘Thefalutary regulations which guard the future
tranquillity of the faithful are formed on the principles of
enlarged: and-equal toleration: and the two emperors con-
curred in proclaiming to the world that they granied a free
ard abfolute power to the Chriftians and to all others, of
following the religion which cach individual might prefer,
as the belt adapted to his ule. They alfo exaéted from the
governors of the proviaces.a ftri& obedience to the true and
fimple meaning of an edi&, which was defigned to eftabliih
and fecure, without any limitation, the claims of religious
liberty, and they affign two weighty reafons, which induced
zhem. to allow. this univerfal toleration: the humane inten-
tica of confulting the-peace and happinefs of their people,

An

EDI

and the pious hope, that by fuch a conduc, they fhall ape
peafe and: propitiate the Deity, whofe feat-is in heaven.
Gibbon’s Hift. Rom. Emp. vol. iii:

In the French law, edigts, edis, makea great Azure ; they
are of various kinds; fome importing a new law, or regula-
tion, asthe edi& of duels, that of fecond marriages, &c.
Others, the ere¢tion of new offices, eltablifhment of duties,
rents, &c. Sometimes articles of pacification, as the edi& —
of Nantz, pafied by Hen. LV. in 1598, and revoked by
Louis X1V. in 1685, &c. Ediéts are all fealed with green
wax, to fhew that they are perpetual and irrevocable.

Ediés with them were much the fame as prociamations with
us; but with this difference, that the former had the autho-
rity of a law in themfclves, from the power which iffued’ ~
forth ; whereas, the latter are only declarations of a law, to
which they refer, and have no power in themfelves.

Enict, chamber of the. See CHAMBER.

EDIFICE, Apiricium, a building. See Bortpine.
The word is formed of the Latin «des and facio, Ti
make.

EDILE, or rather Zpire.: See Hpiye.

EDINBURGH, in Latin Zdemburgum, or Aneda, in
Geography, the capital of Scotland, is a large, populous, and
ancient town fituated in the northern part of the county of
Mid Lothian, or Edinburghfhire, about two miles fouth of
the eftuary of the river. or frith of Forth; 380 miles N.W.
of London, and 225 N.E. of Dublin, ia W. long. 3° 35’
N. lat. 55° 56/22". - j ;

The ongin of Edinburgh is involved in much obfcurity.
That part of Scctland where it is fituated formed. in the
days of Agricola, the Roman province of Valentia. Ow
the departure of the Romans from Great Britain, this pio-
vince fell into the hands of the Saxon invaders, uvder their
leaders O&a and Ebufa, in the year 452, and continued in
their poffeffion till the defeat of Egfrid, kmg of Northum=
berland, ‘by the Pi&s, in 685.

The eariie& mention of Edinburgh has been dete&ed by
the induftry of Mr. David Macpherfon, in the ‘* Annales
Ultonienfes,”” a manvfcript in the Briufh Mufeum, where
this paflaze occurs, under A. D. 637, “ Beilum Giine Mu-
refan et Obfeflio Edm.” In 960, Eden town is mentioned,
in an old mazufcript quoted by Camden, as being evacuated
by the Saxons, and abandoned to Indulf, king of the Scots.
Ina charter of Alexander I., Elinburgh is called Edenef-
bure ; in one of David 1., Edwynefburg: im the Chronicle
of Melrofe, Edenbure and Edinburzh; by Simon of Dur-
ham, Edwinefburch ; in the Chronicle of Lanercof, Edwy-
nefburgh; by Hemingford, Ederfburgh ; in the Polyehro-
nicon of Higden, Edenburch; by Kaighton, Edayfbore
and Edenefburgh ; by the prior of Lech!even, Edynburch,
Edynbrowch, Maydyn-cattle, and the Sorrowful Hill ; by
the highlanders Dun Edin; ard by the Welth, Myned

‘Agned. This Jaft appellation of Myned Agned, or Cacr

Agned; in Englifh, Maiden-caitle; and,in Latin, Caftrum
Puellarum, might, in time, have been foftened into Aned,
and then inverted into Edan, a conjeGture, which was fir
fuggeited by the Edinburgh reviewers, and which appears,
in fome degree, fupported by the Latin Aneda. :
Mr. J. S:bbald, in his ‘¢ Chrovicle of Scottith Poetry,?*
thinks, that Snadoun Eat mutt have been Edinburgh). -
becaufe Stirling was Snodon, or Siicdin Welt; fo that its
name was firlt Sneddinburgh, thea Neddenburgh, and,
Jattly, Edinburgh. Others derive its name from Edwin, 2
Saxon monarch. Bat the molt prebable etymology’is from >
the Gaelic Edin, the fleep face of a sock, a compound
which occurs in Edenbelly, Edinmore, and other local aps
pellations. When the Saxons acquired poffeffion of the for-
s * trelsy.

EDINBURGH.

trefs, Dun Edin, of courfe, became Edinburgh ; the former
pame being {till retained by the highlanders.

To David I. Edinburgh muft have heen indebted for the
diftinction of being a royal borough, as this king is fuppofed
to have been the firlt who ere&ted royal boroughs in Scotland,
and in his charter of foundation of the abbey of Holyrood-
houfe, in the year 1128, the town is mentioned by the title
of « Burgum meum de Edwinefbuarg.”

In the Year 1215, the firft parliament was held at Edin-
burgh, in the reign of Alexander IJ., but it, was only after
the year 1456, when parliaments continued to be held regu-
larly in this city, that ir was looked upon az.the capital of
Scotland. Little is known of the hiflory of Edinburgh be-
fore this period. The oldeft charter in the archives of the
town, is one granted by king Robert I., on the 28th of
May, 1329, 1m which he beltows upon Edinburgh the town
of Leith, with its harbour and mills, and his grandfon John,
earl of Carrick, who afterwards afcended the throne by the
name of Robert III., conferred upon the burgeffes the pri-
vilege of ereCting houfes in the cattle, on the fole condition
of their being perfons of good fame.

When James IL]. was at variance with his nobles, in 1482,
the inhabitants of Edinburgh diltinguifhed themfelves in his
behalf, and he granted them two charters, in which, among
other privileges, the provoft was made hereditary high fheriff
withiu the city, an office which is ftill enjoyed by the chief
magiftrate ; the town council invetted with the power of
making ftatutes for the government of the city; and the
corporated trades were prefented with a banner, known by
the name ef the * Blue Blanket,’? which ftill exifls, and is
always confided to the convener of the trades,

A conliderable degree of alarm was excited at Edinburgh,
in 1497, by the firlt appearance of the venereal difeafe, which,
being conlidered as a {pecies of plague, all perfons afleted
with it were {ent to Inchkeith, a {mall ifland in the middle
of the frith of Forth,

In the year 1504, the tra& of ground to the fouth of the
city, called the Burrough Muir, or Borough Moor, or Myre,
being covered with wood, the town-council enatted, that
whoever fhould purchafe as much of the wood as was fuffi-
cient to make a new front to his houfe, might extend it
feven feet farther into the ftrect. Edinburgh, in a fhort
time, was filled with houfes of wood, inftead of ftone, and
the principal ftreet was reduced fourteen feeth in breadth.

The loyalty which Edinburgh difplayed to James IV. on
his expedition into England, led to the eftablifhment of the
town-guard. A confiderable number of the inhabitants,
headed by the earl of Angus, their provoft, joined the royal
army, and fhared in its defrat at Flowden, in 1513. This
difalter obliged, at firft, every fourth man to keep watch at
night: but when the alarm had fublided, the militia, known
by the name of the town-guard, was raifed for the defence
efthe city. The plague raged with violence at Edinburgh
during the general confternation which fucceeded that un-
fortunate expedition.
~ In 1542, Edinburgh was plundered and burnt by the
Englifh forcee, under the earl of Hartford, and when it had
recovered from this misfortune, it fellagain into the hands of
the fame commander, after the defeat of the Scottifh army
at Pinkey: but though expofed to pillage, it efcaped con-
flagration.

_ The progrefs of the reformation of religion, which, about
that time, {pread over the greateft part of Europe, occafioned
feveral difturbances at Edinburgh, particularly in 1559, when
the boiftercus Knox was appoinced a preacher in the city,
and French troops, whom the queen regent had called to her

afitanee, feized Edinburgh.

Thefe troubles were allayed ~

by the powerful help of queen Elizabeth of England. A
parliament was held, which fanétioned the confeffion of faith
of the reformed church,

On the 1ft of September, 1561, Mary, queen of Scots,
made her public entry into Edinburgh, to take poffeffion of
the throne : but the different religion in which fhe had been
educated foon created frefh difturbances in 1563, when the
town council caufed the picture of St. Giles to be cat out
of the town’s ftandard, and the thiltle to be inferted in its
place.

During the commotions which diftra&ted Scotland after
Mary’s retreat into England, Edinburgh fuffered much
from the divided interefts of the different factions, being
fometimes in the poffeflion of the one, and at other times
under the power of the other, till, at length, the caftle fur-
rendered to the Enghth, and James, baving a fhort time
after attained his majority, a parliament was convened at
Edinburgh. On the 17th of O@ober, 1579, James made
his public entry.

The {pirit of fanaticifm which fucceeded the reformation
not having yet fubfided, violent commotions continued to
take place at Edinburgh, In the year 1588, when the
kingdom was alarmed at the approach of the Spanifh armada,
the people entered into a bond, known by the name of the
** Covenant,’’ for the maintenance af the true reigion, and
the defence of the king’s perfon, on which eccafion the
town-council raifed three hundred men for the protection of
the city.

In December, 1591, the inhabitants of Edinburgh defeat -
ed the earl of Boihwell’s attempt to feize the king. In
1592, the Prefbyterian church government was eftablifhed in
Scotland by law: but the mutual diltruft of the monarch
aad the clergy occafioned a frefh commotion in 4596.
James, with all his attendants, withdrew to Linlithgow.
Parliament, and the courts of juftice, were ordered to leave
a city where it was no longer confiftent either with their
fafety or dignity to remain. Deprived of its magt{trates,
deferted by its clergy, who fled to England, abandoned by
the courts of juftice, and profcribed by the king, the capital
of the kingdom was left to defolation and defpair, until
Elizabeth of England interceded with the offended monarch
in its behalf.

On the Sunday previous to the departure of James ta
take poffeflion of the Englifh’throne, in 1603, he repaired
to the church of St, Giles, at Edinburgh, to bid a tormal
farewell to his northern fubje&ts. Six years after, the differ-
ences between the king and -the inhabitants of Edinburgh
appear to have been entirely buried in oblivion. The pro-
voft was allowed to have a {word of {tate carried before him,
and the magiftrates were permitted to wear gowns on public
occafions. . In 1618, when James paid his laft vifit to Edin-
burgh, he was received by the magiftrates with uncommon
magnificence.

A perfect harmony feems to have fubfifted between the
coert and the city of Edinburgh in the beginning of the
reign of Charles [.: but this good underftanding was not
of long duration. The eftablifhment of epifcopacy was a
favourite objeét with Charles, and Prefbyterianifm was too
deeply rooted in Scotland to yield to his attempts. The
people renewed the covenant againft popery. Some of the
bifhops were affauited, and narrowly efcaped with their
lives. Yet, when Charles wfited Edinburgh, in 1641, he
was fumptuonfly entertained by the magiltrates.

During the civil war, which ended in Cromwell’s ufurpa-
tion, Edinburgh was again defolated by the plague; and
almok depopulated in 1645.

Upon the acceflion of king William to the Britith throne,

4aDa the

EDINBURGH.

the populace plundered the abbey church of Holyrood-houfe,
having firft defeated a party of about one hundred men,
ftationed in the abbey, who adhered to the interefts of
ames,

J The union of the two kingdoms of North and South
Britain caufed frefh difturbances at Edinburgh in 1707.
Whilf the a& was paffing in the Scottifh parliament, four
regiments of foot were introduced, in addition to the re-
gular guards, for the purpofe of preferving the peace of the
city. But, during the rebellion of 1715, Edinburgh re-
mained faithful to the caufe of the houfe of Brunfwick.
An attempt of the rebels upon the caftle was rendered
abortive. The loyalty of Edinburgh was ftill more con-
{picuous in. 1725, when the Excife Bill excited difturbances
in almoft.every part of Great Britain.

The year 1736 was difgraced by the execution of captain
Porteus of the town guard by the populace. This unfor-
tanate officer had been found guilty of having ordered the
foldiers to fire upon a mob that had aflailed the guards,
when they cfcorted to the fcaffold a criminal, who had be-
come an object of general compaflion, for having enabled
his companion to efcape, at the peril of his own life. The
queen, in the abfence of the king, had granted captain Por-
teus a reprieve, and it was the fuppofition that his life
would ultimately be fpared, which led to this atrocious in-
fult on government.

In the month of September, 1745, Edinburgh was occu-
pied by the army of prince Charles, the Pretender’s eldeit
fon. eneral Gueft, governor of the caltle, on being ap-
prifed of the circumftacce, difcharged feveral guns, as a
warning for the inhabitants not to approach the caftle-hill.
Qn the 25th of the fame month, he fired upon the rebels
flationed at the Weft-port, or Weit-gate. This occafioned
ahe prince to order a guard to be placed at the Weigh-
houfe, to prevent all intercourle between the city and the
eaftle. Onthe rf of O@ober, feveral perfons, who were
carrying provifions to the caftle, were fired at by the high-
Jarders, who, in their turn, were fired upon from the eeftle.
Many houfes in the city were damaged, and fome perfons
wounded. To cut off all communication between the
eaitle and the town, the prince placed guards in St. Cuth-
bert’s church and Livingitone’s yards.
the caftle, one of the guard-houfes was fet on fire, a few of
the rebels were kilted, and fome taken prifoners. But as
thefe unimportant fkirmifhes did not raife the blockade, a
eammonading was commenced againft the rebel’s pofts, on
the 4th of OGober; in the following ight, a party from
‘the caftle burnt fome houfes on the eaftern fide of Caftle-
hill, wkere the rebels ufed to fhelter themfelves. The
Pretender’s army ra fed the blockade on the 5th, and on the
gat the pricce left Edinburgh, on his march to England.
His‘defeat at Culloden put an end to’ the rebellion. The
provoft of Edinburgh was tried for not having defended the
city ; but acquitted.

Several tumults of inferior importance have agitated
Edinburgh in the years 1756, 60,:63, 65, 78, 79, and 84,
mofily on account of a temporary fearcity of provifions, and
en the repeal of the penal laws againft the Roman
Catholies. :

The French revolution of 1789 occafioned alfo fome dif-
turbances at Edinburgh, and caufed the trial and condem-
nation of afew individuals, But inthe warof 1793, and in
that which commenced’in 1803, and is ftill raging, (1809)
the inhabitants of Edinburgh have evinced their attachment
to the genuine principlesof the Britih conftitution, by the
voluntary arming of all ranks. Every attempt to difturb
the peace of the city on account of a temporary high price

2

On. a fally from.

of provifions, has latterly been checked in its origin by the’
{pirited conduct of the magittrates.

Edinburgh is on aii fides furrounded by lofty hills, except
northwards, where the ground gently declines to the frith
of Forth. <Arthur’s feat, Salifbury Craigs, and Calton hill
bound iton the eaft; the hills of Braid and the extenfive
ridge of the Pentland hilis on the fouth; and the beautiful
Corftorphine hill on the weft. The principal part of the
old town is. built upon a hill of fingular form, which, rifiar
gradually from eaft to weft, is terminated towards the welt
by a precipice three hundred fect in height. On the rock
forming this extremity of the hill, ftands the caftle, and along
the fummit of the ridge is carried a ftreet, which, under
the feveral denominations of the Lawn-market, High-ltreet,
and Canon-gate, extends from the caftle to the place where
the rife of the hill commences, a diltance of fomewhat more
thana mile. At its ealtern extremity, it is terminated by’
the palace of Holyrood-houfe. On each fide of the hill,
which thus forms the central parts of the town, is another
ridge of ground inferior, however, in elevation, and termi-
nating much lefs abruptly. The fouthern hill is covered’
with what may be termed the new part of the old town,
which, though it costains many good ftreets and buildings,
is laid out with little attention to that regularity which dif-
tinguifhes the new town. It is conneéted with the centrat
ridge by a bridge of nineteen arches, only one of which ig
vifible. Thisis named the South-bridge. The intervening
valley is occupied by a long, narrow, and dirty ftreet, called
the Cow-gate, from which numerous ftreets and alleys run
up the fides of the hill to High-{treet.

The new town is the peculiar pride of Edinburgh, and as
far as regards regularity of defign and beauty of fituation, it
may be confidered as one of the moft fplendid affemblages
of buildings in the kingdom. It ftands on the ridge to the
north of the old town, from which it is feparated ty a deep
valley, formerly a morafs, called the North Loch. The com-
munication between the two towns is effe€ted by the North-
bridge, and by an earthen mound, thrown acrofs the valley.’
a little further to the welt. This mound was formed entirely
from tlte foil and rubbifh obtained in laying the foundations
of the new town. ‘The nerth bridge is remarkable for tke
lightnefs and elegance of its ftruGure, and for the fingule-
rity of the views which it commands.

The plan of the new town is extremely fimple. Three
principal ftreets, extending nearly a mile in parallel lines from
eaft to weft, are interfefted at right angles and at equa! dif-
tances by fx crofs ftreets, about a quarter of a mile ia
length. : e

The improvements of Edinburgh began in the year 1753, _
by the ere&ion of the Royal Exchange. At that time
Edinburgh occupied the fame fpace of ground which it had
done for two centuries before; but fince that period, it has
been enlarged to more than twice its former fize. The cx-
tent of Edinburgh, from eait to weft, is about two Englifft
miles, and from north to fouth nearly the fame diftance.
The circumfcrence of the whole is upwards of eight miles.

Edinburgh is governed by a town council of 33 members,
twenty-five of whom conftitute the ordinary council, the re-
maining eight are named extraordinary councilmen. The
chief magiftrate,-whole office is much the fame with that of
the lord mayor in London, is ftyled lord provolt. He ig
high theriff, coroner, and admira! within the city and liber«
ties, and the town, harbour, and roadftead of Leith. Under
him are four magiftrates, called batlies, equivalent to the
aldermen in London. There is alfo a dean of guild, who
has the charge of the public buildings, and without whofe
warrant no houfe can be erected within the city. The re=

Nene

EDINBURGH.

venue of the town confifts of an impoft on wines, fhore
dues at Leith, duties on markets, &c, and is fuppofed to
amount to 10,000/. fterling, annually. The hall, where the
magiftrates meet, 1s fituated at the north-welt entrance of
the Parliament {quare, or Parliament clofe,

Of the principal public buildings the moft ancient is the
ealtle, firuated on the weftern and rugged extremity of the
eentral hill, on which the old town is built. It is feparated
from the buildings of the city by a {pace of about 350 feet
fu length and 300 in breadth. The area of the rock, on
which it ftands, meafures about feven Englifh acres. It is
2094 feet above the level of the fea, and acceffible only on
the eaftern fide; all the other fides are nearly perpendicular.
Tt is chiefly ufed as a {tation for foldiers. A long range of
new barracks affords accommodatiomto about one thoufand
men, and the other buildings together may accommodate
as many more. The governor is generally a Scottifh noble-
man. Ithas befides a deputy governor, who refides in the
garrifon, a fort-major, a ftore-keeper, a malter-gunner, and
a chaplain.

Holyrood houfe, the royal palace of Edinburgh, ftands at
the eaftern extremity of the city, at the bottom of Canon-
gate. Itis a beautiful building of a fquare form; the area
in the centre meafures 230 feet in circumference. The
weftern front confilts of two lofty double towers, joined by
a zallery adorned with a balluftrade, in the middle of which
is a portico decorated with four Doric columns, which fup-
port acupola in the form of an imperial crown. Under-
neath the cupola is aclock, and over the gateway are the
yoyal arms of Scotland. Round thearea in the infide is a
handfome arcade, The more ancient parts were built by
James V. about the year 1528. It was deftroyed by Crom-
well’s troops, and repaired and altered into its prefent form
by Charles II. The duke of Hamilton is hereditary keeper
of the palace. Some ycars ago, apartments were fitted up
in Holyrood houfe for the refidence of the count of Artois.
Adjacent to the palace is the ruined abbey of Holyrood-
houfe, founded by David I. in 1128, and deftroyed by the
Englith about the middle of the fifteenth century.

The buildings of the raint of Scotland, which were erected
in 1574, but in which no moncy has been coined fince the
union, forma fmall {quare, which, as well as the abbey of
Holyrood houfe, is an afylum for infolyent debtors.

The parliament houfe occupies the fouth and welt angles
of the {quare, to which it givesits name. It was begun in
1032 and completed in 1640. It forms no incontiderable
ornament to the city; but yields in point of grandeur to
the regifter office, a building erefted in 1774 for preferving
the public records. This noble edifice ftands at the eaft end
of Prince’s-flreet, and its front looks fouthward along the
north bridge. In its centre is a large dome 50 feet in dia-
meter, and Soin heipht, lighted from the top by a window
45 feet in diameter.

On the north fide of the High-freet is the Royal Exchange,
an elegant building in the form of a f{quare, witha court in
the centre. The bank of Scotland, at the head of the en-
trance to the earthen mound, is hkewife one of the archi-
teGtural ornaments of Edinburgh. ‘T'wo other public build-
ings of Icfler importance are the tollbooth and the weigh-
houfe,

In the old town the houfesare all remarkably high, fome
having not lefs than thirteen ftories. Each ftory, or flat, as
it is termed in Scotland, is inhabited by two families.

The population af Edinburgh, including the port of Leith,
wasin 1678 computed at 35,500 perfons; 10 1755 at 70,4303
in 1775, according to Mr. Arnot, at £3,806 families, which
he fuppofed to have given $2,536 individuals; in 1791, ace

‘of 90,000.

cording to Sinclair’s ftatiftical account, at 84,886 perfans;
and in 1302, Mr. Pinkerton fuopofed it to fail little fhort
Butin 1896, as there had been fifty new ftreets
built fince 1791, Mr. J Stark was of opinion, that Edin-
burgh, with irs fuburbs and the feaport town of Leith, might
fairly be fuppofed to contain confiderably upwards of
100,000 inhabitants.

The religious efablifhments of the P--fbyterian church
are upheld by twenty-four minifters. ‘The uumber of pa-
rifhes into which Edinburgh is divided, and of which they
are the paitors, are fourteen, including the fuburb of Canon-
gate, St. Cuthbert’s, and Leith, The number of churches’
isthe fame; but fome of the buildings contain under their
roof more than one place of worfhip. There are alfo three
chapels belonging to the old epifcopal church of Scotland,
in which are retained all the ancient forms of this eftablifh-
ment. One of the bifhops refides in the town. Befides
thefe, there are three chapels of the Englith epifcopal efta-
blifhment, where the form of worfhip is fimilar in every re-
{pe to that obferved in England. The places of worfhip
belonging to the different diffeaters from the eftablifhed
church, and other fetaries, are numerous. The Antiburghers
have two; the Burghers three; the Relief three; the Giaflites,
or Sandimanians, one; the Quakers one; the Bereans one;
the Baptifts one; the Methodiits one; and the Roman Ca-
tholics two. There is likewife a chapel where the fervice
is performed in the Gaelic or Erfe language for the benefit
of the highlanders. Tabernacles have been lately efta-
blifhed on Mr. Whitefield’s plan, under the aufpices of
Mr. Haldane. That in Leith walk is perhaps the largelt
place of worfhip in Scotland. Th total number of churches
and chapels is forty-four. Confidered as architeiural ob-
jets, the principal churches are St. Giles’s church, a mag-
nificent Gothic fabric, Tron church, St. Andrew’s church
in the new town, and St. George’s chapel. Edinburgh has
a fociety for propagating Chriltian knowledge, and a miflion-
ary fociety.

Among the charitable inftircutions af Edinburgh, the
Royal Infirmary, founded in 1736, claims the firft rank, The
male and female patients sre kepr entirely diftin®. Two
hundred and twenty-eight fick individuals can be accommo-~
dated in feparate beds. It has a well lighted theatre, where

. upwards of 200 ftudents may attend, when chirurgical ope-

racions are performed. ‘The Public Difpentary is an ufeful
fupplement tothe Royal Infirmary. he principal hofpi-
tals are Heriot’s, Waticn’s, Gillcfpie’s, Merchant maiden,
Trades maiden, Trinity, orphan, and Lying-in-Hofpital.
Edinburgh has alfo a fociety. for the relief of minilters’
widows, and for the fonsof the clergy, a magdalen, and
an afylum for the blnd. A new houfe of induttry was
opened in January 1801, for the reception of poor and del-
titute women, who are willing to work but unable to procure
employment, and for poor female children whoare taught
lace working. The whole of their earnings is regularly paid
to them; they have a warm comfortable room to work in,
their dinners gratis, and {uch of the women as have young
children fix-pence weekly in addition; they come in the
morning and go home at night.

Thecelebrity which Edinburgh has derived from the
fplendid talents of Hume, Blair, Home, Robertfon, Black,
and others, ia ftillkept up by a numerous body of literary
and {cientifie men, whofe valuable productions are daily
ifluing from the Edinburgh prefs. In the year 1763, Edin-
burgh hed only fix printing offices; in 1790 their number had
increafed to twenty-ope; in 1800 to thirty; andin 1805
to forty. ‘They employ upwards of 120 printing prefles.

Te univerfity of Edinburgh was elabhibed in the year

1522,

EDINBURGH.

7582, by kiog James VI. and from that -period to the
prefent has been progreflively advancing in its reputation as
a {chool of literature and {cience. The buildings-conneéted
with this inftitution are fituated in the old town on the mott
foutherly of the three ridges. They were originally con-
ftruéted on fo {mall a feale, that a new building was com-
menced in 1789, the greateft part of which, however, is ftill
in an unfinifhed flate. ‘It is called the collese; the univer-
-fity bufinefs is conducted in what. remains of the old building,
andin that part of the new ftru@ure which is completed.
The plan of education purfued in the college of Edinburgh
‘as the fame with that of the Proteftant German univerfitics,
and differs materially from that adopted in the Englifh unt-
verfities. ‘Che ftudents are difperfed in lodgings in different
parts of the town, and no direét obligation is impofed upon
-them to attend to the daily bufinefs of the college. They
are tavght through the medium of !e@tures, delivered by the
feveral profeffors of the different Cevartments of f{cience and
literature. The number of profeffors is about thirty, of
whom cleven are conneéted with the feveral branches of me-
dical ftudy, three with the ftudy of divinity, 2nd three with
that ofthe law. The remainder are occupied with the clafles
of general literature, mathematics, and philofophy. Their
emoluments depend almott entirely on the fees which they re-
ceive from the ftudents. Asa fchool of medicine, the uni-
verfity of Edinburgh ranks higher than any other tn Europe.
The anatomical theatre, fituated in the new part of the
college buildings, is remarkable forits fpacionfnefs and ele-
gance. ‘There are ‘no academical honours conferred except
in the medical line, and the number of graduates frequently
vexceeds forty ina year; foreigners generally compofe the
fifth part of this number. An idea may be formed of the
progrefs of the {chool of medicine at Edinburgh, from its
commencement in 1720, till the year 1800, from the follow-
sing ftatement.

From 1720 to 1790, confequently during yo
years, the number of ftudents in medicine

amounted to - - - = - - 12,800
And from 1790 to 1800, during ten years only,

1 ioe @ . - - - - - = | 35130

Total + 15,930

——— ae

Upon an average of five years the total number of ftudents
is fuppofed to be 1400 annually. Mr. Thomas Forfyth,
in his ‘* Beauties of Scotland,” ftates the univerfity to be
attended by from 1200 to 1400 ftudents.

Connected with the univerfity are the obfervatory and the
botanic garden. The latter contains about five Englith acres
of ground ; its colleétion of plants1s very large. ‘The ob-
fervatory is fituated on the top of Calton hill. It was com-
pleted in 1792, but ina flyle far inferior to what its utility
diferved. Attronomy-has made very little progrefs at Edin-
burgh. The library of the «univerfity is valuable and ex-
tenfive.

The grammarichool of Edinburgh, called the High {chool,
was eltablifhed in the year 1575, ‘the number of fcholars,
(by whom it is annually attended, 1s upwards of 600.

But it is not only to its fcholaftic inftitutions that Edin-
burgh owes its literary celebrity. Several courfes of le€tures
are delivered during both the winter and fummer feflions, by
individuais who have no immediate conneCtion with the uni-
verlity. Chere are alfo feveral learned focieties, among
which the Royal Society affumes the frft-place. It was
founded-in 1783, and publifhed the firft volume of its Tranf-
actions in 1788. The Society of Antiquaries was likewife

eftablifhed in 17173, and publifhed its firft and only volume
in I-92. ;

siceties eftablifhed for the verbal difcuffion of queftions
of literature and {cience are numerous at Edinburgh. They
are attended not merely by the ftudents, but by many re-
foeGable and well informed inhabitants of the place. The
principal are the Medical Society, remarkable for a large and
valuable medical library, and the Speculative Society, where
the fubjes difenfl-d are of a mcre gereral nature,

The advocate’s library, which is by far the moft confider-
able in Scotland, is chiefly fupported by the money paid by
advocates on their acmiffion into the feculty, It has value
zble colleétions of manufcripts, prints, cols, and medals.
Of printed books there ere upwards of 60,000 volumes.

Theatrical entertatuments, mufic, and dancing, conftitute
the principal publicamufements at Edinburgh. The theatre
ftands at the north end of the Noith bridye, in the middle
of a {mall fquare, called Shakefpeare-fquare. Contralted
with the other public editices it has but a mean appearance,
Subfeription concerts are performed in the aflembly rooms
and at Corri’s, formerly the royel circus. ‘The equeftrian
company, which annually reforts to Edinburgh, periorms in
a temporary wooden building ere€ted on the noith fide of
the college.

The police of Edinburgh is well conducted. A new
court of police was opened on the 14th of July, 1805. It
is under the fuperintendance of a judge of police and a
clerk. There are fix infpeGtors for the different wards, into
which the city is divided. All offenders under the police
a@ are profecuted by thefe infpetors. The old prifon, in
the building called the Tolbooth, is, however, deficient in
thofe accommodations which the benevolent Howard has fo
humanely recommended. ‘The ncw Bridewell, or houfe of
correCtion, finifhed in 1796, is on a larger and more liberal
fcale, and particularly wel! fituated, being on a high hill on
the eaft of the fuburb, named the Calton.

Edinburgh is fupplied with excellent {pring water, which
is conveyed in pipes. ‘The markets afford all the neceflarizs,
and many of the luxuries of life, in confiderably variety.
The fruit, greens, veal, poulty, butcher, and fifi markets,
on the north fide of the High-ftreet, occupy part of the de-
clivity of the hill on which the old divifion of the city is
built. They are difpofed in terraces, which communicate
with one another by flights of ftairs; and being all in one
place, they are very convenient for the inhabitants, ‘There
are, befides, butcher’s fhambles and fhops in different parts of
the city and fuburbs.

The want of a proper regard to cleanlinefs in the itha-

‘bitants of Edinburgh, and the abominable practice of dif-

charging filth from the windows into the ftreets, have been
feverely and frequently noticed. ‘The New 'Town, however,
is not liable to thefe animadverfions, and by the flriG& at-
tention of the police, the nuifance is in a great meafure
removed in the Old Town, Edinburgh is lighted in winter
by ery{tal lamps, but their number is far from being fuffi-
cient for the convenience of the inhabitants.

Manufa€tures of different kinds are carried on at Edin-
burgh and intts neighbourhood. The manufatture of fhawls
and kerfeymeres, and that of printed cottons and linens, are
very extenfive. For the latter Edinburgh is reported to be
indebted ‘to thirteen French proteftant families from Picardy.
In theenvirons are many large paper mills, manufa@ures of
glafs, and feveral caft-iron founderies. The diftillation of
malt f{pirits occupies large capitals, and eandles and foap are
manufactured on an extenfive {cale. ras

Edinburgh is furrounded with many fine walks, the prin-

‘cipal of which are, the Caftle-hill, the King’s park, the mea-

dows

EDM

dows and the Calton-hill, on the weftern fide of which is a
burying ground, in which are depofited the remains of the
celebrated David Hume. A large rotund monument, with
a fimple infeription, marks the fpot. This hill is alfo re-
markable for a naval monument in honour of the hero of
Trafalgar. J. Stark’s P:@ure of Edinburgh, 1806. Ajikin’s
Athenzum, vol. it. 1807.

EDINBURGHSHIRE. See Min Loruian.

EDINGTON, or Eppinron, ancieatly Zthendune, a pa-
rifh in the hundred of Whorlidon, and county of Wilts, Eng-
Jand, contains 170 houfes and 334 inhabitants. ‘This place is
noted ia the annals of Englith biltory, for a conqueft, which
king Alfred obtained over the Danes here. On the fum-
mit of a hill near Edington is a large encampment, called
Bratton cattle, where it is ftated that Alfred befieged his
enemies for fourteen days, when they capitulated. The
caltrametation covers an area of about 24 acres; is nearly of
am oval form, and has very deep ditches. Onthe fouth-welt
face of che fame hill isa monument of antiquity, faid to
have been cut, or formed by the Saxons, in commemoration
of the event already noticed. It isa reprefentation of a
Jarge white horfe, which is formed by cutting off the fur-
face of the ground, and laying bare the fubftratum of chalk.

The church at Edington was built by bifhop de Eding-
ton, who was a native of this place, and who alfo founded
here a college for fecukar canons. This prelate was trea-
furer and chancellor to king Edward IIT. For further par-
ticulars relating to Edington and the bifhop, fee Beauties
of Wiltthire, vol. 11. Svo.

EDISTO, or'Pompon, a navigable river of America,
in S, Carolina, which rifes in two branches ‘from a remark-

“ablé ridge in the interior part of the ftate. Thefe branches,

meeting below Orangeburgh, form Edifto river, which is
navigable for too miles.x—Alfo, a polt town of Orange
county. in S.’ Carolina ; 577 miles from Wafhington.

EDITOR, of edo, I publifh, in the commonwealth of
learning, a perfon who takes care’ of publifhing the work of
another author, frequently an ancient author.

Erafmus was a great editor of ancient writings; the
Louvain doétors, Scalizer, Petavius, Fa. Sirmond, bifhop
Walton, Mr. Hearn, &c. are learned editors; the Bene-
ditines, of the fathers; the ‘Dauphins, of the claffics;
Hardouin, of the councils. &c.

EDMER, in Biography, a learned Englifh Benedi@tine
monk, who flourifhed about the end of theeleverth century.
He belonged to the order at Canterbury ; was abbot of the
monattery of St. Alban’s, and afterwards raifed to the fee of
St. Andrew’s, in Scotland. Hewas a voluminous writer,
chiefly in biography ; and from his pen we have the lives of
St. Anfelm, archbifhop of Canterbury; of St. Ofwald,
archbifhop of York; of St. Dunftan, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, with a letter tothe mons of Glaltonbury ; of the
bleffed’ Bregwin, archbifhop of Canterbury; and of Odo,
archbifhop of Canterbury. He wrote Itkewife * A Trea-
tife on the Liberty of the Church,” in vindication of Anfelm,
“in his contefts with king William Rufes; and the hiftory of
his own times from 1066 to 1122, which was publifhed by
the learned Selden, with notes, in folio, 1623. ° Moreri has
mentioned the titles of his other works, which, however,
being of lefs repute, need not be noticed here. \

EDMONDES, Sir Tuomas, was born at: Plymouth,
in Devonfhire, where his father was chief officer of the cuf-
toms. © He ‘was introduced to court by his namefake, fir
Thomas Edmondes, comptroller of the queen’s houfehold,
and being initiated into public bufinefs by fir Francis Wal-
fingham, fecretary of ftat2, he waa, through his means, em-
ployed by the illuftrious queen Elizabeth in feveral embaflies,

EDM

In 1592 he was appointed her refident or agent at the court
of France, with a falary of twenty-fhillings a-day ; and on
the 17th of May, 1596, fhe made him a grant of the office
of fecretary to her mijefty for the French tongue. Be-
tween this and the fring of 1603, he was employed in
divers foreign embaffies. At this period he received the

‘honour of knighthood from king James I. and, upon the

conclufion of the peace with Spain, was appointed ambaf-
fador to the archduke at Bruffeis. He was about the fame
time chofen one of the reprefentatives for the borough of
Wilton, in the parliament which was to have met at Weft-

~mintter Nov. 5, 1605, but was prevented by the difcovery of

the gunpowder-plot. “He was, in 1608, fent ambaffador into
France, where he continued, with fore intervals of abfence,
till the year 1617, when he returned, and was. appointed
fucceflively. to the offices of comptroller of the king's

‘houfehold, privy counfellor, and treaforer of the houfchold.

In 1625 he was cleéted one of the burgeffes for the city of
Oxford, but on the meeting of parliament his eleGtion wes:
declared void, and. he was chofen for: another place. In
June 1629 he went out again ambaffador to the French court,
and with this concluded all his foreign employments. The
remaining ten years of his life he {pent in privacy. He
died Sept. 20, 1639. Sir Thomas was a man of found un-
derftarding, uncommon fagacity, and indéfatigable induftry :
he was firm and unfhaken in the difcharge of his duty, beyond
the influence of terror, flattery, or corruption, Some of
his parliamentary fpecches have been printed. His letters
and papers; in 12° vols. folio, were once in the poffeffion
of fecretary Thwloe, aed afterwards of lord chancellor
Somers. The ftyle of them is ciear, ftrong, and mafculine;
free from the pedantry and puerilities which infected fome
of the beft writers of that age. Biog. Brit.

EDMUND I. king of England, was fon of Edward?the
elder, and fucceeded his brother Athelftan. This was in
the year 941, but the Northumbrians, ever reftlefs and
feeking for opportunities of rebelling, threatened the peace
of Edmund’s reign. The king marched fuddenly againtt
them, and reduced their leaders to the molt abje@ fvb-
miffion, As a furety for future good behaviour, they
offered to embrace Chriflianity, “a religion,” fays Hume,
“which the Enghfh Danes had frequently profeffed,.
when reduced to difficulties, but which, for that very reafon,
they regarded as a badge of fervitude, and fhook off as foon
as a favourable opportunity offered.”? Edmund, however,
was aman of {pirit and penetration; he put it-out ofthe
power of the Northumbrians to become his enemies, and con-
quered Cumberland, conferring its government on Malcolm
king of Scotland, on condition that he fhould do him ho-
mage, and protect the north from all future incurfions of
the Danes. This prince was young and full of {pirit, but
his reign was fhort, and his death violent. Ata feftival in
Gloucefterfhire he faw Leolf, a notorious robber, who had
been condemned to banifhment to expiate his.crimes. En-
raged at his infolence in joining the royal party, he bid him
depart, and not complying with the order, Edmund feized
him with his own hand, when the villain, taking advantage
of the ftruggle, ftabbed the monarch to the heart. _ This
event happened in the year 946, before he had completed:
the fixth year of his reizn.. Hume, Hitt. vol..i.

Epmounp IT. furnamed Ironfide, king of! England, .
was eldeft fon of Ethelred II. He obtained the name of
Ironfide from the hardy valour which he difplayed in the
contefts maintained between his father and the Danifh kings,’
Sweyn and Canute. Edmund had no fooner fucceeded to
the crown, than he found himfelf obliged to conterd for it
in the ficld. Ina battle with Canute, which he meant ad

. e/

EDO

be decifive, he was defeated, in confequence of the defection
of Edrie, duke of Mercia. Edmund was not deftitute of
refeurces, but affembling a new army at Gloucefter, he felt
himfelf capable of difputing the field, when the Danith and
Englifh nobility, equally harraffed with thefe convulfions,
obliged their kings to come to a compromife, and to divide
the kingdom between them by treaty. To Canute were
ceded the northern and midland parts of the kingdom,
while the fouthern provinces were left to Edmund. This
prince furvived the treaty only a fhort month, being mor-
dered at Oxford by two of his chamberlains, who were infti-
gated to the bloody deed by Edric. Canute now became
fole mafter of the kingdom, but the line of Edmund was
again introduced by the marriage of his great grand-daugh-
ter Matilda to Henry I. Hume, vol. i.

EDOIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Felix,
placed by Diodorus Siculus in the ifle of Panchza.

EDOLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Breffan ;
15 miles N.N.W. of Breno.

EDOM, in Scripture Hifory aud Geography, a name given
to Efau, the eldeft fon of Llaac, and fignifying red. (See
Gen. xxv. 24——34.) He was the progenitor of the Edom-
ites, afterwards called Idumeans. The place of their firlt
habitation was mount Seir (Gen. xxxv. 6—g.) which had
been originally occupied by a people called Horites, and the
mountain itfelf was denominated Hor. (See Numb. xx.
22—28. Deut. ii. 12.) Some time before Efau’s fettle-
ment in this place, this region had taken the name of Seir,
probably from that of a confiderable perfon among the
Horites, and retained it afterwards to the exclufion of Hor,
which was reftrifted to a part of this mountainous diltrict.
(Numb. xx.) This country was fituated on the fouth of the
Salt, or Dead fea, extending from this fea to the Red fea,
or Arabian gulf. (1 Kings, ix. 26.) From this circum-
ftance we deduce the origin of the appellation of Red fea,
which was given to the Arabian gulf, as it denoted the fame
with the fea of Edom, or Idumzan fea. Some of the
Greeks, in allufion to the fignification of the Hebrew word
Edom, called it the Erythrean fea, from the term which de-
noted red in their language. This country, when firft in-
habited by the Horites, was probably governed by patriarchs,
or heads of families, which was the moft ancient form of govern-
ment, afterwards by kings, ele€tedinto their office, and, inpro-
cefs of time, by governors, ftyled dukes, and fucceeding one
another by primogeniture. The Edomites, who occupied the
country after the Horites, were firft governed, like them, by
dukes, and afterwards by kings ; which change, inthe form
of their government, feems to have taken place, with a view
to their greater fecurity againft the hoftile attacks of invaders,
during the .emigration of the Ifraelites in the wildernefs.
The king of the Edomites refufed to grant thefe emigrants
from Egypt, towards Canaan, a free paflage through their
country, though they requefted it in a very refpe€tful man-
ner ; and firft threatened to oppofe them with the. whole
force of his kingdom, if they made an attempt for this pur-
pofe, and afterwards, upon their renewed folicitations, ac-
tually took the ficld, and marched to oppofe them. At
length, however, he furnifhed them, for money, with fuch
fupplies as his country:aflorded. (Numb. xx. 14.21. Deut.
wm. 28, 29.) After this traufa€tion, we find no account of
the Edomites, till the reign of king David. In the mean
time, however; they appear to have extended their dominion,
to have applicd themfelves to ‘trade and navigation, and to
have feized on the empire of the fea, at leaft inthe Arabian
gulf. They trafficked in very rich commodities; fuch as pure
gold, gold of Ophir, the topaz of Ethiopia, coral, and\pearls,
(Job, xxviii. 15—20.) and eftablifhed a very conliderable

EDO

kingdom. But, in the height of their pfofpertty, their
country was invaded by the, victorious arms of Lfrael, about
the year rogo B. C., and Edom began to feel the effets, of
Ifaac’s prophecy, that “the elder fhould ferve the younger.””
For David, after having gained feyeral vi€torics over the
Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites, finifhed his conquefts
with Idumxza. Hadad, their king, being a minor, and the
party that accompanied him, fought the protection of
Pharaoh, and the young prince was kindly received by him,
and fupported with the dignity beccming his royal rank 5
and the queen’s fifter was given to him in marriage.
(1 Kings, xi. 15 —20.), Whillt Hadad meade his way into
Egypt, others of the Edomites took different routes ; fome
fled to the Philiftines and the fea-ports, and fortified Azoth,
ov Azotus. Accordingly, they contributed to improve the
inhabitants of thofe parts in the arts of navigation and come
merce, and laid the foundation of the future celebrity of the
Pheenicians, who are known to -have migrated from the
Red fea, about the time when David conquered and dif-
perfed the Edomites. Hence it was, that the Philiftines
called many places Erythra, in memory of their being Ery-
thrzans, or Edomites, and of their coming from the Ery-
threean fea. Idom, Erythra, and Pheenicia, it is f2idy are
names of the fame fignification, the words denoting a “ red
colour;” and hence, it is probable, that the Erythrzans, who
fled from David, fettled in great numbers in Pheenicia, that
is, in all the fea-coafts of Syria, from Egypt to Zidon; and
by calling themfelves Phcenicians, in the language of Syria,
inftead of Erythraans, gave the name of Phoenicia to that
whole fea-coaft, and to that only. Other Edomites, who
dealt in fhipping, efcaped the rage of the conqueror, by
taking a longer route, and went towards the Perfian gulf.
In a word, the Edomites difperfed into all parts, when they
found that they could have no fecurity in their native coun-
try. Hadad, after remaining for a confiderable time in the
court of Pharaoh, obtained a difmiffion, and, returning to
Idumwa, made feveral unfuccefsful attempts to regain his
dominions. Inthe mean time, the kingdom of Edom re-
mained under the houfe of David till the days of Jehofhaphat,
being governed by deputies, or viceroys, appointed by the
kings‘of Judah. At length, about the year 889 B.C. the
Ldomites, anxious to recover their ancient liberty, embraced
an opportunity which offered itfelf for this purpofe, and
fucceeded. For, in the days of Jehoram, the fon of Jeho-
fhaphat, the whole nation arofe, and, affaffinating, or expel-
ling their viceroy, appointed for themfelves a king; and,
having gained aconfiderable advantage over Jehoram’s army,
they were afterwards defeated with great flaughter, and
obliged to retire within their intrenchments. After this
period, the Edomites remained fecure from any attempts
again{t them on the part of the kings of Judah for Go years.
At length they became fubjeét to the king of Babylon; and
when the captivity of the Jews commenced, they retaliated
upon them, with ample vengeance, the fufferings they had
endured in the days of king David, cut off many of ihem
who were endeavouring to make their efcape, and confumed
with firethe remains of the temple, as foon as the Chaldzans,
or Babylonians, had withdrawn. They even attempted to
level the whole city with the ground, and infulting the God
of Ifrael with horrid blafphemies, triumphed in the profpeét
of bebolding the utter end of the Jewith nation. For this
eruelty, they were threatened by the prophets with a fevere
retaliation, importing, that, for the devattation they had
made in Judah, they fhould behold their land become defo-
late, when thofe of their now-opprefl<d enemies fhould
floorith, (Ezek. xxv. xxxii. xxxv. xxxvi. Joel, ii, Amos,
i, ix.) Thefe predi€tions were fpeedily accomplifhed I for

hes

EDR

their country was diftrafied with violent commotions and
perf-cutions ; infomuch, that many of them abandoned it,
and fettled in the vacant land of Judea, particularly in the
fouth-weitern parts; and probably at this time, they made
an end of the temple of Jerufalem. ‘Thofe, who remained
in Edom, joined the children of Nebaioth, and were ever
afterwards called Nebatzans ; and thus the ancient kingdom
of Edom loft its name, which was transferred to that part
of the land of Judea which the refugees occupied, and
which had never been part of their old kingdom, but the
lot of the tribes of Simeon and Judah. This is the Idumza,
and thefe are the Idumzans, mentioned by Pliny, Ptolemy,
Strabo, and other ancient writers. é

Having traced the Edomites from their origin to the downs
fal of their kingdom, we fhail terminate this article with a
brief account of thofe Edomites, who fettled in Judea.
OF thefe it is only known with certainty, that a decree was
iffued againft them by Darius Hyftafpes, commanding
‘them to deliver up all they had belonging to the Jews.
(1 Efdr.iv. 50.) Upon the decline of the Perfian mo-
narchy, and after the days of Alexander, they were under
the power of the Seleucide, when their ancient averfion from
the Jews being revived, they warred againtt that nation, under
the condu& of Gorgias, their governor, for Antiochus
Epiphanes; but they jwere conftantly worfted by Judas
Maccabzeus, who, at laft, took and facked their chief city
Hebron. (1 Maccab.v. 65. 68.) Having loft their ftrong
helds. and many of their number, the furvivors fled to
two flrong towns, whence many of them efcaped by bribery
and treachery. At length thefe two ftrong caftles were
forced, and 20,000 Idumzans were put to the {word. The
Edomites in Idumza were afterwards agitated by continual
broils and wars, till about the year 130 B.C., they were
conquered by John Hyrcanus, who reduced them to the ne-
ceflity of embracing the Jewith religion, or of quitting their
country. They chofe the former alternative, fubmitted to
be circumcifed, and became incorporated with the Jews.
Accordingly in the fir century after Chrift, the name of
‘Adumean was loft, and quite difufed.

EDON, a mountain of Thrace. Plutarch fpeaks of a
town, called Zdonide, near the river Strymon. Steph. Byz.
onthe authority of Ariftotle, gives this name to Antandros,
which was fituated at the foot of mount Ida. :

EDONI, a people of Thrace, who inhabited the banks
of the river Strymon ; and their country was called Edonis,
on the frontiers of Thrace and Macedonia, feparated from
Odomantice by the Strymon.
ag a town of Ethiopia, fituated W. of the Nile.

iny-

EDRAL, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Judah, men-
tioned inthe book of Jofhua, and alfo by Eufebins—Alfo,
atown of Paleitine, nearthe torrent Jabok, called £/draci
by Eufebius and Jerom, who fay that it is the fame with
“dara in Arabic, 24 miles from Boltra. It was fituated in
the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on the other fide of Jordan.

EDRED, in Biography, the brother of Edmund L., fuc-
ceeded tothe throne in the year 946. His reign, like that
of ‘his predeceflor, was difturbed by the rebellions and incur-
fions of the Northumbrian Danes, who, though quelled, were
never entirely fubdued, nor had ever paid a fincere allegiance
tothe crown of England. ‘They attempted to fhake off the
yoke in the early part of ‘Edred’s reign, but he was foffici-
_ ently powerful to reduce them to fubmiflion, and having laid
wafte their country by ‘fire and fword, as a punifhment for
their rebellion, he forced them to renew their oaths of alle-

iance. After this he fixed Englifh garrfons in their moft
confiderable towns, and placed over them an Englith govev=
- Vor. XII. ;

E.D U

nor, who might watch all their motions, and fupprefs any
infurreGtion on its firft appearance. Notwithftanding the
energy of this prince’s mind in matters of ftate policy, he
was the flave of Dunftan in the fuperftition of the times,
which obtained the name of religion. To the guidance of
this pricit, whom. he advanced to the higheft ’ offices, he
blindly and implicitly delivered over his con[cience, and at
length the management of his civil affairs. Through his
influence, a fet of forcign monks of the Benedi&tine order
were introduced, who affected an extraordinary purity of
coftrine and aufterity of manners, and proved formidable
rivals to the fecular clergy of the kingdom. Edred died
after a reign of nine years, leaving children too young for
the cares of government, and the crown accordingly de-
volved on Edwy, nephew of the deceafed king. Hume.

EDRISITES, the denomination of a dynafty of the
Arabian empire, who erected the kingdom and city of Fez,
on the fhores of the Weftern ocean. This dynafty was
founded by Edris, who died in the yearof the Hegira 214
(A. D. 829.) in the prime of manhood, and terminated in the
year of the Hegira 307. A. D. gig.

EDRON, a port of [taly,in Venetia, formed by the twe
rivers Medoacus, according to Pliny, and fuppofed by Har-
douin to be the modern Chioza.

EDROS, or Hepros, adefert ifle, placed by Ptolemy
on the weftern coaft of Hibernia; named Andros by Pliny ;
and fuppofed by Camden to be the ifle of Bardfey.

EDSAN, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which rung
into the Lena; 20 miles S.E. of Ziganfk.

EDSWOL, a town of Norway; 18 miles S.W. of
erga.

EDUCATION, in a general fenfe of the term, may be
defined the art of bringing up, forming, and inftru€ting
children.

Education, in the limited acceptation of the term, may be
confidered as that regulation of the external imprefflons by
which the developement and cultivation of the various fa-
culties and affeGtions of the mind are affeCted. In this defi-
nition very general expreffions are ufed, becaufe the term
education is applicable to that dire@tion of the external im-
preffions by which the progrefs of the mind is checked, by
which its faculties are rendered ina€tive, or its affections
deadened or perverted ; as well as to that by which its fa-
culties and affections are developed and cultivated. But
though general, our definition is fcarcely fufficiently coms
prehentive, for we fometimes hear of the education of circume
frances, and, accidental education ; and no fufficient objection
prefents itfelf tothis application of the term to cafes in
which there is no dire& intentional interference for the pure
pofe of regulating the impreffions. ‘To comprehend thefe
cafes of the application of the term, we mutt define educa
tion to be, that feries of impreffions, whether intentional or
accidental, by which the developement, &c. Sve above.

We here {peak of education in the way in which the term
appears to be ufually employed, with reference to the effects
produced onthe mind by external agency, without confie
dering the direé& efforts of the individual obje@ of it. But
no one who has watched the procefies of the mind, particu-
larly where it is vigorous, and its education (in the molt Is
mited fenfe) neglected, can hefitate in the belief, that more is
often done, by the exprefs voluntary exertion of the indivi-
dual towards the cultivation of his faculties and affeétions,
than by any externalagency. This felf-culture ought to be
confidered as one f{pecies of education; and in order to in~
clude it under the term, we mu{t once more extend our de-
finition, and {tate, that education, in the moft comprehenfive
acceptation ofthe .term, is that ferics of impreflions, or of

; 4 woluatary:

She

voluntary exertions of the mind, by which the developement
and cultivation of the various faculties and affc¢tions are
affected.

Though we allow it to be frequently convenient to apply
the term to a feries of what are to us cafual impreffions, yet
our concern with education, except merely as a branch of
mental philofophy, 1s limited to the cafes in which the inter-
ference of man may modify or controul the effets of exter-
nal circumftances on the mental faculties and affeGtions. But
thefe are much more numerous than avould at firfthe fup-
pofed, by thefe who have had no pradlical acquaintance with
the objet: and hereig appears the almoft incalculable import-
ance of mental philofophy, asa foundation for the art of
education, that.it ferves to difclofe the effe& of external 1m-
preffions in the culture of the mind,and (where they are under
haman controul) fhews whatare to be employcd, and what
are to be avoided, according to the various differences of
ability or d{pofition, in order to remedy or fupply the
effeGs of original conftitution on the mental fyftem. It is
true, mental philofophy is yet imperfeét and limited ; but,
even in its prefent ftate, it renders mo important aid in the:
bufinefs of education.

To enter into the fubje&t of education in its wideft extent,
would be to thew how every clafs of circumftancee, whether
cafual or intentional, operates in affeCting the developement
and culture of the powers and affeGtions of the mind ;—our
obje& is much more limited ; and we hall be fatisfied if we
fucceed in laying before our readers a tolerably extenfive and
accurate view of thofe means, the employment of which
may be expeted to affilt fuch‘developement and cu'ture, with-
out attempting to iaveftigatethofe minutiz which are not of
general occurrence.

Without alcertaining whether there can be any clearly
defined dittin@ion between the moral and the intelle@tual
powers, it is obvious, that the difference between thoughts
and feelings, betweenthe underitanding and the affections,
and alfo between the means by which the powers of the un-
derftanding are to be developed and improved, and thofe by
which the affe€tions are to be produced and regulated, is
fufficiently diftin& to allow of our dividing the bufinefs of
education, according to its objeéts, into intelledual and moral.
In order to bring the fyftem of thought and feeling into its
due {tate of perfeétion, both as to comprehenfivenefs and
vigour, and to proper diretion, the organs of fenfation
mutt have vigour and fenfibility: much, too, of intelleGtual
improvement and of moral culture depends upon the ftate of
the mufcular and nervous fyftem in general. The education
of the human being, as far as refpects thefe objects, may be
termed phy/ical. ;

Under the article Paystcat Epucarion, then, we fhall,
without encroaching upon the fcience of pathology, give a
view of thofe means by which the external organs of the
mind, the organs of fenfation, and the mufcular and ner-
vous fyftem, fo far as the mind is dire&ly concerned with their
operations, are to be preferved in a found and healthy flate,
and improved in aétivity and vigour. In INTELLECTUAL
Epucation we fhall enter into the confideration of the cul-
tivation of thofe powers of the mind which come under the
head of underftanding. And in Morar Epucation we
fhall confider the methods of cultivating and regulating the
affeGions. Under the topic of incelle€tual education, the
various branches of knowledge, which form the objects of
inftruGtion in different departments of education, will of
courfe receive fome attention. :

As there will be fufficient opportunity, under thefe three
feparate articles, to enter as fully as the nature of our work
will admit, into all the particular topics conneéted with the

EDUCATION,

fubje& of education, we fhall not enlarge much here, and we
fhail only fubjoin a few obfervations of a general nature, re-
fpeGing the importance of attention to the obje¢t, —what hag
hitherto been publicly done with a view to the improvement
of the art of education, and, the education of the poor.

RefpeGting the fecond of thefe topics, we fhall have an op-
portunity of faying more in our {eparate articles, and fhall
content ourfelves here with a very fummary view. Refpecte
ing the firft, it is unneceflary to enlarge, for we confider it
asa prominent and very pleafing feature of the age, that
the befinefs of education is pretty generally confidered as of
primary importance, and is made much more an object of
{cientific attention, than tt has been at any former period,
The Jong agitated queftion, whether and in what cafes public
or private education is to be preferred, wiil be belt confie
dered under the feparate heads of IntelleStual and Moral
Education. ]

- The opinion that every thing in the intelleétual and moral
fyftem is the refult of education, has bad fome ingenious fup=:
porters, but it can never ftand the teft of accurate obferva-
tion. If every human being could be placed in precifely
the fame circumftances for the firft few months after birth,
and could be expofed to exaQly fimilar impreffions in every
refpeét, there is no room for reafonable doubt, that ftill great
diverfities would be manifeit in their difpofitions and capa-
cities, We infer this, becaule the rudiments of difvofition
and capacity are obvioufly different when we have firft the
power of difcerning them; and it is inconceivable that the
few impreffions which are received within two weeks after
birth, fhould of themfelves produce all that diverfity, whichs
even then, is, in many in{tances, clearly perceptible to the
accurate obferver. In fome, even at that early period, it
may be ciftinGtly perceived that the fenfitive powers are
quick and lively; in others, they are dull and fluggifh: and
this early aptitude to receive fenfations with different degrees
of vividnefs, muit arife from a difference ia the original fy{-
tem, over which education will feldom be found to triumph.
Greater or lefs degrees of phyfical fenfibility, are the founda=
tion of greater or lefs degrees of mental fenfibility ; and it
is, in a great meafure, upon the vigour of our early fenfations,
that the furniture of the mind, the thoughts and affeions,
depend for-their ftrength.and durability. Befides, fuppofe.
what we will with refpe& to the precife degree in which the
mental fyftem depends upon the conformation of the brain,
more or lefs the former mult be affected by the latter; and
while the external ftru€ture, and the external organs of the
mind, fo effentially differ in different children, as foon as
mind is at all perceptible, it is reafonable to fuppofe that the
internal flru€ture, and the more concealed corporeal fyftena
on which the offices of the mind depend, muit alfo be ef-
fentially different.

But though education cannot do every thing, it-cando.a
great deal. It cannot implant an aptitude to receive vivid
and vigorous fenfations where it is not, but it can render the
fenfations actually received more efficacious.. It can call
into action, or greatly reprefs, the fenfibilities of the frame.
It can enliven the powers of the mind, and exercife and
ftrengthen them. It can extend, refine, and invigorate the
affe tions.

Probably the advocates for the opinion that the intelleQual
and moral fyftem owes its peculiarity entirely to education,
do not themfelves underftand their pofition in that extent in
which it is underftood by their opponents: and both, in
general, feem almoft equally willing to admit the only
valuable praétical inference from the difcuffion, viz. that an
early, well-directed, and perfevering attention. to the bufinefs
of education, is of the higheft importance, and that it is the

duty

EDUCATION.

uty of all who have it committed to them, to difcharge it
fully and faithfully. It muft, however, be allowed, that the
Opinion that there is no original intelle@tual difference be-
tween man and man, though founded upon a very curfory
ex2mination and incomplete induGion, is more likely to
ftimulate to exertion than that which fome of its opponents
have maintained, viz. that where there are certain inherent
natural tendencies, it is in vain to attempt to free the mental
conftitution from them. | The principal practical injury re-
fulting from the former is, that when perfons find, as inevi-
tably they muff, that their efforts are often unavailing, and
that it is totally out of the power of any individual to have
under his command all the impreffions by which the difpo-
fitions and powers of the mind are to be exercifed, and their
peculiar caft given to them, they are apt to fit down in de-
{pair refpecting the efficacy of what is in their power. Hap.
spily the great work of education can, in the carlie# periods
of life, go on without the direét interference of man; and if
he will only permit the powers of the mind to be unfolded as
occafion calls for them, and keep off improper impreffions
which miglit debafe and pervert the affeCtions, almoft every
thing willbe done well. We are, however, well aware that
this cannot be thoroughly done without fkilful care and at-
tention; but an excefs of care and attention is, in many in-
ftances, the bane of both the mental'and moral powers. In
the early period of education, our bufinefs is to watch the
epening intelleét, and fometimes to prefent opportunities and
excitements for its exertion ;—to allow the kindly affeCtions
materials for their growth, and to check thofe which injure
the moral fyftem. In the later periods a great deal is of
courfe to be done by the dire&t methods of inftruGion.
- All we wilh to maintain is, that one grand fecret of educa-
tion is to ¢empet our dirc& interference, and to reft fatisfied
without forcing the progrefs either of the intelle& or of
the affections.
- The foundation of a true and comprehenfive fyftem of
education muit be laid in right views as to the laws of the
human mind. It is true, that in many refpe@s a pra@ical
acquaintance with thefe laws is fufficient to guide us wifely
in the bufinefs of education; and numbers, poflifling no-
thing but good fenfe, accurate obfervation, and right difpo-
fitions, have fucceeded in conducting the intelleGtual and
moral culture of others beyond what might at firft be ex-
pected ; and partial fyttems of education may be formed, by
thofe who have only fuch praétical knowledge, which may
rove of eminent utility: but a full, comprehenfive, and
an fy{tem of education, can be founded only upon an en-
ightened and extenfive acquaintance with the principles of
the human mind, with the charateriflic features of intellec-
tual and moral excellence, and with the manner in which the
powers of the mind are expanded and perfe@ted, and in which
the difpofitions are formed and properly dire&ted. In faét,
the theory of education is nothing more than the extenfion
of one grand branch of mental philofophy. If any effential
change fhould take place im the condition of men, and the
vifions of a benevolent philofophy fhould ever be realized as
to the diffufion of knowledge and moral worth, it will only
be through the exterfion of prattieal knowledge as to the
obj-és of education, and the meaus by which they are to be
effe&ted. It is much to be wifhed that the refults of indi-
vidual obfervation, as to the effe&s of certain difcipline or
other circumitances, on peculiar difpofitions or intelleual
biaffes, were to be more frequently regiftered for public no-
tice. Perhaps it requires {ome coniiderable degree of mental
culture, and of acquaintance with the principles of the hu-
man mind, to determine thefe effects with any tolerable pre-
-cifion ; but if the objeét were more attended to, by degrees

.

a large fund of obfervations would be colle€ted, from which
the more philofophic mind might produce an approximation
towards a rational and comprehenfive fyftem of education,
fuch as would ferve materially to accelerate the progrefs of
the community towards its utmoft degree of improvement.

I: is earnetlly to be wifhed that a judicious. view of the
chief praétical principles of mental philofophy were acceffible
to all the thinking part of the public; and that to impart
them to the female fex in particular, and familiarize their
minds with them, formed an effential branch of t!eir educa-
tion from the period when their unJerfiendings had been pre-
pared by the acquifition of the more ufoal objets of edu-
cation, (we fpeak of courfe of thofe cafes in which female
education has been dire&ied beyond exterior accomphifhments,)
to that in which they thxmfelves enter upon the bufinefs of
education. The education of the aurfery, at leaft maternal
education, has indifputably the greateft thare in the determi.
nation of the future charaGter, particularly in a moral point
of view.

One female writer, (Mifs Hamilton, )-has the high preife
of rendering acceffible to her fex, fome of the moift import-
ant principles of the philofophy of the mind. Her work
on education, as far as it refpets the affeCtions, is of very
great value; and there is reafon to hope that it has had, and
will have, great influence in judicioufly guiding maternal in-
ftruGion. Her bints refpeéting the cultivation of the intel-
le& are not equally valuable. ‘They are founded on an er-
roneous claflification, and often are themfelves inaccurate and
indiftin&. But even from this part perfons who have paid
but little attention to the fubje€&t may learn much; and as
to the cultivation of the affeCtions, her work is yet unri-
valled. As far as refpe&ts early education, this point ‘is firft
in importance ; for every one kaows that the affections are
the grand fpring by which the whole fyftem 1s animated ;
and where this is aétive and well-regulated, there is a princi-
ple on which the future culture of the intelle&t may be
founded with the belt profpeét of fuccefs.

We do not mention Mifs Hamilton as having alone been
guided by mental philofophy in her views on education, but
fimply bring forwards her work as containing more of the
philofophy of the mind than is acceffible perhaps in any other
form, to thofe who have not received confiderable culture of
intelle&. Her contemporaries, Mifs Moore and Mifs Edg-
worth, have furnifhed many exceedingly important remarks
refpe&ting the principles of education : and, except ih the
examination, arrangement, and correction of the principles
which have already been detailed by them, and their prede-
ceflors, Locke, Prieftley, &c. and ia the accumulation of new
faéts, little more, probably, wil! be done, till fome one, early
impreffed with the importance of the objeét, difciplined to
habits of corre& obfervation, and of cautious and accurate
indudtion, and poffeffed of found views of the philofophy of
the mind, and of the effe€ts of external circumftances upon
different difpofitions and intelleQtual biafes, and different
periods of mental and moral culture, fhall devote bimfelf to
the undertaking ; when it may reafonably be expected, that
a fyftem will be produced which may ferve as a clear, fteady,
and fecure guide to the well informed parent or preceptor.

It is not probable that in, uncivilized itates any dire& at-
tention can have been paid to education, except fo far as re-
lates to inftruGtion in the arts of gaining fultenance and
clothing, and in providing means of defence, and to the cul-
tivation of courage and fortitude. In fome of the ancient
flates which had made confiderable advances towards civiliza~
tion, education was made the care of the ate. Sparta pre~
fents the moft complete fyftem. It has been well obfurved,
that all the plans of Lycurgus had ia view to keep fociety

42 jae

EDUCATION.

Jat as it then was: certainly the mode of edacation adopted
by that legiflator had this obje@ as its guide and principle,

ut however much we may admire the fyitem of Lycurgus,
confidered as cultivating a f{pirit of heroifm, and of exclu-
five patriotifm, furmounting alike all regard to the intereft
of other ftates, and their own individual interefts, it is obvious
that it was narrow and confined, and had no tendency to
elevate the human intelledt, or to ftimulate into activity any:
noble and generous affeGions which had not the love of their
country as cheir balis. Could the inftitutions of Lycurgus
have been preferved in their yigour and efficacy, the Spartans
might have continued precifely the fame, deftitute of all
knowledge of the arts and fciences which adorn and improve
fociety.

Wherever the fpecific education of the people has been
under the guidance of the ftate, it has hitherto (with little
exception) been calculated only to mould them all into one
form ; to produce habitual fubmiffion to the will of one, or
to the will of many. No doubt can exift which is to be
preferred, the total negle& of education, or that artificial
and forced method of which we now fpeak ; but all that the
flate has to do is, to take care that none fhall be without the
means of inftruGion, and to leave every individual to follow
the bent of his own inclination, or to the peculiar direétion
of his employment of them. Further than this, the inter-
ference of the ftate is as injurious to education, as it is to
commerce.

It is to be fuppofed, that where individuals poffeffed any
ftrong fenfe of moral, and efpecially of religious obligation,
the attention would be paid to the training up of thofe
habits and difpofitions, which are favourable to virtue and
religior. In thofe nations which were fir civilized, the
power of the parent was confidered as abfolute; and as im-
plicit fubmiffion was, from the firft, inculcated upon the
young, the labour of education was greatly diminifhed, and
the limited knowledge and fentiments of the parent were
very eafily communicated to youth. The round of duty
was lefs extenfive, and its parts lefs complicated than at
prefent. Among the Ifraelites, where moral education ap-
pears to have made the greateft advances, the fy {tem of duty
was completely laid down in the written law; fo that all
the knowledge which the age and country poffeff-d, was
certainly to be gained, and the moral principles certainly to
be regulated aright, where the parent employed wifely that
authority which the law enforced, and which the cuftoms
of the times would otherwife have allowed. One grand
obje& of moral education, fo far as it refpects reGtitude of
difpofitions and affe&tions, is to cultivate the habit of felf-
controul. Religious people, of ‘all periods, who have pof-
{eifed the light of revelation, have, ina particularmanner, been
fenfible that this habit lies at the foundation of moral worth ;
and where the authority of the parent is generally preferved,
the cultivation of this habit follows as a matter of courfe.
Tt requires a wife choice of means to prevent filial fubmiffion
from being the fubmiffion of a flave, rather than of a child 3
but where it is acquired, and rightly dire@ted, the foundation
is laid for fubmiffion and obedience to the will of God; and
where this principle takes a firm hold on the mind, almoft
every. thing is done that could be wifhed, to further the pro-
grefs of the individual towards moral worth. Freedom from
improper biafles of affeétion, or the pofleffion of power to
correct them, is abfolute excellence.

The neceflity of a tolerably correé&t direction of the early
propenfities, in order to promote domettic comfort, mutt in
a great number of cafes have led to fuch direGion of them,
without any view to the future advantage of the individual.
But with re{ped&.to thofe who were to come forwards in the

employments of the ftate, orin any other way to be expofed:
to the notice of their countrymen, the advantages of early
inftru@tion in knowledge, and of the carly cultivation of
thofe qualities which the wants of the age and country made
of great eftimation, were fo obvious, that they appear to
have led, in a great variety of cafes, to great attention to
the work of education; and though we have not, in any
inftances, any account of the procedures of the ancients, yet».
in the few circum{tances which have been recorded, we pers
ceive that, long before any thing like a fyftematic plan of
education was adopted, individuals made education an obje&
of primary concern. ‘The principal fyitematic work of anti=
quity, on the fubje& of education, is indifputably that of
Quintilian. This writer was poflcffed of great good
fenfe, excellence of difpofition, and extenfive information 5

and from his work, though it hada particular objet in views,

much may be learned by the modern inftructor, refpeéting
education in general. Various excellent principles are to be
found fcattered up and down in thofe general parts, which:
amply repay our perufal, though we are feldom invited to
proceed by elegance of language, or brilliance of imaginas
tion. From different facis which he mentions, we have
reafon to fuppofe that, in his time, education was in a moft
degraded ftate at Rome: and his refleétions have, probably,
been more ufeful to the moderns, than to his contems
porarics.

In our own country, within the laft two centuries, much
has been written on the fubjeét of education; and among
others, the great Milton produced a work, which had prins
cipally as its objeét to corre&t the plans of inftruGion then
prevalent. But the firft writer who had in view to deliver
a fyftem of education in general, was Mr. Locke. One
would naturally expe& that a man, who had feen fo much
of the world, and known fo much of human nature,
would at once advance the bufinefs of education to the
rank of feience. He did a great deal; and though
what i excellent is mixed with much that is excep<
tionable, and though his fyftem, if followed implicitly,
would not fuily accomplifh the objects of education, yet he
laid the foundation for national attention to education, in
like manner as he firft properly developed the mode of
examining the faculties and difpofitions of the mind.

Since the time of Locke, various writers have come fore
ward to the public notice, with obfervations and difcuffions,
on ‘the fubje&t of education. Several have had in view
merely to detail plans of inftruGion in the different branches:
of commercial, literary, or philofophical education: others
have taken a wider range, and have inveltigated the principles
of-education. Some of their peculiarities of opinion will
probably come under examination in our feparate articles 3.
and we fhall only add on this point, that all which detail
the refultsof experience, are in themfelves confidered valuables
but that there are many writers, who feem to have had in
view rather to captivate the imagination with any airy fyftem,
and to {trike out new and fhorter roads of education, than.
to trace out thofe plans which alone can lead to fatisfactory
refults, by being tounded on jufl views of human nature.

We fhall now conclude our article by a few words refpeét-
ing the education of the poor. ‘Taken in a religious point
of view, no one can reafonably doubt, that it is our duty to
afford to the children of the poor tne means of knowing their
duty ; but we fhall not enlarge upon the fubje& in that
view, but attend to it as a national confideration, as an
object in which national welfare is intimately concerned.

It may be truly faid, that there is no. direction of benevo=
lence, in which national and individual benefit more clearly
go hand inhand. And the reafon is obvious. Wherever

induftry, ©

EDUCATION.

foduftry, frugality, and obedience to the laws form the
decided chara&er of the poor, there the rich wili have their
rights refpeted, and, at the fame time, the poor will be
contented and happy. Perhaps, for this purpofe, national
induftry mult be principally dire€ted in the channel of agri-
culture ; but however this may be, there can be no dovbt
that whatever conftitutes national wealth, the induftry of
the poor muft have a principal fhare in the acqnifition of it ;
and that whatever be the true fource of national happinefs,
the good conduét of the poor is cffential'to it. Few, who have
thought clofely on the Subjef, can doubt, that, among all
elafles of fociety, the only general and permanent fource of
good condutt is a good education ; that training up of right
habits, and infilling of ufeful knowledge, which, together,
may give the individual true views as to duty, and a decided
bias towards the practice of it. We would not be under-
ftood to mean, that no one who has not had the benefits of
a right education, can be expeéed permanently to poffefs
thole qualitics which render a mana good member of focicty,
but maintain it, as a certain general principle, that a good
education is the only permanent fource from which good
cendué can be expected. And this is peculiarly the cafe
among the poor, fo far as civil and political duties are con-
cerned. The crimes of the rich, againft fociety at leaft, are
ufually fo much the obje& of general notoriety, that a man
is almoft conftrained to keep within thofe limits which the
law impofes, and thofe few additional limits which a fenfe of
honour fometimes fets where better principles are wanting.
But among the poor, fuch a variety of opportunities occur,
for the almoft unobferved praGtice of petty fraud and deceit,
and the preffure of circumftances is fo much felt, that if
you can truly fay of a poor man, that he is thoroughly and
ftriGtly boneit, you at once eftablifh his chara&ter. And
can any one doubt, that the foundation of fuch honefty, to
fay nothing of other virtues, is laid in a right education ?
And is there fufficient reafon to believe, that the poor, un-
aided by the rich, unnoticed, negleéted by them, will, as a
general cafe, communicate to their children fuch habits and
knowledge as may render them upright chara@ers, and, in
in their refpetive fituations, truly worthy members of fo-
ciety. Let ustake the great mafs of the uneducated poor in
Jarge and crowded cities, and confider their ficuation, and
that of their children, ‘«* Every child,”? fays the Philan-
thropic Society, “ brought up in the refort of vicious and
profligate people, muft aimoft inevitably imbibe the conta-
gion of moral turpitude, and become an enemy to thofe laws
on which the general good depends. Lying is the firft
Jeffon of their tongues, and theft of their hands; every ob-
ject they fee is at war with decency, and every impreffion
they receive is a vice.” Such a picture, one would hope,
cannot often be, in all its parts, corre€tly drawn out of the
metropolis ; but of its leading features too many originals
may be found in every populous place, among thofe who
have had none of the now common. advantages of education.
And can any one doubt that fuch dreadful ignorance of even
the common duties of fociety, is, as far as it extends, a moft
ferious national injury ; that every approach to it is, in its
degree, baneful ; and that the only general, fecure, and per-
manent preventative, is the putting of the means of inflruction
in the power of all.

When contemplating the importance of early education
in raifing the charaéter of fociety at large, it is highly fatif-
faGtory to perceive that we are fully borne out by an appeal
to facis; and we fhall here bring forwards to the attention
or recolleétion. of our readers, fome invaluable ftatements
from the writings of the late philofophic and benevolent

Dr. Currie, (Burns’s Life ae Works, vol, i. p. 351.) which

we with to become familiar to every individnal who has the
power, either by his influence, wealth, or perfonal exertion,
of aiding the highly important caufe of the education of the
poor. The influence of the tchool-eftablifhment of Scot»
laed on the peafantry of that country,” fays Dr. Currie,
** feems to have decided, by experience, a queftion of legif-
lation of the utmoft importance—whether a fyftem of na-
tional inftru€tion for the poor be favourable to morals and
good government.”?

In the year 1698, Fletcher of Saltoun declared as fol-
lows: “* There are at this day in Scotland two hondred
thoufand people begging from door todoor. And though
the number of them be perhaps doubie to what it was
formerly, by reafon of this prefent great diftrefs,”? a famine
then prevailed, ‘* yet in all times there have been about one
hundred thoufand of thofe vagabonds, who have lived with=
out any regard or fubjetion either to the laws of the Jand:
or even to thofe of God and nature ; fathers inceftuoufly ac-
companying with their own daughters, the fon with the
mother, and the brother with the fifter.”” He goes onto
fay, ‘* that no magiftrate could difcover that they had ever
been baptifed, or in what way one in a hurdred went out of
the world.” Heaccufes them as frequently guilty of robbery,
and fometimes of murder. In times of plenity,’’ fays he,
** many thoufands of them meet together in the mountains,
where they feaft and riot for many dzys; and at country
weddings, markets, burials, and other public occafions,
they areto be feen, both men and women, perpetually drunk,
curfing, blafpheming, and fighting together.” This high
minded ftatefman, of whom it is faid by a contemporarys-
“that he would lofe his life readily to fave his country, and
would not do a bafe thing to fave it,’”? thought the evil fo
great, that he propofed as a remedy, the revival of domeftic
flavery, according to the pra@tice of his adored republics in
the ‘cleffic ages! A better remedy bas been found, which, in
the filent lapfe of a century, has proved effe€tual. The-
ftatute of 1696, the noble legacy of the Scottifh parliament
to their country, began foon afterthis to operate; and hap-
pily, as the minds of the poor received inftru€tion, the union
opened new channels of induitry, and new fields of aétion to
their view.”

«© At the prefent day,’? continues Dr. Currie, * there is
perhaps no country in Europe, in which, in proportion to
its population, fo {malla number of crimes fall under the
chattifement of the criminal law, as Scotland.. We have the
beft authority for afferting, that on an average of thirty years
preceding the year 1797, the executions in that divifion of
the ifland did not amount to fix annually ; and one quarter
feflions for the town of Manchelter only, has fent, according

~to Mr. Hume, more felons to the plantations’ than all the

judges of Scotland ufually doin the courfe of a year. It
might appear invidious to attempt a calculation of the many
thoufand individuals in Mancheiter and its vicinity who can
neither read nor write. A majority of thofe who fuffer the
punifhment of death for their crimes, in every part of
England, are, it is believed, in this miferable ftate of ignos-
rance !”

It is, perhaps, worth while tw add to the foregoing view.the
following ftatements from Mr. Howard’s works, (vol i.
p- 9. and 484.) He informs us, that the number of execu«
tions in London, for twenty-three years preceding 1772,
amounted to 678, or between 29 and 30 annually: that in
the twelve following ycars, including 1783, there were 467
executed in London, on an average of 39 annually; and ia
the tour laft years preceding 1784, the average of the London
executions was 49 nearly each year. In Scotland; during

thirteea

EDU

thirteen years anda half, preceding 1782, only 76 were ca-
pitally condemned, of them 54. only were executed.

Dr. Currie goes on to inform ws, that {chools have long
been eltablifved and fupported for the education of the peor
in New England, in the Proteftant cantons of Switzerland,
and in certain diftri€ts in England, particularly in the northern
parts of Yorkfhire and Lancafhire, and in the counties of
Wettmoreland and Cumberland. ‘The fimilarity of cha-
rater between the Swifs and-the Scotch, and between the
Scotch and the people of New England, can fearcely be
overlooked. That it arifes in a great meafure from the
fimilarity of their inftitutions for inftruétion cannot be
queftioned.””, Dr. Currie admits, however, that it is in-
creafed by phyfical caufes, on which he makes fome judi-
cious remarks, and thus concludes: ‘* how much fuperior in
_morals, in intellect, and inhappinefs, the peafantry of thofe
parts of England are, who have cpportunities of inftruc-
tion, tothe fame clafs in other fituations, thofe who inquire
-into the fubject will {peedily difcover. The peafantry of
Weftmoreland, and ot the other diftritts mentioned above,
if their phyfical and moral qualities be taken together, are,
in the opinion of the editor. fuperior to the peafantry of
any other part of theifland.”,

Happy had it been for Britain, if the ‘* warning coun-
fels, the prophetic page’? of Currie, had been liliened to
and followed by her ftatefmen. As faras our relation with
other nations is concerned, the time is pall ; but we may yet
profit by thofe reprefentations which fhew us what is to be
done in orderto ratfe the intelleQualand moral characier of
the nation at large.” It is not improbable that national re-
formation wiil begin with national diftrefs ; but it is not too
Tuch to fay, that a perinanent reformation in the condition
and charaéter of the poor, can only be brought about by
“well-directed attention to their education, in connection with
a proper regulation of the laws relative to the indigent poor.
Whether in the counfels of an all-wife Providence it is de-
creed that Britain fhould be thrown from that lofty pinnacle
_to which fhe has clevated heriel!, time only can determine;
but it appears clear, that the fureft way of avoiding national
judgments is by endeavouring, each in his ftation, to reform
thofe evils which affe& our conduct and charaGter asa nation ;
and in this point of view alfo, the communication of know-
ledge to the poor, may be confidered as a national benefit,
and as a probable means of Icffening national. punifhment.
We fhall clofe this article with the fottowing general obferv-
“ations. .

The plan of education, whether it be dometftic or colle-
giate, fhould be fuited to the tation and views of parents,

“and to the genius of their children; and it is alfo right to
confult their conftitution and isclimation. Itis of great im-
portance, that thofe who are deftined to occupy fuperior
‘ftationsin fociety, fhould enjoy the benefits of an enlarged
and liberal education; that they fhould be furnifhed with
every fubftantial and ornamental accomplifhment; and thofe
that are intended for any particular profeflion or employment
fhould be principally directed to thofe ftudies which are ap-
propriated to their refpeétive views; and in every rank of
life, an attention tothe mioraisaf youth fhould bea primary

: object. . Though the munic'pal laws of mott countries have
made no provifion for conftraining a parent to beltow a proper
education on his childrens yet in the cafe of religion they are
under peculiar reftrictions in our country. Some of

thefe reftriétions, as they affect thofe who diflent from
the religion of the ftate, may be thought both impo-
litic and ‘njurious, and have, therefore, lately been confi-
derab/y relaxed ; and there is room for farther enlargement.
See Dissenters, Parists, and Lo.rerarion.

“independent of the crown.

ED W

EDULCORATION. This term is applied, in Chemif-
fry, to theprocefs of freeing a difficultly foluble fubftance
from one that is eafily foluble, by means of diltilled water.
In fa, it differs little from lixiviation, except that the
former term refpeGs the infoluble refidue, and the latter the
foluble portion. Thus we fay, to lixivate wood afhes, be-
caufe the objet of the procefs is to procure the foluble
alkaline ingredient feparate from the earth and other impu-
rities with which it is mixed; and onthe other hand we fay,
to edulcorate the precipitate from alum, when the intention
of the operation is to obtain the earth quite pure from folu-
ble matter. Hence arifes a praGical diffcrence between the
two proceffes ; lixiviation is carried on no longer than the
water runs off chatged with a {uflicient quantity of foluble
matter to defray the expence of boiling down, and hence a

minute portion of foluble matter is always left in theinfolu.

ble refidue. Edulcoration isnot reckoned compleat till the
water returns as pure aa when it wes firlt added; hence the
latter runnings are never fufficiently charged with foluble
matter, to make it worth while to boil them down.

The ufual method of edulcorating, is to plece the fub-
ftance ona filter, and continue to add fucceffive portions of
hot orcold water, till the runnings indicate, by the common
tefts, that they hold nothing in folution. This, however,
is always tedious, and often not perfectly effectual, as the

-contents of the filter are in many cafes very apt to clot

together, fo as to obftruG the thorough percolation of the
water. It will be found, on the who'e, a much more expe-
ditious and fatisfatory procefs, to place the precipitate in a
large filver crucible with abundance of water, and heat it
more orlefs according to circumi{tances; then withdraw it
from the fire, allow it to fettle for a few minutes, and pour
off the clear fupernatant liquor; then add frefh water to the
refidue, and proceed as before, till all foluble impurities are
got ridof. A fingle hour thus employed will finith more
work than a whole day in the common method; and the ne«
ceflary lofs on the precipitate is confiderably lefs, which is a
circumftance of no {mall importauce to the accuracy of an
analytis. : ;

Epurcoration, of edulco, I fweeien, in Pharmacy,
is the dulcifying or {weetening of any food, or remedy, by
means of honey, fuzar, or fyrups.

EDULIUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Spain,
in the Tarragonefe territory, fuppofed to be the moderg
Montferrat in Catalonia.

EDUS, a {mall river of Italy, in Liguria, faid to be the
prefent Sadodela. :

EDWARD, in Biography, furnamed the Elder, king of
England, was fon of Alfred, whom he fucceeded in the
yeargor. ‘The reign of this prince was difturbed by an in-
furre€tion, at the head of -which was Ecthelwold, fon to king
Ethelbert, Alfred’s elder brother, who claimed the crown
ashis right. Edward, after much contention. fubdued his
enemies, and reduced them to fubmiffion. He afterwards
repelled an incurfion of the Northumbrians, ard completely
defeated them at Tctenhall in Staffordfhire. During the re-
mainder of his life, he was engaged in many confliGs, but was
ufually fuccefsful. He fortified many of the inland towns of
England; vanquifhed Thurketill, a Danifh chieftain, and ob»
liged him to retire with his followers into France. He fub-
dued feveral tribes of Britons, and by his aGivity proved
himfclf, in fome refpe&ts, worthy of his defcent from the im-
mortal Alfred. On the death of his fier Ethelfleda,-he
affumed the government of Mercia, which had been before
He died inthe year 925, and
was fucceeded by his natural fon Athelftan. Hume.

ps Enpwaap

ae

EDWARD,

Epwarp, king of England, and furnamed the Martyr,
was about fifteen years of age when he fucceeded his father
Edgar, A.D. 975. Though the eldelt, he was oppofed
in his claims by his mother-in-law Elfrida, who wifhed-to
raife her own fon Etheired to the throne. Edward was
f{upported by Danftan, who overcame every obltacle, caufed
the young king to be crowned, and then obtained the fub-
miffion of the whole kingdom. Edward appears to have
poffeffed little energy of mind, and to have chiefly employed
himfelf in the amulements of the chace, and in this fort of
pattime he fpent four years very innocently. Incapable of
any treacherous intention himfelf, he was unfufpicious of
others, of whom he ought to have been perpetually on
his guard. His mother-in-law had vehement!y oppofed his
fucceflion,; yet Edward foon forgot her condua, and behaved
towards her with the greateft refpe@, and on all occafions
exprefied for Ins brother Ethelred a true affe@tion ; but being
hunting ia Dorfethhire, and fatigued with the fport, he left
his attendants and -rode to Corfe caftle, the refidence of
Elfrida, with a view, perhaps, of fhewing refpeét to his re-
lation, and of obtaining fome refrefhment. He requetted,
while on horfeback, fomething to affuage his thirft; the
liguor was brought, but while he was in the act of drinking,
a fervant of the infamous Eifrida gave him a deep ‘tab from
behind. He fet {purs to his horfe, but becoming faint with
the lofs of blood, he fell, and was dragged in the ftirrup till
death put an end to his fufferings. »He was burisd at Ware-
ham, and the tragical fate to which he had been expofed
obtained for him the title of Martyr. Hume.

Epwarb, the Confeffor, younger fon of Ethelred IT.
Succeeded to the crown of England in 1041; though not the
true heir, he was called to the throne in preference to the
fons of Edmund Ironfide, who happened to be on the con-
tinent at the death of Hardicanute, the former king. The
impatience of the Englifh to free themfelves from the Danifh
ee canfed them to unite in favour of Edward, and the

anes in the ifland acquiefced in the choice. It was feared
that this fueceffion to the crown would be oppof:d by earl
Godwin, the moft powerful nobleman in the kingdom, who
was on ill terms with Edward; but a reconciliation was
brought about, and Godwin agreed to acknowledge the
king, on condition that he would marry his daughter Editha.
The external forms of marriage the king readily complied
with, but either through an averfion to the perfon who was
forced on him as queen, or through fome fuperttitious no-
tions that cannot be juftified, he abftained from all. nuptial
commerce, a circum{tance which obtained for him the ap-
plaufe of the monks, and contributed aot a little to his ac-
quiring the title of fzint and confeffor. . Having been edu-
cated in Normandy, he introduced many of the natives of
that country to his court, and French language and manners
prevailed throughout the country. Godwin made ule of
this 4s a popular reafon for exciting difcontent among the
people, though the ufage of his daughter was probably the
real caufe of his enmity. The rebellion of Godwin was
unfuccefsful, and he was obliged to feck refuye in Flanders,
where, however, he recruited his force, and returned with a
powerful fleet, with which he failedto London, Edward
was now glad to enter into a compromife with him, and
banifh the Normans. By this treaty the danger of a civil
war was for the prefent averted, but the authority of
the crown was confiderably impaired, or nearly annihilated.
Godwin, indeed, fhortly after died, but he was fucceeded by
his fon Harold, who in the end became a more dangerous
enemy to the king than even his father, About the year
105.5 Edward reftored to the throne of Scotland Malcolm,
the fon of Duncan, by the defeat and death of the ufurper

Macbeth. Edward was now faft advancing in years, and
was anxious to appoint a fucceffor; with this view he fent
for his nephew Edward, fon of Edmund Ironfide, who died .
in a fhort time after his arrival in England. He next, with
the hope of depriving the family of Godwin of all hopes,
turned his attention to Wiliam, duke of Normandy, and
took fome m<afures to fecure his fucceflion, but he was in-
capable of ating with that decifin which the nature of the
cefe required, and while he was confidering what fhouid be
done, he died on the 5ch of January, 1066, in the fixty-fifth
year of his age, and the twenty-fith of hisreign, He was
the laft of the Saxon line that ruled in England. His reign
was on the whole peaceable and fortunate, but he was more
indebted for the profperity which he enjoyed, to the cone
junctures of the times, than to his own abilities. The
Danes gave him litele trouble, and the mildnefs of his own,
difpofition, with a love of peace, led hm to acquiefce in the ,
power aflumed by Godwin and Harold: ‘The talents and
power of thefe noblemen enabled them, while they were en-
trufted with authority, to preferve domeftic peace and trans,
quillity. Edward is deferving of high commendation for
his attention to the adminiltration of juflice, and his com-,
piling for that purpofe a body of laws, which he colle&ted
from thofe of Ethelbert, Ina, and Alfred. ‘The compila-_
tion, though now lott, was loxg an objec of affection to the
Englih. This prince, who, ou account of his picty, ob-,
tained the reputation of being able to cure difeafes, was the
firt who touched for the king’s evil; and ‘ his fucceffors,’?,
fays Hume, ‘¢ regarded it as.a part of their flate and grane
deur to uphold the fame opinion. _ It has continued down,
to our time, and the practice was firlt dropped by the prea,
fent royal family, who obferved, that it could no longer give
amazement even to the populace, and was attended with
ridicule in the eyes of ail men of underftanding.” ume,

vol. i. :
Epwarp I. fo denominated as being the firft of that

* name of the Norman lint, was eldet fon of Henry III. and

born at Winchelter in 1239. He was called early into.
active life, and his talents were of the greatelt fervice to hig
country in the contelts between his father and the difcon-
tented barons. At the battle of Lewes he routed the Lon.
doners, but purfuing them too far, he found, oa his return,
that the royal army’ had been defeated, and the king made
prifoner. He himfelf fell into the power of the earl of.
Leicefter, but .obtainiug a releafe, he became in hjs turn
victorious, and prt an end to all further refiftance to the.
royal authority. In 1270 he made an expedition againft
the Saracens, but on his arrival at Tunis he found the French
king dead, at whofe d-fire he undertook the project, and”
was obliged to proceed with his forces to the holy land,
where he performed many exploits of valour, and rendered
hinfelf illyfrious by his heroifm. So much terror did he
excite among the Saracens, that they bribed an aifsfin to
murder him, who miffing his blow, only wounded the prince
in the arm, and fell himfelf a “facrifice to the love of gain.
This abfence of the prince from his native country was ats
tended with the moft difaftrous confequences. ‘Che laws
were not executed; the barons opprefled the common peo-
ple with impunity, and the populace of London returned to
the praGtices of licentioufnels, common in thofetimes. The
old king, unequal to the affairs of government, called aloud for
his gallant fon to return, to affift him in fwaying the {ceptre
which was ready to drop from his feeble and irrefolute hands.
Edward returned, but before he could reach ‘his native land
his father was dead, and himfelf, without oppofition, pro-
claimed fucceffor. His firft acts, after he afcended the

throne, were to reftore order, and re-apimate jultice in the exe»
cution

EDWARD.

cutwh of her decrees. He repreffed the violence of the great,
and punifhed corrupt judges; but his motives have been
much gueftioned, inafmuch as he ferupled not to fill his own
coffers by the fines which he exaGted upon the guilty. The
Jews felt the weight of his anger, and under the pretence of
punifhing ufury he executed multitudes of that unfortunate
race, and banifhed the others from his realm. He next
began to inquire by what title the nobility held their eftates;
the queftion was firfl put to earl Warenne, aman of as much
courage as himfelf, who replied, ‘ By this,” drawing his
{word at the fame moment; and he added, in a tose not
-to be trifled with, “ that William the baftard had not con-
quered the kingdom for himfelf alone; his ancettor wasa
joint adventurer in the enterprize; and he himfelf was de-
termined to maintain what had from that period remained
unqueftioned in his family.” The king, feeling his danger,
defitted from all farther inquiries of this nature. He next
fummoned Llewellyn, native prince of Waies, to do him
homage, which demand being refufed, the king prepared ta
compel him to fubmiffion by the terror of his arms, and in
1283 he completely deftroyed the independence of that
country. It was thenceforward annnexed to the Englifh
crown, by a community of laws and government; ‘an im-
“portant and mutually ufeful acquifition, which has conferred
glory on the king, though fullied by his barbarous maffacre
of the Welfh bards, of the effe& of whofe animating ftrains
gin reviving the national fpirit he was jealous.”” According
to hiftorical tradition, Edward affembled the leaders of the
Welfh, promifed to give them a prince of unexceptionable
amanners, a Wel{hman by birth, and one who could {peak
no other language. Captivated with the defcription, they
poured forth violert acclamations of joy, and promifes of
the moi implicit obedience; the king accordingly invefted
in the principality his fecond fon Edward, then an infant,
who had been lately born at Carnarvon. The death of his
eldeft fon foon after, made young Edward heir of the mo-
narchy. The principality of Wales was fuily annexed to
the crown, and henceforth gives a title to the eldeft fon of
the kings of England.

Edward then {pent three years abread, endeavouring to
snediate a peace between the kings of France and Arragon.
Fiaving fuceeeded he returned, and avenged himfelf on all
thofe who had been guilty of high crimes during his ab-
fence. He foon after began his attempt to deftroy the in-
dependency of Scotlaud; with this view he proje€ted a mar-
riage between Margaret, on Whom the Scottilh crown de-
volved, and his eldeit fon Edward, which he would probably
have accomplithed but for the untimely death of the young
queen. Several competitors now arofe, but the’ claims of
John Baliol and Robert Bruce were confidered as the moft
valid, and upon thefe it was agreed that Edward should de-
cide. In 1292 he decreed in favour of Baliol, and caufed
him to be proclaimed king of Scotland. A war now broke
out between England and France, and during the conteft
Baliol formed a fecret alliance with the French, which was
the commencement of that union between the two couutries,
which fo jong prevailed to the difadvantage of England.
Edward found great difficulties in raifiag fupplies, and was
forced to the expedient of fummoning to parliament repre-
fentatives from all the boroughs in the kingdom, an event
which is thought to be the true foundation of a houfe of
commons in England. When he had obtained the money
which he required, he marched with a powerful army into
Scotland and obliged the king to refign his crown» he then
returned, taking with him the famous ftone of inauguration,
kept at Scone, as the palladium of the Scottifh monarchy.
Not contented with this, he ordered all the records and mo«

numents of antiquity to be deftroyed, broke the feal of
Baliol, and carried him away as his prifoner. When they
arrived in London Baliol was committed to the Tower, and
kept prifoner two years, and then banifhed to France, where
he died ina private fiation. Edward was next involred in a
quarrel with the clergy, who refufed to fubmit to a tax im-
pofed upon them, but were afterwards glad to agree to the
terms which the fovereign exaéted. Foreign wars and do-
meftic troubles kept the king always poor, and to fupply
his wants he was forced to grant to the people a folemn con-
firmation of the great charter, and the charter of the forefts,
ard ‘to make other conceffions in favour of public liberty.
Edward died of a dyfentery at Carlile, oa the 7th of July,
1307, as he was leading a very large army into Scotland,
againft the inhabitants of which he had vowed the moft
dreadful vengeance on account of new difturbances which
the oppreffions of the Englith probably excited. He was
fucceeded by his fon Edward 11. whom he charged, with
his dying breath, to profecute the war againft Scotland,
and never to defift till he had finally fubdued that kingdom.

The enterprizes finifhed by this prince, and the projects
whieh he formed, were more prudent, more} regularly
conduéted, and more advantageous to the folid interefts of
the kingdom, than thofe which were undertaken in any reign,
either of his anceftoreor his fucceflors. He reftored au-
thority to the government: he maintaised the laws againft
the efforts of his turbulest barons : he fully annexed to his
crown the principality of Wales, and he took vigorous mea-
fures for reducing Scotland toa like condition. Nor was
he lefs attentive to the internal improvement of his king-
dom, than to promote its confequence among its neighbours.
The laws of the realm obtained fo much additional order
and precifion during his reign, that he has been called the
Englith Juftinian. He firft inftituted the office of juftice of
the peace, and he made various alterations in the executive
part of the law, which have contisued to modern times.
He was inclined to arbitrary meafures himfelf, but took care
that his fubje&ts fhould not a& unjufly towards each other,
He prevented all clerical ufarpations as much as peffible,
and is reckoned the fir Cartftian prince who paffed an a&
of mortmain. He prote&ed and encouraged commerce,
and from ‘him the fociety denominated ** Merchant Adven-
turers” had its origin, which was inftituted for the improve-
ment of the woollen manufaGture, and the vending of the
cloth abroad, particularly at Antwerp. He granted pro-
teGtion and privileges to foreign merchants, and alfo afcer-
tained the cuftoms and duties which thofe merchants were,
in return, to pay on merchandize imported and exported.
He promifed them fecurity, and on all trials refpe€ting them
or their property a jury was allowed, confiiting half of na-
tives and half of foreigners. The manners of this prince
were courteous: his perfon was majeitic, though the length
and {mallnefs of his legs gave bim the appellation of ‘* Long-
fhanks.”? Edward had by his firft wife Eleanor, four fone
and eleven daughters; three of the fons and moft of the
daughters died before him. He was married a fecond time
to Margaret of France, by whom he had three children,
For queen Eleanor he left many durable tokens of his grati-
tude and affection, by erecting at every ftaze where her body
refted, in its way from Lincolnfhire to Weftminfter, a flone
crofs of elegant Gothic architeéture. Of thefea fine one, in
perfe& prelervation, is'ftili extant near Northampton; and an-
other ina lefs complete condition exiits at Waltham Crofs, a
villageeleven milesnorthofthemetropolis. Hume. SeeGross.

Epwarxp II. fucceeded his father-in 1307, but was. little
inclined to follow the advice given him on his death bed :.he
was indolent and inclined to-pleafure rather than to the fe-

rious,

EDWARD.

rious cares of government. One of his firft acts was to recail
to his court Piers Gavefton, a licentions young man whom his
father had banifhed, but who by him was made earl of Corn-
wall, and married to his niece. He next went to France to
marry the princefs Ifabeila, to whom he had been fome time
contracted, but who was il calculated to render him happy.
His barons were exafperated at his conduét with refpect to
Gavefton: they remonftrated, and he promifed to difmifs
him for ever from his councils ; but in a fhort time he broke
his engagement, which excited an open rebellion. Gavetton
fell into the hands of his enemies, and was executed asa
public enemy. After the death of Gavefton, he adopted,
as a favourite, Hugh Spencer, who was foon as much the
obje& of popular dilpleafure as Gavelton had been, and the
king was compelled to fign againft him a fentence of at-
tainder, and perpetual exile.. Edward, however, recovered
from the confternation into which he had been thrown, and
immediately prepared to attack the barons, who were led on
by Thomas, earl of Lancafter, his near relation. He ob-
tained over them a fignal vi€tory, and Lancafter, who had
fled into the north, was taken prifoner and executed at
Ponfret in 1322. Many others fuffered, and Spencer was
eariched with their fpoils. In 1324 queen Ifabella went
over to Paris, where fhe conneéted herfelf with feveral
Engiifh fugitives, who agreed with herin hatred of Spencer,
and, among the re‘t, with Mortimer, a baron in the Welth
marches. Here a confpiracy was formed againft Edward,
and Ifabeila returned in the chara€ter of an open enemy of
her fovereign and hufband. She landed on the coal of
Seffolk, and was foon joined by many perfons of rank and
diftinétion, Their party became in a fhort time irrefiflible :
‘they gained pofleflion of the tower of London and other
ftrong fortrefles, {cized and put to death, without trial, both
the Spencers, and at length made the king prifoner. He was
at firit confined in Kenilworth caftle: he was then Cepofed
by a vote of parliament, and compelled to fign an inftru-
meat of refignation. ‘Fhis was not fufficient: his enemies
fent him to Berkcley caftle, where he was inhumanly mur-
dered, by thrufting upa red-hot iron into his bowels, in {uch a
way as to prevent any marks of external violence from being
feen. His fhricks, however, betrayed the bloody deed to the
guards and other attendants in the caftle. He died Septem-
ber 21, 1327, having reigned twenty years, and lived torty-
three ; and was fucceeded by
' Epwarp ILI. who was then only in his fourtecenth year,
and was proclaimed king undera council of regency, while
Mortimer really poffeffed the principal power of the ftate.
s\fter fome fruitlefs attempts made on the liberties of Scot-
land, Robert Bruce was acknowledged lawful king, and his
fon and heir David was contraéted to Edward’s filter Jane.
Mortimer by this a€t became very unpopular in England,
and after enriching himfelf by fines and confifcations levied
on hisenemics, he was feized and hanged in the caftle at
‘Nottingham. After this, Ifabella was confined to her houfe,
with a reduced allowance, and though treated with decency
never recovered any degree of authority. Edward now af-
fumed the reins of government, and his firlt concern was to
réftore orderand fubmiffion to the laws. He then under-
took the affiftance of Baliol king of Scotland, and levying
a well appointed army, marched to the borders and took
Berwick from thofe who had got pofleffion of the greater
part of the kingdom, and who had driven Baliol to England.
By abloody battle at Halidown hill, July 19, 1333, in
which the Scots were defeated with the lois of 30,000 men,
Baliol was rettored, who, in gratitude to Edward, recognifed
the fuperiority of the Englifh crown, and put into Edward’s
_ hands feveral important fortrefles, with all the fouth-eait
Vou, Xil,

counties of Scotland. Edward now, owing to an intertup:
tion in the lineal fucceffion to the crown of France, which
had fallen to Philip de Valois, put in his claim to that crown,
in right of his mother Ifabella, fifter of the late king Charles
of France, and prepared to juftify bis claims by force of
arms. Whiththis view, in 1239, he appeared on the north-
eaft frontiers of France, with an army of 30,000 men chi: fly
foreigners. Philip was not lefs aQive, and met him with one
double that number, and after fome time {pent in mutual de-
fiances, Edward wifely withdrew into Flanders, and difband-
ed his troops. Next year he renewed his attempts, but was
obliged to call his parliament together for new aids, who
demanded of him certain conceflions, which he readily
granted to obtain his object. To prevent the attack, Philip
fitted out a large fleet of 400 fail, manned with 40,0co men,
which he ftationed off Sluys, in order to intercept the
king in his paflage. The Englith navy confifted of on!y
240 fhips, but was completely victorious, deftroying the
greater part ofthe French fleet, and their crews. The king
himfelf commanded in perfon, and it has been faid, that this
naval fight may contend in glory with any of the moft cele-
brated tnumphs in the maritime records of England. Not-
withftanding the viétory, Edward returned, without attain-
ing the obj:€t of bis ambition, deeply in debt, and much
difconcerted ; and to obtain further fupplies, he was obliged
to make more concrffions to parliament. In 1342, new
profpe&s opened upon him, and he again attacked France,
but fhortly after agreed to a truce forthree years. In 1346,
the king himfelf, with all his chief nobiity, his eldeft fon
Edward (the famous b'ack prince) and an army. of 30,000
men landed at La Hogue in-Normandy. He over-ran and ra-
vaged great part of the province, took and pillaged Caen,
ftruck an alarm even into Paris, and then proceeded into
Picardy followed by the king of France with 100,000 men.
He forded the Somme, and arrived at the village of Crecy.
Here he drew up his army in thege lines, and awaited the
attack of theenemy. Edward, the prince, was then only
16 years of age, yet to him did the king leave the honour of
obtaining the firft part of the vi€tory with his line unafhifted.
The rout was afterwards completed with the flaughter of
36,coo of the enemy, though thelofs of the Englith was
incredibly fmall. This victory was followed by the fiege of
Calais, which occupied the Englifti’ arms nearly a year.
During this period, the Scots under David Bruce made an
incurfloninto England, and penetrated as far as Durham.
Here he was met by an inferior force, raifed by queen Phi-
lipp2, and commanded by lord Percy, which gave him a
total end fignal defeat. David was taken prifoner with
many of his principal nobles. Philippa having achieved this
noble act, went over to her royal {poufe, where fhe was res
ceived with defervedetriumph. Calais was now redue-
ed to the greateft difficulties, andthe governor offered to
capitulate, but Edward would liften to no terms, unlefs fix
of its principal citizens were delivered to him with cords
about their necks, as facrificesto his rage. Euftace de St.
Pierre and five others offered themfelves as voluntary victims.
They were led to the Englifh camp, and the entreaties of
the queen alone prevented the king from putting to death,
men, whofe only crime was love to their country and fidelity
to their fovereiyn. Edward caufed all the French inhabit-
ants to quit Calais, and fubitituted an Kaglith colony which
long poffcifed it, as one of the keys of France. In 1348,a
truce was concluded, but during the truce, the French made
an attempt to recover Calais by furprize, which proved un-
fuccefsfuf, On this occafion, the king himfelf fought on
foot as a private foldier, and cngaging in combat with a
French knight, tock him prifoner, whom he almoft inftantly

4F liberated

EDW A RD,

liberated without a ranfom, throwing, at the fame time, with
much courtefy, a ftring of pearls about his neck. In the
year 1349, Edward initituted the noble order of the Garter,
which foon became one of the mot illuftrious orders of
knighthood in Europe. See Garter, Kwnicut, &c. In
1355, Edward invaded France on the fide of Calais, while
the black prince did the fame from Gafcony, but after much
plunder and devaftation, the king was’ recalled by a threat-
ened invafion of the Scots, which he not only repelied, but
carried the war into their own country from Berwick to
Edinburgh. In the year 1356, was the famous battle of
Poictiers, and in a fhort time Edward had the good fortune
to poffefs as prifoners, his two moft inveterate enemies the
kings of France and Scotland. In 1359, Edward paffed
over to Calais with an army of 100,000 men. He defo-
lated the provinces of Picaréy and Champagne, and ap-
peared before the gates of Paris; but notwithftanding all his
fuccefs, he feemed to have no chance of obtaining the crown
of France, and confented to a peace, which was concluded in
the year 1360, highly in favourof Edward. In the reign -of
Charles V. he had the mortification to witnefs the lofs of all
his ancient French provinces except Bayonne aud Bourdeaux,
and all his conquefts except Calais. But he had to expert-
ence ftill greater affliGions, by the death of his heroic fon
Edward, and by the diminifhed attachment of his people.
He died June 21, 1377, inthe 65th year of his age, and
fifty-firft of his reign, and the people were then fenfible,
though too iate, of the irreparable Jofs which they had fuf-
tained. The reign of Edward has been efteemed not only
oné of the longelt, but alfo one of the moft glorious that
occurs in the annals of ournation. Edward was great asa
warrior, but the domeftic government of this prince is
more admirable than his foreign vi€tories, and England en-
joyed, by the prudence and vigour of his adminiltration, a
louger interval of domeftic peace and tranquillity than fhe
had been bleffed with in any former period, or than fhe
experienced for many agesafter. He gained the affections
of the great, yet curbed theirlicentioufnefs. He made them
feel his power, without their daring, or even being inclined
to murmur at it. His affable and obliging behaviour, his
munificence and generofity made them fubmit with pleafure
to his dominion; his valour and condu& made them fuc-
cefstul in moft of their enterprizes, and their unquiet {pints,
dire&ed againft a public enemy, had no leifure to breed thofe
difturbances to which they were naturally fo much inclined,
and which the frame of the government feemed fo much to
authorize.

Edward left behind him a numerous pofterity by bis queen
Philippa. The line of his eldeft fon ceafed m his unfortu-
nate fucceffor Richard II. The two rival honfes of Lar-
cafter and York were derived from John of Gaunt duke of
Lancafter, the third fon of Edward, and from Edmund earl
of Cambridge, afterwards dukeof York, the fourth fon of
Edward. :

One of the moft popular laws ena&ted by any prince,
was the ftatute which paffed in the twenty-fifth yearof this
reign, and which limited the cafes of high treafon, before
vague and uncertain, tothree principal heads, viz. con{pir-
ing the death of the king; levying war againft him, and ad-
hering to his enemies; and the judges were prohibited, if
any other cafes fhould occur, enn inflicting the penalty
of treafon without an application to parliament. It wasalfo
ordained, that a parliament fhould be held once a year, or
oftner, if need be; “A law,” fays Mr. Hume, * which hke
many others, was never obferved, and loftits authority by
difufe.”’ Edward granted above twenty parliamentary con-
firmations of the Great Charter, which is itrong prefump-

Lf

tive evidence, that he occafionally made no feruple in violat-
ingit. Theufeof the French language inlaw proceedings
was laid afide in this reign, as a badge of the conqueft which
it wastime to abolifh. Legiflation and the laws of police
were much improved in this reign; and though commerce full
lay under many impolitic reftriGtions, yet the ftaple of the
nation, the woollen manufa&ture, was promoted by encou-
ragement given to foreign weavers, and by enacting a law
which prohibited every one from wearing any cloth but of
Enzlih fabric.

Edward was a prince of great capacity, and defirous of
keeping on good terms with his people; ‘yet on the whole,”
fays the hiflorian, ‘* it appears that the government, at beft,
was only a barbarous monarchy, notregulated by any fixed
maxims, or bounded by any certain undifputed tights, which
in practice were regularly obferved. The king himfelf go-
verned by one fet of principles, the barons by another, the
commons bya third, the clergy by a fourth. All thefe
fyftems of government were oppofite and incompatible: each
of them prevailed in its turn, as incidents were favourable
to it.” Hume.

Epwarp 1V. was born in 1441. His father, Richard,
duke of York, was grandfon of EJmund, earl of Cambridge
and duke of York, to whom we have already, in the preced-
ing article, referred. He fucceeded his father, in the title of
York, flain at the battle of Waketield in 1460; and after
the battle of St. Atban’s, gained by queen Margaret over
the ear] of Warwick, Edward, colleéting the relics of Ware.
wick’s forces, advanced, and obliged the queen to retire to
the north. He then entered London, where, by popu'ar
acclamation, he was declared king, in March, 1461, but he
did not fucceed without a {truggle ; he had to fizht for his
crown againft an army of 60,000 Lancaltrians, affembled in
Yorkthire ; a decifive victory confirmed his title. After
this he loft no time in aflembling a parliement which recog-
nized his right, and paffed the fevereft laws againtt his op-
ponents. Margaret, however, was not fubdued, fhe appeared
again in arms; but, being defeated, was obliged to take ree
fuge in Flanders, while her hufband, Henry VI. fell into the
hands of his enemies, and was committed to the Tower.
Edward was now eafy on the fcore of a rival, and began te
indulge himfelf in pleafures that feemed fuited to his age ;
but a marriage of love, which he cuntraéted with Elizabeth
Woodville, widow of a Laneaftrian, whofe eftate had been
confifcated, produced very ferious confequences. This lady
took the opportunity of am accidental vifit at her father’s.
honfe, to throw herfclf at the king’s feet, and implore com-
paffion for her ruined children. ‘The fight of her beauty
won the heart of Edward, who privately married ker. This:
circumitance gave fo great offence to fome foreign courts,
and to the powerful lords of England, that Edward was at
length driven from his own country, and the Lancaftrians
became again triumphant. Henry was once more acknow-
ledged king, and all the attainders of his party were taken
off and transferred to the Yorkifts. Warwick and Clarence
were declared regents of the kingdom under Henry, and
Margaret, with all the exiles, preparedto return. In 1471.
Edward was enabled, by the afliftance of the duke of Bur-.
gundy, to land with 2000 men, and to thefe were foon
added great numbers who flocked fo his ftandard. He.
marched to London, obtained entrance, and Henry was.
again made prifoner. Warwick advanced againit him as far
as Barnet, where, on April rath, a great battle was fought,
which terminated in a complete victory to Edward. On
the fame day, queen Margaret and her fon landed at Wey-
mouth. She advanced as far as Tewke{bury, was defeated,
and, with her fon, made prifoners. The king ordered them

to

EDWARD.

to be brought before him, and afking the prince how he
dared to invade his dominions, received a very {pirited reply,
for which Edward bafely ftruck him in the face with his
gauntlet. At this fignal, the creatures of the king dragged
the heroic young man into an adjoining apartment, and in-
famoufly murdered him. Margaret was thrown into the
Tower, where fhe witneffed the death of her hufband.
Edward, now fecure by the deflruétion of his foes, refigned
himfelf to thofe pleafures to which he had been ever ad-
di&ed: in 1475, he made an attempt at French con-
queits, but was bought off by a prefent payment of money,
‘and a promifed penfion, and from this period he ceafed to
interfere in continental politics. ‘He was chiefly encaged
with examining into fome charges brought againit his bro-
ther Clarence, who was, at length, capitally arraigned before
the houfe of peers, and convidted. ‘The commons concurred
ja a bill of attainder againft him; and, finding that his life
muft be facrificed, he begged to be drowned in a butt
‘of Malmfey wine, a requelt in which he was indulged.
An expedition of the duke of Gloucefter to the borders
of Scotland, in which he took Berwick, and ferced
the Scots to make peace, was the remaining event of
this reign. This fuccefs encouraged the king to think
more ferionfly of a French war; but while hé was
making preparations for that enterprife, he was feized
‘with an idnefsthat put an end to his life, in the forty-fecond
year of his ape, and the twenty third of his reign. He left
two fons and five daughters. He was, according to Hume,
«6 A prince more [plendid and fhowy, than either prudent or
‘virtuous ; brave though cruel; aidi@ed to pleafure, though
‘capable of activity in great emerg-ncies; and lefs fitted to
“prevent ills by wife pr cautions, than to remedy them after
they took place, by his vigour and enterprife.” Hitt. Eng.
‘vol. iii. :

Epwarp V. fucceeded the father, Edward IV. when be
was only in his 13th year; and fcarcely had he reigned two
‘months, when, by the ambition of his uncle, the duke of
“Gloucefter, he and his brother Richard were lodged in the
Tower, where they were prefently murdered, and privately
gnterred at the foot of the ftairs of the apartments which
they inhabited. (See Ricwarp III.) In the_reign of
Charles II. when fome {tones were removed, and the fpot
dug up which was mentioned as the place of their burial,

. the bones of two perfons were found, which, by their fize,
exaGily correfponded to the age of Edward and his brother.
“They were, of courfe, concluded to be the remains of thofe
princes, and were interred under a marble monument by order
‘of the king.

Epwarp VI., fon of Henry VIII., by queen Jane Sey-
mour, was bornin 1538. When Henry died, he was but
‘nine years old, and as he lived only till he was fixteen, two
*years be‘ore his father’s will allowed him to govern for him-
felf, his ats are to be regarded as thofe of the counfellors
‘appointed to fuperintend the affairs of government during
the minority, and as fuch, will require but a Mort notice
"in this place. He was celebrated foran amiable difpofition,
and for confiderable talents in the acquirement of learning.
“His maternal uncle, the ear! of Heretord, afterwards duke
‘of Somerfet, notwithftanding the will of Henry, (fee

‘Henry VIII.) affumed the title of prote&or, and under ~

‘him great care was taken to in{pire the young king with
jut principles, with regard to the Proteftant religion, by
‘which he was induced to favour the reformation, One of
‘the earlieft public events that happened in this reign, was a
quartel with Scotland, refpecting a proje&ted marriage be-
tween Edward and the young queen Mary. ‘The prote&tor
“marched an army into the country, and gained a decided

battle, which, however, proved of no ufe to his main pur-
pofe ; Mary was fent to France, where the was contraéted
to the dauphin. During the abfence of the protector, his
own brother plotted againft him, of which he was afterwards
convicted and executed. This was but the commencement
of troubles ; infurreGtions broke out in various parts of the
kingdom, which were not fuppreffed without much blood-
fhed, and which raifed up fo many enemies to the adminiftra-
tion of Somerfet, that he was at length brought to the
feaffold. Thefe feverities muft have been very repugnant
to the mild and benevolent fpirit of Edward, who could
{carcely be brought to fign the death-warrant of a worthy
woman accufed of hherefy. (See Cranmer.) After the
death of Somerfet, Dudley, duke of Northumberland,
became all-powerful, and governed the king and kingdom
with equal defpotifm. (Sse Duprey.) Through the
influence of this nobleman, Edward was induced to fet afide
from the fucceffion his filters Mary and Elizabeth, and to
fettle the crown upon lady Jane Grey. The young king
had in the courfe of one year, been feized with the meafles,
and afterwards with the fmall-pox, the effets of which he
probably never quite recovered ; and as he was making a
progrefs through fome parts of the kingdom, he was af-
flicted with a cough, which proved obftinate, and which
gave way neither to regimen nor medicines. Several fatal
fymptoms of a confumption appeared, and theugh it was
hoped, that as the feafon advanced, his youth and temper-
ance might get the better of the malady, his fubj-dts faw,
with great concern, his bloom and vigour fenfibiy decay.
After the fettlement of the crown, which had been =fle&ted
with the greateft difficulty, his health rapidiy declined, and
{carcely a hope was entertained of his recovery. His phy-
ficians were difmiffed by Northumberland’s advice, and the
young king was entrufted to the ‘hands of an ignorant
woman, who undertook to rettore him to health in a very
fhort time. Death had, however, pronounced this irrever~
fible decree: the medicines prefcribed were found ufeiefs:
violent fymptoms were greatly aggravated ; and on the 6th of
July he expired at Greenwich, in the fixteenth year of his
age, and the feventh of his reign. "The excellent d:fpofition
of this youn prince, and the blow fuflained by the Proreftant
caufe, have rendered his memory dear to the nation. He
poffeffed mildnefs of difpofition, application to ftudy and

‘bufinefs, a capacity to learn and judge, and an attachment

to equity and juftice. He is allo advantageonfly remem-
bered as the founder of fome of the moft {plendid charitics
in the metropolis. Hume’s Hilt. vol. iv.

Epwarp, prince of Wales, denominated, from the colour
of his armour, the Black Prince, one of the greateft military
heroes of his age, eldeft fon of Edward III., was born in
1330. “He accompanied his father on his invafion of France '
when he was but fifteen years of age; and in 1346, at the
battle of Crecy, this young man fought with fo much intre-
pidity, united to the moft exaét fkill, that he was defervedly
held up as an example to the braveft men in the army.
Being, however, very hardly prefled, a meflage was fent to
the king, who was potted on an adjacent hill, defiring fue-
cour, to which his father replied, “‘ Ireferve to my fon the ho-
nour of this day’s victory ; I am confident that he will prove
himfelf worthy of the truft repofedin him.’”» Auimated'by
the king’s expeCiations, he redoubled bis efforts, routed the
French, and decided the conteft. When the battle was won,
the king flew to bis arms, and rendered him all the praife
and honour which his prowels merited. On this occafion the
prince of Wales aflumed the creft of oftrich feathers, and the
motto ‘* Ich dien,” (I ferve,) belonging to the king of

~Bohemia, who fell inthe battle, which all his fucceffors have

4Fa fiance

EDWARDS.

fince borne. In 1355, and following year, he penetrated
into the heart of France, till he was at length oppoied by
John the kinz of the country, at the head of 60000 men,
and was reduced to a fituation that would have obliged him
to furrender for want of provifions, had cot.the Freach
king refolved upon an attack. This battle, which was fatal
to the French army and their king. who was taken prifoner,
was fought Sept. 1y, 1356, near Poi&tiers. The monarch,
when led to the victor’s tent, was met by the prince with
every expreffion of fympathy and re{peét. So great was the
condud&t of Edward in this inftance, that he not only caufed
a2 noble repaft to be prepared for the failen king, but waited
upon him ia perfon, and in every inftance treated him as a
fuperior rather than acaptive. ‘* Here,’? fays the hifto-
rian, «commences the real and tru!y admirable heroifm of
Edward : for viGtories are vulgar things in comparifon of
that moderation and humanity difplayed by a young prince
only twenty-feven years of age, not yet cooled from the
fury of battle, and elated by as extraordinary and as unex-
pected fuccefs as had ever crowned the arms of any com-
mander. He came forth to meet the captive king with ail
the marks of regard and fympathy, and adminiftered comfort
to him amidft his misfortunes; paid him the tribute of
praife due to his valou-, and 2feribed his own victory merely
to the blind chance of war, or to a fupericr providence,
which controuls all the efforts of human force and prudence.
All his father’s pretenfions to the crown of France were now
buried in oblivion: Joha, in captivity, received the honours
of a king, which were refufed him when feated on the
throne. His misfortunes, not his title, were refpeGied ; and
the French prifoners, conquered by this elevation of mind,
more than by their late difcomfiture, burft into tears of ad-
miration, which were on!y checked by the refleCtion, that
fuch genuine and unaltered heroifm in an enemy mutt cer-
tainly in the ifflue prove more dacgercus to their native
country.”

Edward condufed his prifoner to Bourdzaux, concluded
a truce with France for two years, and then conduéted the
captive monarch to England. He landed at Southwark,
and was met by a vait concourfe of people of ail ranks and
ftations. ‘The king was clad in royal apparel, and mounted
on a white fteed, diftinguifhed as well ior ite bezuty as for
the richnefs of its furniture. The conqueror rode by his
fide in a meaner attire, and was carrizd by a black palfry.
In this fituation he pafled through the itreets of Lordon,
and prefented the king of France to his father, who ad-
vanced to meet hiss, and received him with the fame courtefy
as if he had been a neighbouring potentate that had volun-
tarily come to pay hima vift. In 1361 the prince mar-
ried Joan, daughter of Edmund, earl of Kent, his father’s
uncle; and he then tock up his refidence in France, where
his father had many conquered provinces which he had
formed for bis fon, under the title of the principality of
Aquitaine. Here he undertook the defence of Peter the
Cruel, kiag of Caftile, in oppofitian to Henry, ‘count of
‘Traftamare, whom he entirely defeated. Peter, in juftifi-
cation of the bloody chara&ter for which he was famed,
would have maflacred in cold blood ali the prifoners, but was
reftrained from the favage a&t by the noble minded Edward.
Peter, when placed on the throne by the Black Prince, re-
fufed the ftipulated reward to the Englifh troops, and Ed-
ward returned with the glory of having fuccefsfully accom-
plithed his enterprize, but with a ruined conftitution. The
government of this prince, notwithitanding his noble quali-
ties, became unpopular, owing to the taxes which he was
obliged to levy to pay the expences of his wars. Appeals

were made by the nobles to Charles, their {uperior lord, the.

~

new king of France, who fummoned Edward, as his veffal,
to appear before him at Paris, ‘¢ I will come,’ faid the
prince, ‘ but it fhall be at the head of 60.000 men.” The
ftate of his health was become too dclicate to admit of any
farther exploits: and after a lingering ilivefs he died in the
forty-fixth year of his age, leaving behind him a charaGer
illuftrious for every eminent virtue, and from his earlictt youth,
till the hour in whieh he expired, unftained by any blemith,
His valour and military talents formed the fmalleft part of
his merit. His generofity, humanity, affability, and mode-
ration, gained him the affeétjons of all men, and he was
qualified to throw a luftre, not only on that rude <ge in which
he lived, and which nowife infeéted him with its vices, but
on the moit fhining periods of ancient or modern hiftory.
Hume’s Hit. vol. ii.

Epwarps, in Geography, a fort in Nova Scotia, in the
town of Windior, in Hants county, large enough, as it is
faid, to contain 200 men. It is fituated on the river
Avon, navigable to this place for veffels of 402 tons: thofe
of 6c tons can proceed two miles further.

Epwarps, GeorGe, in Biography, celebrated forall
knowledge in natural hiitory, was boru ac Weftham, !n Effex,
about the year 1693. He was d<figned for trade, butthe accefs
which he had, whi.e he was purfuing the elementary partsof
acommercial education, to the library of a deccafed phyfician,
gave him aturnto literature and f{cientifc purfuits, which

‘detached him from the courfe for which he was originally

intended. Having {pent fome years in foreign travel, he re-
turned to his native country,and applied himielf to the tudg
of natural biftory. He praciifed the art of drawing and
colouring birds from nature, and obtained, by the fale of
his works, a good fubfiftence. He was, inthe year 1733,
appointed librarian to the college of pbyficians, a fituatioa
which afforded him ample opportunity for purfuing his
favourite ftudies. Between the years 1743 and 1751, he
publifhed his ‘¢ Hiftory of Birds,” in 4to. with coloured
plates and defcriptions in Englifh and French. In addition
to his hiitory of birds were given fome plates of ferpcnts,
fithes, and infe&ts. Tne lait voiume, as a teilimcay of piety
and gratitude to his maker, who had enabled him to com-
piete his work, he dedicated *‘To Goc.” As a fupole-
ment, he publifhed, in parts, his ‘* Gieanings of Natural
Hittory,”? confiiting of coloured plates of birds, tithes, in-
fe&is, and plants. His reputation as a naturaliit gained him
the acquaintance of the celebrated Linnzus, who keptupa
conftent corre{pondence with him, and completed the gene-
ral index to his works according to his own fyftem. . He
received, for his hiltory of birds, fir Godfrey Copley’s medal,

voted to him by the Royal Sccicty, of which body he be- —

came a member in the year 1757. He was alfo elc&cda
member of feveral of the learned focicties in Europe: In
the year 1769, he refigned his office at the College of Phy-~
ficians, having fold his colleGtions of drawings to lord Bute,
and retired to a {mali houfe at Plaiftow in Effex. In the
courfe of the following year, he publifhed his ‘* Effays,” in
S8vo. which were chicfly collected from the prefaces or in-
trodutions of his former works, to which were added in-
ftruGtions for drawing, painting, and etching. The re-

mainder of his life was {pent in privacy among his friends, -

towards the clofe of which he wasgrievoufly afiliGed with
the ftone and a cancer in his eye. He bore his fufferings
with manly fortitude and patience, and died at the age of
eighty, in July 1773. His temper was. cheerful, open, and
benevolent; his diffidence and humility prevented him from
fhining in mixed company, but he was eptertaining and very
inftruGtive ina {mall and private circle. Biog. Brit.
Eewarps, Jonatuan, an American divine of ponhisy
ab!

a ee

EDWARDS.

able celebrity, was born at Windfor, in Conneticut, in the
year 1703, and was educated at Yale college, where he took
his degree of B. A. before he was quite 17 years of age.
He made a rapid progrefs in the natural {ciences, but was
particularly attached to moral philofophy and theology, as
connected with the profeflion for which he was defigned.
Having continued at his college two years after he took his
firit degree, he wasexamined, and I'cenfed to’ preach the
gofpelasa candidate. In the year 1722, he went to New
York, and preached among the Englifh Prefbyterians for
about eight months with confiderable fuccefs, but not
thinking the circumftances of the fociety fuch as to jultify
him in making choice of this fituation fora fettlement, he
returned to his father’s houfe, where he purfued his ftudies
with much diligence. In 1723, he was admitted to the de-
gree of M.A and in the following year was chofen tutor
of the college in whieh he had been educated. In the ycar
4726 he refigned his fituation as tutor, and was ordained
paftor of acongregation at Northampton, which he conti-
nuedto ferve with much fuccefs till the year 1744, when,
from fome difputes occalicned, perhaps, by the affumptiou
of togmuch authority on the part of the minifter, he fell
into difrepute. His ufefulnefs and his comfort were now
nearly at an end, but he continued in this couneGtion till
the year 1750, when he was formally difmiffed by a vote of
the congregation, having only twenty perfons in his favour,
and more thantwo hundred againft him. In 1751, he be-
came Indian miffionary at the town of Stockbridge, in the
province of Maffachufetts, where he difcharged the duties of
the office devclved upon him to the entire fatisfaCtion of all
concerned, and was honourably f{upported by the commiffion-
ers of the fociety in London for propagating the gofpel in
foreign parts. He was, in the year 1757, induced to decline
this bulinefs, on his election to the pretidency of the college
of New Jerfey. Scarcely, however, hed he entered upon
this honourable office, when he was advifed to be inoculated
forthe {mall-pox, on account of the ravages that the natural
difeafe was then making all around him; to the effeGs of
this diforder he fell a victim inthe month of March 1758,
being in the 55th year of hisage. Mr. Edwards was author
of many works, buc of thefe the mott important, and that by
which he is moft known, is his ** Careful Enquiry into the
modern prevailing Notion of that Freedom of Will which is
fuppofed to be eflential to moral agency.” This was pub-
lifhed in the year 1754, and has obtained a high charaCter as
a moft able and acute jultification of the do&trine of philofo-
phical neceffity. Mr. Edwards was al owed, by all capable
of appreciating his talents, to be aman of confiderable and
deep learning, extenfive reading, and found judgment. He
was eager forthe acquilition of knowledge, and diliyent in
the purfuit of it. His piety towards God was ardent, and
his benevolence towards his fellow-creature was extenlive and
liberal. He was a Calvinift in principle, and an able de-
fender of the doCirines which be efpoufed. Gen. Biog.
Epwarps, Tuomas, azealous divine, according tothe
principles of Prefbyterian church difcipline, was born towards
the clofe’of the 16th century, and was educated at Trinity
college, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1609. He
entered into the eftablifhed church, though he was a puritan
in principle. He wrote againit toleration, and yet, from
his own account of his conduét and chara¢ter, no one re-
quired the latitude grauted by toleration more than bimfelf.
He never properly conformed to the manners and habits of
the church of which he was a member, and fpcaking of a
fermon which he preached on a fatt day in July 1640, at
Mercer’s chapel, he fays, he preached ‘* again{t the bifhops
and their faQlion, fucha free fermon, as 1 believe never a

feGtary in England durft have preached in fuch a place and
at fuchatime.”? He chiefly officiated at Hertford as lec-
turer, and alfo in fome places in London, and more than
once incurred the rebukes of his fuperiors, for the puritanical
ftyle of preaching which he adopted, and the offences which
he committed again the rules and orders of the church.
When the long parliament declared againtt king Charles I.,
he became a zealous advocate for the changes in civil and
ecclefiaflical matters which were gradually introduced, and
fupported, by every method in his power, the views of the
ruing party againit the favourers of epifcopacy and royalty.
He was author of many pieces, which are now well nigh
forgotten, and which do not merit a mere enumeration.
They difplay much violence and bitternefs as well in the
matter as in their manner, and there can be no doubt, but
that if Mr. Edwards had poffefled the power he would not
have wanted the will of being a rigid perfecutor of thofe who
thought and acted differently from himfelf. He died in
1647 in Holland, whither he fcd to avoid the refentment
of the independents, after Cromwell had overturned the
power of parliament. Biog. Brit.

Epwarps, Joun, was fon of the preceding, and born at
Hertto:din theyear 1637. He received his grammatical
learning at Merchant Taylors’ {chool, and purfued the more
advanced ftudies at St. Joha’scollege, Cambridge. He
diitinguifhed himfelf for his diligence and fuperior talents.
In 1661, hetookthe degree of M. A. and was foon after
ordained deacon and then prieft, by Dr, Sanderfon, bifhop
of Lincoln. In 1664, he undertook the duty of Trinity
church, in Cambridge, and greatly difticeguifhed bimfelf as
an eloquent aad popular preacher; but in the following year,
when the plague raged at Cambridge, he removed from the
college into the town, that he might devote his whole time to
the confolation of his parifhioners in the time of their cala-
mity. After this, he refufeda good livingin Gloucetter-
fhire, and chofe to continue in his ftation at Cambridze.
About 1688, he was admitted to the degree of bachelor in
divinity, and about the fame period was chofen one of the
le@turers of Bury St. Edmund’s, whither he removed, but
returned to college,in about a year after. He went through
many changes, and obtained preferment in Norfolk and
Efkx. In 1699, he wasadmitted to the degree of doGor
in divinity, and after this, he {pent his life in fludious re-
tirement. Though a diligent ftudent, and the author of
many publications, he never poffeffed a library, and had
indeed few books except bibles, lexicons, diftionaries, and
works of a fimilar nature. He borrowed books from the
univerfity libraries ; and from book({ellers to whom he paid a
ftipulated {um for the loan, He died in 1716, having attained
to his feventy-ninth year. His works*are very numerous
and very voluminous, moftiy on theological {ubjects ; in des
fence of Chriftianity, and of the eftablifhed church of which
he wasa zealous member. Dr. Edwards was a man of ex-
tenfive learning, of ardent piety, and exemplary moral coc-
duct. Biog. Brit.

Epwarps, T'HomAs, a divine of the church of England,
was born at Coventry in the year 1729, where he received
the early parts of his education. [n 1747, he was entered
at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1750 and
1754, and wasat length chofen fellow of his college. He
was ordained to prielts’ orders in the year 1755, and about
this period ke publifhed « A new Englifh Tranflation of the
Pfalms from the original Hebrew, reduced to metre by the
late Bifhcp Hare, with Notes critical and explanatory : illu
trations of many Paflages drawn from the Clallics, &c.’? Hie
object was to make bifhop Hare’s fyitemof Hebrew metre
better known, and to thew the utility of a judicious applica-

hon

EDW ‘

‘tion of it in elucidating the poetical parts of the Hebrew
{eriptures. He was,in 1758, appointed mafter of the free
{chool at Coventry, and prefented to the reGory ef St. John
the Baptift; foon after this, he publifhed a work, entitled
s¢ The doaGrine of irrefiftible grace proved to have no foun-
dation in the writings of the New Teflament.”? He then
engaged in a controverfy, refpeGing Hebrew metre, with
Dr. Lowth, which was carried on till the year 1766. Tt
was in this yearthat Mr. Edwards was admitted to the d~
gree of doctor in divinity. He continued to write on ufe-
ful and important fubjc&s, tillalmoft the clofe of his life.
In 1770, Dr. Edwards was prefented by the crown with the
valuable vicarage of Nuneaton in Warwickhhire, to which he
went in the year 1779, having refigned his {chool and reGtory
at Coventry. His laft publication was entitled “ Sele&a
quedam Theocriti Idyllia recenfuit, variorum notas adjecit,
fuafque animadverfiones, partim Latine, partim Anglice,
{criptas immifcuit Thomas Edwards, S. T. P.Svo. 1779.”
He died at Nuneaton in 1785, in the fifty-fixth year of his
age, having been fome time incapacitated from performing
the duties of his ftation by a paralytic ftroke. He was aman
of much mildnefs in his manners; benevolent and humane.
He was particularly noted for inflexible integrity. As an
mitru€tor of youth he obtained a high reputation. Hewas
fond of retirement, and his conneGion with the learned
world was maintained more by correfpondence, than by per-
fonal intimacy with its members. Biog. Brit.

Epwarps, Tomas, wasborn in London in the year
2699, and educated for the bar. A hefitation in his fpeech
prevented him from ever engaging much in profeffional prac-
tice. He was, befides, too muchattached to poetry, and
the belles lettres to find amufement in the ftudy of the law.
Shake{peare was his favourite author, and on the appearance
of Warburton’s edition of that dramatift, Mr. Edwards
publifhed “A letter to the Author of alate Epiftolary De-
dication, addreffed to Mr. Warburton.’ ‘This came out in
1744, andin 1747 he followed it by ** A fupplement to
Mr. Warburton’s edition of -Shakefpeare,”? a work which
paffed through many editions, and became famous under the
title of “The Canons of Criticifm.’? The idea of this
swork was derived from a hint given by Warburton, that he
had once intended to draw upa body of canons for literary
eniticifm. Mr, Edwards pretends to take up the defign, and
has frameda fet of canons drawn from Warburton’s notes
upon Sheakefpeare and illuftrated by the examples they afford.
** The canons,” fays a good writer, “in the laft edition
amount to 25 in number; and it is impoflible to read them
vand their iluftrations without extraordinary mirth at the ex-
pence of the reverend annotator, who, as a critic, has per-
haps contrived to be mere ingenioufly and fingularly in the
wrong than any other of the profeffion.”” An “ Effay
towards a-Gleflary,”” another of Warburton’s defigns, is an-
nexed and drawn up in the fame ironical ftyle. The work
has much value, as tending to difcredit the rafh and fanciful
mode of correcting and explaining authors, which has been
countezanced by critics of reputatien. Mr. Edwards was
dittingutfhed as a poet, and printed about 50 fonnets ia
Dodflcy’s and Pearch’s colleGtions. He was a fkilful critic
inthe Englifh language, He paffed his life in literary leifure,
and was refpecied by many of the moft refpetable charac-
ters of histume. He diedin the year 1757. The edition
of his cavons of ‘ Critici{m,” publifhed in 1765, contained
hisfonnets; and an ** Account of the ‘Trial of the letter +,
alias y,”’~in which are difceffed the principles of Englifh or-
thography. Thefe he founds‘on etymology. A work on
prcdeliination was publithed efter bis death.

Epwaro’s, Prince, [/land, in Geography, a Britifh North

¢ EDW

American ifland, near the coaft of Nova Scotia, in the
guif of St. Lawrence. remarkable for a colony of highland
emigrants from Scotland, fettied there by the earl of Selkirk,
in 1303. :

Tactile, to the number of 800 perfons of all ages,
reached the ifland in Auguft, 1803. he {pot feleGed
upon the coalt was almott defert, being fepzrated by an arm
of the fea,-and an interval of feveral miles from any older
fettlement. Before the middle of September, the people
were difperfed upon their feparaze lots, which were laid out
in fueh a mznner, that four or five families built their hamlets
in a httle knot together. This focial plan of fettlement
refembled their ftyle of living in their native country. They
were allowed to purchafe in fee-fimple, and to a certain ex
tent on credit. From 50 to 100 acres were 2llowed to each
family, at a moderate price, which they were not required
to pay in full before the third or fourth year of their pof-
feflion. Every affiftance in provifions was likewife a loan
under ftri& obligations of repayment with intereft. They
conftruted their firft houfes upon the mode! of thofe of the
American woodmen. Lord Selkirk returned to the fettles
ment twelve months after. He found the fettlers engaged
in fecuring their barveft ; their crop of potatoes would alone
have been fufficient for their entire fupport. Round the
different hamlets, the extent of Jand in cultivation was, at
an average, in the proportion of two acres to each able
working ap and feveral boats had been built, by means
of which a confiderable fupply of fith had been obtained.
The further progrefs of the colonifts was left to their own
guidance. Obfervations on the prefent State of the High-
lands of Scotland, with a View of the Canfes and probable
Confequences of Emigration, by the Earl of Selkirk,
1807. :

Epwarp’s, Prince, [/lands, two lands in the fouthern
Indian ocean, S.E. of the Cape of Good Hope. E. long.
37° 46!. N. lat. 46°53’. The largeftand moft foutherly 13
about 15 leagues in circuit, the other nine ; they are about
five leagues diftant from each other, and there is.a paflage
between them at mid-chaanel.

EDWARDSBURGH, atownhhip of Upper Canada, in
the county of Grenville, being the feventh townfhip in af-
eending the river St. Lawrence.

EDWARDSIA, in Botany, fo named after Mr. Syden«
ham Edwards, a highly deferving botanical dranght{man,
whofe merits are con{fpicuous in the numerous plates marked
with his name in Curtis’s Magazine, and whofe fkill and
fcientific knowledge extend no lcfs to zoological fubje&s.
This genus is founded by Mr. Salifbury in the TranfaGions
of the Linnean Society, v. 9. 296, on the Sophora micra-
phylla, tetraptera, and a third fpecies, likewife from the
South Seas, all which we hefitate to feparate from the
original and genuine genus Sophora of Linnzus and Juflieu,
though aware of the heterogencous aflemblage fubfequently
referred to it, which we have long fince taken fome pains
to reform. S,

EDWAY, in Geography, a river of South Wales, which
tuns into the Wye; 4 miles S.E. of Builth, in the county
of Radnor. E

EDWITH, a river of Wales, in the county| of Mon«
mouth, which joins the Ufk, at its mouth.

EDWY, in Biography, king of England, fon of Ed-
munad L., {ucceeded, at the age of 16, his uncle Edred, in the
year 955. He was, at this period,. poflefled of an amiable
figure, and endowed with the moft promifing virtues. He
would have been a favourite of the people, had he not un-
happily, at the commencement of ;his reign, been enga
in a controverfy with the monks, who purfued him with

unrelenting

:

4
Fi

,
5

:
5

A

i

A eo

unrelenting vengeance during hisfhort reign. His marriage
with Elgiva, a beautiful princefs of the royal blood, and
within the prohibited degrees of kindred by the canon
Jaw, was a fource of misfortune that only terminated with
his life. ‘The favage Duntftan was his principal enemy, who,
at the head of the monks, declared war againft the king.
On the day of his coronation, when the nobles were aflem-
bled at a fealt, Edwy withdrew from the company to

“his queen’s apartment, where he indulged his fondnefs for

his wife, which was only checked by the prefence of her

mother. Dunttan, fufpe€ting the caufe of the king’s ab-

fence, burft into the chamber, rndely upbraiding the young
couple, and forcibly dragged the fovereign to the banquet.

Edwy could not forget the affront; he challenged Dunftan

with a mal-adminiftration of public affairs: the haughty

monk refufed to anfwer the accufation, and was banifhed.

(See Dunsran.) His party excited difaffeCtion againft

the king: they feized the queen, and, by the order of

archbifhop Odo, branded her in the face with a red hot iron,
hoping thereby to deftroy her beauty: they then carried
her away by force into Ireland, there to remain in perpetual
exile, and Edwy confented to a divorce, which was pro-
nounced by the infamous Ode. Elgiva having completely
recovered of her wounds, and time having almoft obliterated
the fears, was haftening to the arms of her hufband, when
fhe fell into the hands of her blood-thirfty enemies, and was
by them barbaroufly murdered. The torments which fhe
endured could only have been infli€@ted by demons in the
fhape of priefts. ‘Fhefe deeds were, however, fanétioned by

a barbarous and fuperftitious people, who rofe againft

Edwy, drove him from the throne, and placed on it his

brother Elgar in his {tead. — The fallen monarch was obliged

to take yefuge in the fouthern part of the kingdom, when
he was excommunicated, and purfued with unrelenting hatred,
till death terminated his calamities, inthe year 959. Hume,

vol. i.

EDYLIUM, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Greece,
in Boeotia, called Hadylius by Pliny.

' EDYMA, a town of Afia, in Caria. Steph. Byz.
EDYSTONE, in Geography. See Eppystone.
EECLOO, a fmall town of France, in the department

of ’Efcaut, (the Scheldt,) chief place of a canton, in the

diftri& of Gand, with a population of 5827 individuals.

The canton contains five communes, with 15,153 inhabit-

ants, on a territorial extent of 112 kiliometres and a half.

~ EED, a town of Norway, 24 miles N.N.W. of Dron-

theim.

EEDT, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Auftria ;
14 miles E.S.E. of Ens.

EER, alake of North America. N. lat. 49°. W. long.
98° 50°.

Ert-Jown. See Kenapacomagua.

Lex- Cove and River, lic on the fouth fide of Chaleur-bay,
in Lower Canada, about three leagues W. from Maligafh.
The cove abounds with falmon, which are taken annually in
great quantities by the inhabitants who are fettled near it.

' Ee. River Indians, are thofe who occupy the lands on

Fel river, a head branch of Wabafh river. (See Wasasu.)

Thefe Indians, at the treaty of Grenville, in 1795, ceded

fome land at the mouth of the river to the United States ;

the government paying them a fusa of money, and engaging
to pay them in goods to the value of 500 dollars annually
for ever.

Erx, Anguilla, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of the Murena ;
which fee.

Eeujffhing. See Fisnine.

Ex, £iedrical, See Gymnotus,

EEL

Eex, Indian, a {pecies of Trichiurus ; which fee.

Erts, Microfcopic, in four pafle. The long-bodied animal.
cules, difcovered by the microfcope in vinegar, four pate,
and many other fubje&s, have, from their figure, been gene=
rally diltinguifhed from the reft of the microfcopic animal-
cules, by the name of eels. Thefe, and the other kinds,,
have been, by the moft judicious naturalifts, fuppofed to be
produced of the eggs of other animalcules of the fly kind,
floating in the air. But thofe in pafte are difcovered to’ be
viviparous animals, producing living creatures of their own
fhape; In order to be always furnified with thefe minute
eels ready for the microfcope, take fuch pafte as book-
binders commonly ufe, of a moderate confiftence, and expofe
it to the air inan open veffel, and prevent its becoming hard,
or mouldy, by otcafionally ftirring it. After fome days, it will
turn four; and, if examined attentively, you may difcern
multitudes of exceedingly fmall, long, flendér, wngglhing
animalcules, which grow larger daily, till you will be able
to fee them with the naked eye. In order to promote their
coming forward, pour now and then a drop of vinegar on the
pafte, and then they may be preferved all the year; the

-continual motion of thefe animalcules will contribute to

prevent any mouldinefs in the pafte, which is belt kept in
fome glafs veffel. Apply them to the microfcope ona fingle
tale, or ifinglafs, after having firft put upon it a fmall {pot
of water for them to {wim about in, the internal motion of
their bowels may be plainly perceived 3 and when the water
is almoft dried away, and they are vearly expiring, their
mouths may be feen opening to a confidérable width. On
cutting one“of thefe pafte-eels in two acrofs the middle, a
long and flender tube is feen to fhoot cut from each of the
divided ends, and a number of feeming ova iffue from this ;
but thefe, examined ftrily, appear to be living eels of dif-
ferent growths, and all included in their proper membranes ;
fome move themfelves but flowly, while others coil and uncoil
themfelves pretty brifkly ; and the moft mature are feen to
make ftrong efforts towards the difengaging themfelves of
their enveloping membranes, and at length fucceed, and
{wim at liberty like their parent animal. The tube thruft
out each way, on dividing the body, is properly the uterus.
of the animal, which, in the larger eels, is feen to be full of-
dark {pots that are the embryo eels ; and thefe dark {pots are
alfo to be obferved in the young ones, as foon as produced.
Phil. Tranf. N° 478. § 13, and vol. xliv. p. 67, and Baker’s
Microf. 1743. p. 81, &c. See ANIMALCULE.

Eet-fares is ufed for the fry, or brood of eels.
Hen, VIII.

Eex-pout, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of the muftela
fluviatilis, a fith of the Gadus kind. See Ganus.

The name is derived from the German ae/ put, which is,
in that language, the name of the fame fifh, and is com-
pounded of the words ac/, an eel, and puit, or pud, a frog 3
fo that the Englifh word fhould properly be the ee/-frog,
It is commonly, when full grown, about fourteen inches
long, and is flender in proportion to its length, and fome-
thing of the eel-fhape, but too fhort for its thicknefs, to be
truly fo. It is very foft and flippery to the touch, like the
eel,.and is covered cither merely with a flimy matter, or elfe
with extremely minute fcales, It is of the colour of a
tench ; its head is large and flat, its noftrils {mall and round,
and its jaws befet with very {mall teeth, which make them feel
rough like a file; and there is. befide thefe, a femi-circular
{pot in the palate, rough in the fame manner. There are:
two fins on the back, and one on the belly, reaching from the
anus to the tail ; and it hasa little beard from the extremity
of the lower jaw, and between the noftrils and end of the

fnout, two others, and feven gills,. Willughby’s Hitt. Pifc.
pi 25°

Stat. 25

EF f

p.125. There is another variety of ecl-pout, which Linteus
has made a fpecies of Blennius ; thefe are viviparous, -and
bring forth two or three hundred young at a time, a little
after the depth of winter. They are common in the Efk,
at Whitby, in Yorkthire, and are a coarfe.fifh.

Eev /pear, a forked inftrument with three or four jagged
teeth, uicd for catching ecls; that with four teeth is the beft.
“This is ftruck into the mud at the bottom of the river;
where, if it flrikes againit eels, it is fure to bring them
up.
Eet-backed, a term ufed by the dealers in horfes, for fuch
as have black litts along their back.

EELWYCK, in Geography, « town of Norway; 20 miles
W.. of Romfdal. ;

EEMBARG, or Emsare, a town of Utrecht, feated
on the Ems; 5 miles N.N.W. of Ame:sfort.

EEMS, a nver of Holland, which runs into the Zuyder
fea, below Eembarg, in the ftate of Utrecht.

EERSEL, a town of Brabant; 6 miles S.W. of Eynd-
hoven.

EERSTE River, a river of Southern Africa, which
forms one of the divilions of the Droody, or diitrict of Stel-
lenbofch, lying between it and Falfe bay.

EFESE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Natolia ; 32 miles S.S.E. of Smyrna.

EFFAIRE, or Errraye, in Heraldry, a term applied to
a beaft, when rearing on its hind legs, as if it were af-
frighted.

EFFECT, the refult, or confequence, of the application
of a caufe, or agent, on fome fubjeét.

It is one of the great axioms of philofophy, that full, or
adequate effe€is, are always proportionable to the powers of
their caufes.

Errect, in the Maneze, is applied to the motions of the
band which dire& the horfe.

They diftinguifh four effets of the hand, viz. in ufing
the bridle to put a horfe forwards, draw him backwards, and
fhifting it out of the right hand into the left, or wice
wer] a.

' Errecr, in Mujfic. This word became technical in
Englaed about the middle of the laft century ; and we be-
lieve that it was Abel who brought it hither.

The great bands of fovcreiga princes in Germany, before
the revolution, fuch as thofe of Manheim, Drefdeo, Wir-
tenberg, Efterhazi, &c. infeparably attached to the fame
orcheftra, under the immediate direfion of the compoler,
had lecifure to try effects; and it was at the beginning of the
cultivation of fymphonies on the new plen of Stamitz,
Holzbauer, Canabich, Ditters, Vanmaldere, Toefchi, and
Filtz, different from the light cpera overture, which had
fuperfeded thofe ef Lulli and Handel, that experiments of
this kind were'tried. The efftGis of cre/cendo and diminuendo
were fuccefsfully produced in theatrical orcheftras, even in
fongs; and we remember the firft air in which we noticed
this effe&, was compofed by Jno. Chrilt. Bach,.and fung by
Ciprandi: Non fo donde vicni, &c.

To produce an effet, 1s to caufe an agreeable and power-
ful impreffion in the ear and the mind of the hearer, by
unufual mufical combinations: fo that the word effec, in
mufic, means fomething uncommonly excellent; and effect
is not only applied to a fingle paflage, but to fuch whole
movements er works, as are full of effeéts which produce
fenfations that appear fuperior to the means employed to
éxcite them. 2

Long praétice and obfervation may teach a mufical ftudent
how to difcover paflages of effect upon paper; but genius
alone infpires them. It is the defeé&t of bad compofers, and

6

EY Ff

of all beginters, ¢o heap parts on parts, and crowd inftra.
ments on inftruments to produce that efleét which flies their
grafp; and asan ancient faid, ‘to open a wide mouth to blow
a {mall flute.”? . You would exp-&, in feeing their crowded
and iaboured fcores, that you fhould be furprized by prodi-
gous effets, but if you are furpriged at all, it will be at
hearing fo meagre, mean, and confufed a compofition,
without effet, and more likeiy to ftun than delight good
ears. On the contrary, the eye feeks in the fcores of

great mafters, thofe fublime and ravifhing effects which ~

their mufic is fure to produce when well executed. Frivo-
lous Billings up are either urknown, or defpifed by men of
fine genius, whe never call our attention toa crowd of {mall
and puerile obje&s, but move us with great effeéts, the re-
fult of that force aud fimplicity united, which always confti-
tute their character. :

Errecr, in Painting, is, properly fpeaking, the name of
that impreflion which the firlt momentary glance of a pstture
produces on the eye and the mind of an obferver: but artilis
have adopted it as indicative of the cau/e of that impreffion,
and hence, with them, it becomes a technical term, figni«
fying the arrangement of the component parts of a picture.

In its moi extenfive fenfe, thus employed, it defignates
the mode of reliewo in which the objects of a piGure are
wrought. Its greateft excelience confifts in making the
fubje@ of a pi€ture at once familiar to the underltarding in
an interefting and pleafing manner; and when produced by
the hand of tafte and fkiil, it leads irrefiftibly the imagina-
tion of the obferver, and enforces a more clofe infpeSion of
the work.

Very many are the mafters whofe piGures poffefs excellent
qualitics, fuch as drawicg, compofition, and expreffion ;
yet they remain unattractive for want of union and har-
mony in their various parts; they are, therefore, pafled by
unnotiaed, till accident renders their beauties obfervable ;

while works of lefs intrinfic merit, but poffcfiing a better -

arrangement, or in other words, a better general effeG, are
conftantly impofing themfelves on the eye; and it is only
when thefe qualities unite, that a perfect work can be
produced.

Effe& depends entirely upon the management of chiaroe
fcuro and colour: that is, the mode in which they are
arranged, and the degre of oppofition in which they are
appiied. It has little wr ro relation to the execttion or
finifhing of the work ; the flightelt fketches, wrought in the
enthufiafm of feeling, generally p:ffets this quality in a
more perfeét degree than highly finifhed works.

The effets of pi€tures are denominated accarding to their
different kinds; vigorous, powerful, weak, rich, or mean,
bright, gloomy, pleafing, &c. &c. but no pofitive rules for
producing cfle€&i can embrace the infinite varicties under
which it pleafcs. Rubens in many of his pi&tures gratifies
us with the brilliancy ard breadth of effect of broad day-
light {pread almott equally over every part cf them; the
local cclonrs alone producing the chiaro feuro; whilft, oa
the contrary, we behoid with pleafure many works of Rem-
brandt, whofe furfaces bear the reprefentation of light upon
oniy +4th or even 4th part of them, agd have very hittle
local colour of courfe, and between thefe two extremes all
the intermediate degrees may be made attractive.

A vigorous, or powerful effeG, 1s produced by ufing bright
lights and colours with {trong dark oppofitions to them; in
whatever degree as to quantity they may be employed. In
general a {mall portion of light, with broad and ftrong
dark fhadows, is the moit certain mode of obtaining it. Of

this clafs are moft of the works of Rembrandt: thofe of —

Rubens fometimes ; particularly in his candle-light pieces.
Michael

=

ay EG CR I ee

et ee ae

EFF

Michael Angelo Caravaggio generally employed it, and fo
alfo did Spagnoletto, and many painters who have followed
them. Correggio, however, appears to have been the father
of this ftyle of effe& moft obfervable in his pi€tures of the
Birth of Chrift, called «La Notte,”? which was in the gal.
lery at Drefden, and iv his {mall picture of the Magdalen, alfo
in the fame place; in both thefe pi€tures it is managed with
the utmoft {weecnefs of tone, much more than any of the
above-mentioned matters have ever arrived at; though, per-
haps, not with fo much brilliancy as Rembrandt has fome-
times obtained.

The works of the late profeffor of painting in our Royal
Academy, J. Opie, efq. are alfo excellent examples of power
and vigour of effe&t, gained by ftrength of oppofition in the
chiaro-é{curo and colour. In the more confined fenfe of the
word (of which we fhall prefently fpeak) wz. the degree of
relievo of the individual objeéts of the piéture, no artilt ever
furpaffed him, Many of his figures appear abfolutely round,
and fully to projcét from the canvas. ; :

A more pleafing, though lefs powerful kind of effe&t, is

oduced, by making ufe of lefs violence of oppofition ; lefs

udden tranfition from light to dark, and from colour to
evlour; by blending the lights and fhades with a greater
breadth of half-teint; and inftead of giving the fhadows a
reat depth of tone, allowing them to partake of refle€tions
en the atmofphere, as well ‘as from furrounding objets.

It is alfo neceffary to take care that no colours, which
violently oppofe each other (fuch as bright reds and blues, )
fhould come in clofe contaé& ; but that they fhould be united
by the help of fome intermediate teint, or their tones fhould
be blended with each other, and each participate of the
general hue of the picture ; of this clafs are the greater part
of the works of Correggio; thofe of Guido Rhen1 in his beft
ftyle ; Murillio, Vandyke, fir Jofhua Reynolds, and almoft
all the painters of the Dutch and Flemifh {chools ; _who,
after Correggio, are the moft perfeét matters of this kind of
effe&. , ;

Rubens united very much of it with the ftyle of Venetian
compolition ; but the range of his genius is fo large, and
his works of courfe fo various, that it is difficult to affign
him as an examplar of effe& in any particular branch: he
difplays in his works all its different fpecies. His piture
of the ‘* Defcent from the Crofs,”? now in the gallery of the
Louvre, at Paris, is an inftance of the grave and ferious,
wrought with great ftrength and brilliancy; and it is ob-
tained by ufing one light only, and that.about one-third of
the pi@ure. His feries of piftures, known as thofe of the

gallery of the Luxemburgh palace, are fpecimens of the gay-

and luxurious effeét of broad lights and bright colours; and
his portraits are amedium between thefe different degrees.

Among thé Venetians, Titian may almoft alone be faid to
have poffeffed (and that not till his later time) the magic
power of producing (without the appearance of art,) the
true effet. of nature in its happieft combinations, by fo ad-
mirable a management of the chiaro-ofcuro and colours, as
immediately to lead the eye to the principal objet, and yet
maintain the whole furface of his pi€ture rick and brilliant;
as in his ‘¢ Diana and A&teon,”’ at the marquis of Stafford’s.
Sir J. Reynolds has admirably followed him in this parti-
cular, but too often with an admixture of the flyle of effec
‘ufed by Rembrandt, wherein the artifice, being more appa-
rent, weakens the claim to ingenuity in the artift.

An effeét, termed claffical, is obtained by the adoption of
lines and forms fimilar to thofe found in the works of the
ancient painters and feulptors; by working upon the fame
feries of thought which appears to have engaged their atten-
tion, and alfo by f{cleGting for reprefentation, the grand fea-

Vou, XII.

ECT.

tures of nature, as N. Pouffin has done in his landfcapes,
and leaving out the more minute parts. The adoption of
the reverfe; fele@ting the ordinary forms and f{cenes of nature,
aad reprefenting them in a laboured and coarfe manner, pro
duces an effect juftly denominated vulgar.

It has been faid before, that the efle& of a piGture fhould
convey an impreffion of the nature of its fubje&t; that
corre{pondence is the beft teft of the merit of the painter,
as it proves a comprehenfion of mind not confined to detail,
but exerting itfelf on the whole together. A pi€ture, the
fubje&t of which is grand, fhould have an effe& at once im-
pofing and fublime, by its fimplicity and power. The
Death of St. Peter, Martyr,” by Titian, now at Paris, isa
beautiful inftance of this happy adaptation of effeét to fub-
jet. The firft impreffion made on feeing it is awful, and
creates in the mind of the beholder fomewhat of horror
The parts are large, the tone of colour is deep and fombrous,
fomething like that of twilight; and produces a ferioufnefs
of mind inftantly on obfervation, and notwithftanding every”
part is found; by continued examination, to be wrought
with great finifh, yet the whole only ftrikes at firft ficht.
~ The portrait of Leo X., by Raphael, with the cardinals
de Medici and Rofli attending him, is another inftance of
this: the charaéter of the perfonage is grand; the effe& of
the picture is ferious; and to produce this, the ations of
the figures are fimple, and the tore of colouring is low.

If a pleafing fubject be chofen for reprefentation the ef
fe& fhould be gay. Great variety of tints, a bright tone of
colour, and fparkling lights and darks, amongft a broad gee
neral mafs of light, are the requifites for producing this.
The beft examples of it are the works of Rubens and
Watteau ; and Paul Veronefe among the Venetians adopted
it. The French fchool have generally wrought upon this
principle, till, in fa&, they have proved that it is as dangerous
to pufh a fyftem too far, as to proceed entirely without one.

Sir Jofhua Reynolds, in one of his difcourfes, has faid,
(and every painter purfuing anxioufly the higher qualities of
his art acknowledges the truth of his remark, )* that the pro»
duion of a good general effed, that is, & complete combina-
tion of all the parts of a picture in fuch a manner ds pleafingly
to attract the eye of the obferver, and at once to convey the’
full intereft and nature of the fubje@; is, when the work is
compofed of many parts, the moft difficult branch of the
art of painting. It becomes fo, from the neceflity of main~
taining vigour and brilliancy in every part;. yet, under the
obligation of fubduing fome, in order to give more relief or
more intereft to the main point of the work, and by that
means attracting and fixing the attention of thofe- who re

ard it.

. In a more confined fenfe, efed in painting is ufed to figm:
nify: the degree of relievo of ‘the objeéts of a piGure, and
the abfolute truth of reprefentation of nature in its indivi-
dual parts. Avpainting is faid to be wrought to great ef-:
fect when every object appears to proje& Arongly from the
canvas ; being rounded up with great care, and clofe imi-
tations of the thing itfelf, whatever it may be; and thus
effeting a degree of deception in the relievo. This kind
of effeét, however efteemed by fome, is a great enemy to
that more extended fenfe of it, in which it has been already
defcribed ; as it is extremely difficult, if not impoffible, to
make every objeé fo relievo, and yet maintain but one.
principal.

This inferior ufe of the word extends only to pofitive imi~:
tation, within the compafs of an ordinary mind by ‘diligent
ftudy to obtain. The other is in great meafure ideal ; and
the painter is obliged, in order to produce it, to affift nature
by art. It.requires great {cience in the nature and effect of»

ae colours,

EFF

colours, of forms. and, the chiaro-ofcuro; fo to arrange
them that as little recourfe as poffible may be had to artificial
or ideal fhadows; and, when neceflary to introduce them,
to give them their proper places. fo as to make the princi-
pal mafs of a gleafing form, and more agreeably to exemplify
the fubjeét of the work, and caufe the obferver to dwell
with more conflancy.oa.thofe parts that are immediately ne-
ceflary for that purpofe: thus, acting on that difficult,
though requifite principle of art, that of facrificing a part for
the good of the whole. tp

Many painters are fully adequate to this latter anc more
confined fenfe in which effect is underftood, who are totally
unequal to the production of works poffefling that quality
in its more general application. Vor, inftance, thofe who
paist dead pame hanging againtt a deal board, may, and do,
reprefent almoft to deception thofe objeéts of their fkudy ;
but fet them to produce a piture containing many groups of
thefe fame objects, and {till reprefenting the individual parts
truly, with their ufual force and fpint; yet, for. want of
tafte and knowledge in the due fubordination of parts requi-
fite to produce a perfe& whole, they mutt. of courfe prefent
enly a heap of confufion, on which the eye finds no refting
place, but. wanders from part to part, each having as much
power to detain it as its neighbour; till at laft the obferver
retires with fatigue and difyult, inftead of dwelling on the
work with pleafure, as it does when a more fkilful attention
to general effects, inftead of that of individual objeéts, takes
place, and gives it repofe by an union of harmony and pro-
pricty. i

This abfolutely neceffary .quality in a perfect picture,
takea in the fenfe in which we firlt confidered it, there is little
or no reafon to, conclude, was ever in the contemplation of
the ancient painters. The defcriptions remaining of their
works convey no idea of jit, unlefs what. Pliny fays of the
union and harmony of thofe of Apelles may lead us to ima-
gine they participated of it. But it is probable that he al-
ludes only to the colouring, which, though aneceffary part
of a good effeGt, yet to be complete, it mult have a fuflicient
portion of judicious management of the ghiaro-ofcuro un'ted
with it. In general, thofe defcriptions alluded to_lead us to
conclude, that their ftudy was. rather to give each figure
its appropriate action and chara@ter in its full force, and that
they generally produced fomething more like, the imitation
of a bas-relief in {cu!pture, than, that of a‘picture pofleffing
a good general ¢fleat, as at prefent underilood.

On the revival of the art of painting, in.the 13th century,
it was quite as little, moft probably flill lefs underftood; tall
Fra. Bartolomeo and Lionardo da Vinci jaid the founda-
tion of the future attention fo jufly beftowed on this valu-
able part.of the art, as they were alfo,in fa@, thofe to whom
we owe the firft advancement of all that is valuable in it.
Michael Angelo and Raflaelle caught fomewhat of the feel-
ing of effet from them, but not happily, andit never flou-
rifhed,in. the Roman or Florentine fchools. The Carracci
obtained more of it; and the Venctians improve ‘upon it,
particularly. Giorgione and Titian, who raifed highly the
tafte for its beauties, by: the truth and propriety of their
works... The Jatter ina more fuper-eminent degree, as the
fhort life of the former-prevented him from carrying the
great-abilities he pofleflcd fo far as they appear to have
been fully equal to, had he been longer {pared to-pleafe and
inform mankind.

The large work of Titian, the “ Death of St. Peter,
Martyr,’ bas already been mentioned asan inftanceof grandeur
and fublimity of .ffe&, which, in a greater or lefs degree, is
the general charateriftic of his pi€tures,; but he fometimes
chofe the gay aud luxuriant clafs of fubjeéts, and in managing

7

EePor

them produces, by his brilliancy of colour, by his clearnefs
and brightnefs of chiaro-ofcuro, and the excelling power of
his pencil in exprefling his thoughts, great perfeétion in
this branch alfo: a beautiful inftance of which is the large
picture of * Bacchus and Ariadne,” now in: pofleffion of
the earl of Kinnaird.

It, however, was Correggio who carried the artifice of
effe& to ita ultimate point. He had not the ftrength of op-
pofition of Titian, but his effeéts are more fweet, more
chafte, more inviting, than thofe of the latter. One general
hue more abfolutely prevails, and the eye is more determi-
nately led to the fubje¢t, not having that confufion to con-
tend with, which it neceffarily finds where there is a greater
vatiety of tones to dilurb its enjoyment. The artifice of
Correggio isy however, more appareat than Titian’s in his
beft works.

The Carracci, and their followers, by endeavouring to
unite the valuable parts of both with the ftyle of defign of
the Roman fchool, fell gradually from good, to indifferent
and bad; and it was with the Flemings and Dutch that ef-
fect was retrieved from the difgrace the Italians were unable ~
to prevent its falling into. Rubens, after feveral others
who had great fill, burft forth with aftonifhing fplendour
in his effeéts, and Rembrandt feconded him with a vigour
till then unknown even by Correggio, but not, as has already
been faid, with his grace and {weetnefs. Many of Rem-
brandt’s works are of extreme difficulty and beauty in their
effets, and have a brilliancy of light almoft rivailing that of
nature. Many. of his followers diftinguifhed themfelves by
treading in his fteps, and fucceeded happily in their arrange-
ments; aod moft of the painters of that country, notwithftand-
ing the vulgarity of the fubje&ts they chofe, fafcinate, by the
fkilfulnefe of their general effects, no lefs than by their la-
borious imitation of the fubje&-matter of their pi@ures.

In England the art of painting was refcued, and in this
part more particularly by fir Jofhua Reynolds, from the low
{tate in which it was grovelling: the {kill and tafte of this
great man enabled him to produce effects inferior to none
in beauty, grace, and elegance. His pictures feldom or
never fail to attract and gratify, at a cafual view, however
flight and untirithed they may appear on aclofer infpe@ion;
and in fome of his moft highly ftudied works he is equal to
the beft, having made the happiefl imitations of the beau-
ties of others, and f{uperadded a grace peculiarly his own. —

EFFECTS, in Commerce, &c. the goods pofleffed by
any perfen, whether moveable or immoveable; particularly
thofe which merchants and dealers acquire by trade. See
CuHaTrets. :

The, cffeéts of merchants are, ufually diflinguifhed into
three claffes, good, bad, and doubtful. By an ordon-
nance of the French court in 1673, every merchant is obliged
to take an inventory or review every year of all his effe&s of
every kind.

Errectrs, Vacant. See Vacant.

EFYLECTIONS, in Geometry, the geometrical conftrucs
tions of propofitions.

The term is alfo ufed in reference to problems and prac-
tices; which, when they are deducible from, or founded
upon, fome general propofitions, are called the geometrical
effections thereof.

EFFECTIVE, ina Military Senfe, applies to fach indi-°
viduals in a company, regiment, or body of troops, as may
be capable of aéting efficiently in their feveral ftations: thue,
we fay, four thoufand fix hundred and forty-five ofeétivess
meaning fuch as aré fit for fervice, and totally excluding all
who from wounds, ficknefs, or other caufes, are not quali-
fied to appear in the ranks,

idiftin@tion

In the returns of battalions, a»

_

’ officers of the corps.

E F F.

diftin€tion is made between fuch as are included in the nume-
ral ftrength of the corps, and fuch as are enrolled beyond
the ordinary number of rank and file, Thus, when an adju-
tant or a quarter-matter is attached to any particular com-
pany, wherein he occupies the place of lieutenant, or enfign,
he is faid to be efedive flaff; that is to fay, he is on the
numeral-offeGive ftrength ot that company, and not enrolled
abltractedly from any company in the regiment. Confe-
quently, he ftands in the way of promotion, and caufes that
in which he is enrolled to have one efficient officer lefs than
any other company. On the other hand, when fuch a flaff
officer appears only on the lift of ftaff in a regiment, without
being enrolled in any company, he is faid to be non-effedlive,
becaufe he forms ne part of the complement of any company,
all being completed with efficient officere, to the total exemp-
tion of fuch ftaff-officers. When there are officers, or men,
beyond the regulated number, fuch are called /upernumeraries.
Whether an officer be efedive, non-effedlive, or fupernumerary,
his promotion proceeds alike; fuch matters having no
relation whatever to his army, or to his regimental rank.
Hence, /upernumerary officers are a great detriment to the
promotion of the efdives; and this was at one time fo fe-
verely felt, that, in order to do away the uoeafinefs felt by
the latter, the feveral regiments had an additional number
of field officers appointed, partly tellers from the /upernu-
merary lilt, and filled up from the efédive officers. 'Thefe
were called en fecond, a term taken from the French fervice,
in which thofe officers who diftsnguifhed themfelves were
promoted over the heads of feniors of their refpeGtive ranks
in the fame regiments, but had no additional pay. In fome
inftances, thofe whe had been thus fuperfeded regained
their priority of rank, on being promoted to the fame clafs
with their fuperceffors. Of late this has been difcontinued,
owing to its being confidered a grievance, and fuch meri-
torious individuals as pre-eminently diltinguifh themfelves,
are removed to the legion of honour; rhus rewarding the
brave, and opening a channel for the promotion of the efedive
When a battalion is weak in officers,
i. is common to appoint the acjutant and the quarter- matter,
if they are old officers, to the charge of companies; but this
by no means alters their defignation of non-effedives ; in fa&,
temporary derangements in the economy, or in the ftrength
of a regiment, caufe no change in the eftablifhments of
the ftaff.

-EFFELDER, arciently called Afaltern, in Geography, a
fmall town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe Cobourg,
with an old cattle belonging to the duke of Saxe Gotha.
It reckons about 300 inhabitants, and has a confiderable
manufacture of tiles.

EFFEMINATE, Erreminatt, according to the Vul-
gate, are mentioned in feveral places of {cripture. The
word is there ufed to fignify fuch as were’ confecrated to

‘fome profane- god, and proftituted themfelves in honour

of him.
The Hebrew word, fade/h, tranflated. efféminatus, pro-

perly fignifies con/fecrated, and hence was attributed to thofe

of either fex, who publicly proftituted themfelves in’ honour
of, Baal and Aftarte.

Mofes exprefely forbids thefe irregularities among the
Tfraclites ; but the hiftory of the Jews. fhews, that they
were notwithftanding frequently praétifed. . Levit. xxiii. 18.

EFFENDI, in the Turki/h Language, figuifies mafler ;
and accordingly it is a title very extenfively applied; as to
the mufti and emirs; to the priefts of mofques; to men of
learning, and of the Jaw. ‘The grand chancelior of the em-

ise i8 called reisefendi. See Kopja. :

,EFFERDING, or Ersxtixc, in! Geography, a -fmall

EFF

town of Auftria, not far from the Danube, in that part of
Upper Auftria which is called the Haufruck quarter, in the
diftri& which goes by the name of Donauthal, or valley
of the Danube; nine: miles W. of Lintz. It has an an-
cient caftle. * :

EFFIAT, a {mall town of France, in the department of
the Cantal; fix miles S.E. of Montpenrfier.

EFFERVESCENCE, is popularly ufed for a light ebul-
lition, or a brifk inteftine motion produced in a’ liquor by
the firft ation of heat, without any notable feparation of its
parts. See Borrinc.

Effervefcence is a fudden and rapid difengagement of gas,
taking place within a liquid and feparating from it with a
hiffing noife. The gas of effervefeence is produced by
fimpte or compound eleétive affinity, and is always a fign of -
chemical zGion. In the former cafe, it is, for the moft part,
carbonic acid, and in the latter it is either nitrous gas or
hydrogen. It is manifelt that the gas wuf have little or no
affinity with the fluid in which it is tmmerfed, m order to
produce effervefcence: hence it is, that though carbonic
and muriatic acids are each of them, when dry, in the form
of gas, and are both extricated from their alkaline combina-
tions by fu'phuric acid, yct a folution of carbonat of potafh’
in water fhall produce with fulpherte acid a vehement: effcr~
vefcence, while muriat of potafh, in the fame circumflances,
fhall produce none at all, the carbonic ecid having little or no
affinity for water acidulated by fulphurie acid, while the
muriatic acid will combine with the fame very readily.

EFFICACIOUS, Errecruat, in Theology. Within
thefe two centuries there have been great difputes on the
fubjeé& of efficacious grace. Grace is ufually divided into
fufficient and efficacious; though the Janfenifts hold that
there is no grace {ufficient but what is efficacious, i. ¢. but
what effeCtually determines the will to a&.

Efficacious grace is that which enlightens the mind, and
touches the heart, in fuch a manner, as always to produce
its effet, however it be oppofed or refifted by the will.
See Grace. f

Some divines maintain that efficacious grace is efficacious
of itfelf. Efficacious grace of itfelf, if there be any fuch
thing, is that which produces its effeét merely of itfelf,
and not in virtue of any confent of the will. Calvin is the
firft that ufed the term, gratia efficax per'/e, “ grace effica-
cious of itfelf.””

A late divine holds the efficacy of grace in itfelf to con-
fit in this: that efficacious grace is always joined with a
moral neceflity of doing the thing it inclines to; and fuffi-
cient grace, joined with a moral impotence of doing it.
The Arminian and Popifh way of conceiving the neceflity
of efficacious grace, is; that this grace is never wanting, at
leaft to the righteous, except through their own default ;
that they always ftand in need of other inner graces truly
and properly fufficient, in order to draw down this efficacious
grace; and that thefe do infailibly draw it down, when
they are not rejected, though they often remain without
effeét, becanfe men refift, inftead of yielding their confent
to it, <

F. Malebranche maintains, that the mutual commerce be-
tween foul and-body; i.e. life, has no other vinculum or
ptinciple but the.efficacy of God’s'decrees ; and that fecond
caufés have no proper efficacy, &c. * J

EFFICIENT, in Philofophy.- An efficient caufe is that
which. producés aneffc@. *o See Cause. A

Philofophers ufually diftinguifh four kinds of caufes in

inatutes the efficient, final; formul, and material. See each

ubder ité\proper article.
The fchool philofophers are exceedingly divided as to the
4G2 nature

Oe Oe 2

‘mature and effence of an efficient caufe. Ariftotle defines
it, id unde, that from which;’? or the firft principle of
change and reft, 7. e: of produétion and confervation,

The efficient is called id unde, ** that from which; as
the end or final caufe is that propter quod, “ for which ;’?
the exemplar, ad quod, “* that to which ;” the matter ex
-gquo, ‘* that out of which ;”? and the form, per quod, ‘* that
by which.” Others of the {choolmen define efficient to be
“© principium per fe influens in aliud fine mutatione fui.’
The Ramilts, after Plato and Cicero, define an efficient to be
that, @ qua res eff, “ from which a thing is ;’”? to which a
great author objeGting, thata thing may be alfo from its end,
adds that an efficient is that, ‘* a qua res vera caufalitate pro-
ficifcitur.”” Others define efficient to be, gue per adtionem
eaufat, «* that which caufes by a&ting ;” for to effect, every
body knows is to a@. Laftly, others define an efficient to
be a caule, a qua aliud producatur, “ from which fomething
is produced :”? confequently what arifes from fuch a caufe is
ealled an effe& ; and thus God is the efficient caufe of the
world, and the world the effe@ of God: to which defini-
tion of an efficient, all the former definitions are reducible.

An efficient caufe, which mof properly deferves the
name of a caufe, becaufe it produces the effee&t by fome fort

-of active power or natural agency, is either phyfical, as the
fire is the efficient caufe of heat ; or moral, as an advifer is
the caufe of a murder; or univerfal, which in various cir-
eumftances produces various effects, as God and the fun ;
er particular, as a horfe which produces a horfe ; or univo-
eal, which preduces an effec like itfelf, as a horfe begets a
horfe ; or equivocal, according to the old dottrine, as the
fun producing a frox: or natural, which a€s not only with-
out precept in oppofition to artificial, but alfo from within,
and according to Its own inclination, in oppofition to violent,
as fire ats when it warms; crfpontancous, as a dog eating ;
er voluntary and free. .

Others.confider effictent caufes, either as principal, or as
inftrumental: others, either as next or remote, or as mediate
or immediate; others, in fine, divide efficient caufes among
all the kinds of beings, natural and fupernatural, {piritual and
corporeal, fubftantial and accidental, vical and not vital, &c.

But the moft celebrated divilion of efficients is that into
Jirft and fecond.

A firit efficient caufe is that between which and the effe&
there is fome neceflary conneGlion: of which kind there is
none but God alone.

A fecond efficient caufe is that from which an effe& fol-
lows in confequence of the will or conttitution of the Crea-
tor, and which the Cartefians call an occafional cau/e.

But thefe precarious or occafional caufes are, in reality,

- no caufes at all, but only antecedent effe&ts. This is eafily
fhewn ; for, 1. All a&tion, at leaft all corporeal ation, is
contained in motion ; but motion can only refult from the
firft caufe, it being an allowed principle, that body of itfelf
is inert and inaG@tive. The true caufe of motion, therefore,
is a f{piritual not a corporeal nature. 2. But neither cana
finite {piritual nature be the chief caufe of motion ; for there
is no neceffary conne&tion between the will, e, gr. of an
angel, and the motion of a body, nor between that of
any other being except God. Thus, when an angel wills,
a ftone moves, becaufe God has conftituted {uch a law be-
tween the will of the angel and the motion of the ftone;
and thas we move our hands when we pleafe ; not that the
foul is the principal caufe of motion, but only the occafional
caufe. See Cause. i

Erricienrs, in Arithmetic, the numbers given for an
operation of multiplication, called alfo the fadors. See
Facror and CorrriciexT,

EFF

The efficients are the multiplicand and multiplier,

EFFIGY, Erricies, a portrait or reprefentation of a
perfon to the life. See Porrrair.

Erricy, is alfo ufed for the print or impreffion of a coin,
reprefenting the prince’s head who ftruck tt.

Erricy, to execute or degrade in, denotes the execution or
degradation of a condemned, contumacious criminal, who
cannot be apprehended or feized.

In France, they hang a pifture on a gallows or gibbet,
wherein is reprefented the criminal, with the quality or man-
ner of the punifhment: at the bottom is written the fen-
tence of condemnation. Such perfons as are fentenced to °
death are executed in effigy.

EFFINGHAM, in Geography, formerly Leavitfown, a
townfhip of America, in Strafford county, New Hamphhire,
S.E. of Offipee pond, in Oilipee river, incorporated in 1766,
and containing 451 inhabitants.

EFrinGHam, a county of America, in the lower diftri&
of Georgia, bounded by Savannah river on the N.E., which
feparates it from S. Carolina, by Ogechee river on the
S.W. which divides it from Liberty county. It contains
2072 inhabitants, including 762 flaves. Its chief towns are
Ebenezer and Elberton.

EFFLORESCENCE, of ex, out, and flos, flower, in
Botany, denotes the blooming of a flower.

EFFLORESCENCE; is the formation of a powdery cruft,
or of minute fpicular cryftals on the furface of any fub-
ftance. Itis applied in Chemi/ry to two dillin&, and, in
fome degree, oppolite phenomena, which it is of con-
fequence to be aware of. Thofe falts, which, during
cry ftallization, combine with a large proportion of water,
are very apt, om expofure to a dry air, to lofe a part of
their moilture, in confequence of which they are at firft fu-
perficially, and afterwards entirely reduced to powder, This
effea, at leaft in its commencement, is called efflorefcence,
But there is another kind of efflorefcence wholly diftin&
from this, as when we {peak of the efHlorefcence of iron py-
rites or of new mortar: in thefe cafes it implies the appears
ance of a {uperficial covering of minute hair-like cryftals,
and is occafioned by the chemical changes that take place
on the furface of the fubitance where thefe cryftals appear.
Thus fulphuret of iron is changed by efflorefcence into ful-
phat of iron, or green vitriol: whereas fulphat of foda, when
fubjeéted to the kind of eflorefcence firlt mentioned, al-
though changed in form, remains the fame in compofition,
except that it has loft part of its water. The one deftroys
cryftals, the other produces them.

Errrorescence, in Medicine, a rednefs, or eruption on
the fkin, from flos, a flower. It is fynonymous with £xan-
thema, which is from the Greek «vos, alfo fignifying a flower.
See EXanTHEMA. »

EFFLUI, in Geography, a town of Norway ; 32 miles
N. of Chriftianfand.

EFFLUVIA, fluxes, or exhalations of minute particles
from any body : or emanations of fubtle corpufcles from a
mixed fenfible body, by a kind of motion of tranfpiration.

Oderiferous bodies, every one knows, are continually
emitting fubftantial effluvia, by means of which they ex-
cite in us the fenfe of fmelling. Thefe minute effluvia
are fometimes perceived by the eye, in form of fumes and
vapours.

Some bodies are found to emit effluvia fora great number
of years, without any confiderable lofs, cither as to bulk or
weight; as different odorous bodies, the tenuity of whofe
emanent corpuicles is incredible ; not but that the lofs they
fuftain by the continual emiffion of efluvia may be made up

te

‘EFF

to them by the reception of other fimilar eflluvia of the fame
kind of bodics diffufed through the air.

It is added, that thefe efluvia are emitted in manner of
radii, rays, in orbem 3. and the circumference or bound of the
activity of the radiation exhibits the fame figure as is that
of the radiant. This the aftronomers fufficiently prove,
from the ratio of the refraction of the atmofphere. For
the law of the emiffion of thefe ¢flluvia, fee Quatity.

The ¢flluvia may conliderably operate upon and have
great effects on bodies within the {phere of their ativity. is
proved by Mr. Boyle, in an exprefs Treatife on the Subtilty
of Effluvia; where he fhews, 1. That the number of cor-
pufcles, emitted by way of effluvia, is immenfely great,
2. That they are ofa very penetrating nature. 3. That they
move with vaft celerity, and in all manner of direGtions.
4. That there is frequently a very wonderful congruity, or
incongruity, in the bulk and fhape of thefe efiluvia, com-
pared with the pores of the bodies they penetrate into and
a& upon, 5. That in animal and organical bodies particu-
larly, thefe efluvia may excite great motions of one part of
the frame upon another, and thereby produee very confider-
able changes in the economy. Laftly, that they have fome-
times a power of procuring affiftance in their operations
from the more catholic agents of the univerfe, fuch as gra-
vity, light, magnetifm, the preflure of the atmofphere, &c.

That efluvia are emitted to very great diftances, we have
a notable proof in odoriferous efluvia being in many cafes
perceived at the diltance of many leagues. Again, that
‘the generality of effluvia retain the proper colour, imell,
tafte, and other properties and the effects of the bodies

whence they proceeded, and this even after they have.

pafled through the pores of other folid bodies, we have
abundant proof. And the fame we fee confirmed in fym-
pathetic inks and powders, and in the fagacity of blood-
hounds, &c.

The wonderful extenfion of effluvia, and the {mall dimi-
nution of the body they iffue from, is one of the ftrangeft
problems in phyfies.

The determinate natures of efluvia, according to the
principal inftances we have of them, are reducible to thefe
three heads: 1. That thefe effluvia being by condenfation,
or otherwife reunited, they appear to be of the fame nature
with the body that emitted them. 2. Their determinare
nature may be fometimes difcovered by the difference that
may be obferved in their fenfible qualities ; forafmuch as
thofe efuvia which are endowed with them proceed from
the fame fort of bodies, and yet thofe afforded by one
kind of bodies being in many cafes manifeitly different
from thofe which fly off from another; this evident dif-
parity in their exhalation argues, that they retain diftinét
natures, according to the nature of each body from which
they proceed. 3. We may difcover this different nature of
effluvia from their effe€ts upon other bodies than the organs
of our fenfes; confidering that the effcéts which certain
bodies procuce on others by their efluvia, being conftant and
determinate, and always different from thofe which other
agents produce by their emiffions on the fame or other fub-
jecte, the diftin& nature of the corpufcles, emitted on this
occafion, may be fufficiently judged of, were it only from
this. Boyle “On Efflavia.”

Errxuvia, in JVedicine, are thofe animal and vegetable
exhalations which give rife to various difeafes of the febrile
kind.

Thefe efluvia arife, as we have juft ftated, from two dif-
ferent fources, and produce different difeafes, according to
their origin from the animal body, when they are termed
sontagious ¢fluvia ; or fyom the remains of vegetable matter,

5

EFF

efpecially in combination with moilture, as in fens and
marfhes, when they are ufually termed mar/h mia/mata. The
effluvia from the animal body, or contagious ¢fluvia, pros
duce continued fevers ; as the typhus, the fhip, gaol, hof-
pital, and other malignant fevers ; or the various eruptive
fevers, as {mall-pox, meafles, fearlet-fever, chicken-pox, &c.
The eflluvia of vegetable origin, as the marfh miafmata, give
rife to fevers of the intermitting and remitting clafs; as
the tertian, quartan, and quotidian ague; aud the re-
mittent fevers occurring in camps, and in hot and moift
climates.

With refpeé&t to the animal, or contagious efluvia, it has
already been obferved, that they are produced in three ways.
1. The natural and healthy effluvia, or infenfible perfpira-
tion of the human body, when accumulated and confined in
aclofe and ill-ventilated place, become vitiated, and acquire
a contagious property. 2. Where people, labouring under
any difeafes, efpecially of the febrile kind, are crowded to-
gether in great numbers, or in clofe apartments, the effluvia
arifing from their bodies are more readily rendered contagious,

‘than in the former cafe; and the effluvia from the bodies of

thofe already affected with malignant, or eruptive fevers, are
always contagious. And, 3. Contagious eflluvia are faid
to have been occafionally fent forth from putrefying animal
matter. Of all thefe modes, in which contagious effluvia
originate, examples were formerly adduced. See Cons
TAGION.

Of the vegetable effuvia, or marfh miafms, we fhall have
occafion to {peak in detail, under the head of Jntermittent
Fever. See alfo Miasmara.

It may be obferved, that, after the difcovery of the coms
pofition of the atmofphere, and of the chemical means of:
Inveftigating the properties of every fpecies of gas, or air;
great hopes were entertained by fome {peculative phyficians,
that the power of detecting the prefence of thefe contagious
effluvia, which contaminated the air with contagion, would be
by thofe means attained; and Dr. Mitchell, an American, ima-
gined that he had deteéted this principle of contagion in the
nitrogen, or azotic gas, which he thencé denominated fepton,
confidering it alfo as the principle of putrefcency. But
thefe hopes and {peculations were premature and vifionary.
It has been found, that, fo long as the atmofphere retains
the due proportion of its component parts, of oxygen and
azote, it may, neverthelefs, be greatly impregnated with
contagious effuvia, which efcape the deteétion of chemical
tefts, and are not cognizable by the eudiometer : it has been
found, too, that even chemiltry does not enable us to difcover
any very material difference between the air abroad, and
that in a heated and crowded room, nor any whatever be-
tween the air of the country and of the town. In fhort,
the falubrity, or infalubrity of the air we breathe does not
depend fo much, in general, upon that arrangement of its
component parts, which chemiltry alone enables us to dete&y
(we except the occurrence of damps in mines, &c.) as upon
the intermixture of thofe effluvia, which do not change its
chemical properties.

EFFLUXION, a flowing out, from ex, out of, and flueres
to flow.

ET COYES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de--
partment of the Aube ; 3 leagues E. of Bar-fur-Seine.

EFFRACTURA, (from effringo, w break down,) a
kind of fracture, in which the bone is much deprefled by the
blow.

EFFRONTES, in Church Hiftory, a {e& of heretics, ™&
1534, who fcraped their forehead with a knife till it bled,
and then poured oil into the wound. This ceremony ferved.
them inftead of baptifm See Baptism.

They

EFN

‘They are likewife faid to have denied the divinity of the
Holy Spirit.

EFFUSION, the pouring out of any liquid thing with
fome degree of force.

Yn the ancient heathen facrifices there were divers effufions
of wine, and other liquors, called /ibations.

Errusion, or J’ufion, in Afronomy, denotes that part of
the fign Aquarius, reprefented on celeftial globes and plani-
{pheres, by the water ifluing out of the urn of the water-
bearer. See Aquarius.

EFFUSION, in Medicine, relates to various fluids which
are poured out into the different cavities of the body, and
upon the furfaces of different parts. Effufions of coagu-
lable lymph are ufually the refult of inflammation, efpecially
of membranous parts, and the appearance of layers of this
portion of the blood after death is generally deemed a fuf-
ficient criterion of the previous exiftence of inflammation.
This effufion 1s:difcovered on the membranes of the brain,
in phrenitis ; on the pleura and lungs, after pleurify; in the
wind-pipe, after croup; and fo on: and it is through the
medium of this effufion, that adhefions between inflamed
membranes, and other parts, are effected. Thus, when the
peritoneum is inflamed, it fometimes becomes glued to the
inteftines ; the lungs to the ribs, in pneumonia, or catarrh ;
and fometimes fuffocation is produced, in peripneumony,
from the quantity of this effufion into the fubftance of the
lungs. In a word, it is by this effufion of lymph that
nature unites recent wounds, fupprefles haemorrhages, ob-
literates veffels bound by ligature, and effects other im-
portant changes in the animal economy.

Effufions of ferum, or the watery part of the blood, into
the different cavities of the body, or the interftices of the
cellular membrane, conftitute the various modifications of
Drorsy; whichfee. Sometimes blood itfelf is effufed into
different parts of the body : when under the fkin, if in the
form of {pots, it conftitutes petechie ; if in broader patches,
ecchymofes, or ecchymomata ; it in ftripes, like the ftrokes of a
whip, wibices. Thefe occur in malignant fevers, and in
purpura and fcurvy they are the leading and motft obvious
fymptoms.

Errusion. This word, in Surgery, fignifies the efcape
of any fluid out of the veffels, or vi{cera, naturally contain-
ing it, and its lodgment, either in another cavity in the cel-
lular fubftance, or the fubftance of parts. Thus, when the
cheft is wounded, blood is fometimes effufed from. the veffels
into the cavity of the pleura; in cafes of falfe aneurifm, the
b'ood gets out of the artery into the interltices of the cel-
lular fubftance ;. in cafes of fittule in perinzo, the urine gets
from the bladder and urethra into the cellular membrane of
the perinewm and fcrotum ; and when great violence is ap-
plied to the fkull, blood is often eflufed even in the very
lubilance of the brain.

Effution-alfo fometimes implies an oozing, or feparation
of fome fluid, from veflels, which have not been ruptured.
‘Thus, in cafes of inflammation, furgeons frequently {peak of
coagulating being effufed on different furfacee, and in the
internal texture of the parts affected.

Evrusion’ of Blood, effufio fanguinis, in our Old Writers,
is uled for the mulét, fine, or penalty, impofed for the fhed-
ding of blood. This the king ufed frequently to grant. to
lords of manors. ‘ Among others it- was granted to the abbot
of Glaftonbury.

“ EFLANL, in Geography, a town of -Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia ; 32 miles E.S:E. of Amatich.

EFNANLY, a lake of Atiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 36
miles. W, of Bolt. :

EXE T
EFRIM, atown of Egypt; 27 miles E.S.E. of Alexan-

dria.

EFT, or Err, in Zoology, the name of a creature very
common in all parts of England, and called alfo newt, and
the /wift, and by others the common lizard, lacerta vul-
garis. See Lacerta.

The beak, or fnout, of this creature is oval and obtufe ;
its back of a rufty-iron colour; its feet have each five toes,
and are armed with very fharp though {mall claws. ‘What
toe which is in the place of the fore finger with us is the
longeft of all; and that which anfwers to our thumb is
placed lower. Ray’s Syn. Quad. p. 264.

We have feveral {pecies of this animal with us. 1. The
common land eft, with the black {potted belly. 2. The
f{nake-like eft, which is frequent in our heaths. 3. The

{mall brown land eft. "This is very {carce. 4. The yellow
{caly land eft, deferibed by Plott in his Hitlory of Stafford-
fhire. And, 5. The brown and black fpotted water eft.
Plott’s Staff. p. 252.

The land eft, or, as the naturalifts often call it, the land
Salamander, has fomething very remarkable in its outer coat.
Its fin often appears dry, like that of the lizard kind, but
often alfo it appears wetted, and as if covered with a fine
fhining varnifh; the change from-one to the other of thefe
ftates is ufually performed in an inftant, and it frequently
becomes immediately wet all over on touching it. It alfo
contains, under the fkin, a fort of milky liquor, which {purts
out toa diltance on prefling the body of the animal.

The paffages fur this milk are, 2 vaft number of pores, or
holes, many of which are plainly vifible to the naked eye ;
and very probably the firlt-mentioned liquor, which covers
the {kin in manner of a varnifh, may be the fame with this,
its white colour not being diftinguifhable when it is {pread fo
thin over the furface of the animal. This milk refembles
very much the milky juice which the tithymals, and many
other of the fucculent plants, afford on being cut, or broken.
It is of an infupportably acrid and ityptic talte; and
though the tongue receives no injury from touching it, yet
the fenfation is fo violent, that one is apt to-imagine there
mult be a wound made init. This animal, when bruifed,
yields alfo a very difagreeable {mell.

It has generally been fuppofed, that this animal is of a
poifonous nature; and the famous falamander of the old
writers feems to be of the fame genus, if not the fame animal.
Mr. Maupertuis, determined to inform'the world of the
truth in regard to thefe remarkable particulars, caufed a
larger number of thefe animals to be brought to him, which
the country people, who had caught them about the bottom
of old walls, brought to him with as much caution as if they
had been vipers.

From his trials, it appeared very evident, that the ftories
of this creature’s being poifonous, are as idle and groundlefs
as thofe of its living in the fire.

One thing remarkable this gentleman obferved in his dif
fe&tions of the animal, which was, ‘that he found in feveral of
the females, at once, clufters of eggs, and living young ones.
The eggs formed clufters refemb:ing thofe of the ovaries of
birds, and the young ones were contained in two tubes, oy
long pipes, the coats of .which-were perfe@ly tranfparen'.
and the young ones were ealily diftinguifhed through them .
and there were counted in one female fifty-four of thefe, al,
living and vigorous. ‘Med. Acad: ‘Par. 1727.

The water eft affords an excellent opportunity of feeing
the circulation of the blood by means of the microfcope
particularly of the folar one. By this apparatus, the vefle!
are feen beautifully delineated on the fkin; and the nde a!
blood, inthe large ones, is qual to that of the ftreamre”

watet -*"

EGB

water which is fhewn in hydroftatical experiments thrown
out of a veffel by condenfed air. In either of thefe cafes,
you can fee no appearance of feparate drops, or globules,
but the whole forms one continued body. In the leffer
veftels the globules are feen pafling along very {wiftly, yet
evidently feparate from one another.

It is remarkable, that in the tail of this animal there feem
a greater number of veffels than are immediately neceffary to
the circulation of the blood ; for, when thus examined, there
will be often feen two parallel veffels, in one of which only
the circulation is performed, and this fucceffively in one and
the other of the veffels, the tide often leaving the one wholly
empty, which had juit before been full, and circulating in
the other. Phil. Tranf. N° 460. p. 728.

Ert-Stones, in the Materia Medica of the American In-
dians, a name given to certain ftones, [aid to be found in the
ftomach ef a certain fpecies of water newt, or eft, in the
manner of the bezoars in other animals. The waters of
Brafil, Cuba, and Mexico, abound with this {pecies of eft ;
but it does not feem well attefted, that this fort of ftone was
ever found in any of them by thofe who have diffe&ted num-
bers of them, on purpofe to fearch for it. We have in
Europe {wallow-ftones, and other fuch things, whofe names,
and their fabulous hiftories, would import their being pro-
duced in animals. As many {wallows have been deftroyed
ir England in looking for thefe ftones, as newts in Mexico
in looking for thofe ; and by the appearance of the Ame-
rican as well as the European ftones, they both feem to be
dug out of the earth, and to have been once the teeth, or
other parts of fifhes. Redi, Experim.

The virtues of the eft-ftone of Mexico are celebrated by
Ximenes, and all others who have been uponthe fpot. It
is faid to be a certain remedy for the gravel, and all other
nephritic complaints, and even to break and diffolve the
ftone when already concreted in the bladder. But this
account of its virtues feems as improbable as that of its
origin. Redi tried thefe and many other {tones of famous
character among writers, and found no effeé&t in any of them,
Thefe eft-ftones never produced any vifible effeét in his
trials, innephritic complaints, nor the eagle-ftone in women’s
labour, nor the flones {wallowed by Caymans in quartans,
though Menardes looks on thefe laft as infallible in this
cafe.

EGA, in Geography, ariver of Spain, which runs into
the Ebro, about a league beiow Calahorra—Alfo, atown
of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 7 miles S.S.W. of
Coimbra.

EGABRA, vin Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
Boetica; now Cabra in Andalufia.

_ EGAKTO, in ‘Geography, one of the fmaller Kurile
iflands, ‘inthe North Pacific ocean, N. lat. 49° 5’. E. long.
154° 44!.

EGBEL, a town of Hungary; 8 miles W. of To

altzen.

EGBERT, in Biography, the fir king of England,
was defcended from the Saxon princes who ettablihed
themfelvesin this country, and a branch of the royal family
of ithe kingdom of Weflex. He had, towards the end
of the eighth century, withdrawn into France, feeking an
afylum in the court of Charlemagne. Here he was re-
ceived with hofpitality, and ferved in the armies of that
monarch, where he acquired thofe talents »which ren-
dered him fuperior to all his Saxon countrymen, In the
year 800: he accepted the invitation of the. nobles of Weflex,
and became -their king. His firlt employment was againt{t
the Britons in-Cornwall, whom he defeated in many battles,
He went on conquering till he finally united the whole hep-

EGE

tarchy under his fovereign authority. This event, which
gave political confequence to England, took place in 827.
His government was quiet with regard to his own fubjeéts,
but the Danes made many incurfions againft England, which
were long a fource of great calamity to the country. In $32
they plundered the ifle of Sheppey; they next landed on the
coaft of Dorfet, where they were met by the kinz, and
driven to their fhips with much lofs. In the midit of his
warlike cares Egbert clofed his life in the year $38, and left
the government to his fon Ethelwolf, who was >erfeGly un-
equal to the duties devolved upon him. Hume’s Hilt. vol. i.

EGEDE, Hans or Joun, fuperintendant of the Danifh
miffion in Greenland, was born in the year 1686, and
at the age of 21 he became preacher ‘at Bogen, in Nord-
land. Soon after he formed the projet of converting
the Greenlanders to the Chriftian religion, for which pur-
pofe he went to Greenland, eftablifhed the Dasifh mif-
fion, and employed himfelf in the work with much zeal
during fifteen years. He died in 1758, leaving behind him
a good defcription of the natural hiftory of Greenland, which
has pafled through feveral editions, and has been tranflated
into the Dutch and French languages. The edition of
1763, printed at Geneva, was iliuftrated with a map and
1c plates. His fon Paul, from the age of 12 years, was
one of his moft ative afliftants: Denmark was indebted to
him for the fuccefs of its colony at Greenland; and the in-
habitants of that defolate country are under great obliga-
tions to him for the anxiety which he felt, and the pains
which he took to promote their welfare and comfort. He
kept a journal from his twelfth year till his eightieth, which
is {aid to contain a multitude of curious fats refpeGting the
Greenlanders, their manners and cuftoms, and the fupertti-
tious notions which they entertain. He diedin June, 1789.
Gen. Biog.

EGEK, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 8 mile
nS Oe) & Ticfeun i edad f

EGELESTA, in Ancient Geography,
S.W. of Lobetum.

EGELN, in Geography, a town.of Germany, in Lower
Saxony, and duchy of Magdeburg; 16 miles S.W. of
Magdeburg. ;

EGENBURG, a.town of Germany, in the archduchy
of Auftria; 12 miles S.W. of Znayen, and 36 N.W. of
Vienna. i

EGER. See Drammen.

Ecer, £gra, or Cheb, a handlome town of the empire
of Aultria, in the kingdom of Bohemia, in the territory of
the fame name, [ituated.on the river Eyer, on the boundaries
of Franconia; 120 miles W, of Prague, and 250 NW. of
Vienna. E.lJong. 12° g0', N. lat. 50° 24 It is conf-
dered as next to Praguc jin point of importance, and ree
markable for its mineral, waters.

EGER-HORN, one of the peaks .of the Wetterhorn *
group of mountains. in Switzerland; which .borders oa the
valicy of Grindelwald, and flopes, gradually from barren
rock and fnow.to fertijity aod cultivation. ‘Chere are two
high pyramids, which tower near the Jungfrau, called from
their pofition the exterionand interior gers. The fubttance
of thefe mountains is granite, covered with calcarecus {tone
lying on reddifh flate, which in many places forms a [pecies
of breccia, compofed of an argillaceous bale, covered with
calcareous fragments. Theheight of the Eyer is 13,086
Engltth feet.

EGERI,a djftri& of the canton of Zug, in Switzerland.
See Zuc.—Alfo, a lake, 8 miles S,E. of Zug.

EGERMINATE, of ex, aut, and germen, bud, in Bos
tany, fignifies to. bud or fpring out.

a town of Spain,

EGERQ,

Er. .GiE

EGERO, in Geography, a {malk ifland near the coaft of
Norway,in the North fea; 24 miles S. of Stavanger,

EGERTON, Tuomas, in Biography, vifcount Brackley,
was born in Chefhire about the year 1540, and admitted
commoner of Brazen-nofe college in Oxford, in 1556. Here
he laid the foundation of learning, and removed to Lin-
coln’sinn, where he applied with much diligence to the
ttudy of the law, and became a noted counfellor. In 1581
he was appointed folicitor general to queen Elizabeth, and
in the following year he was eleGted Lent reader of Lin-
coln’s-inn, and one of the governors of that fociety. In June
1592 he was made attorney-general, and foon after reccived
the honour of knighthood. ‘The malterfhip of the Rolls
was conferred on him in 1593, and in 1596, by the queen’s
{pecial favour, he received the feals, with the title of lord-
Keeper. He was. at the fame time, {worn of the privy-
council. Few perfons have enjoyed their advancement with
more general approbation than this eminent lawyer. He
was confulted and employed on all weighty affairs of ftate.
He a@ed as a true friend to the earl of Effex, endeavoured
to mitigate the impetuofity of his temper, and to render
him fubmiffive to the higher powers. When the ear! pro-
ceeded to open infurreétion, the lord-keeper Egerton was
fent, with others, to Effex houfe, to Rnow the meaning of
the tumultuous aflembly held there. He commanded them
to lay down their weapons and depart, which they not only
refufed, but held the delegates as prifoners, while Effex,
with his affociates, made their laft attempt to raife the
city. (See Devereux.) Upon the death of Elizabeth, her
fucceflor James I. fignified his pleafure that fir Thomas
Egerton fhould continue to exercife the office of lord-
keeper. Soon after he created him baron Elfemere, for his
faithful fervices to the late queen and himfelf; and imme-
diately afterwards conftituted him lord bigh chancellor of
England, an office which he held above 12 years with dig-
nity and reputation. _ In 1610 he was eleéted chancellor of
the univerfity of Oxford, the duties of which he performed
with much honour to himfelf and with advantage to the
church of England. His health began to decline about the
year 1615, when he was attacked by fir Edward Coke in
an affair relative to an interference of the court of chancery
in a matter of common law. The cafe was argued before
the king, affilted by feveral eminent lawyers, who decided
in favour of the chancellor. He wae foon after appointed
high fteward at the trial of the earl and countefs of Somer-
fet, for the death of fir Thomas Overbury, and after the
earl’s conviction, he fteadily refufed to affix the great feal
to the pardon extended to him by the king. His age and
growing infirmities induced him to folicit his difmiffion from
the office of chancellor, with which the king complied,
though with much regret; at the fame time raifing him to
the ftyle and title of vifcount Brackley. He died at York-
houfe in the Strand, March 15, 1617, in the 77th year of
his age: and the earldom of Bridgewater was conferred on
his fon as a reward of his father’s virtues. This worthy
man, and excellent lawyer, was in his difpofition open and
fincere ; in his adminiftration honeft and upright. He was
a zealous and faithful fervant of the crown, and did not
fcruple to give his fovereign James the moft wholefome
advice on many very important topics. His- private cha-
racter was virtuous and honourable. In his life-time was
printed a fpeech which he delivered in the Exchequer cham-
ber, in Robert Calvine’s caufe; and after his death ap-
peared his ‘* Privileges and Prerogatives of the high court of
Chancery’’; and his ‘* Obfervations concerning the Office of
Jord chancellor.” He left his chaplain, Mr. (afterwards
bifhop) Williams, four MS. collections, relating to the pre-

EGG

rogative royal;—the privileges of parliament ;—the proceed-
ingsin chancery ;—and the power of the ftar-chamber: which”
are fuppofed to have been the chief fource of that prelate’s
legal and political knowledge. He was thrice married, and

left behind him John, afterwards earl of Bridgewater, and

Mary, married to fir Francis Leigh. Biog, Brit.
EGESTION, from egero, J caft out, in Medicine, the
fame with dejeétion.
EGG, in Comparaiive Anatomy. Under this term might
be defcribed, without impropriety, the parts immediately
fubfervient to the developement and growth of the embrio in

all animals, even in thofe which are, called viviparous ; but ©

as the Englifh word egg is only in common ufe for the ovum
of dirds, we {hail at prefent confine ourfelves to a deferip-
tion of it in that clafs of animals, and refer our readers for a
more general account of the {ubje& to the article Ovum, in
Camparative Anatomy.

The parts entering into the compofition of the egg of
birds are, the /hell, the membranes, and the humours, or rather
Semi fluid fubftances. ,

The form of the ege in moft* birds is not an exa€t oval,
although that figure appears to have derived its name from
its clofe refemblance to the fhape of the ovum inbirds. Eggs,
having ose of the ends fmaller, or more pointed than the
other, allow a larger number of them to be placed in the

neft, than if each were a perfe& cllipfis, the variety in the

fhape of the ends being applicable to the different fized an-
gles left by the irregular appofition of a number of round
furfaces to each other. The ufual form of eggs would
feem to be defigned to render this arrangement in the neft
more compaét during incubation, as, where the bird lays but
few eggs, they commonly poffefs more ftrictly the oval figure;
and the eggs of the oftrich, which, from the temperature of
the climate, do not require the conftant incubation of the pa=
rent, are of a fhape between a fphere and an ellipfis. __

The moft prevalent colour of birds’ eggs is a milk white;
but to this there are numerous exceptions, efpecially amongit
the paffrine tribes. Eggs are often befpeckled with red,
brown, &c. on grounds of different colours, and fometimes
are of one ftrong plain tint, as green, &c. but a defcription
of the varieties in the colour and form of eggs belongs to
the department of natural hiftory.

The fhell, or calcaréous inveftment, (cortex or putamen of the
older anatomilts,) is fecreted from the internal furface of
that part of the oviduét which is called the uterus, as already
mentioned in the duatomy of Birps. It adheres itri@ly to
the external membrane of the egg, with which it appears
to be in a degree intermixed, by being incrufted in the inter-
{tices of its external furface.

The fhell varies very much in thicknefs according te
the fize of the bird. In the eggs of very {mall birds the
fhell is thinner than the fineft paper, while in the oftrich it
is one-eighth of an inch thick; but in every inftance the
fhell is porous in its texture, and always light and fragile
in proportion to its thicknefs.

Ariftotle, Pliny, and fome other older writers on the fub- -
je&, fuppofed that the fhell acquired its hardnefs after being
laid, from evaporation, and the influence of external air. Fae
bricius {poke doubtfully on this point, and the opinion was not
re‘uted until Harvey wrote. This error feems to have arifen
from the circumftance of hens frequently laying their eggs
before the fhell is fully formed; in which cafes, the covering
of the egg becomes much more firm after it is completely
dry: but from the quantity of calcareous matter which
the perfe€tly formed fhell contains, it feems impoffible that
it fhould poffefs any pliancy; or accommodate its fhape to that
of the paflage through which it is ejected, as the older writers ~

fuppofed:

"7
,

i gi, Vou. XII,

5

EGG.

f{uppofed: the commen mode of afcertaining whether a hen be
. about to lay or not, by introducing the finger into the cloaca
and touching the hard fhell of the egg, fufficiently proves
that no material change is produced on the fhell by expofure
tothe air. The impreflions, which frequently appear upon
fhells, and which fome people imagine are occafioned by the
conftriGtion of the anus, are formed ia the oviduét at the time
the calcareous matter is depofited. It fometimes happens,
that a very {mall egg is found included in another of a com-
mon fize. Harvey mentions his having met with an in-
fiance of this kind;in which he found both the external
egg, and the one it contained, invefted with a hard fhell.
' The earthy matter of the fhell is compofed of carbonat
and phofphat of lime, which are faid'to be held in connection
by a {mail quantity of gelatine. The anatyfis given by
Wauquelin is as follows: BA ITNT:

“earbonat of lime. . .
phofphat of lime.
.anjmal matter.

parts of ege fhell.

In one experiment we made, of diffolving the fhell of
the egg in vinegar, the animal fubftance which remained
appeared only as a fine mem)rane, or cuticular covering, on
the external furface of the fhell ; we conceive therefore that
the calcareous matter of the fhell is not depofited in the
fame manner as ths earth of bones, but asacrult on the exter-
nal membrane of the ezg, and that the animal fubftance is
confined to the fuperficics of the fhell, from which arife its
greater denfity and polifhed appearance.

. The external membrane, or membrane of the fhell, (mem-

Srana albrminis of Blumenbach) poffeffes exactly the form >

of the fheil to which it ferves asa lining ; it 1s by far the
ftrongeft membrane in the egg; itis fmooth and glofly on
the inner furface, and alittle flocculent on that next the fhell,
to which, as has been before obferved, it intimately adheres.
This membrane is devoid of fibres, it has a degree of clafti-
city which is equal in all dire&tions. It has been long
known to be compofed of two layers; but we have been
enabled to feparate it into a greater number of lamine by
boiling it, or by partially drying it.
The folliculus‘eris, or air cell, is a circular {pace left be-
__ tween two layers of the external membrane at the great
end of theegg. This feparation of the membrane exifts be-
fore the egg leaves the oviduct ; it is, however, originally
very inconfiderable; in a recently laid hen’seggit is about a
quarter of an inch in diameter, but in ftale eggs it is fre-
quently found to meafure an inch acrofs, and in the later
_Atages of incubation the external membrane is feparated al-
moit throughout into two layers by means of the air of the
folliculus. The increafe of the air before incubation de-
pends upon the evaporation of the molt finid paris of the
egg, which proceeds more rapidly than is commonly fuppofed;
we have afcertained by experiment that an egg by evapora-
tion alone lofes feveral grains of its weight every day. ‘he
diminution of the fluids of the egg is more confiderable
during incubation, both from the expofure to a high tempera-
ture, and the confumption of thefe fubttances in the forma-
tion of the chick, and hence the neceflity of the admiffion of
fo large a portion of air into the egg during the period of
incubation. This air is commonly {uppoled to be defigned
for the refpiration of the foetal chick: the arguments for
fuch an opinion, with thofe again it, will appear more pro-
perly in the article Incusation of the Egg, which fee. It

is fufficient at prefent to account for the exiftence of air im
the egg, without difcuffing its ufes.

The chemical properties of the air contained in unincu-
bated eggs have not heretofore been exa¢tly afcertained. It
has been iuppofed by fome to -be hydrogen. Coxe and others
have thought it ta be oxygen. Others again, as Hales,
Blumenbach, &c. have. confidered it as atmofpheric air; which
laft opinion.we are led to: adopt both from reafoning and
dire& experiments made on. the fubjeét. It is univerfally
allowed that the fhell ard external membrane of the egg are
porous; if they were not fo, evaporation of the humours could
not take place to the extent we have ftated ; the fame flruc-
ture which gives paflage to the fluids may admit likewife air;
it is to be {uppofed, therefore, that except the {mall globule
which exifts before the fhell is formed, the folliculus derives -
its air from the atmofphere. It is further to be obferyed,
that the organization of the external membrane does not
permit its performing any office like fecretion. It is itfelf
an excretion from the ovidudt, and even during incubation,
when the other membranes are vafcular, it does not acquire
blood-veffels, but remains unchanged in its. {truéture. ,

With the view of proving whether. the air inthe follicu-
lus was received from without, or produced within the eggs
we have ‘covered the fhell with varntfh, and, -in feveral in-
ftances, in which this experiment was made, no fenfible ad-
dition to the quantity of air originally contained in the air-
cell took place: we have likewife eflayed to analyfe the air
of a number of unincubated eggs, by collecting it in a gra-
duated glafs tube, over mercury and over water, and expof-
ing it to the action of lime-water, phofphorus, and nitrous
gas; by which experiments fimilar refults were obtained, as,
when atmofpheric air was made the fubjeét of inquiry. Ia
fome inftances the air-of eggs appeared to contain more car~
bonic acid gas, and lefs oxygen ; but the deviation from com-
mon air, with refpe& to the quantity of thefe gaffes, was fo
inconfiderable, that it could not always be deteéted: Some
effect, with regard to the purity of the air of eggs, might be
expected in confequence of its remaining for a certain time
in contact with the external membrane ; if ‘we may credit the
affertions of Spallanzani, the air in the ege mut be deprived
of a confiderable part of the oxygen, He {tates that he
found the fhells of eggs and of teftaceous mollufea abforb
oxygen freely. In order to fatisfy himfelf if this gas was
attracted by the calcareous matter, or the animal fubftance
combined with it. he made correfponding experiments with
{nail fhells which had been long deprived of their inhabitants,
and had lolt by decay and expofure almoft all their animal
fubftance, and with other fhells which were in a more recent
ftate, and he found that the abforption of oxygen was in
proportion to the quantity of animal matter remaining in the
fhell. (Journal de Phyfique, Frutidor, an. 11.)

It is cuflomary to judge of the frefhnels of eggs by the
degree of warmth which is felt upon the application of the
tongue to the large end of them: the fenfation of heat in
this way is never abfolute, but comparative; that is to fay,
the temperature of the egg is not aCtually fo high as that’
of the tongue; but the prefence of the air-cell behind the fhell
at the great end, prevents that part abitraQing the heat, of
the,tongue fo’ readily as the other portions of the egg.

The whites of the egg were defcribed as a ingle humour
by the elder gnatomifts ; they were called by Ariftotle ovs
albitudo s ovt albus Jiguot by Pliny ; avt candidum. by Cel-
fus; ovi alium et albamenium by Apicius, and albumen by
Fabricius ab Aquapendente: all of which appellations have
afifen from the appearance of this, humour when boiled.
Harvey was the firlt who made the diftinGion of two whites,
Leveillé, a late rench writer, divides the albumen into

4H three

EG G.

three portions ; an external (a/bumen cortical), ® middle (al-
bumen moyen), and a centrat white (albumen central); the
lait, however, is merely a different name for thole parts coms
monly deferibed under the title of Chalazes.

The external white is the molt fuperficial ; lying immedi-
diately under the membrane which lines the fhell; all the
other parts of the egg are therefore included by it. This
white is always moft abundant in recently laid eggs; in thofe
that have been long kept it is fearcely to be obferved ; it is
at all times, however, much lefs in quantity than the middle
white. It isa true albuminous fluid, but almoft as liquid
and tranfparent a3 water ; two modes are employed for fhew-
ing the dittnét exiftence of the fuperficial white; one is
to open the fhell and external membrane of a very frefh egg,
when this humour will ran off, leavizg the principal white
behind ; the other mode is to boil a freth ego, if gently, the
external white will appear like milk, but if the boiling be
long continued, the white will become hard, and the exter-
nal one may be detached by a little pains from the other; it
will then be obtained as a Jamen diminifhed in thicknefs
towards the two ends of the egg.

Harvey faid that the external white was covered witha
proper membrane, but we have failed to difcover it.

The middie, or principal white, makes the chief part of
that vifeid, tenacious, tranfparent, femi-fluid mafs. which is
commonly known under the name of the white of the egg :
itis enveloped by the external white, and contains the yolk
and the two chalazes; it is faid to be inclofed by a mem-
brane ; this circumftance does not admit, however, of being
clearly demonftrated before incubation, in the later periods
of which the tunic of the white becomes exceedingly evi-
dent. If the contents of an egg be thrown unbroken into
water, they become opake and flightly coagulated upon the
fuperfcics, which prefents a {mooth membranous-looking fur-
face, but if the white be broken, every part of it that may be
in contaét with the water aflumes the fame membranous ap-
pearance, fo that no conclufion can be drawn with refpe&
to the exiftence of a membrane from this experiment, unlefs
it be admitted that the white be compofed throughout of
an arrangement of albuminous fibres or membrane. This te
the opinion of Maitre Jean, who was perhaps the moft accu-
rate writer on this fubject: he fays, that the white is a com-
pofition of glairy fibres, iatermixed with aqueous parts; if;
he obferves, one beats for a long time the white of an egg, it
becomes as fluid as water, which can only happen in confe-
quence of thefe fibres being broken or attenuated by the
motion. fo that not poffeffiog any longer their arrangement,
the confiltence of the whole mafsis changed. If other mu-
cilagirious or glutinous liquors be beaten in the fame manner,
they do not become more fluid, becaufe they do not poffefs
that peculiar arrangement of their parts which can be de-
flroyed by motion: he further obferves, that the white of
the egg has a ftruéture, and compofition altogether peculiar,
although from its tranfparency we cannot perceive it. In
order to be convinced of this, it is only neceflary to make the
following experiment; let anegg be opened, and fuffer a {mall
quantity of the white to run out in order to introduce fome
diftilled vinegar in its place, in a little time fome parts of the
white will be feen penetrated by the vinegar and coagulated,
and others full preferve their tran{parency, by which there
will be an opportunity of obferving tome large fibres differs
ently fituated, and many others forming a {pecies of mem~
brane. Obfervations fur la Formation du Poulet, par
. Maitre Jean, p. 20, 21. :

The white of the egz does not float about promifcuoufly
through the egg ; it adheres to the membrane, lining the
{mall end of the egg, and always prefervesits proper relative

pofition to the yolk ; this may be confidered as an additionat
argument for the exiltence of folid albuminous fibres in tise
white.

The albumen, in its natural ftate, has little taite or {mell.
When {pread thin aod flowly over any body, it forms a vare
nifh fimilar to what is made by gum arabic ; which it allo re=
fembles in tafte. It may alfo be again diffolved in water, and
brought back to its original ftate. Uncoagulated albumen
foon putrifies, unlefs it be dried; after which it may be
preferved for any length of time.

It is infoluble in alcohol and ether: acids do not diffolve
it unlefs it be coagulated and heat employed.

When alkalies are mixed with the folution of albumen in
water, no apparent change takes place; but if a concene
trated folution of pure potafh be triturated with albumen
for fome time, and then allowed to remain at reft, the al-
bumen gradually coagulates, or rather gelatinizes; for the
coagulum has a ftriking refemblance to jelly. It gradually
hardens ; and at a particular period of its drying, it refem=
bles very exaGtly the cryftalline lens of the eye. When
quite dry, it is brittle and tranfparent. ‘Thomfon’s Che-
miftry, p. 490.

None of the earths form infoluble compounds with albu-
men, in this refpeé& refembling the alkalies.

In a number of experiments mentioned by Dr. Thomfon,
in which he tried the effects of a great variety of metallic
falts upon a folution of albumen, obtained by mixing the
white of one egg with a pint ef water, every metal, except co-
balt, occafioned a precipitate: but no precipitate ever ap=
peared, when the oxyd was held in folution, by an alkali or
an earth. . The effeét of the metallic falts on albumen form
a ftriking contreft with their effe& on gelatine.

A folution of tan forms, with an aqueous folution of albu-
men, a very copious yeilow precipitate, of the confiltence of
pitch, and infoluble in water, which is a combination of tan
and albumen. When dry it is brittle, like over tanned
leather, and is not fulceptible of putrefaétion, Nicholfon’s
Journal, i. 272.

According to the chemical analyfis which has been made
of the white of the egg, 100 parts of it contain 80 parts of
water, 4.5 of uncoagulable matter, and 15.5 of pure aibu-
men. By diftillation it affords water, carbonat of ammo-
nia and empyreumatic oil, a coal remaining in the retort
which yields foda and phofphate of lime.

The white of the egg is weli known to be coagulable by
heat, acids, alcohol, and even by water in a flight degree.

It has been fuppofed by Fourcroy and other chemifts,
that the coagulation of the albumen was produced by a com-
bination with oxygen. To determine if this fuppoiition
were well founded, M. Carradori expofed the frefh albumen
of an egg to the heat of boiling water, having previoufly
covered its furface with olive oil: he afferts that coagulation
was effe&ted as readily in this way as in open air; and that
there was no efcape of elaftic fluid through the oil, which
would have happened had the water undergone any decom-
polition during the experiment. M. Carradori likewife ob=
ferved, that when he coagulated albumen in conta& with
oxygen gas, no abforption of this fluid took place; he
therefore concludes that the coagulation of the albumen is
not effe&ed by the oxygen, but by the ation of the caloric
alone. Annali di Chimica di Brugnatelli._

Scheele attributed the coagulation of the albumen to its
combination with the matter of heat, which opinion he
fupported by fome ingenious experiments. Mr. Thomfon,
on the other band, obferves that, as we know when a
fluid is converted into a folid, caloric is ufually difen.
gaged, it is extremely probable that the fame difengagement

6 takea

EGG.

fakes place here. But the opinion has not been confirmed
by experiment. Fourcroy, indeed, relates. that he faw the
thermometer rife feveral degrees; but as others have not
been able to perceive any variation of temperature during
the coagulation of albumen, it cannot be doubted that this
philofopher has been mifled by fome circumftance or other
to which he did not attend. Thomfon’s Journal, iii. 271.

It is remarkable, that if albumen be diluted with a fuffici-
ent guautity of water, it can no longer be coagulated.
Schecle mixed the white of an egg with ten times its
weight of water, and then, though he boiled the liquid,
no coagulum appeared. Acids, indeed, and alcohol, even
then coagulated it ; but they lofe their power if the albu-
men be diluted with a much greater quantity of water, as
has been afcertained by many experiments.

When albumen is coagulated either by heat, alcohol,
Or acids, it is an opake fubftance of a pearl white colour,
tough, and of a fweetifh mucilaginous tafe; it is no
longer foluble in water, and is lefs fulceptible of decom-
polition thaw uncoagulated albumen. Mr. Hatchet kept
it for a month under water without its becoming putrid.
By drying it in the temperature of 212°, he converted it
into a brittle hard, yellow, fubitance, femi-tranfparent like
horn.

When this fubftance was digefted for fome hours in
water, it fottened and became white and opake, lixe newly
coagulated albumen.

When coagulated albumen is fteeped in diluted nitric
acid for fome weeks, it communicates a yellow tinge to
the acid, and becomes itfelf opake, but does not diffolve:
when the albumen, thus treated, 1s immerfed in ammonia,
the liquid affumes a deep orange colour, inclining to blood
red, the albumen is flowly diffulved, and the folution has
a deep yellowifh brown colour, If the albumen, after
being fleeped in nitric acid, be wafhed, and then boiled
in water, it is diffolved, and forms a pale yellow liquid
which gelatinizes, when properly concentrated. If the
gelatinous mafs be again diffolved in boiling water, the
folution is precipitated by tan and by nitro-muriat of
tin. Hence we fee that that nitric acid has the property of
converting coagulated albumen into gelatine. For this
important faét we are indebted to Mr. Hatchet. rs

Coagulated albumen is readily diflolved by a boiling
lixivium of potafh, ammonia is difengaged, and an animal
foap is formed. Hatchet, Phil. Tranf. 1800. Thomfon’s
Chemiftry, p. 494, &c.

The paid cords, which conne& the yolk with the
white were called, from a fancied refemblance to hail, by the
older writers, Chalazes, Grandines, &c. From the ufe
which Vic D’Azir afcribed to them, he named them Liga-
mena fufpenfeurs du jaune, Leveillé has defcribed them as a
third white, a/Jumen centra]; and io this country they are
popularly known, in confequence of a vulgar error, by the
name of the tread or treddle.

Thefe parts are two {ubftances of a much more firm tex-
ture than any otber portion of the white: they appear to
be compofed of an opake albuminous membrane coiled upon
itfelf, fo as to form acord; this cord is again convoluted or
doubled uponitfelf, to which fome thick greenifh femi-tran{-
parent albumen adheres, fo as to give the whole a knotted
er granulated figure ; from which it was formerly compared,
thongh not very aptly, to hail. Thefe cords are each at-
tached by one of their extremities to the membrane of
the yolk, at which place the cord is denfe and compa& ;
the other extremiry is loft in the white, and is loofely formed,
and ends in membranous folds; the attachment of the cords
to the yolk membrane is at the two poles of the yolk, cor-

refponding to the two ends of the egg. The chalazes are
not generally of the fame magnitude; one is larger and more
knotted than the other, and extends towards the great end
of the egg: the f{maller one lies next the fmall end, and
makes a turn to one fide of the egg. Sometimes one of
thefe cords is wanting, and this happens more frequently in
eggs of the guinea fowl, than in thofe of the commor
en.

The above defcription of the chalazes correfponds with
that generally given by authors, and with what we have
obferved in nature, but differs very materially from the ac-
count of thefe parts which Leveillé has publifhed.

He confiders the chalazes not as feparate bodies; he fays,
they are conjoined by means of a light train of albuminous
fubitance, and thence looks upon them as a diftiné@ white.
He afferts, that their relatien to the yolk is not the fame
that has been defcribed even by the moft modern authors ;
they are not, he fays, fituated at the two oppofite poles of
this globe; but divide its circumference in two fegments, of
which the difference in extent is very remarkable, and is in
the proportion of 24 to 100.

In fpeaking of the cords themfelves, he fays, they never
have been defcribed but by him; although, 1n his own lan-
guage, he had before him the defcription of Maitre Jean,
who fays, * Ils femblent naitre ’un & Vautre ‘de la mem-
brane, qui recouvre le jaune, par un pedicule qui femble
compofe de deux petit cordons, ou boyaux entortillés comme
une corde.” (Obfervations fur la Formation du Poulet, p. 15.)

Leveillé proceeds to fay of thefe two cords, one is purely
membranous, twi'ted upon itfelf, and joined to the mem-
brane of the yolk, from which it is eafily detached by dif-
fection or the ftalencfs of the egg; this cord is often want-
ing. The other is truly vafcular, twilted on itfelf, and
formed like an umbilical cord; it is continuovs and incorpo-
rated with the membrane of the yolk, one cannot feparate it
without breaking this particular tunic, and opening the ca-
vity which contains the yolk. It is always to be obferved
in frefh eggs; but in thofe long kept, itis, as it were, ma-
cerated and detached. It is to this detachment and difor-
ganization produced by time, that we attribute the want of
fuccefs in incubation ; it is this conduit which explains the
point of communication between the yolk and the white.
Its vafcular ftrnQure is not equivocal, if after having di-
vided it ina tranfverfe direction it be obferved with the naked
eye, as we have done in the prefence of Cuvier, or examined
with a magnifying lens of {mall powers. Sometimes we have
feen it injected with a yellow fluid, and upon this point we
claim the teftimony of Déyeux. ‘The free extremity of this
cord is pencillous and divided into an infinite number of very
{mall filaments, which may be confidered as the ramifica+
tions of the principal trunk, intended to form fo man
fuckers calculated to abforb the moft fluid part of the albu.
minous fubftance, (Differtation Phyfiologique fur la Nu-
trition des Foetus confidérés dans les Mammiferes & dane
les Oifeaux, par J. B. F. Leveillé, &c. &c. Journal de
Phyfique, tome v. Floreal, an. 7.) M. Leveillé affumes
this explanation of the ufes of the albuminous cords, as an
original difcovery ; although Maitre Jean had long fince
decjared a fimilar opinion in thefe words: * Quoique j’ap-
pelle ligamens cea deux appendices qui font aux deux cdtes
du jaune, je n’eftime pas que leur feul ufage foit d’attacher
Je blanc au jaune, mais qu’ils fervent encore 2 préparer le
blanc ou & le filtrer & le conduire dans le jaune.”

With refpe& to the points of attachment of the two
albuminous cords to the membrane of the yolk, we have no
hefitation in faying, that Leveillé has mis-ftated the fad,
and that they are placed at the poles of the yolk, and as

4H2 near

EG G.

near as may be, in the words of Maitre Jean, diametrically
oppofite (diametralement oppofés. )

We have repeatedly examined the albuminous cords with
the view of dilcovering the vafcularity of oue of them, as
flated by Leveillé, but have never been able to perceive it ;
although the obfervations were condu@ted with much care
and attention, and. made under a.variety of circumitances,
and with glaffes of different magnifying powers; we have
alfo made feveral attempts toinje& the cords with coloured
fluids, in both direétions, but without fuccefs.. We are,
therefore, led to conclude, that there is no veffel in cither of
the chalazes; for we entertaio but little inclination to credit”
the evidence of Leveillé refpeting this circumftance, from
finding his reprefentations fo erroneous in general, fo much
fo indeed, that we fhould not have thought it neceflary to
have noticed his opinions at all, had he not affociated with
them the refpeGtable names of Cavier and Déveux.

Leveillé has faid likewife, that the chalazes are covered
with a membrane; this, however, is not vifible even during
incubation, although at that time the membranes become
fo much ftronger; and its exiftence does not feem probable,
as the denfe albumen of which the chalazes are compofed is
gradually loft in the common fubitance of the principal
white.

The yolk, or vitellus, is that well known {pherical yellow
mafs which occupies the centre of the egg; it is inclofed in
an extremely thin but denfe membrane, which is apparently
without fibres, and is inelaftic; this membrane is at all
times really double, but it is extremely difficult to demon-
itrate the internal iayer previous to incubation.

The globe of the yolk, as before ftated, is enveloped by
the white; it is not, however, fituated exaGly in the centre
of the albumen, but fomewhat nearer the great than the
{mall end of the egg ; and it is always found near the fupe~
708 furface of the albumen in whatever way the egg may be
placed.»

The yolk varies a good dealin fize, it is occafionally
found double. Itis always a {maller mafs in the egg of birds
than the white, which was, obferved by Ariftotle, although
fome late writers have expreffed doubts with refpec to this
circumitance. “Its abfolute weight is confiderably lefs than
that of the white. An entire egg weighs ufually about two
ounces. Inone inftance, where we weighed the parts fepa-
rately, the white was found to be one ounce one drachm
and five grains, and the yolk only five drachms and fifty-
feven grains; the white, therefore, was three drachms and
eight grains heavier than the yolk. - When a given portion
of the white and the yolk are compared, the latter is found
to poffefs lefs weight than the former. It is in confequence
of the greater {pecific gravity of the white that the yolk is
always feen near its upper furface. If a yolk of an egg be
thrown into a veffel containing a quantity of albumen, it will
be found to defcend a little farther than it is obferved to do
in the white while in the egg; the circumftance of its
rifing fo near the furface of the white in the egg, depends,
therefore, probably in part, upon the manner in which thefe
two fubftances are there coane&ted with each other. If the
covering of the yolk be ruptured, and the contents poured
upon fome albumen, it floats entirely on the furface, which
feems to prove that it ts the concentrated and globular form
which preferves the yolk under the furface of the white
while in the egg. ye

The yolk is ufually of a bright yellow colour; but in
fome birds’it is pale, in others it is a faffron colour, and a
red-yellow in fome others; it is always a much more fluid
humour than the white. jas :

The yolk has not the fame ftru€ture or compofition

throughout ; the external part is of a deeper colour; itis:
lefs tenacious, and contains more oil, The centreis aclear
yellow, is vifcid, and refembles. cream. When, the yolk is
boiled, the external part appears pale-coloured, porous,
dry, and of a farinaceous texture, while the centre forms
even a more firm coagulum than the albumen.

The fubftances into which the yolk is refolvable,. are
water, oil, albumen, ard gelatine; if after being boiled:
the yolk be heated in a pan, it foftens, and when fqueezed
between the finger:, drops of oi! esude; if put into linen in
this ftate, and prefied, an oil may be forced out. This oil
is of a yellow colour, and infipid, unlefs too much heat has
been employed in preparing it. Its properties are thofe of
fixed oil, or rather of femi-fuid fat. Chandelier obtained
this oil without the affifance of heat.

’ The refidue, after the feparation of the cil, poffefles the-
properties of albumen, though it is ftill a little coloured by,
the remains of the oil; heace, when wathed with water, a
kind of emulfion is obtained. 1t is owing to the prefence:
of albumen that the yolk bardens when heated.

Nhen this albumen is boiled in water, the liquid is faid®
to feparate a little gelatine. (Thomfon’s Chemittry.)

Mr. Hatchet found, that when he boiled potas with yolle
he obtained a pale olive-coloured concrete animal foaps
which being diffolved in water,.and faturated with muniatic-
acid, was thrown down in the fiate of fat; when burnt, the
yoik left a fmall refiduum of phofphat of lime and phofphat.
of foda. (Phil. Tranf. 1800.)

Maitre Jean has obferved, that if we harden in boiling
water the eggs of young hens, in which the yolk is ufually
a pale yellow ; thofe of a guinea hen, which have the yolk.
of afaffron colour ; and fome duck eggs, in which the yolk.
is a deep red-yellow: and if we afterwards take equal
weights of each of thefe yolks, and extraét the oil from:
them in the ufval manner, we fhall obtain more oft from the-
yolks of the guinea hen than from thofe of the pullet, and
mott of all from the yolks of the duck; from which experi-
ment it may be concluded, that the yolk owes its coloury.
in a great meafure, to the oil it contains. :

Leveillé relates an experiment on the yolk, which he-con-
fiders very curious and inexplicable, .
peated it feveral times before Déyeux, Fourcroy, and Cuvier.
He took the yolk of an egg, diveited-of its membrane, and |
agitated it in fome water, which became, in coniequence,
turbid and milky. Being fuffered to ftand for a few inftants,
the liquid became a very delicate red; this réle-coloured
tinge difappeared as foon as all the yolk was diffolved, and

feemed to depend entirely upon the folution of the yolk in.

the water. (Journal de Phyfique, p. 395-) ‘
It is well known, that the yolk of an egg acquires a

reddifh hue by being broken and expofed to the air: mai
not, therefore, this change of colour, in both cafes, depend
upon the abforption of oxygen? F “at
There is always to be feen upon the centre of the fuperior
furface of the yolk a ahite foot, which, when minutely exa=
mined, is obferved to be formed of feveral concentric parts.
Maitre Jean defcribes this appearance on the yolk under
the name of /a tache blanchatre ; but it is molt commonly called
the cicatricula, The latter appellation was given to it by
Fabricius. ab Aquapendente, under the fuppofition, that
the appearance was occafioned by the feparation of the
yolks from the peduncules which futtain the capfules.of the
eggs in the ovary, in the fame manner as we fee a mark left
upon a fruit at the place where the ftatk was attached to it,
The explanation of Fabricius was, however, perfectly
erroneous, for the pedicles of the capfules have no fuch con-
nection with the ova; this was pointed out by Harvey, ei
vs the

He ftates, that he reo —

E-G G.

the name of cicatricula has been ever fince: generally em-
ployed by writers on the fubje& notwithftanding ; Haller
ealls the central part of the white {pot the follicle of the yolk
((follicule du jaune.) ‘ ,

Maitre Jean gives the following defcription of the cica-
tricula, Upon the fuperficies, and uiually on the fide of the
large end of the egg, there is always to be obferved a
whitith {pot, fometimes round and fometimes oblong and
irregular; in the middle of which one may perceive another
{mail {pot of an afh-colour, which ufually correfponds in
figure with the other ; and in the centre of this lait, anda
little towards the fide, there is a {mall body of a little lighter
colour than the other parts of the whitifh fpot, it is oblong,
anda little folded, and feems to float ina liquor. Around
the whitifh {pot there is a narrow grey circle, then another
broader one of a yellowifh colour, which is furrounded by
another of a greyifh hue, and lay, by a fourth circle,
which is at firft of a deep yellow, and becomes infenlibly
lighter, until it is loft in the general colour of the yolk.
The number of thefe cireles is not always the fame; it is
fometimes lef, at others. more, but whatever the number
may be, the one diltinguifhed by the deep yellow colour
always furrounds the others. (Obfervation du Poulet, p. 13.)

The obfcure afh-coloured {pot is the part which 1s parti-
cularly called cicatricula; becaufe, when the membrane is
carefully removed, it is found to bea real depreffion or cell
in the fubftance of the yolk: this hollow, Maitre Jean des
{cribes as being filled with a limpid fluid. Many authors
have confidered it as the amnios, and believed that it con-
tained the rudiments of the chick. Haller was at great
pains to prove that this follicle had no conneétion whatever
with the amnios; and. he afferts, that it does not even con-
tain any fluid: we fhall defer the difcuffion of thefe opinions
until we treat of incubation; the changes which the cicatri-
cula undergoes during that procefs being highly illuftrative
of both the ftruéture and ufes of this part of the egg.

The vital properties of the egg mutt be neceffarily ob-
feure before incubation has excited oftenfible aétions in the
_ membranes and fluids; they muft be confined to the main-
tenance of the proper organization of the.feveral parts in
oppofition to the influence of temperature and fome other
external agents. we

The power of generating heat was fully proved to exift in
eggs, by fome experiments of the late Mr. Hunter, which,
as being highly interefting, we fhall quote at length. ~
- Thad long fufpected,” he fays, ** that the principle of
life was not wholly contined to animals, or animal fub{tance
endowed with vifible organization and fpontaneous motion 3,
but [conceived, that the fame principle exilted in animal
fabftances, devoid of apparent organization and motion,
when the power of prefervation was fimply required.

© T was led to this notion twenty years ago, when I was
making drawings of the growth of the chick in the procefs
of incubation. TI then obferved, that whenever an egg was
hatched, the yolk (which is not diminifhed in the time of
incubation) was always perfectly fweet to the very laft ; and
that part of the albumen which is not expended on the
growth of the animal, fome days before hatching, was alfo
perfeétly fweet, although both were kept in a heat of 103°;
in the hen’s egg for three weeks, and in the duck’s for four :
but L obferved, that if an egg was not hatched, that 88
became putrid in nearly the fame time with any other dead,
animal matter.”

To determine how fareggs would ftand other tefts of a
living principle, I made the following experiments,

« Having put an egg into a cold about ©, which froze it,
Ithen allowed it to thaw ; from this procefs t

imagined, that .

the preferving powers of theegg muft be deflroyed. Inext
put this ege into the cold mixture, and with ic one newly
laid; and the difference.in freezing was feven minutes and a
half; the freth one taking fo much longer time in treezing.

“A new laid egg was put into a cold atmo[phere fluctuate
ing between 17° and 15°, it took above half an hour to freeze,
but when thawed, and put into an atmofphere at 25°, it
froze in half the time. This experiment was repeated leveral
times with nearly the fame refult.” pe

To determine the comparative heat between a living and
a dead egg, and alfo to determine whether a living egg be
fubjeét to the fame Jaws with the more imperfect animals, 1
made the following experiments. ,

“6 A frefh egg, and one which had been frozen ard thawed,
were put into the cold mixture at 15°, the thawed one foon
came to 32°, and began to {well and congeal. . The frefh
one funk to 293°, and in 25 minutes after the dead one it
rofe to-32°, and began to {well and freeze.

“¢ From thefe experiments it appears, that a freth egg has
the power of refifting heat, cold, and putrefaCtion, in a de-
gree equal to many of the more imperfeét animals; and it is
more than probable, this power arifes from the fame. prin-
ciple in both.” (Hunter’s Animal Giconomy, p. 106.)

The above experiments are very important in different
points of view. ‘They prove that vital temperature is not
neceflarily dependent upon the function of refpiration, . or
any one analogous to it; for eggs, fo far from requiring
expofure to air, are beft kept entirely excluded from it:
hence, when varnithed or covered with tallow, their vitality
may be maintained for-an. indefinite period. Thefe experi-
ments likewife thew, that the humours of the egg are en--
dowed with life as well as the membranes; for it is not to
be fuppofed that any power of regulating temperature re+
fiding in the membranes alone could account for the pheno-
mena related by Mr. Hunter. Had Blumenbach reflected
upon thefe experiments, he would not have referred all the,
vital properties of the egg to the membranes. ( Blumen-
bach’s Leftures, M.S.) :

Mr. Hunter’s experiments further prove, that the evo-

lution of animal heat does not require vafcular ation, for
even fuppoling that invifible veflels exifted in the mem~-
branes at all times, their influence could not be extended.
beyond thefe membranes. :
_ It fhould be added, that during the firft hours of incuba~
tion, the fluid parts of the egg undergo certain changes in
organic itruéture, and that the membranes exhibit actions,
and, alter their form previous to the exiftence of the veflels.
Every part, therefore, of the egg, except the external
membrane and the fhell, muft be admitted to poflefs vital
properties. See the articles Oyum,.and, Incusarion of
the Egg.

EGGS, Analyfis of,in Chemiflry and Pharmacy. The egg-
Spell is carbonat of lime in a fate of very confiderable purity,
being mixed only with a little animal matter and a minute
portion of phofphat of lime. When egg-fhells are digefted
with very dilute nitric acid, the whole diffolves except a few
flocculi of animal matter. If the clear folution be fuper-
faturated with pure ammonia, .the {mall trace of phofphat of
lime which was taken up by the acid is precipitated fingly,
after which, the carbonat of lime may be. thrown down by
any carbonated alkali.

The white of theegg has been generally confidered as very.
pure albumen, the properties of which have been defcribed
under that article. It is, however, not perfeétly pure albu-
men, as a more accurate chemical analyfis has detected
feveral other fubftances, The lateft and moft exact is that of

J k..
Dr. Boftoc ie

EGGS.

The white of egg, even when quite frefh, turns fyrup
ef violets to green, whence it is inferred to contain a (mall
portion of naked alkali, which (as in the bile, in ferum, and
fome other animal fluids) is probably foda, and the quan-
tity appears to be no more than about ;g';¢dth of the whole.
The oxalic acid fhews a {mall proportion of lime in white of
egg, which is probably contained in the form of phofphat.
When white of egg is heated it coagulates, and the proper-
ties of this coagulum, which may be confidered as nearly
pure albumen, have been defcribed under this article.

It does not all coagulate however, fora portion, which is
eftimated by Dr. Boftock at about a fourth of the whole,
efcapesthis change. This part is entangled with the coagu-
lum, but may be feparated by cutting the latter in flices, and
digefting it in boiling water, by which the uncoagulated
portion is extraGed. Onadding to this watery folution fome
Goulard’s extra, (or litharge diffolved in vinegar,) a copious
precipitate is formed, but no effect is produced either by in-
fufion of galls or corrofive mercurial muriat. If the watery
folution be flowly evaporated, it does not gelatinoze on cool-
ing when concentrated, as the watery folution of jelly does,
but gradually in{piffates as the water efcapes, and at laft a hard
brittle tranfparent matter is left behind, which more corre-
fponds with the properties of animal mucilage than any other
fingle animal principle.

A faint fmell of fulphuretted hydrogen efcapes from the
watery folution of the white of ezg when boiling, and the
vapour blackens filver ; whence {alphur is inferred to be con-
tained in the egg, though in an extremely minute quantity.

When the coagulated white of egg is kept for fome days
by a fire fide, or in a temperature rather higher than that of
afummer atmofphere, it fhrinks, hardens, becomes tranf{pa-
rent, and of an amber yellow colour, andthe confiftence of
tough horn. In this {tate it may be kept unchanged for
an indefinite length of time. White of egg lofes by this
drying procefs no lefsthan four-fifths of its weight on an
average, which lofs is merely water.

Owing to this deficcation of white of egg into a clear
yellow hard fubitance, it is oftea ufed for varnifhing, and
with very good effca.

The yolk of the egg isa ftill more compounded fluid than
the white. [ts colour is yellow, and the tafte is bland and
rich. It contains a large portion of albumen, whence it
coagulates firmly, by the fame heat which is fufficient to
harden the white, but it alfo contains a cosfiderable portion
ofa clear infipid oil, that may be extracted from the hardened
yolk by preffure. This oil (oleum ovorum) has been in
dome ufe in pharmacy, but is now obfolete. It is thus pre-
pared. Take the yclks of any number of hard-boiled eggs,
put them ina glazed earthen pan over a moderate fire, cruth
them to a pafte, and beat them with conttant ftirring, avoid-
ing that degree of heat which would turn them red, till an
oily matter fweats out from their furface, and they {well pro-
digioufly ; then put them while ftill hot into a hair bag un-
der a prefs, the plates of which are heated by boiling water,

-and the clear oil will flow out, which is of a golden colour, a
pleafant fmell, and afweet agreeabletafte. From fifty yolks
of eggs, about five ounces of oil may be obtained.

The yolk of egg, when rubbed with any watery fluid,
mixes with it uniformly into afmooth emulfion, and in this
way alfo it ferves as an intermede in pharmacy, to unite oily
and refinous fubftances with water for more convenient
exhibition. See the preceding article.

Eeos, in Dict, ferve for an agreeable and nourifhing ali-
ment; but itis neceffary, that they fhould be frefh and mo-
derately coagulated by heat. If, upon holding them toa
candle, they appear of a turbid colour, they are ufually

reckoned ftale; or if, upon prefenting them to the fire, they
exhale a moitture, they are frefh. As the fubftance of eggs
affords a matter peculiarly fuited to the formation of the
young animal, it muft be confidered as containing a large pro-
portion of nutritious matter; and, confequently, any quane
tity of ittaken into an animal body mutt be fuppofed to ins
troduce a large proportion of fuch matter. But as the
white of egg is generally taken into the ftomach in its co-
agulated ftate, or even if it be taken in its liquid ftate, the firlt
change that happens to it there is its being coagulated, it
mutt in all cafes be again diffolved by the peculiar power of
the galtric juice, probably for the purpofe of its being mixed
with other matters neceflary to conititutethe proper animal
fluid. Dr. Cullen obferves, (Mat. Med. vol. i.) that although
it is {urprifing what a quantity of egg may be digefted by
fome perfons, yet this power 1s in moft cafes fo limited, that
a {mailer bulk of this than of any other food, will fatisfy
and occupy the digeftive powers of moft men. He obferves,
at the fame time, that egg feems to be a lefs alkalefcent food
than almoft any other animal fubftance, and during its di-
geftion tobe lefs ftimulant. With refpeé to the particular
qualities of the eggs of different birds, he is difpofed to
think, that they are not very different; and he is certain,
that in many initances, the peculiar odour and tafte of the
flefh of the bird, are in no degree communicated to their
eggs. Headds, however, that in certain different birds the
colour of the yolks and the denfity of the coagulated whites
are fomewhat different from oneanother. The yolk is ufed
in many medicinal preparations, asemulfions, &c.

Ecos, Albumina, or whites of, are of fome ufe in medi-
cine, though rather externally, in the préparation of colly-
riums for the eyes, and anacollemata, on account of their
cooling, agglutinating, and altringent quality, than iater-
nally.

Albumina are ufed for burns, and in fome mixtures with
bole armenic, &c. for confolidating frefh wounds, and under
bandages, and comprefles to prevent the luxation of bones
after reduction. A late writer recommends them as a fecret
in the jaundice. Junc. Conf. Therap. tab. xiii. p. 379.
Quince. Difpenf. partii. § 12. p, 204. Ephem. Germ. dec. 3..
an.2.obf. 35. p. 43.

Befides medical, the whites of eggs have alfo their ches
mical ufes, e. gr. for the clarifying of liquors; to which
purpofe being mixed, and incorporated with the liquors to
be clarified, and the wholeafterwards boiled, the whites of
eggs are by this means brought together, and hardened, and
thus carry off the grofs parts of the liquor along with them.
They hkewife forma very white and fhining varnifh, which
is applied to feveral kinds of work, and particularly to
pidures. :

Eoc /hell white, in Painting, is fometimes ufed in waters
colours, and preferred to flake or the Troy-white : it is pre-
pared by peeling off the inner fins, and levigating the fhell
to a proper finenefs, and wafhing over the powder.

Eco, whats termed centeninum ovum, among Naturaliflsy
denotes a fort of hen’s egg, much {maller than ordinary,
vulgarly called a ‘* cock’s egg,” from which it has been
fabuloufly held, that the cockatrice or bafilifk was produced.
Brown, Vulg. Err. lib, iii. cap. 7.

The name is taken from an opinion, that thefe are the laft
eggs which hens lay, having laida hundred before; whence
centeninum, g. d. the hundredth egg.

Thefe eggs have no yolks, but in other refpeéts are like
common eggs, having the albumen, chalazes, membranes,
&c. in common with others.

In the place of the yolk is found.a body refembling a little

ferpents

EG

ferpent, coiled up, which dowbtlefs gave rife to the tradi-
tion of the bafilifk’s origin from hence.

Their formation is probably afcribed by Harvey to this,
that the yolks in the vitellary of the hen are exhautted
before the albumina. Harvey De Generat. Animal.
Exerc. 12.

M. La Peyronie has carried the hiftory of the ova cen-
tenina to a greater length, as well as certainty ; a hen was
brought to him, which, for a confiderable time, laid no other
eggs. The fame hen was alfo obferved to crow like a cock,
and to render by the cloacaa thin yellow matter, much like
the yolk of an egg diluted in water. Upon opening her,
fhe was found hydropical ; a bladder asbig as the filt, full of
water, was found contiguous to the oviduct, which it preffed
and crowded in fuch manner, as not to leave the cavity
thereof above five linesin diameter; fo that a common ege,
fuch as it is when it falls from the ovary into the tube, cou'd
pot pals without burfting, by which the yolk was let out,
and cifcharged another wzy. Mem. Acad. Scienc. an. 1710.
Ps 730-

Ecos, prefervation of. M. de Reaumur, of the Paris
academy, thinking nothing that could be a public bencifit
beneath the cognizance of a philofopber, beftowed confider-
able pains on finding a method of preferving eggs for a long
time, and fucceeded at length fo tar init, as to be able to
produce eggs of months, nay years old, which tafted as
frefh and well asif they had been laid but the day before.
The egg always is quite full, when it is firft laid by the hen,
but from that time it gradually becomes lefs and lefs to its
decay; and however compa& and clofe its fhell may appear,
it is neverthelefs perforated with a multitude of {mall holes,
though too minute for the difcernment of our eyes. The
effe& of thefe, however, is evident, by the daily decreafe of
matter within the egg, from the time of its being laid, a fluid
Matter is continually perfpiring through thefe perforations
of the fhell, which occafions the decay; and this is carried on
ina much quicker manger in hot weather than in cold. To
prefervethe egg freih, there needs no more to be done than
to preferve it full, and ftop its tranfpiration ; and the plain
and rational method of doing this, is by ftopping up thefe
pores through which the matter tranfpires, with a matter
whieh is not foluble in watery fluids, and therefore cannot be
wafhed away by the matter perfpired by the egg; and on
this principle, all kinds of varnifi, prepared with fpirit of
wine, will preferve eggs frefh for a long time, if they are
carefully rubbed all over the fhell. This might feem to moft

-people a very common and cheap fubftance for this purpofe;
but the misfortuneis, that in country places, where it fhould
be put in pradtice, no fuch thing is to be had: and the
poorer fort of country people are not eafily brought into the
ufe of any thing to which they are not accuftomed.

To obviate the difficulty arifing from this, Mr. Reaumur

- thought of fubftituting in the place of varnifh fome other
fubftance more common ; and foon found, that another fub-
ftance, which is very cheap, and every where to be had,
would very well fupply the office of varnifh; for expe-
riments proved, that any hard fat would have the fame ef-
fe&. The beft of all fat for this purpofe, is found to be a
mixture of that of mutton and of beefs; thefe fhould be
melted together over the fire, and ftrained through a linen
cloth into an earthen pan ; and when thoroughly melted, an
egg is to be dipped into it; and immediately taken out again ;
and it is then in a ftate to keep perfe@ly frefh more than a
twelvemoath. Memoirs Acad. Scienc. Par. 1735. i

The only difficulty attending this method is, that the eggs
cannot be fo eafily plunged into the fat, as that all their fur-

faces fhall be covered by it ; for ifthey are held in a pair of.

GS.

pincers, the parts of the egg where the pincers touch will be
bare ; but the eggs may be fufpended by a loop at the end
of a thread, and by that means plunged in; and the thread
being then coated over with the fat, as well as the furface
of the egg, will preferve that part which it covers as well as
the coat of fat will the reft. The great care is to ufe this
means while the eggs are perfe&tly frefh; it ought indeed
to be done on the very day when they are laid; for if the
evaporation is begun, and the empty {pace once made, there
is room for a fermentation, which never terminates but in the
deftruction of the egg.

There is one advantage in this ufe of fat rather than var-
nifh, which is, that the eggs rubbed over with it boil as
quick as if nothing had been done to them, the fat melting off
as foon as they touch the hot water ; whereas the varnifh not
being foluble even in hot water, only becomes moiftened by
it, and {till hanging about the egg, prevents the tranfoira-
tion of juices, neceflary to bring the egg to that {tate io
which it is to be eat. When the egg, which has been pre-
ferved by fat, is taken out of the water, there remains very
little fattinefs upon it, and what there does is eafily wiped
off with a napkin, the egg is as nicely frefh as if laid but the
day before, and no palate can diftinguifh the leaft difference.

The method of preferving them by means of fat, is
greatly preferable alfo to that by varnifh, when they are in-
tended for putting under a hen to be hatched; as the fat
eafily melts away by the heat, while the varnifh remains and
impedes the hatching. By this means the eggs of foreign
fowl might be fent over and hatched here, whereby many.
beautiful and valuable birds may be naturalized among us.

At Tonquin they are faid to keep eggs entire for three
years, by covering them up in a palte made of afhes and
brine.

Eces, Ant. See Ant.

Eccs of Flies. After the congrefs with the male, the
female fly is feldom fo much as twenty-four hours before
fhe begins to depofit her eggs on fome fubltance proper to
give nourifhment to the worms that are to be produced
from them. Z

The eggs are but a little time in hatching; and the
growth, and all the changes of the animal, take up but a
little time. The creature is found to make its way out of
the upper part of the egg; and itis pot more than three
weeks from the laying of the egg that is taken up, before
the creature is feen in the form of a perfe& fly, if a female,
and ready to depofit hers.

Among the butterfly clafsthe female has but one con=
grefs with the male by which the eggs are fecundated, and
immediately after it begins to depofit her eggs, and conti-
nues fo doing, without interruption, till fhe has finifhed ; but
it is much otherwife with the two-winged flies; for they,
after having laid %ne fet of eggs, have repeated con-
greffes with the male for feveral days; and after every one
of thefe, lay a new fet.

The female of the butterfly clafs does not depofit her eggs
on any plant at random, on which fhe happened to be placed
when the male coupled with her, but fearches out fuch a
fpecies of plant for leaving them on, as is what fhe loved
when in the caterpillar ftate, and what the young cagerpil-
lars to be hatched from them will be able to feed on, that
they may find food ready for them at the moment of their
birth. She does not featter them about irregularly, and
without order, but fhe difpofes them with perfect fymmetry,
and faftens them one to another, not by their own gluti-
nous nature, but by a vifcid liquor, which fhe feparates for
that purpofe. In many fpecies aifo, where the hinder part
of the body of the female is covered with long hairs, fhe by

degrees

EG

aegrees throws off all thofe hairs, and with them makes a
eft for the eggs fhe is laying, where they are kept very
foft and fafely tl the time of their hatching, This, indeed,
is the whole bufinefs of her life; and when the eggs are
all laid, fhe dies. Memoirs Acad. Scienc. Par. 1736.

The eggs of butterflies are of very different fizes, accord.
‘ing to the fpecies; they are alfo of many different figures,
fome are {pheric, others fegments of fpheres, others conic, in
different forms and degrees: nor-is this ali, their furfaces
are very different alfo in the different kinds. Some are ele-
gantly wrought, as it were; fome dented, and others
‘more deeply notched at the fides; and others chan-
nelled or furrowed all over. In fhort, the moft ingeni-
ous artift could {carcely contrive fo many various ornaments
as there are on thefe eggs, all which alfo are invifible to the
naked eye, being difcoverable no way but by the microfcope.

The eggs of the different {pecies of the two-winged flies
are alfo of very different figures.

There are fome {pecies which faften their eggs to the
ides of veffels of water: thefe all lay oblong eggs: fome
of them, however, are perfectly f{mooth in all parts; and
-thofe of other fpecies {mooth only in their inner furface,
and ridged longitudinally on the-other. What is alfo the
smore remarkable in thefe, is, that they all havea fine thin
flake running down all along 'the two fides, diametrically op-
-pofite; and thefe two bands furrounding the whole egg in
this manner, have-much the appearance of a cafe, and give
theegg the appearance’of being enclofed in a paper frame.
‘Ttie probable that the ufe of this frame is to hold the body
of the egg the better faftened againft the veffel; and proba-
‘bly thofe eggs which have it-not, are depofited from the body
.of the female fly with a vifcous matter about them, in fuffi-
cient quantity to faften them on without this afliltance.

There are fome eggs of the fly-kingdom which muft ne-
cceflarily be held faft to fome other body, in order for the
«worm to be able to make his efforts towards the opening
‘of them, without carrying them away; and fome of ‘the
fpecies require much more ftrong attachments of this kind
-than others. ;

. On the ftalks of the common meadow graffes there are alfo

frequently found the eggs of flies depofited in great num-
bers. On other ftalks of grafs, one may often fee alfo yellow
pots and blotches, which may naturally enough pafs with
‘an incurious obferver for maladies of the plants; but when
examined with.the microfcope, they appear to be, in reality,
clufters of eggs, and amafled in different numbers : fome-
times alfo they are formed perfet and whole, and at others,
with their ends eaten. Thefe laft are fuch eggs from which
the worms tave made their way. Thefe worms are white,
and have a variable head, armed with two hooks, but their
changes are not known. ‘Reaumur, Hift. Infect. vol. iv.
P- 379—353.- 2 :

Ecos of Gnats. ‘There are few creatures in the winged
kingdom more prolific than the gnat. Its whole feries of
changes, from the egg to the perfect animal, is ufually ac-
scomplifhed in three weeks or a month; and there are com-
monly feven generations of them in a year, in each of which
every female is the parent of two or three hundred young
ones; if all the eggs come to proper maturity. Thefe eggs
are arranged by the animals in the form of a {mall boat, and
each feparate egg is-of the fhapeofaninepin. The thicker
ends of thefe are placed downwards; they are all firmly
joined co one another by their middles; and their narrower,
“or pointed parts, ftand upwards, and make the upper furface
of the boat of eggs, as it were, rough or prickly.

. When thefe eggs are examined fingly by the microfcope,
shey appar not exaétly of the ninepin fhape: the larger

G S.

end is rounded, and terminated by a fhort neck, the end of .
which is bordered with a ridge, which makes a kind of mouth.
The neck-of each of thefe is funk within the water on which
the boat ,fwims ; for it is neceflary that it fhould keep on
the furface, fince, if wholly fubmerged,. the worms could
never be hatched. ‘

It is only in the morning hours that the gnats are to be
found laying their eggs; and then they will frequently be
found about the furfaces of {uch waters as are ina proper
condition to give fupport to their young. “The female gnat
here places herfelf ona {mall flick, the fragment 6f a leaf,
or any other fuch matter, ufually near the water’s edge, and
places her body in fuch a manner, that the laft ring but one
touches the furface of the water; the laft ring of all, where
there is the pafiage for the eggs, is turned upward, and
every egg is thru{t out vertically: and the ‘creature, when
itis almoft difengaged, applies it againft ithe fides of the
already formed clufters, to which it readily adheres, by
means of mucilaginous flicking matter with which it is
naturally covered, like the eggs of many other infe@s. The
greateft difficulty to the creature is, the placing of the firft -
laid eggs in a-proper pofition to receive the reft, and fuftain
themfelves and them in a proper direGtion; thefe fhe with
great precaution places exaétly by means of her hinder leg ;
and when a {officient number of them are thus arranged to-
gether, the reft is eafy, becaufe they ferve as a {upport.to all
the following. Reaumur, vol. iv. p. 615, &c.

Ecos, Hatching of. See Hatcuine.

Ecc, Wind. See Wind-Lgg.

Ecc, Sea, Echinus Marinus. See Ecsisoperma.

‘Ecc, Cows, is a name which fome authors give to a kind
-of bezoard, found in the ftomach of the cow kind. ‘

Eeo, in Architefure, an ornament of an oval form, cut
in the echinus, or quarter round of the Ionic and Compofite
capitals. The profile, or contour of the echinus, is en-
riched with eggs and anchors, alternately plated.

Eco, in Geosraphy, atown of Norway; 48 miles E.N.E.
of Drontheim. :

Ecc, one of the weftern flands of Scotland, about 10
miles in circumference; 4 miles S. of Sky. This iflandand
Canna are the only popifh iflands.

Eco Harbour, atown of America, in Gloucefter county,
New Jerfey, on Great Egg harbour, famous for the ex-
portation of pine and cedar.

Ecce Harbour river, Great, ariver of America, which
rifes between Gloucefter and Cumberland counties, in New
Jerfey; and which, after running E.S. E. a few*miles, be-
comes the line of feparation between cape May and-Glou«
cefter counties, and falls into a bay of its own name.
intet from the Atlantic ocean lies in 39° 22’. This river is
navigable 20 miles for veffels of 40 tons, and abounds with
various kinds of fifh, adapted to the market at Philadelphia.

Eco Harbour inlet, Little, lies about 17 miles N.E. of
Great Egg harbourinlet. It recetves Mulicus river, which —
rifes in Gloucefter and Burlington counties, and forms part
of the feparating line, a few miles from the bay: It is
navigable 20 miles for veffels of 60 tons. The townfhip
of « Little Egg harbour,” in Burlington county, confilts
of about 23,000 acres of barren and unimproved land. The
compact part of the townfhip is called «* Clam Town.’ It
has a finall trade to the Welt Indies. : ed

Ecc J/lsnd, an ifland onthe N. E. fide of Delaware-bay,
in Cumberland county. ; 3
_ b08 Bids in Ornibolgys the Sven filiginfes which

eee At
E¢o-Plant, in Botany. See Sovanun, ti, adn
ren EGGK,

The:

EGL

_ EGGE, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Danube, between Dettingen and Hockftet.

EGGENBERG, a‘town of Germany, in the duchy of

Sctiria; three miles W. N. W. of Graz.

EGGERON, a town of Egypt; feven miles S. of

“Atfieh.
EGGYNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
mentioned by Cicero.
.. EGHAM, in Geography, a pavihh in the hundred of
‘Godley and Chertfey, Surry, England, is fituated on the
fouth bank of the river Thames, at the diltance of 18 miles
from London. In 1801, the parifh contained 363 houfes,
and 2190 inhabitants. “he place is a great thoroughfare
between the metropolis and the fouth-weftern counties of
England. In the vicinity of Egham is Runnymead, a
place memorable in the Englihh annals, for the ratification
of Magna Charta by king John. The fame field or meadow
4s now occafionally ufed as arace-courfe. Near the weftern
extremity of this parifh is Camomile-hill, a place fo named
from the quantity of camomile which has been cultivated
here, and now grows wild.
EGILSHA, one of the Orkney iflands, about fix miles
in circumference, E.. of Ronfa.
EGINA, in Ancient Geography. See JEcina.
EGINHART, in Biography, the mott ancient German
hiftorian, who flourifhed in the ninth century, was educated
with the fons of Charlemagne. To this great fovereign he
a{terwards became: fecretary and fon-in-law. He appointed
him fuperintendant of his buildings, and fent him to Rome
in 806, as his agent with pope Leo II1. Upon the death
of Charlemagne he was taken into the confidence of
Lewis le Debonnaire, who entrufted him with the education
of his fons, and fettled upon him ample eftates. Eginhart,
being now well provided for, devoted himfelf to religious
ebacerns, was placed at the head of the monafterics, and
became abbot of Sclingeftadt.. Notwithfanding the par-
tiality which he had for retirement, he was frequently called
tothe court of his fovereign, to give advice and direGtion
in affairs of moment. At length, he was permitted to re-
nounce all fecular affairs, and fhut himfelf up in his mo-
nattery, maintaining no other correfpondence but with a
few men of letters in, foreign countries. He died in the
yeat 839, leaving behind hima lite of Charlemagne, written
in the Latip language, and with a purity of ftyle which was
uncommon in that.ege, . Its impartiality and veracity have
been called in quettion, but the editor, it is faid, took un-
“warrantable liberties with it in altering the language. Sue
tonius was the model ‘which our hiftorian chiefly looked toin
ithe compofition of his work. LEginhart compiled the
_ yannals of Trance from the year 741 to 829: thefe, and hfs
smemoir of Charlemagne, were inferted by Bouquet in his
colleGtion of French hiltorians. He left behind him like-
wife 62 epitles, which relate to the hiftory of the times in
“which he flourifhed, and which were publifhed at Frankfort
‘inthe year 1714. Moreri. Bayle.
EGLANTERIA, Ecrenreria,£nglanteria, or Efglan-

.terium, in Botany, the nante of a {pecies of Rofe, corrupted, .

29 it appears, from the Irench Iglentier, or Eglantier, of
whofe derivation we are ignorant. In Englifh Eglantine or
, Eglentine. Turner’s herbal. 193. Thefe names unquettion-
ably belong to the common Engtith Sweet Briar, or Rofa
Silvefiris foliis odoratis, Bauh. Pin. 4833 R. foliis odoratis,
Lglentina diga, Bauh, Hit. v. 2. 41. R. rubiginofa, Linn.
Mant. 2. 564. Sm. Fl. Brit. 540, Engl. Bot. t. ggi.
This therefore is what moft authors have taken for R. Lg/an-

~ geria of Linnzeus, all whofe fynonyms in the firlt edition of

Sp. Pl., and confequently the fpeciic charagter taken from
Vou, XII.

EGL

Haller, belong to it) We learn alfo from Dr. Afzelius’s
Differtation on Swedifh Rofes, in Sims and Konijp’s Annals
of Botany, v. 2.213, that this is the true Swedifh plant,
R. Lglanteria, Linn. Fl, Suec.ed. 2. 171. except that the
defcription following the place of growth, is accidentally
made from ‘another fpecies, not found in Sweden, the Yellow
Briar, or &. futea fimplex of Bauhin’s Pinax. Now it un-
fortunately happened that Linnzus originally confounded
this Yellow Briar with our Sweet Briar, both having highly
fragrant leavec, and he being really, at that time, very
flightly acquainted with Rofes at all. Accordingly the orf
ginal marked and numbered fpecimens of R. Lelanteria in
his herbarium, are this Yellow Briar, of which an excellent
figure may be feen in Curtis’s Magazine, t. 363. Long
afterwards he received from Mygind {pecimene of our Sweet
Briar, which he defcribed at the end of his fecond Man-
tifla, by the very apt name of R.-rubiginofa, derived from
its {pecific charaéter and Haller’s fynonym. He takes care
to diftinguith it from his Eglanteria, though by a ftrange
fatality he quotes Bauhin’s R. /utea as a fynonym, con-
founding; moreover, the fingle and double yellow rofes of
that author together, though none can be more difting&.

Of all this we have long ago been fufficiently aware,
though entirely obliged to our learned friend for afcertaining
the Swedifh plant, nor was it without due confideration that
we determined to abide by the decifion of the able authors
and editors of the Hortus Kewenfis. to which we {ll beg
leave to adhere. We therefore retafn the name of Ro/a
rubiginofa for our Sweet Briar, as being indifputably certain,
peculiarly expreffive, and now fanGioned by Jacquin, Roth,
Willdenow, indeed by general ule. Lightfoot named it
R. fuavifolia,, which js at lealt equally applicable to the
Yeliow Briar, ard has been followed in the Flora Danica
only. But on the other hand, we do not follow even
Linnzus in his errors, nor apply the word Lg/anteria toa
wrong plant. The Yellow Briar is beft named Ro/a lutea
after all the old authors, an appellation firlt adopted by
Miller, nor is there any occafion to call it foetida with Alliom,
though we agree with thofe who thins the fmell of its
flower unpleafant ; efpecially as the foliage is fo very fweet.
Neither can any ambiguity arife between it and the Double
Yellow Rofe, fo well named /u/phurea ia the Hortus Kew-
enfis, where it was firll properly dilcriminated. Ehrhart
indeed called this lat glaucophylla and our Yellow Briar
chlorophylla, expreflive oames, but altogether fuperfluous,
Keven the confufion of Englifh names, which Mr. Curtis
dreaded, fee his Magazine, t. 363, is avoided by terming
one a Briar the other a:Rofe, which is perfect’y corre&.
On turning to Lamarck’s Flore Francoife in hopes of learn-
ing foracthing of the derivation or meaning of the word ég-
lantier, but in vain, we perceive he hag taken the orange-
coloured variety of J. Ju/ea, or Auftrian Rofe, Curt. Mag.
t. 1077, for Linnzns’s rubiginofa, an error as remarkable
as his making the Apple Refe, or R. villo/a, a variety of
the Sweet Briar. Tor the ufe of thofe who may hereafter
write in this work the difficult article Rosa, we mult pro-
teft againft a miftake of our excellent friend Afzclius, in
making our ZR. tomentofa the real wvillofa of Linneus. The
latter {pecies depends altogether on his fynonyms, and is
the large Apple Rofe fo common in gardens, and wild in
the north of England, from which we firft, in I'l. Brit.
diftinguifhed this ¢omentofa. We know our friend’s can~
dour will excufe us, and we look with anxiety for the fe-
quel of his remarks, to confirm the fuggeflions, or difpel
the doubts, in his admirable effay.

Ambiguity refpeQing the Eglantine is not confined to
fyftematic botanilts, Our great poet in his Allegro has

4. confounded

EGM

confounded it with the Woodbine or Honeyfuckle, as Mr.
Curtis has well remarked in bis Flora Londinenfis, fafc. 1.
tm
“ Through the fweet-briar, or the vine,
Or the twifted eglantine.””

We have not been able to find any thing in the old her-
bals to account for this miftake in a writer ufually fo
fupremely accurate, nor do the Italians, with whom he was
fo converfant, throw any light upon this matter. They
feem not even to have adopted the word: eglantine in any
fhape, but have appropriate names for the Sweet Briar and
Woodbine. Shakefpear, in his Midfummer Night’s Dream,
and Cymbeline, evidently ufes the word in queftion according
to its common acceptation. S, ;

EGLANTINE. See Ecranrsrta.

EGLETONS, in Geography, a {mall town of France,
in the department of the Correze, chief place of a canton in
the diftri& of Tulles; 18 miles N. E. of Tulles, 12 miles
W. of Neuvic, with a population of 886 individuals. The
canton contains feven communes, and 5331 inhabitants, on a
territorial extent of 145 kiliometres.

EGLISAU, a {mall town of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Zurich, on the north fide of the Rhine, in the dif-
tri& of the fame name,-remarkable for being more fubje&
to earthquakes than any other part of Switzerland. -Itisa
great thoroughfare from Switzerland to Germany.

EGLISE wnevuve sur Bitton, a {mall town of Frances
in the department of the Puy-de-Ddme; 18 miles S. E. of
Clermont.

EGLON, in Ancient Geography, a royal town of Paleftine,
in the tribe of Judah, which, in the time of Eufebins, was
merely a village, E. of Eleutheropolis.

EGMONT, Justus Van, in Biography, a painter of
hiftory, born at Leyden, but moftly employed in France by
Lewis XIII. and XIV. in the eftablifhment of the royal
academy of painting and fculpture at Paris. He affited
Vouit in many of his hiftorical worke, and painted many of
hia own compofition in large and fmall, for which he was

. highly efteemed and liberally rewarded by the French mo-
march. He died in 1674, aged 72.

Eemont, Lamorat, Count of, a nobleman of great dif-
tinGion in Flanders, was born in 1522, and at an early age
devoted himfelf to the profeffion of arms. He accompanied
Charles V. into Africa in 1542, and was made captain-gene-
~mal of the lances. In 1546 he went to the emperor’s affilt-
ance againft the proteftant princes of Germany, and attended
him to the diet of Augfburg. He next came to England,
as ambaffador, to conclude the marriage between queen Mary
and Philip If. By this fovereign he was appointed gover-
nor of Flanders and Artois, and general of the cavalry.
From his condu& in war, and in negociation, he was very
highly efteemed at the commencement of the troubles. in
the Low Countries ; and from his fervices to the crown, and
his attachment to the Roman catholic religion, might have
heen fuppofed to poffefs the favour of the court. But his
devotednefs to the fovereign did not make him lefs the adva-
cate of the rights of the people, which excited againft him
cruelenmities. Egmont united with the prince of Orange in
oppofitien to the Spanifh councils, by which the Low Coun-

_ aries were now to be governed: they, with count Horn,
‘ wrote letters to the king, charging cardinal Granvelle with
a mal-adminiftration of affairs, who by their reprefentations
was removed, but ftill the fame plans were adopted by the
council. Egmont then went to the court of Spain, to lay
before the king full information of the ftate of affairs, and
waz received with every mark of confidence and outward

EGN

efteem: but his deftruGion was at thie fame time fecretly de-

termined on. He had vindicated the people’s rights, a-
crime not to be forgotten, and when the duke of Alva was

fent over for the exprefs purpofe of quafhing by force all

oppofition, the prince of Orange in vain endeavoured to per-

fuade count Egmont to withdraw from the ftorm. One of

the firft meafures of the duke was to feize the counts Ege

mont and Horn, and to fend them out of the province, con-

trary to the privileges of the meanelt fubjects, where they

were kept in cultody, till a fpecial commflion was made out

to bring them to trial at Bruffels. Trial and condermna-

tion, in their cafe, were terms of the fame import, and they

were both publicly beheaded in June 1508, to the grief of

the whole Flemifh people. Egmont was only in his forty--
fixth year. The French ambaflador wrote on the occafion

to his court, ‘* I have feen that head fall which twice made

France to tremble.” Nouv. Di&. Hitt.

Ecmonr, in Geography, a town of Holland, on the fe2=
coaft ; three miles S.W. of Alcmaer.

Ecmonr Bay, a bay on the S.W. of the ifland of St.
John, in the gulf of St. Lawrence. N. lat. 46°30! W.
long. 64°. >

Ecmonr J/land, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, dif-
covered by Capt. Byron in 1767, and fo called by him.
S. lat. 19°20’. W. long. 138° 30!

Ecmont, Mount, a lofty peak on the coal of New
Zealand, fituated in S. lat. 39° 16!. . W. Jong. 185° 35/5
and fo called by Cook in 1770. It appeared to tower
above the iflands, and was coverd with fnow, Its bafe
feemed large, and it rofe with a gradual afcent. Being
near the fea, furrounded by a flat country, and clothed with
verdure and wood, it was. the more confpicuous. To the
fhore under it, which forms a large cape, he gave the name
of ** Cape Exmont.”

Ecmonr, Port, is fituated in Falkland ifland, and was fo
called by commodore Byron in 1765, who reprefents it as
one of the fineft harbours inthe world. The mouth of it is
S.E. diftant feven leagues from a low rocky ifland, which is
a good mark to know it by. Within inland, and about two
miles fromthe fhore, there is between 17 and 18-fathom
water ; and about three leagues to the weltward of the har-
bour there is a remarkable white fandy beach, off which a
fhip may anchor till there is an opportunity for running in.
The whole navy of England, fays the Commedore, might
ride here in perfe& fecurity from all winds. In every part
of port Egmont there is frefh water in the greateft plenty.
Geefe, ducks, {nipes, and other birds, are very numerous;
wild celery and wood-forrel may be obtaineditn great abun-
dance; nor is there any want of mufcles, clams, cockles, and
limpits. Seals and penguins are innumerable, and the coait
{warms with fea-lons, many of which are of an enormous
fize.

EGNATIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
the part called Peucetia, fituated on the fea-coaft E: of
Beium, now called Agnazzo.—Alfo, an epifcopal town of
Africa, in the Byzacene territory.

EGNAZIO, Batisra, in Biograpsy. a learned Italian,
was born at Venice of poor parents about the year 1478.
Having received a good education, he opened a private {chool,
at which the belles lettres were to be taught, when he was
only eighteen years of age. The fuccefs and reputation
which attended the labours of Egnazio excited tle jealoufy of
Sabellico, a public profeffor of the fame city; they became
violent enemies, but on the death-bed of Sabellico a full re-
conciliation took place. Finding himfelf near his end, he
fent for Egnazio, befought his forgivcneis, and entrulted to
his care his ten MS. books of Examples.” Thefe gt et

ifhed,

~ come turbid by an alkali.

EGR

lifhed, and pronounced the funeral oration over the afhes of
Sabellico. Eznazio kad now conferred upon him the right
of citizenfhip, and was afterwards prefented with eccleti-
‘aftical preferment. In 1515 he was fent with others to
Milan, to compliment king Francis [.to whofe honour Eg-
nazio compofed a panegyric, for which he was rewarded with
a gold medal. In 1520-he was eleted public profeffor of
eloquence at Venice, in oppofition to many rival competitors.
So high was his reputation in this department of literature,
that he had frequently five hundred auditors to hear him
daily. He was confulted upon important affairs by the
fenators, who had a great opinion of his wifdom. ‘Towards
the decline of life he was defirous of refigning his employ-
ment, but was perfuaded by the fenators to continue, and his
falary was augmented. He at length obtained his difmiffion,
but enjoyed the emoluments of his office without any de-
ution. He died in 1553, at the age of 75. He was the
author of many works, viz. ** Orations,’? ‘ Epiftles,” a
treatife ** De Romanis principibus vel Czfaribus,’’ contaia-
ing the lives of the Roman emperors from Julius Cefar to
Palzologus, and from Charlemagne to Maximilian I.; a trea-
tife ** On the Origin of the Turks,” and a work in nine
books, * De exemptis Virorum illuttrium.” He was, as he
grew old, very irritable ; againft Robertello, the perfon who
had cenfured his writings, he drew his fword, giving him a
wound which had nearly proved fatal. Moreri.

EGOISTS, in the hitory of Philofophy, a {e& of philo-
fephers in France, who [prung up after Des Cartes, and who
maintained that we have oo evidence of the exiltence of any
thing but ourfelves. Tihefe philofophers are mentioned by
many authors, and particularly by Buffier, in his ‘* Treatife
cof Firlt Principles;” and they have followed the method of
Des Cartes, in reiting upon the truth of their own thoughts
as a firft principle, agreeably to his maxim, ‘* Cogito, ergo
fum,” but requiring arguments for the proof of every other
truth of a contingent nature; but none of them, excepting
“Mr. Locke, has exprefsly treated of firft principles, or given
any opinion of their utility or inutility. Their general opi-
nion may be colleéted from their following Des Cartes in
‘requiring proof, or pretending to offer proof of the exift-
ence of a material world, which furely, fays Dr. Reid,
( Effays on the Intelle€tual Powers of Man, p. 642,) ought to
‘be received as a firft principle, if any thing be, beyond what
“we are confcious of.

EGOITOS, a term ufed by Van Helmont to exprefs the
light of underltanding, by which we reflect. and reafon
avithin ourfelves.

EGONA, in Ancient-Geography, a river of Gaul.

EGORBEUSK, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Riazan; 28 miles N. of Riazan.

EGOREVSKOI,a town of Ruffia; 40 miles N.E. of
Kolognn.

EGOSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in the
Tarragonefe territory. ,

EGRA, a town of Arabia, near the gulf of Ail-.

Ecra /Vater and Salt, the celebrated mineral {pring near
Egra, in Bohemia, appears to be a clear fparkling water,
chalybeate when frefh taken from the fpring, and which be-
fides contains a confiderable quantity of a vitriolic falt, which
is donbtlefs Glauber, and not Epfom falt, as it does not be-
Befides the great confumption
of the water at the {pring head, much of it is evaporated on
‘the fpot, and the refiduary falt, which is probably almoft en-
tirely fulphat of foda, is fold in Germany and Bohemia
under the title of Egra falt. Both the water and falt are

-much extolled by Hoffmann, and they probably effeét all
-that can be expected from a powerful faline chalybeate.

EG XY

Ecra, in Geography. See Ecsr.

EGREMONT, a townfhip of America, ia Berkhhire
county, Maffachufetts, and incorporated in 1760, and con-
taining $35 inhabitants; 145 miles W. of Bolton.

Ecremont, a market town, and formerly a borough, in
the ward of Allerdale, and county of Cumberland, Eng-
land, is feated on a {mall river which falls into the Irifh fea,
near the promontory of St. Bee’s. [t is five miles from
Whitehaven, and 289 from London, has a {mall weekly
market on Saturday, and one annual fair. In 1801 the town
confifted of 319 houfes, which were occupied by 1515 in-
habitants. Many of the houfes appear ancient, and fome of
them have piazzas in front. Ona confiderable eminence are
the remains of an old caftle; a part of which has been fitted
up as acourt, for the fteward of the earl of Egremont, who
is lord of the manor, and receives his title from the place.
Hutchinfon’s Hiitory, &c. of Cumberland, 2 vels. 4to.

EGRET, in Ornithology, a fpecies of ARDEA,
Heron.

EGREVILLE, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of the Seine and Marne, and diftriét of Nemours;
three leagues S.E. of Nemours.

EGRISELLES, a town of France, in the department
of the Yonne, and diftri& of Sens; feven miles S. of Sens.

EGUILETTE, in the Manege. See Yerxinc.

EGUILLES, ia Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the mouth of the Rhone, and diftri¢t of Aix;
two leagues N.W. of Aix.

EGUIMUHA, or Exrcimuna, a town of Africa, in
the empire of Morocco, at the foot of mount Atlas, near
which is an iron mine.

EGUISCE’. See Aicuisce.

EGUISHEM, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in
the department of the Upper Rhine; three miles fouth of
Colmar, and fix miles N. of Rovffach.

EGUIZENSIS, in Aucient Geography, an epifcopal fee
of Africa, in the pro-confular province,

EGURENDE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Correze, and diftriét of Uffel; four leagues
N.E. of Uffel.

EGUZON, a {mall town of France, in the department
of the Indre, chief place of a canton in the diftriét of La
Charre, with a population of 1056 individuals. The canton
has a territorial extent of 1524 kiliometres, 10 communes,
and 6199 inhabitants.

EGYPT, acountry of Africa, called by its ancient in-
habitants Chemia, ar-] by the Copts Chemi, from Ham,
the fon of Noah, as fome have fuppofed, and in {cripture
denominated the’ land of Mizraim, whence the Arabians,
and other oriental nations, itill call it Mefr. The Greek
name Egypt has been derived by fome from one of its
‘kings, denominated Egyptus; by others from aia, fignify-
ing in Greek a country, and Zcoptos, foftened into Egyptus,
and thus denoting ‘the land of the Copts;’’ and by others
again fiom the blacknels of its foil and the.dark colour both
of -its river and iohabitarts, fuch a blackith colour being
called by the Greeks egyptios, from gyps and egyps, a vulture,
which is a bird of that hue. Egypt1s bounded on the north
by the Mediterranean fea, on the jouth by a chain of moun-
tains, which feparates it from Nubia, on the ealt by the
Red fea and the ifthmus of Suez, and on the weit by the
deferts of Libya, in the midft of which ftood the temple of
Jupiter Ammon. Its greate(t length, according to Savary’s
ftatement, is from Sienna or Syene, fituated almoft under the
tropic of Cancer, to cape Burlos, which, forming the moft
advanced point of the Delta, almoft terminates the 32d
degree of latitude. This dittance is about 225 leagues. Its

qlz greatelt

Sce

EGYPT,

greateft breadth is 68 leagues, drawing a right line from the
ruins of Pelufa to the tower of the Arabs, formerly cailed
Yapofiris. This meafure agrees with that of the ancients,
which made the breadth of the Delta 54 leagues from Pe-
lufium to Canopus, and 14 from Canopus to Tapofiris.
Accordingly Diodorus Siculus and Strabo allow the bafe of
the Delta, extending from Pelufium to Canopus, now called
Aboukir, 1300 furlongs, which may be eftimated at 54
leagues, to which if we add 14 leagues from Canopus to the
tower of the Arabs, we fhall have 68 leagues. Herodotus
reckons 60 fcheeni or 80 leagues from mount Cafius to the
culf of Plintine, where Tapofiris was ficuated; but mount
Cafius being 12 leagues to the eaftward of Pclutium, by fub-
trating this number from the former, we obtain 68 leagues
from Pelufium to ‘l'apofiris. Ancient and modern geogra-
phers have not been agreed as to the precile limits of this
country. Accordingly fome have affigned to its length from
yiorth to fouth soo miles, and to its breadth, including the
greater aod leffer Oalis, about half that meafure. Ezypt,
however, is in reality a narrow vale on both fides of the
river Nile, bounded by parallel ridzes of mountains or hills.
Some of the ancient geographers have even hefitated to
what portion of the globe they fhould aferibe Exypt._ Pro-
jemy and Strabo, with the med-mn geographers, fix the
iimus of Suez as the boundary of Afia and Africa.
Dinyfius, Mela, Pliny, Salluft, Hirtius, and Solinus, have
preferred for that purpofe the weiltern branch of the Nile,
or even the great Catabathmus, ersdefcent, which lait would
affign to Afia, not only Egypt, but part of Libya._
Ancient Egypt is diviled by fome into two parts, the
Upper and the Lower Egypt, and by others into three
arts, viz. the Upper Egypt, propery fo called, or Thebais,
now called Said; the Middle Egypt, cr Heptanomis, now
Voltani; and the Lower Ezyot, the beft part of which was
the Dela, now called Bahira or Rif. (See Tuesatrs,
Herranomis, end Devra.) Belfides this larger divifion,
Egypt was alfo diftributed into feveral governments or pre-
feetures, called by the Egyptians ““ Tabir,’”’ and by the
Greeks ‘* Nomes 3”? the number of which is uncertain, 2s
they depended upon the pleafure of the reigning priace. In
general they were about 36, aud were named from the chief
city of each nome: This div fion is atcributed to Sefoftris.
Upper Egypt, according to the medern and commonly
received divifion of the country into Upper and Lower
Egypt, is a long vailey, cormmmencing at Sienna or Syene,
(Afouan,) and terminating at Grand Caire. . Two chains
of mountains, taking their rife from ‘the ea!t cataract, form
the limits of that country.. Their diredtion is from fouth
to north, until they reach the latitude of Cairo, where they
feparate to the right and to the left ; one of them taking the
direQion of moupt Co'zoum, and the other ending in banks
of fand near Alexandria. The former is compofed of high
and fteep rocks; the latter of fandy hillocks, over a bed of
calcareous ftone. Beyond thefe mountains are deferts,
bounded by the Red fea on the ealt, and on the welt by
Africa, in the midft of which is that long plaia, which 13
no mere than feyen or nine leagues broad, where it is the
wideft. Here the Nile flows, between two infurmountable
barriers, with varied current, fometimes fmooth and tranquil,
and at other times impetuous and everflowing the country,
which it covers with its waters and fertilizes for the {pace of
150 or 200 leagues. (See Nie.) This valley, in which
the feiences were firft cultivated, and whence they were dif-
fufed through Greece and other parts of the world, is ftill
as fertile as it was in ancient times; but it is lefs cultivated,
and many of its former cities, overwhelmed by defpotifm and
ignorance, are laid level with the duft, aad their former ce-
2%

lebrity is now chiefly known by their magnificent rains
(See Toesais.) The capical of Upper Egypt is Girge,
which fee. :

Lower Egypt comprehends the whole country hetweeg
Cairo, the Mediterranean, the ifhmus of Suez, and Libya.
This immenfe plain prefents, on the borders of its parching
fands, ‘a ftrip of land cultivated along the canals of the river,
and in the middie the triacgular ifland, to which the Greeks
gave the name of Delta. (See Detta.) To deferibe
Egypt in two words, fays Volney, let the reader imagize,
on one fide, a narrow fea and rocks; on the other, immenfe
plains of faud; and-in the middie, a river flowing througit
avaliey of 150 leagues in length, and from three to fever
wide, which, at the diftance of 30 leagues from tne fea, fe-

parates into two arms, the branches of which wander over»

a country, where they meet no obitacles, and which is almolt
without declivity. We do rot really enter Egypt, fays this
writer, until we arrive at Rafetta (Refchid). ‘There the
fands peculiar to Africa end, and a black, fat, and loamy
foil, the dittinguifhing charaéteriftic of Egypt, begins; and
there alfo, forthe firlt time, we behold the waters of the cele»
brated Nile, which, rolling between two fteep banks, cons
fiderably refembles the Seine, between Auteuil and Pafly.
The bafis of Egypt, from Syene (Afouan), to the Mediter-
ranean is a continued.bed of calcareous ttone, of a whitish
hue, and fomewhat foft, containing fhells, analogous to thole
found in the two neighbouring feas, and principally confiit-
ing of echini, volutes, bivalves, and a fpecies im the form of
ientils. The fame kind of ftone is difeoverable in the pyra-
mids, and in the Libyan rock on which they ftaud. It is
likewife found in the cilterns, in the catacombs of Alexandrigy

‘and in the projeéting fhelves upon the coalt, It is aifo feen

in the eaftern mountain, inthe latitude of Cairo, and in the
materials with which that city is built. This calcareous fton¢
forms: the immenfe quarries that extend from Sawadi to
Manfalout, for the fpace of more than 25 leagues, as we
learn from father Sicard ; who aifo informs us, that marble
is found in the vailey of Carts, at the foot of the mountains
bordering on the Red fea; and im the mountains to the north-
eaft of Afouan. Between that place and the Cataract are
the principal quarries of red gramte, which are continued
lower down ;_ becanfe, on the oppofite fhore of the Red fea,
the mountains of Oreb, of Sinai, and their dependencies, at
two days’ journey towards the north, are formed of this
{ubftance. Not far from Afouan, to the north-wett, is a
quarry of Serpentine itone, employed in its native ftate by
the inhabitants for the manufacture of veffels, which will
ftand the fire. Inthe fame parailel, on the Red fea, was
formerly a mine of emeralds, the traces of which are now
loft. Copper is the only metal of this country mentioned
by the ancients. In the road to Suez is found the greateft
quantity of what are called Egyptian flints, or pebbles, lying
on calcareous ftone, that is hard and fonorous ; and here are
likewile difcovered thofe ftones, which, from their form,
have been taken for petrified wood. The two lakes of
Natron are fituated in the defart of Shayat, or St. Maca-
rins, to the weft of the Delta. (See Natron.) In the
mid{t of thefe minerals, of various qualities, and in the midft
of that fine and reddifh-coloured {and peculiar to Africa,
the earth of the valley through which the Nile flows, mani-.
fefts properties, which proveit to be of a diltin€ clafs, Tits
blackith colour, and its clayey cementing quality, evince
its foreign origin, and indicate its de{cent with the river from
the heart of Abyffinia. Without this fat and light mud,
Egypt mut have been altogether unproduGtive. “This alone
feems to contain the feeds of vegetation and fecundity, and
thefe are owing te the river, by which they are depofited,

The

ECT 2 T.

The fertility of Egypt, and the excellence of ita produGions
and fruits. are highly celebrated by ancient writers, and even
by Mofes, who was well acquainted with this country. It

abounds in grain of all forts, but particularly rice;_infomuch’

that it was formerly. the granary of Rome and of Conftan-
tinople, The exports of rice are ftiill very confiderable, and
alfo great quantities of wheat from Upper Egypt, in favour-
able years. No oats are feen in Egypt; and the barley is
confumed by the horfes, The moft plentiful parts of Egypt
are the Delta, (which fee,) and the prpvince of Faioum,
(fee Faroum,) {uppofed to be the ancient Heraclzotic nome;
the capital of which, cf the fame name, is thouzht to have
been Hevacleopolis, Nilopolis, or Arfinoe, and is faid by
the natives to have been built by Jofeph, to whom they own
themfelves obliged for the improvements of this. territory.
Being the lowelk part of Egypt, they fay that it was nothing
but a ftanding pool, till that patriarch, by making drains,
and particularly the great canal, which extends from the
Ni‘e to the lake Moeris, difcharged the water, and clearing
it of the rufhes and marfhy weeds, rendered it fit for tillage.
It is now the molt fertile and beft cultivated jand in the whole
kingdom, containing, as it is faid, above 360 villages, and
yields linen, grapes, and other fruits in abundance ; and it
fails not bearing even in thofe years, when the Nile’s not
rifing to its ufual height occafions a fearcity in the other
partsof Egypt. The flourifhing {tate of agriculture among tt
the ancient Egyptians fufficiently appears from the immenfe
works which they conftruGted for the diftribution of their
canals, and for watering the lands. At prefent there are
reckoned So canals, like rivers, all dug by manual labour,
feveral of which are 20, 30,: and 40 leagues in length.
-Thefe receive the inundation, and circulate the waters
‘through the country. The others, nearly choaked up, are
dry, upon the fail of the Nile. The large lakes of Meeris,
Behire, and Mareotis formed vaft refervoirs for containing the
fuperfluous waters, and for {preading them over the adjacent
plains. They were raifed upon the elevated grounds by
means of vertical wheels, the invention of which is owing
tothe fkill of the Egyptians. One ox was fufficient to
turn them, and to water an extenfive field. Befides thefe
refervoirs, all the towns, at fome diftance from the Nile, were
furrounded by fpacious ponds, to fupply the wants of the
inhabitants, and for the advantage of cultivation. Some
“great dykes, the ruins of which are ftill to be feen, ferved to
keep in the river; others were oppofed to the torrents of
‘fand, which have a continual tendency to cover the face of
“Egypt. The waters are conveyed by aqueduéts to the very
‘fummits of the hills. There they were received in immenfe
bafons hewn out of the rocks, from which they flowed into
the midit of deferts, and converted them into fruitful
tfields. However, in the period of 1209 years, during
-which this country has been fubje& to nations that have
not direéted their attention to cultivation, nor. beltowed
much labour upon it; the greateft part of the noble works
of antiquity has decayed and gone to ruin; and the bar-
barifm of the prefent government tends to accelerate and
complete their deftru@ion. The hmits of cultivated Egypt
are encroached upon annually, and barren fand is accumulat-
ing from all parts. Io 1517, the era of the Turkifh conquett,
Jake Mareotis was at no diftance from the walls of Alexan-
dria, and the canal which conveyed the waters into the city
was fli!l navigable. At this day, the lake has difappeared,
and the lands watered by it, which, according to hiltorians,
produced abundance of corn, wine, and various fruits, are
changtd into deferts, in which are found neither fhrub, nor
plant, norverdure. The canal itfelf, the work of Alexander,
peceflary to the fubfiftence of the inhabitants of the city,

which he built, is nearly choaked up, and preferves the
waters only when the inundation is at its greatelt height,
and for a fhort time. About half a century ago, part of
the mud depofited by the river was cleared. out of it, and it
retained the water three months longer. Schemes have
lately been adopted for opening and perfeGing this canal.
The Pelufiac branch, which dilcharges itfelf into the
eaftern part of the lake of Tanais, or Menzalé, is utterly
deftroyed. With it penfhed the beautiful province which
it fertilized, and the famous canal begun by Necos, and
finifhed by Prolemy Philadelphus. The famcus works, exe-
cuted by kings, who fought their glory and happinefs in the
profperity of the peoplc, have not been able to refit the
ravages of conquerors, and that. d;f{potifm, which deftroys
every thing, till it buries irfclf under the wreck of the king~
doms, whofe foundation it has fapped. The canal of Amrou,
the laft of the great works of Egypt, and which formed a
communication between Foftat and Co!zoum, reaches at
prefent no farther than about four leagues beyond Ceziro,
and lofes itfclf in the lake of Pigrims. Upon the whole,
it may be confidently affirmed, that upwards of one-third of
the lands formerly in cultivation is metamorphofed into
dreary deferts. Tor the caule and the fertilizing effets
of the annual inundation of the Nile, we refer to the
article Nive. This river, in Upper Exypt, is confined
by high banks, which prevent any inundation into the
adjacent country; and the cafe is the fame, in Lower
Egypt, except at the extremities of the Delta, where the
Nile is never more than a few feet beiow the iurface of the
ground, and where, of courfe, inundation takes place.
Egypt is indebted for its fertility to the affiltance of
human art. The lands near the river ave watsred by
machines; and if they extend to any breadth, canals
have been cut ; and, by means of canals, the Nile becomes
the fource of fertilization. The foil in general is fo rich
as to require no manure. One of the principal, articles
of cultivation in Lower Egypt is rice; which is- fewm
from the month of March to that of May. During the inun-
dation of the Nile, the ficids are covered by its waters, and
for the purpofe of retaining them, {mall dikes or railed
embankments are thrown up, round each field, to prevent
their running off, ‘Trenches ere alfo dug in order to convey
thither a frefh fupply, in order to give the plant a conftant
watering. Rice is nearly fix months before it arrives at
maturity, and it is generally cut down before the middle of
November. Acs the ufe of the flail is unknown in Egypt,
the rice plants are fpread in thick layers on floors, formed
of earth and pigeons’ dung, which are well beaten and very
clean; and then, in order to feparate the grain from the
ftraw, they make ule of a fort of carts, couitruéted like
our fledges, with two pieces of wood joined together by two
crofs bars. Between the longer fides of this fledge are fixed
tran{verfely three rows of {mall wheels, made of folid iron,
and narrowed off towards their circamference. On the
fore part is fixed a high feat, on which a man fits, for the
purpofe of driving two oxen that are harneffed to the ma-
chine, and thus moving it in a circular dire¢tion over every
part of the heap of rice, till the grain is completely fepa-
rated from the {traw; the grain is then {pread in the air
to be dried. The dried rice is carried to the mill, where it
is {tripped of its chaff or hufk. This mill confitts of a wheel
turned by oxen, which fets feveral levers in motion ; and at
their extremity is an iron cylinder, about a foot long, and
hollow underneath. Thefe cylinders beatin troughs which
contain the grain; and at the fide of each trough there
ftands a man, whofe bufinefsit is to place the rice under the
cylinders. ‘Che next operation ia to fift the rice in the open

BIN,

EG Y PT.

air, by filling a {mall fieve, which a man lifts over his head,
and thus lets fall, with his face turned to the wind, which
blows away the [mall chaff cr duit. This cleaned rice ig
put a fecond time into the mil, in order to bleach it; itis
afterwards mixed up in troughs with lome falt, which con-
tributes very much to its whitenefs, and alf to its preferva-
tion; and in this flate it 1s fold. Rice is furnifhed in great
quantities in the Delta; and that which is grown in the en-
virons of Rofetta is more efteemed, on account of_its pre-
paration, than that which is produced in the vicinity of
Damietta. ‘The produce of the ore and the other is equally
wonderful. In a good feafon, that is, when the rife of the
Nile occafions a great expanfion of its waters, the profit of
the proprietors of rice fields is eflimated at 50 pcr cent. clear
of all expences. Savary fays, thac it produces e'ghty
bufhels for one. As foon as the ground is cleared of the
rice, the Egyptians fow a fine varicty of trefoil, (Trif.
Alexandrinum of Forfkal,) which they call “barfim’’. Its
feed is feattered without ploughing, or even turning up the
ground, and it finks to a fufficient depth in the moitt foil,
This trefoil produces three crops before the time for again
fowing the rice; and in its dry or green flate it is the mott
common and the molt fucculent food for cattle; both at
pafture and in flalls. Of the various plants which have ren-
dered Egypt celebrated for its fuperior abundance, wheat
claims the pre-eminence. We have already faid, that it was
formerly the granary of Rome and Conitantinople, and by
their means, of neighbouring nations. At this day, Arabia
derives from it the means of fubfiftence. The numerous
caravans which fet fail from Upper Egypt for Coffeir, a
port on the Red fea, carry nothing but corn. It is thence
conveyed to Dsjedda, and diftributed over part of Arabia.
Wheat is fown as foon as the waters of the Nile have retired
from the lands appropriated to it; the feed-time varies with
the latitude, and alfo the harveft, which are earlier in Upper
than in Lower Egypt. Near to Syene they fow the barley
and the corn in Oétober, and reap it in January. ‘Towards
Girgé they cut it in February, and in the month of March
in the vicinity of Cairo. ‘This is the ufual progrefs of the
harveft in the Said. There is alfo a number of partial har-
vefls, as the lands are nearer or at a greater diltance from
the river, lower or more elevated. Inthe Lower Egypt
they are fowing and reaping all the year. Wherever the
waters of the river can be procured, the earth is never
idle, and furnifhes three crops annually. In defcending
from the cataraéts in January, the corn is feen almott
ripe; lower down it is in-ear, and advancing further, the
plains are covered with verdure. The cultivator, in general,
merely calts the feed upon the moiitencd earth ; the corn
foon fprings up from the mud, its vegetation is rapid, and
fowr months after it is fown it is fit to be reaped. In per-
forming this operation, the fickle not being ufed, the ftalks
are pulled up by the roots, and carried to large floors, like
thofe which are ufed for treading ont rice; and by a fimilar
. operation the corn is feparated from the ear. Unripe ears
of corn are dried and flackly baked in an oven, and being after-
wards bruifed and boiled with meat, form a common difh in
Lower Egypt, called * férik.”” As they have neither
water-milla nor wind-mills in Egypt, the ufeful arts of the
miller, and alfo of the baker, are here in the rudett ttate of
infancy. ‘Their bread is made in fmall thin cakes, and is
unleavened ; and is very flightly baked, fo that it is heavy
and difficult of digeftion. In the towns they have a kind
of loaves or cakes, fome of which are covered with fennel-
flower feeds, procured from Upper Egypt, which give
them an aromatic flavour, and others are foft, pierced with
holes, and fprinkled with fefamum, or oily grain, which

gives them an agreeable tafte. The-culture of barley oc-
cuptes a contiderable portion ofland throughout all Eeypt:

it is ripe a-month earlier than the wheat, and its harvelt !s
equally abundant. This is the common food of horfes in
Egypt, as itis in all parts of the Katt, where oats and rye
are unknown. ‘From the mott remote periods flax has been
in general ufe in Egy;t; and it is a confiderable article of
cultivation and commerce. Irs thread has been employed in
the fabrication of the garments of a numerous people. A
confiderable quantity of cloth is manufaGtured from it at
this day; and the plant, from which indigo is extraéted for
dyeing it, grows alfo in this country, where it is called
© Nile? OF the hemp, which is abundantly cultivated in
this country, the inhabitants prepare intoxicating liquors,
and alfo by pounding the fruits into thin membranous cap-
fules, they form a palte, which anfwers a fimilar purpole ;
and they alfo mix the capfules with tobacco for fmoking.
The fugar-cane is allo one of the valuable produ@ions of
Egypt. The common people do not wait for the extraction
of the fugar, but eat the canes green, which are fold in
bundles in all the towns. They begin to ripen in October,
but are uot. in general, fit to be cut till November or De:
cember. The fugar refineries are in a very imperfeét ftate.
Fruit trees of various fpecies abound in this country.
Among thefe we may.reckon the olive-tree, fig-trees which
yield figs of an exquifite flavour, and the date-tree, which
is to be found every where in the Thebais and in the Delta,
in the fands as well as in the cultivated diftricts, requiring
little or no culture, ard yielding a very confiderable profit,
on account of the immenfe confumption of its fruit. ‘The
fpecies of palm tree that furnifhes dates produces alfoa bark ;
which, together with its leaves and the rind of its fruit,
afford filaments, from which are manufa€tured ropes and fails
for boats. The leavesarea.fo ufed for making bafkets and
other articles. The very long rib of the branches is employed,
on account of its lightnefs and folidity, by the Mamaluks,
in their military exercifes, as javelins, which they throw at
each other from their horfes when at full fpeed. A f{pecies -
of Cyperus, which produces a fruit refembling the earth-nut,

but of a much more agreeabic flavour, is cultivated in the

environs of Rofetta; and the {mall tubercles are fent to

Conftantinople and other towns of the Levant, where they

are much valued. The Egyptians prefs from them a milky

juice, which they deem peétoral and emollient; and give

them to nurfes, ia order to increafe the quantity of their

milk. The banana-trees, though not natives of the foil of

Egypt, are neverthclefs cultivated in the northern parts of

that country. The papaw, or cultard apple-tree, is alfo

tranfplanted into the gardens of Egypt, and yields a fruit

equally gratifying to the talte and f{mell. In the thade of

the orchards are cultivated various plants, the roots of which

are refrefhed by the water that is conveyed to them by little —
trenches; each inclofure havin its well or refervoir, from

which the water is diltributed by a wheel turned by oxen.

The mallow (malva rotundifolia) grows here in abundance ;

it is drefled with meat, and is one of thofe herbs that are —
mott generally confumed in the kitchens of Lower Egypt.
Two other plants, ufed as food, are the garden Jew’s mal-
low, and the efculent hibifcus. Another tree, which ap-
pears to be indigenous in this country, is the “ Atlé,” a
fpecies of large tamariflc (tamarix orientalis, Forfkal.) The

- wood of this tree ferves. for various purpofes; and among

others, for charcoal. It is the only wood that is common
in Egypt, either for fuel or for manufactures, Fenu-greek
isa plant cultivated for fodder, though for this ufe a plant
already mentioned, and called barfim, is preferred. This
plant, called * helbe,”’ is cgied about for fale in November,

in

EGYPT.

in the ftreets of the towns; and it ia purchafed and eaten
with incredible avidity, without any kind of feafoning. It is
pretended, that it is an excellent ftomachic, a {pecific againft
worms and the dyfentery, and, in fhort, a prefervation
againft a great number of diforders. Lentils form a con-
fiderable article of food to the inhabitants of Upper Egypt,
who rarely enjoy the luxury of rice. The Ezyptian onions
are fetnar ably mild, more fo than the Spanih, ‘but not fo
large. They are of the pureft white, and the lamina are of
a fofter texture and loofer contexture than that of any other
{pecies. “[hey:detoriate by tranfplantation ; fo that much
muft depend’on the foil and climate. They remain a fa-
vourite article of food with all claffes; and it 1s ufwal to put
a layer or two of them, and of meat, ona fpit or fewer,
and thus roaft them over a charcoal fire. We need not
wonder at the defire of the Ifraelites for the onions of Egypt.
Leeks are alfo cultivated and eaten in this country, and almoft
all the fpeciee of European vegetabl-s abound in the gardens
of Rofetta. Millet and Turkey corn, the vine, the henné or
Egyptian privet, the water-melon, &c. &c. are cultivated
in Egypt; and the country furnifhes a variety of medicinal
plants, as carthamus, fenna, coloq:intida, &c.

Of the animals of Egypt themoft ufeful is the ox; and though
the number of oxen now fubfitting in Egypt is inconfiderable,
thefe animals were anciently held in high eftimation.. The wor-
fhip of them was univerfal, and f{acred oxen were kept in feve-
ral cities. The celebrity of Anis is well known. (See Apis.)
Common oxen, when they chanced to die, were interred with
funeral rites, and it was forbidden to put to death thofe that
had already worked. At prefent, though the race is to-
lerably handfome, it is much degenerated through long
negle€t: their horns are generally {mall, and they are of a
faven colour, more or lefs deep. The oxen of E-ypt are
employed in tillaxe and in giving motion to a variety of hy-
draulic machines; and as they are harnefled fo as to draw from
the pitch of the fhou'ders, their withers are higher than thofe
of our countries ; and, indeed, they have naturally fome re-
femblance to the bifon (dos ferus) or bunched ox. It has
been faid that the cows of Egypt bring forth two calves at
a time; this is an inftance of fecundity which fometimes
happens, but is not reckoned very common. Their calves
are reared to maturity, as veal, which is forbidden by the
Jaw of the Mahometans, and the Coptsalfo abttain from the
ufe of it, is not eaten in Evypt. The buffalo is an acqui-
fition of the modern Egyptians, with which their anceftors
wer2 unacquainted, and it was brought from Perfia into
their country. The f{pecies is more numerous than that of
the ox, and is equally domeflic. It is eafily diftinguifhable
by the conftantly uniform colour of the hair, and {till more
by a remnant of ferocity and intraétability of difpofition,
and a wild lowering afpe&, the charaéteriftics of all half-
tamed animals. The females are reared for the fake of the
milk, and the males to be flaughtered and eaten, The ficth
is fomewhat red, hard, and dry; and has alfo a mufky
{mell, which is rather unpleafant. This country has alfo
horfes, affes, mules, and camels. The horfes of Exypt, next
in rank to thofe of the Arabians, are remarkable for their
beauty and valuable qualities ; and this commendation has
been juftified by the teftimonies of both ancients and mo-
derns. According to the Jewifh hiftory, it was chiefly in
Egypt that Solomon purchafed, at a very high price, the
prodigious multitude of horfes which be kept im his nume-
rous ftables. (2 Chron. ix. 25. 1 Kings, iv. 36; x. 28, 29.)
See alfo Shaw’s Travels, p. 239. In Egypt, and alfo in Ara-
bia, and almoft every other part of the Eaft, it is a general
cuftom to abftain from caftrating horfes ; and the cavalry of
Egypt is formed of ftone-horfes: The affes of this country

have no lefaa claim to diitinétion than the horfes; and thefe,
as well as thofe of Arabia, are efleemed for their vigour and
beauty the fineft in the world. They are fometimes fold for
a higher price than even the horfes. They are more hardy
than horfes, lefs diffieult as to the quality and quantity of
their food, and are, therefore, preferred in traverfing the de-
ferts. The handiomelt affes feen at Cairo are brouzht from
Upper Egypt, and Nubia. On afcending the Nile, the in-
fluence of climate is perceptible in thefe animals, which are
mott beautiful in the Said, but are in every refpe& inferior
towards the Delta. With the moft diftinguifhed race of
horfes and aff-s, Egypt poflcfles alfo the fineft mules;
fome of which at Cairo exceed in value the price of the
moft beautiful horfes. In defert places they have tygers,
antelopes, foxes, jackals, hares, fheep, goats, and deer.
Egypt has alfo a fpecies of ape, ftronger and more favage than
others, called by the Grecks cunocephalus, from the refem-
blance which its head bears to that of a dog. There are
few towns in the world that contain fo many dogs as thofe
of Egypt; and the worfhip of the dog was formerly {pread
over the whole of this country. The dogs of Egypt area
race of large grey hounds ; and it is a fingular circumftance
refpecting them, that they never quit the quarter where they
are born, but form diftiné tribes, which have hmits that
they never exceed ; and if one dog fhould go into another
quarter, he would foon be attacked by the whole of the
{irange tribe. The Bedovins are fo much attached to
their dogs, that a perfon who kilied them would expose
his own life to danger. In Ancient Egypt cats were held
in great veneration, fo that the killing of a cat, even invoe
luntarily, incurred capital punifhment; and cats that happen-
ed to die were carried to the facred temples, and after hay-
ing been embalmed were buried at Bubattis, a city in Lower
Egypt. There are ftill cats in all the houfes in Egypt,and they
are treated with much tendernefs and attention. “The ichneu-
mon was one of the facred animals of Ancient Egypt. Par-
ticu'ar care was taken of it whilft it hved, and honours were
paid to it after its death. Lands were appropriated to the
fupport of this animal; and it was fed like cats with bread
foaked in milk, or with the fith of the Nile cut in pieces ;
and it was every where forbidden to be killed. At prefent
the ichneumon is not dometticated in Egypt, nor do the in-
habitants rear them in their h ules; for though they hunt
rats and mice, they deftroy poultry. By deflroying the
eggs of crocodiles, it prevents their increafe. However, in
more than half of the northern part of Exypt, that is, in
that part comprehended between the Mediterranean fea and
the town of Siout, they are very common, although this
part has no crocodiles ; but they are more fearce in Upper
Egypt, where crocodiles are more numerous: and, therefore,
many fables have been recorded concerning the antipathy of
the ichneumon to the crocodile, that are deflitute of found-
ation. Upper Egypt, below the catara&is, is much in-
fefted with crocodiles ; and though the ichneumon had re-
ceived the honour of carrying on a perpetual war againit
thefe animals, a fpecies of tortoife of the Nile, called Thir/é,
is more fuccefstully employed in their deftru&on. As
foon as the young crocodiles are hatched and reach the
river, this tortoife attacks and devours them. Rats and
mice are very numerous in Egypt, and would render the
country uninhabitable. if they were not deftroyed by other
animals, and alfo by the inundation of the Nile. Many ca-
meleons are found in the neighhourhood of Cairo, and
lizards and w:pers of various forts abound in different parts
of the country. Swarms of winged infeéts fupply food for
{wallows and wagtails; but the moft numerous, as well as
mott troublefome infeéts, are flies. Grate 6 fly in sas ac

after

EG Y2"7.

*fter the rice-barveft, from the inundated fields is which the
- preceding generation had depofited its eggs; and their fling
is no lefs fharp and painful than that of the mufquitoes of
South America. The habitations of Egypt are alfo filled
with an enormous quantity of bugs, the bite of which occa-
fions very confiderable and painful fwellings. Bees forma
principal article of culture and commerce in Egypt. As
Upper Egypt only retains its verdure for four or five’ months,
and the flowers and harvelts are earlier there, the inhabitants
of Lower Egypt profit by this difference. They colle&tthe
bees of different villages in large boats, Each proprietor
trufts to them his hives, which have a particular mark.
When the bark is loaded, the men, who have the management
of them, gradually afcend the river, and flop at every place
where they find flowers and verdure. The bees, at the break
of day, quit their cells by thoufauds, and wander in fearch
of the treafures with which they compofe their near.
They go and come feveral times laden with their booty,
In the evening they return to their habitetions. After tra-
velling three months in this manner on the Nile, the bees,
having culled the perfumes cf the orange-flowers of the Said,
the effence of rofes of the Faioum, the treafures of the
Ayabian jeffamine, and a variety of flowers, are brought
back to the places from which they had been carried. This
induftry procures for the Egyptians delicious heney, and
abundance of bees’-wax. The proprietors, in return, pay the
boatmen a recompence proportioned to the number of hives
which have been thus carried about from one excremity of
Egypt to the other. Wafps are alfo very common in Up-
per Egypt; and the hideous infects called {corpions grow to
a very large fize, and are faid to occafion by their bite in-
tenfe pain, fwoonings, convulfions, and fometimes death. It
would far exceed cur limits to enumerate the various {pecies
of birds that are ftatedly or occafionally found in Egypt;
or to recite the different forts of fifh with which the Nile
and its other waters abound.

The climate of Egypt is, as we might naturally infer
from its latitude, commencing at the Yorrid and extending
9° into the Temperate zone, extremely hot. In July and
Auguft Fahrenheit’s thermometer ftands, in the molt tem-
perate apartments, at 86° and 85° above the freezing point.
In the Said it rifes much higher. Of this extreme heat,
the height of the fun, which, in {ummer nearly approaches
the zenith, is a primary caufe ; but when we confider that in
other countries, under the fame latitude, the heat is lels, we
may be aliowed to feck another fecondary caufe, no lefs
powerful than the former; and this is, probably, the incon-
fiderable elevation of the country above. On this account
iome have diftinguifhed only two feafons in Egypt; the
{pring and fummer, that is, the cool feafon and the hot.
The latter continues from March to November; 2:3 from
the end of February, the heat, even at nine o’clock ia
the morning, is hardly fupportable by an European. During
the whole of this feafon the air is inflamed, the iky fparkling,
and the heat oppreffive to all that are unaccuftomed to it.
The body {weats profufely, and the flighteft {uppreffion of
it is a ferious malady. The departure of the fun tempers,
in fome degree, thele heats. ‘The vapours from the earth
foaked by the Nile, and thofe brought by the weft and
north-weft winds, abforbing the fire difperfed through the
atmofphere, produce an agreeable frefhnefs, and even pierc-
ing cold, if we may credit the natives and fome European
merchants ; but the Egyptians, almoft naked and accuftomed
to perfpire, fhiver with the leaft degree of cold. Tie ther-
mometer, which, at the loweft, in the month of February,
ftands at 50° or 52° of Fahrenheit above the freezing point,
jadicates, that Inow and hail are phenomena, which no

Egyptian has feen in fifty years.. Some writers reckon twe..
fummers in Egypt; the firft occurring in March, April,
aud May, during which the exceflive heats and parching.
winds caufe various diforders; but in the fecond fummer,.
in June, July, and Auguit, and in the antumn and winter,_
the air is much cooler, the weather more conftant, and.
Egypt becomes oneof the moft delightful. countries in the_
world. The feafon, however, being, uncertain, thofe who
can afford it, and particularly the European merchants, weer,
fure ; and it mu‘t be allowed, that the northerly and wefterly.
currents of air, which almoft continually prevail, caufe a,
very conrfiderable degree of coolnefs out of the fun. Thefe,
northerly winds ferve the purpofe of wafting a prodigious,
quantity of clouds into Abyffinia. From the month of.
April to July thefe are feen inceflantly afcending towards.
the fouth ; and it might be expeéted, that rain would enfue ;
but this parched country is dettined to receive its fupply of
moifture in another form. In the Delta it never rains in
fummer, and but rarely, and in {mall quantities, durisg the
whole courfe of the year. It rains {till lefs as you aicend
towards the Said. Accordingly, rain is more frequent at
Alexandria and at Rofetta than at Cairo, and at Cairo than,
at Minich, and it is almoit a predigy at Djirdja. To us
it feems to be altonifhing that a country fhouid fubfit at
ail without rain; but in Egypt, befidcs the quantity of
water which the earth imbibes at the time of the inun-
dation, the dews which fali in the fummer might fuflice
for vegetation. Thefe dews, as well as the rains, are
more copious towards the fea, and decreafe in pro-
portion to their diftance from it, but they differ from the late
ter by being more abundant in fummer thanin winter. At
@lexandria, after fun-fet, in the month of April, the clothes,
expofed to the air, and the terraces, are foaked by them, 2g
ifit had rained, Like che rains, thele dews are more or Ic fs
plentiful, according to the prevailing wind. ‘Ibe foutherly
and the fouth-eaiterly producerone; the north wind a great
quantity, and the wetterly ftill more.. hefe varieties are
acecunted for by obferving, that the two former proceed
from the deferts of Africa and Arabia, which afford not a
crop of water: while the northerly and weltrrly. winds, on
the contrary, convey over Ezypt the vapours from the Me.
diterranean, which the firft croffces, and the other traverfes
lengthways. Another phenomenon, no Iefs remerkeble, is
the periodical return of each wind, and its appropriation to
certain feafons of the year. In Egypt, when the fun ap-
proaches the tropic of Cancer, the winds, which before blew
from the ealt, change to the north, and become conftant in
that point. In June they always blow from the north and
north-well; the winds continue northerly in July, but vary
fometimes towards the weit, and fometimes towards the eaft.
About the exd of July, and during tre whole month. of
Auzult asd half of September, they remain conftantly in
the north, and a:e moderate; brifker in the day, however,
and weaker atnight. At this period an univerfa! calm reigna
on the Mediterranean, ‘Towsrds the end cf Septembc’,
when the fun re-paffes the line, the winds return to the eaft,
and then more regularly from that point than from any other,
except the north. As the fun approaches the other tropic,
the winds become more variable and tempeftuous ; they molt
ufually blow from the north, the north-weft, end weft, in
which points they continue during the months of December,
Jaouary, aad February, which is the winter feafon in Egypt.
The vapours of the Mediterranean, condenfed by the cold-
nefs of the atmofphere, defcend in mift and rains. About
the end of February and in March, when the fun returns
towards the equator, the winds are more frequently foutherly
than at any other feafon, During this laft month, and ree
°

E-G ¥-P T.

of April, the fouth-eafterly, fouth, and fouth-wefterly winds
prevail and at times the weit, north, and eaft; the latter
of which becomes the mof prevalent about the end of April;
and during May, it divides with the north the empire of the
fea. 'The foutherly winds, which we have mentioned, are
known in Egypt by the general name of Kam/jn, or * wiods
of 50 days,” fo called becaufe they prevail more frequently
in the so days preceding and following the equinox. For
an account of them, fee Kamsin. ‘lhefe foutherly winds,
which are diftinguifhed by their heat and aridity, are in De-
cember and January as cold in Egypt as thofe from the north,
becaufe the fun, having reached the fouthern tropic, no
longer burns up the northern parts of Africa, and becaufe
Abyflinia, which is extremely mountainous, is covered with
fhow. It might naturally be imagined that Egypt, on ac-
count of the heat to which it is fubje@, and from its wet and
marfhy-condition for three months, muft be an unhealthy
country; but the cafe is otherwife. This circumftance, fo
different from the effet which might be expected, is afcribed
by Volney to the natural drynefs of the air, to the proximity
of Africa and Arabia, which inceffantly draw off the humidity,
and to the perpetual currents of wind, which meet with no
obftacle. This aridity is fuch, that flefh meat expofed, even
in fummer, to the north wind, does not putrefy, but dries up,
and becomes hard as wood. JBetides poflefling this drying
quality, the air appears to be ftrongly impregnated with falts,
the proofs of which are every where apparent. This property
of the air and the earth, added to the heat, gives vefetation an
attivityalmoft incredible in our cold climates. Notwithitand-
ing the heat in Egypt, the climate is not, upon the whole,
infalubrious. ‘The inhabitants are a robuit and healthy race
of people. Many of them live to old age. Attentive to
their regimen during the hot feafon, their health is thus
preferved. At this time they fubfift chiefly on vegetables,
ulfe, and milk, They make frequent ufe of the bath, eat
Taine rarely drink fermented liquors, and mix a great deal of
Jemon juice intheir aliment. By this courfe of fobriety their
vigour is maintained to a very advanced age. The water of
the Nile is alfo faid to have a great influence on the health of
the inhabitants, and to the ufe of this water, either as a bath
‘or asa beverage, fome have afcribed the fecundity of the
Egyptian v.omen. The Nile, however, has been the fubject
both of panegyric and of cenfure. Sonnini and other travel-
lers concur with the ancients ia commendation of its falu-
brity; and fo far from confidering it as a fource of diforder,
-thofe who fora number of years have drank only this water,
afcribe to the ufe of it the good health which they have en-
joyed. Such is the generally received opinion in Egypt,
where this water is reckoned not only very wholefome, but
is alfo fuppofed to poffefs qualities truly miraculous. The
method employed in this country for purifying the water of
the Nile, when it is loaded with flime, has been detcribed by
Profper Alpinus, and by more modern travellers. Savary
fays, that it confifts in beating about in the water, contained
in great jars, fome fweet almonds flightly bruifed, and in
rubbing with this the edges of the vafe. At the expiration
of a few hours, the impure particles fettle at the bottom of
the jar, and the water remains clear and limpid. The water
thus purified is poured out for ufe into {mall veffels, made of
dried bat unbaked clay, which the Turks call «* bardacks,”’
and the Arabs ‘ kollat.”? Thefe are not varnifhed, fo that
on being expofed to the open air the water gradually oozes
through their pores; and it is perfectly cooled by the conti-
nual. evaporation. Notwithitanding the commendations
given of the falubrity of Egypt by Herodotus, Strabo, and
Diodorus Siculus, and alfo by many modern travellers,
wthers, and particularly M, Pauw, have afferted that it is
Vou, XII,

the cradle of the plague. Savary, however, and Volney,
whofe teflimony is confirmed by Sonnini and others, have
undeceived the public with regard to this circumftance.
St is now afcertained, that this dreadful diforder, which is
endemial in other countries of the Ealt, is not fo in Egypt,
and never originates inthat country. Whenever it makes its
appearance, it has been brought thither, either from Con-
ftantinople, from fome other part of Turkey, or from the in-
terior of Africa. This latter kind, which is called the
“Said plague,” becaufe it comes from Upper Egypt, is
much dreaded, and is in fa&t more deftruétive than any other.
It is further affirmed, that no epidemical difeafes prevail in
this country; and that experience amply attefts the purity
and falubrioufnefs of its atmofphere. In’ Ezypt, however,
though its difeafes are neither frequent nor epidemical, pu-
trid and inflammatory diforders attack thofe, whofe conftitu-
tion is bilious. Herniz are not common; and they origi-
nate from the relaxation occafioned by the ufe of warm
baths, from incautious riding, and from the extraordinary
width of a part of the Ezyptian drefs. Cutaneous difeafes
are common, and would be more prevalent if they were not
counteracted by the ufe of the bath. The leprofy and the
elephantiafis fometimes make their appearance, but they fel-
dom occur, and do not feem to be very contagious. ‘The
clephantiafis is peculiar to the northern part of Egypt, and
feldom appears at any diftance above Cairo. ‘There is, per-
haps, no country in the world, where difeafes, that corrupt
the fources of generation, are more widely f{pread than
Egypt. The ravages of the Syphilis, although checked by
the heat of the climate, abundant perfpiration, and warm
baths, are not thelefs dreadful; and no remedy being applied
to {top its progrefs, it fometimes produces the moft frightful
effe&s. But a malady, truly endemial, is the ophthalmia,
or inflammation of the eyes. Eyes, perfeétly found, and
which are wholly free from defluétions, are rarely to be feen.
This diforder has been afcribed to a variety of caufes. Some
have attributed it to the reverberation of a burning fun, to
the effeét of the foutherly winds, to the fubtile duit, with
which the air is filled, or to the vapours which exhale from the
flagnant waters. Savary feeks its origin from the cuftom
which the Egyptians have of fleeping.in the open air in fum-
mer, either on the terraces of their houfes, or near their huts.
The nitre, he fays, generally diffufed through the air, and
the heavy dews of the night, attack the delicate organ of
fight, and deprives them either of one or both eyes. Eight
thoufand of thefe unhappy people are kept in the great
mofque of Cairo, and there provided with a decent fubfilt-
ence. The principal-caufes of this diforder, fays Sonnini,
are the exceffive heat, the air impregnated with nitrous pars
ticles, and the acrid and buroing duft which the wind {cat-
ters in the atmofphere. ‘Thefe, he fays, are the principal
caufes ; befides which, there are other fecondary canfes that
render thefe difordera more frequent than they were in the
time of the ancient Egyptians, fuch as the bad quality of
the food on which the prefent inbabitants fubfitt, and which
communicates to the humours an acrimony that affects the
fight ; to which may be added the exceflive propentity of
the Egyptians to pleafures, which are feldom thofe of love.
To this purpofe, Avicenna obferves, (iti. c. 5.) ‘* Multipli-
catio coitus eft acribilior res oculo.?”? The aur, fays Volney,
to which the inhabitants of Cairo, the Delta, and alfo the
coaft of Syria, are expofed during fleep, acquires fome
noxious quality from the vicinity of the fea ; and this qua-
lity, in his opinion, is moifture combined with heat, which
becomes a firlt principle of thefe diforders. The faline
quality of the air, fo remarkable in the Delta, contributes
{till farther to the effeét, by the irritation and itching it oc~

ra" cakons

-

EG YP.

eafions inthe eyes. Theufual diet of the Egyptians appears
likewife to be a powerful caufe. The cheefe, four miik,
honey, confetion of grapes, green fruits, and raw vegetables,
which are the ordinary food of the people, produce in the
ftomach a diforder, which phyficians have obferved to affe@
the fight ; and alfo the raw onions, which they devour in
great quantities, have a peculiar heating quality. A difpo-
fition to this diforder, tranfmitted by generation, becomes a
freth caufe of malady ; and hence the natives are more ex-
pofed to it than ftrangers. He adds, it will appear more
probable, that the exceflive perfpiration of the head. is
a. principal caufe, when we confider that the ancient
Egyptians, who went bare-headed, are not mentioned by
phyficians as being fo much affli@ed with ophthalmies ; and
that the Arabs of the defert, who cover it very little, efpe-
cially when young, are cqually exempt from them. Hiftory
informs us, however, that feveral of the Pharaohs died blind.
Blindnefs in Egypt is, in many inftances, occafioned by the
fnall-pox, which, for want of proper treatment, is very
fatal in this country. Inoculation is either unknown, or
little praGtifed. The {pring, which, in Egypt, is the fum-
mer of our climates, brings with it malignant fevers, which
foon arrive at a crifis. The Egyptians, in general, are of a
bilious habit, as appears from their eyesand black eye-brows,
their brown complexion, and meagre make. Their habitual
malady is the colic; and molt of them frequently complain
of a fournefs in the throat, and an acid naufea; emetics and
cream of tartar are, therefore, generally efficacious. The
malignant fevers fometimes become epidemic, and are then
miftaken for the plague.

The population of Egypt is not eafily eftimated ; becaufe
the ufual mode of determining the number of inhabitants
from the numbeg of houfes cannot be applied to this country :
a large proportion of the people having no vifible dwelling.
Ancient Egypt furnifhed fubfiftence for about eight millions
of inhabitants; but at. this day we do not reckon, fays
Savary, half the number. Mr. Browne, another intelligent
traveller, who eftima*es the population of Cairo at 300,000
perfons, fuggefts, that Egypt may contain, in all, two mil-
jions and a half. Volney, {tating the number of towns and
villages as not exceeding 23c0, which was the number in
3783, and the number of inhabitants in each of them, one
with another, including Cairo, which contains about 250,000,
as not more than a thoufand, eftimates the whole number of
inhabitants in Egypt at two millions three hundred thou-
fand. The cultivable lands, according to d’Anville, contain
2100 fquare leagues ; whence refults, for each fquare league,
4142 inbabitants. ‘This great decreafe is principally owing
to the nature of its government, which is defpotic and op-
preflive. Egypt, deprived 23 centuries ago of her na-
tural proprietors, has feen her fertiie firlds fucceffively a prey
to the Perfians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Greeks,
the Arabs, the Georgians, and, at lenoth, the race of
Tartars, diftinguifhed by the name of Ottemin Turks.
Several of thefe various nations have left veftiges of their
tranfient pofliffion ; but they have been fo blended, that it
is not eafy to difcriminate their refpeCtive charadters. - Vol-

ney, however, diftinguifhes them into four principal races of _

different origin.

The ffi, and molt generally difperfed, is that of the
“Arabs; who may be diltributed into three clafles; viz.
1. The polterity of thofe, who, on the conqueit of Egypt

‘by Amrou in the year 640, haftened from Hedjaz, and every
part of Arabia, to fettle in a country juftly celebrated for its
fertility. Accordingly, the Delta was foon filled with
foreigners, to the prejudice of the vanquifhed Greeks, This
fislt race is preferved in the prefeat clafs of fellahs, or hul-

bandmen, and artizans, who ftill retain the chara@terifti¢
features of their anceftors, but are rather taller, and more
ftrongly formed, from the natural effe& of a more plentiful
nourifhment than that of the deferts. Their fkin, tanned by the
fun, is almoft black, but their countenances ave not difagreee-
able. 2. Another clafs of Arabs isthat of the Africans, or
Occidentals, in Arabic “ Magarbe,” the plural of ** Ma-
grebi,” weftern, who have arrived at different periods, and
under different chiefs, and united themfelves to the former.
Like them, they are defcended from the Muffulmen cone-
querors, who expelled the Greeks from Mauritania; like
them, they exercife agriculture and trades; but they are
more efpecially numerous in the Said, where they bave villages,
and even diftin& fovereigns of their own. (Se: Mocrae
BIANS.) 3. The third clafs is that of the Bedouins, or inha--
bitants of the deferts, known to the ancients by the name of
‘¢ Scenites,”’ that is, dwellers in tents. (See BepowEens.)~
It is calculated, fays Volney, that the different tribes of
thofe in Egypt might form a body of 30.000 horfemens;.
but thefe are fo difperfed and difunited, that they are only
confidered as robbers and vagabonds. A /econd race of ine~
habitants confilts of the Copts. (See Coputi.) A third
race is compofed of Turks, who are the matters of the coun--
try, or, at leaft, poffefs that title. The name ** Turk’? was-
not ofiginally peculiar to the nation to which it is now ap-
plied ; it denoted, in general, all the hordes difperfed to the-
eait, and even to the north of the Cafpian fea, as far as beyond °
lake Aral, over thofe extenfive countries which have taken:
from them the name of ‘¢ Tourk eftan.”? (See Turxs.)-
Thefe people were known to the ancient Greeks by the-
names of Parthians, Maflagete, and even of Scythians, for~
which we have fubftituted that of Tartars. They were a+
nation of fhepherds, continually wandering, like the Be--
douin Arabs, and, in every age, diftinguifhing themfelves as
brave and formidable warriors, whom neither Cyrus nor
Alexander could fubdue; though the Arabs, about eighty:
years after Mahomet, invaded their country, and compelled
them to embrace their religion, and to pay tribute.-
Like the Bedouins they were divided into tribes, or:
camps, called, in Chinefe language, ‘* ordou,”? of which»
we have made ‘ horde ;’? and thefe tribes, allied or at:
variance, according to their feveral interefts, were per--
petually engaged in wars. In 1517, fultan Selim took.
poffeffion of Syria and Egypt, and from that time the
Turks eftablifhed themfelves in that country, but they were:
not fettled much among the villages. Individuals of that
nation are chiefly found at Cairo, where they exercife:
the arts, and occupy the religious and military eflablifh--
ments. Formerly they were advanced to polts under govern-
ment; but, at a later period, they poflefs merely the title, .
without the reality of power; and they are not very nume~-
rous. This revolution has been effected by the fourth, and
lait race, that occupy Egypt. ‘Ihe individuals of this race,
all born at the foot of mount Caucafus, are diftinguifhed
from the cther inhabitants by the flaxen colour of their-
hair, which is entirely different from that of the natives of:
Egypt. Thefe were found there by the Crufaders in the®
13th century, and called by them ‘* Mamelas,”’ or, more
correGly, “ Mamlouks.”? After remaining almoft annihi-
lated for 230 years, under the government of the Ottomans,
they have found means to regain their confequence. For=
their hiftory, chara&ter, &c. fee Mamiouxs. The Jews.
in Egypt are not very numerous. Thefe, as well as the
Chriftiass of Syria and the Greeks, devote themfelves to
commerce, to the exchange, and the arts. The acutenefs
and fubtlety which diftinguifh them haye rendered them
alternately directors of the cultom-houfes and intendas te of
7 the

EGYPT.

' the revenues of Egypt. Many of themare goldfmiths, and
work in gold, filver, and precious {tones ; and their works in
fillagree have been admired. Some of them have eftablifhed
smanofadtures of light fluffs, which they fabricate with Ben-
gal cotton and Syrian filk. In order to underftand the
mature of the prefent government of Egypt, we {hould ad-
vert to the firft introdu€tion of the Mamlouks into the coun-
try inthe year1227. Before this period, from the middle of
the 6th century, tillabout the year 1250, the Arabs were in
pofleffion of Egypt, and it formed a part of the vaft empire
of the Caliphs, who fent thither vifiers,invefted with unlimited
powers, to govern in their name. Thefe formed a body of
foldiers of tried courage and extraordinary beauty, who
were trained up to military exercifes. By degrees, the fol-
diers, like the Pretorian bands of Rome, gave laws to their
matter; and ultimately appointed one of their own chiefs
inftead of the fultan whom they depofed and maflacred, in-
vefting him with the title of fultan, and retaining for them-
felves that of Mamlouks, which fignifies military flaves.
About the year 1250, immediately after the defeat of St.
Louis, the government of the Arabian princes terminated in
Touran Shah, the laft prince of the family of the Aioubites.
Thus, were thefe nominal flaves converted into defpots,
who, for many centuries, have continued to give law to
Egypt. Claiming the right of authority merely by con-
queft, the Mamlovks had no other rule of condu& and go-
vernment befides the violence of a licentious and. infolent
foldiery. At length,in 1517. Selim, fultan of the Ottomans,
having taken and hanged Toumam-Bey, their laft chief, put
a period to that dynafty. Sclim, inftead of exterminating
the whole body of Mamlouks, according to the principles
of Turkifh policy, projeéted fuch a form of government,
that the power, being diftributed among the different mem-
bers of the ftate, fhould preferve fuch an equilibrium, as
fhould keep them all dependent upon himfelf. The rem-
nant of the Mamlouks, who had efcaped his firft maflacre,
appeared Gt for ferving his purpofe; and he therefore efta-
blifhed a divan, or council of regency, compofed of the pacha,
or bafhaw, and the chicfs of the feven military corps. (See
Basuaw and Bey.) ‘he fultan, likewife, eftablifhed tri-
butes, one part of which was deftined to pay 20,coo infantry,
and a corps of 12,000 cavalry, refident in the country ; the
other, to procure for Mecca and Medina the neceffary fup-
plies of corn, and the third to fwell the treafury of Con-
ftantinople, and to fupport the luxury of the feraglio. In
‘all. affairs that concerned religion, they were to maintain
ftri& obedience to the mufti of Conftantinople, and to
infert the name of the Ottoman emperors in the prayers,
and on the coin. ‘This was a kind of mixed government,
compofed of monarchy, reprefented by the pacha, and arifto-
cracy, compofed of the Beys; but the people, who were to
defray all charges, were confidered as mere paffive agents,

and remain in fubje@ion to all the rigours of a milftary defs

potifm. This form of government has fubfifted for more
than two centuries; but within the greateft part of the laft
century, the Porte having relaxed in its vigilance, innova-
_ tions have taken place; the Mamlouks have increafed ;
become matters of all the riches and ftrength of the coun-
try, and gained fuch an afcendancy over the Turks, that the
ower of the latter is almoft annihilated. (See Ari-Bey,
AsHaw, Bey, and Mamtougrs.) The Beys, dreading
the difpleafure of the Porte, dare not declare their indepen-
dence ; but their fubmiffion is more formal and verbal than
real. The Mamlouks have taken care to degrade the mili-
tary corps of the Azabs, or Janizaries, which, on the part
of the Turks, were formerly the terror of the pacha; and
the whole military force of Egypt really confifts in the

Mamlouks, who are difperfed through the country to main-
tain the authority of their corps, colle& the tributes, and
improve every opportunity of extortion. Thefe are the
men, who at prefent govern and decide the fate of Egypt ;
men, who have {till the meannefs of flaves, though advanced
to the rank of monarchs. Sovereignty with them centres
in the means of. poffefling more women, more toys, horfes,
and flaves, and fatisfying all their caprices.. It confifls in
managing the court of Conftantinople, fo as to clude the
tribute, or the menaces of the fultan; and in purchafing a
number of flaves, multiplying partifans, counter-mining
plots, and deftroying their fecret enemies by the dagger, or
by poifon. See Bry.

What is the condition of the people in a country thus
governed it is not difficult to determine. Wherever, fays
Volney, the cultivator enjoys not the fruit of his labour, he
works only by conttraint, and agricultur- languifhes ; where-
ever there is no fecurity in property, there can be no in-
duftry to procure it, and the arts muft remain in their in-
fancy ; wherever knowledge has no objeé&t, men will do no-
thing to acquire it, and their minds will continue in a ftate
of barbarifm. Such is the condition of Egypt. The
greater part of the landsin Egypt is to be confidered as
divided between the government, and the religious bodies
who perform the fervice of the mofques, who have obtained
poffeffion of what they hold by the munificence of princes
and rich men, or by the meafures taken by individuals for
the benefit of their pofterity. Hence, a large proportion of
the tenants and cultivators hold either of the government, or
the procurators of the mofques. But there is one circum
{lance common to both, viz. that their lands, becoming un-
occupied, are never let but upon terms ruinous to the tenants.
Befides the property and influence of the Beys, the Mam-
louks, and the profeffors of the law, are fo extenfive, and fo
abfoluts, as to engrofs into their own handsa very confider-
able part ; the number of the other proprietors is extremely
{mall, and their property liable to a thoufand impofitions.
Every moment fome contribution is to be paid, or fome
damage repaired; there is no right of fucceffion, or inherit-
ance for real property, except for that called ‘* Wakf,”
which 13 the property of the mofques ; every thing returns
to government, from which every thing mult be re-pur-
chafed. ‘The peafants are hired labourers, fays Volney, to
whom no more is left than what is barely fufficient to fuf-
tain life. (But Browne fays, that tlefe terms can be pro-
perly applied to very few of them. The occupier of the
land, affifted by his family, is the cultivator; and in the
operations of hufbandry /carcely requires any other aid.
And the tenant of land commonly holds no more than he
and his family can cultivate, and gather the produce of.
When, indeed, the Nile rifes, thofe who are employed to
water the fields are commonly hired labourers.) ‘The rice
aud corn they gather are carried to their matters, and no-
thing is referved for them but dourra, or Indian millet, of
which they make a coarfe and taftelefs bread, without
leaven. This, with water and raw onions, is their only
food throughout the year; and they think themfelves happy,
if they can fometimes procure a littie honey, cheefe, four
milk, and dates. ‘Their whole clothing confilts in a fhirt
of coarfe blue linen, and ina black cloak. Their head-drefs
ig a fort of cloth bonnet, over which they roll a Jong hand-
kerchief of red woollen. ‘Their arms, legs, and breafts are
naked, and fome of them do not even wear drawers. | Their
habitations are mud-walled huts, in which they are fuffocated
with heat and fmoke, and in which, befides the experience of
other inconvenienciea, they are perpetually diftrefled with the
dread of the robberies ef the Arabs, and the extortions of

4K2 the

EGYPT.

the Mamlouks, family feuds, and all the calamities of a per-
petual civil war.

The more confiderable fources of revenue in Egypt, as
well a3 of the Porte at this day, and alfo of the Caliphate
while the fovereignty remained with the Arabs, are nearly
coeval in their inftitution with Mahometani{m itfelf. The
moft ancient tribute due from the fubje& to the govern-
ment was the ‘* Zecchat,’? a tenth of all the permarent
productions of the earth. This was impofed by Mahomet
himfelf, and defigned for the relief of the neceffitous.
This impoft or tax is ftill continued, but it is diverted from
its original purpofe, and applied to neceflary expences or
necdleis prodigality. It is not, however, now applicable
to land or houfes, but to the merchandize imported into
the country. The dnties on thefe, when demanded of
Mahometans, are taken under the name of * Zecchat.”?
The fecond impoft is the ‘ charage,’? which fignifies
the produSt of lands; and it denotes, not only any tax
en land. but alfo on the perfons of * dhummies,” that
is, Chriftans asd Jews; thongh in the latter cafe it

receives the appellation of ** Jizic,? the capitation tax,:

or falvage for their perfons, which otherwife, according to
the letter of the Koran, the true believer is not bound to
fpare. In modero times the revenue of the Porte, which is
deriyed from various fources, is known under the name of
«* Miri ;”” the private one of the emperor is fupplied in a dif-
ferent way, and termed ‘* Chafné.’? The impoits in Egypt,
one of the earlieft territorial acquifitions of the fucceffors of
Mahomet, are not diftinguifhed by any remarkable feverity ;
and if that country has been fince impoverifhed and depo-
pulated, it appears not to refult from the original inftitutions,
fo much as from the abufes, which happened at an early pe-
riod of the Egyptian Caliphate. ‘Thefe abnfes, which have
been long gradually increafing, are now fo far mu'tiplied as
to be incapable of further extenfion confiftently with the
being of the peafantry. The principal local tribute is a tax on
land of two pataches each “ foddan’’ all over the country,
which was continued by fultan S-lim. Faking the cultiva-
ble lands in Egypt at two million one hundred thou-
fand acres, this fhould produce the fum of twelve thoufand
nine hundred purfes. or at the prefeat exchange of 630.0001.
fterling ; but:at this.time only- two thirds of thefe lands are
a@ually cultivated; which reduces the fum to 420,000,
Qn the other hand, however, the Beys infift on receiving,
ia many instances, five or fix pataches per “¢ foddan,”? which
again ra‘fes this fingle branch of revenue to a million and a
quarter, or even more. There are, indeed, fome diftriGs in
the Upper Egypt, always feveral years in arrear. The pa-
tache may be rated at from 3s. to 3s. 4d. The ‘* foddan”’ is
a given meafure, deriving its name from the quantity that a
yoke of oxen can plough in a day, roughly taken, equiva-
lent to an acre. The other articles are the cuftoms of Alex-

andria, Damietta, Suez, aud Coffeir, and what is drawn from”

the commerce of Africa in its paflage by Charjé, Affiout, and
Cairo. The amount of thefe is not eafily afcertained ;, but
it is very confiderable. The ‘ Jizié,” already mentioned, is
fuppofed, by Mr. Browne, not to amount to. more than 1599
purfes. The remaining revenue is made up of cafualties: as
forfeitures, {mali impolts, and tolls, paffing on the Nile,
and other parts of the interior ;- and above ail, the incalcu-
Jable profit a:janz from contiaued plunder of all ranks and
denominations. Five, ten, twenty: to thirty thoufand pata-
ches, are demanded, in one day, of the Chriftians engaged in
commeree, at another of the Mahometans, and at another of
the Franks, The wandering Arabs or Bedouins are ex-
empt from any regular tribute, though they are often plun-
dered, Ail the proftitutes, public baths, places where
Bi

ide

brandy ie fold, &c, &c.are undera particular jurifdiGtion, and
pay fomething to government. The articles above enumes
rated form collectively the ‘¢ Miri,” or public revenues
1200 purfes of which fhould be annually forwarded to Con=
ftantinople, but it is retained by the Beys, under pretence
of repairing mofques or other public works. The Pacha
receives for his whole expences 4000 ‘¢ mahbfibs,” or 3009
piaftres per day. (See Basuaw and Bey.) The collece-
tors of the * Miri’? are the Copt writers, who exercife their
office under the diretion of the fecretary of the ruling Bey.
Thefe writers have regilters of each village, and are employed.
in receiving the payments and accounting for them to the
treafury. Rigorous and unjuft in their exaGtions, they often
fell the oxen, the buflaloes, and even the mat on which the
oppreffed wretches lie. It is calculated, that the whole
produce of the ‘ Miri,” collected as well in money as in
corn, barley, beans, rice, &c. may amount to about two mile
lions fterling, when bread fells at fomewhat more than a
half-penny per pound of 14 ounces. The adminiftration of
the cuftoms feems to be, in Egypt, one of the principal
offices of government. The perfon who exercifes it is at the
fame time the comptroller and farmer-general. On him
cepend all the duties on entry, exports, and the circulation —
of commodities. He names a!l the fubalterns who colle&
them ; and to this he adds the ‘* paltes,”’ or exciufive privie
leges of the natron of Terane, the kali of Aicxandria, the,
caflia of the Thebais, the fenna of Nubia; and, in a word,
he is the defpot of commerce, which he regulates at his
pleafure. His office is never held for a longer period than-
a year. The price of bis contra&, in 1783, was one thou-
fand purfes, which, at the rate of 500 praitres per purfe,
and 50 fols the piaftre, makes 12 hundred aud 5© o00 livres,
or above 5§2.000/. The cuilom-houfes were formerly ma-
naged, according to ancient cuftom, by the Jews ; but when:
they were ruinedin 1769 by Ali Bey, in coniequence of an.
enormous extortion, they pafled into the hands of the-
Chriftians of Syria, with whom they ftill remain. Thofe
Chriftians who came from Damafcus to Cairo almoft a cen=
tury ago, confifted at firft of about two or three families,.
thelr profit attracted others, and their number has fince.
multiplied to about 500. From the time of their taking»
poilcffion of the cuftom-honfe, after the ruin of the Jews,
they have acquired great opulence. ,
Egypt is excellently fituated for commerce and naviga--
tion ; the trade of the weftern parts of Afia, Europe, and-
the North, lying open to it, by the Mediterranean fea; and-
that of Arabia, Perfia, and India, and the fouthern and-
weftern coaits of Atrica, by the Red fea: the eaftern mer--
chandize being commodioufly brought into Egypt on camels, .
by the iithmus of Sucz. Ir is therefore to be prefumed,.
that the inhabitants would {upply themfelves with thofe ar-.
ticles which their country wanted, fuch as metals, wood,.
pitch, refin, &c. by bartering thar own rich predudtions,
and manufaQtures, {uch as corn, linen, paper, gla{s, and other -
valuable commodities, Sir John Marfham fuppofes, that
the Ezyptians did not apply themfelves to merchandize till.
the time of the Ptolemies, but in this opinion he feems, _
to be miftaken; thongh thefe princes did very much ens ;
courage trade, recovering that of the Ealt to their fubjeGs, .
by building Berenice, Myos Hormos, and other ports on -
the Arabian gulf, fo that Alexandria became the greateft

mart in the world; yet the Egyptians certainly traded very “

confiderably with foreigners tong before. The Egyptian.
Pharaohs were undoubtedly, acquainted with the ad--
vantages of trade. The. numerous canais. which they
formed ferved, not only to diffufe rertility by. means of the
water of the Nile, but to tran{port with facility the-

produce.-

Poke ty

produce of the country from one end of the empire to
another. The fairs they eftablifhed in the Delta and the
Thebais united the inhabitants of the moft diftant ‘pro-
vinces. The Egyptians mutt alfo be regarded as one of the
mott ancient nations of navigators. They made voyages
on the Red fea, as it is faid, long before the famous
expedition of theArgonauts. Danaus, according to Hero-
rodotus, carried into Greece, then in a ftate of barbarifin,
the art of navigation and of commerce. His brother Scfotlris,
if we credit fome hiftorians (fee SesosTris,) foon after
reduced the interior kingdoms of Afia, and witha fleet of
400 fail took poffeffion of the ports of the Arabic gulf,
failed through the ftraits of Babel-Mandel, and penctrated
into the Indian ocean. From this era we mult date the
commerce of Egypt with Afia, which has never been dif-
continued fince that remote period. Sefoftris founded fe-
veral colonies, one of which fortificd itfelf on the coat of
Pheenicia. If we admit the truth of what fome writers
have reported concerning Sefoftris, his efforts produced no
permanent effet, and they appear to have been fo contrary
to the. genius and habits of the Egyptians, that on the
death of Sefoltris they refumed their ancient maxims, and
many ages are faid to have elapfed before the commercial
conneétions of Egypt with India became of any great im-
portance. ‘Tyre foon prepared to difpute the glory of na-
wigation with the mother-country, fending her fhips as far
. asthe pillars of Hercules, and {preading the arts every where
with her commerce. The Egyptians on their fide mounting
the Bofphorus, entered the Black fea, exchanging with
their brethren, fettled in Colchis, the produtions of their
country with thofe of the northern nations; whilft the fleets
of the Red fea went in fearch of the pearls, the diamonds,
the perfumes, and the precious ftuffs of the eaftern world,
Egypt, as a commercial ftate, foon attained a high degree
of power; the colleges of her priefts, applying to the
ftudy of the heavens, taught navigators that aitronomy
which ferved to guide them through unknown feas ; and rich
in her own produétions, fhe with her trade propagated the
light of the fciences. Greece, enlightened by the great
men who acquired knowledge of various kinds in the fchools
of Memphis and Heliopolis, was divided into feveral re-
publics. each of which wifhed to poffefs commerce and a
navy. Pfammetichus, to fay nothing of Ofiris, the Mer-
cury of the Egyptians, to whom the invention of commerce
is afcribed, gained great riches by trade, as we learn from
Diodorus, before he became king of all Egypt; and we
learn from fcripture, the moft ancient and authentic hiftory
extant, that che Midianites and Ifhmaelites traded to Egypt
fo early as the time of Jacob; and, moreover, it is prefumed,
that they had anciertly the fovereignty of the Red fea, by
which they engroffed all the trade of India, ard other ports ;
which were then carried on that way. (See Epom.) Pfam-
metichus, fays Herodotus, being a friend to the Greeks,
opencd to them the ports of Egypt; and he began his reign
in the year 660 B.C. His fon Nechos, the Pharaoh-Necho
of feripture, who iucceeded him 616 B.C., attempted to
open a communication between the Nile and the Red fea;
but failing in this attempt he direéted his views to another
enterprize. Having fitted out a fleet and engaged Phoeni-
cian mariners, he ordered them to make a tour of Africa.
Accordin:ly they failed out of the Red fea through the
{traits ot Babcl-Mandel, fteered down the eaftern fhores of
Africa, and doubling the Cape of Good Hope, coafted up
northward till they came to the pillars of Hercules, or ftraits
of Gibraltar, by which they entered the Mediterranean,
and thus returned to Egypt, having performed their voyage
ja.three years, Aprics, the Pharaoh-Hophra of f{cripture,

afcended the throne in the year 600 B. C. and defeated ina
naval combat the combined fleets of the Tyrians and Cypriots,
two of the molt renowned people in the art of navigation.
Amalis having, as fome have faid, dethroned Apries and
ufurped the kingdom, 569 B.C., made a conqueft of
Cyprus and became matter of the Mediterraneas: and in
order to give aétivity to commerce, permitted the Greeks
to build Naucrates at the entrance of the Canopic branch,
and at the fame time reftrited their veflels from landing
merchandize in any harbour but that of this town. The
fairs eftablifhed there, and the fucceflive arrival of fhips,
rendered it very commercial. At this time the profperity of
the kingdom was at its height. The arts had arrived ata
great degree of perfe€tion. Aftronomy predicted eclipfes
with accuracy. The f{culptor engraved fine ftones, and
fafhioned at his pleafure the hardeft marbles. Mechanifm
elevated in the air mafles of aftonifhing fizee Chemiftry
ftained glafs, gave brilliancy to precious ftones, and dyed
{tuffs with indelible colours. Agriculture had enriched the
country with the produdtions of India. From Egypt they.
pafled to che Greeks; from thence to the Romans; and by
the Romans they were tranfmitted to the Gauls. Commerce
enriched the country, and called forth into exercife a variety
of talents; fo that whilft treafures were collected in great
abundance from adjacent and diftant nations, the arts and
{ciences were cultivated with fingular ardour. The gold

duft rolled down by the torrents of Ethiopia, the pearls ef

Ormuz, the perfumes of Arabia, the ftuffs of Bengal ar-
rived at Memphis, and it became the moft commercial city
upon earth. In this flourifhing condition Egypt was at-
tacked by Cambyfes with innumerable armies. Amafis had-
given caufe of difcontent to the militia of the kingdom, by
giving preference to the Grecian troops, and 150,000 men
abandoned their country. This defertion threw the kingdom
into the hands of the Perfian monarch, who ravaged it with
fire and fword, 525 B.C. After facrificing thonfands of
foldiers in the mad expedition which he undertook againtt,
the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and the Ethiopians, he left
a detachment of his army in Egypt, and returned into Perfia.
Although commerce fuffered at this time, it foon recovered,
its vigour, and followed its eftablifhed courfe. Darius, the
fon of Hyflafpes, was fenfible of its utility, and favoured it
through the whole extent of his empire. About the year
332 B.C. Alexander of Macedon turned his arms againtt,
Egypt. This nation having fupported with impatience the
Perfian yoke, fubmitted willingly to the great conqueror,
and the country was fubdued without abattle. In order to
fecure Egypt, he founded in it a large city, encompaffed
by three harbours, fit to receive the fleets of Greece and,
the merchandize of all nations. On his premature death,
his generals divided his fpoils, and Ptolemy, fon of Lagus,
called Soter, having received Egypt for his fhare, 323 B.C.
endeavoured to carry into execution the great projects of his
matter, and to promote the commercial profperity of his
new government. The improvement of Alexandria engaged
his particular attention; and as her posts were fituated to
the weft, the north, and fouth, fhe received the merchandize
of the whole univerfe, and became, as Strabo calls her, the
greateft market in the world. (See ALExanprta.) Prolemy
Philadelphus, who fucceeded his father 284 B.C. purfued
the courfe which he had marked out, and rendered Egypt
fruitful and happy. This prince, either better acquainted
with the level of the fea, or more fortunate than Nechos and
Darius, who had unfuccefsfully profecuted the fame object,
continued the canal which was to join the Nile to the Red |
fea, and had the glory of compleating it. He began at the
Pelufian branch and extended it as far as Arfinoé, now called
Aggerouts

EGYPT.

Aggerout. He- founded the city Berenice, &c. (See
Berenice and Proxremy.) For the protetion of the
Egyptian merchants, the Ptolemies kept up a formidable
navy in the Red fea and the Mediterranean. Ptolemy
Evergetes (246 B.C.) imitated the example of his prede-
ceffors, and founded his power on trade, which he encou-
raged to the utmoft of his power; and during his reign the
wealth of the Egyptians was at its height. The abundance
of gold, and of every kind of goods, produced at Alexan-
dria great luxury, and corrupted the court of the kings.
But notwithftanding the immenfe treafures that were con-
fumed by various indulgences and expences, the country
long continued rich and flourifhing. Ptolemy Phyfcon
(169 B.C.) difpatched Eudoxus on an embafly to feveral
of the potentates of India; and he brought back reports,
which gave a new fpur to the avidity of the merchants. They
made frefh expeditions to the Eaft, and penetrated by the
Ganges even to Bengal. After the king’s death, kis widow,
Cleopatra, ordered Eudoxus to vifit the nations at the ex-
tremity of Africa, and having embarked on the Red fea, he
touched on the coaft of Soffala. Under Ptolemy Lathyrus
(116 B. C.) Eudoxus failed out of the flraits of Babel-Man-
del, doubled the point of Africa, and returned to the
pillars of Hercules. This was the fecond time of per-
‘forming this adventurous voyage. Under Ptolemy 1X.
the merchants of Alexandria continued to navigate the
Black fea, the Perfian gulf, and even to the extremities of
Andia. When Egypt paffed under the dominion of the
Romans, the conqueft was, with regard to Rome, what
Peru has been for Spain, and Bengal for England. It
diffufed gold and filver there in fuch abundance, that
‘lands, merchandize, and-every article, doubled their prices.
However, it haftened the downfal of that empire. De-
prived of their monarehs. and fubjeG@ed to the Romans, the
Egyptians became their factors. In proportion as the Ro-
mans extended the limits of their empire, they adopted the
vices as well as the ordinary ufayes of the conquered
people. Egypt contributed much to influence their man-
ners, becaufe it was the moft ample fource of wealth. The
beautiful linen and cotton manufa@ured at Alexandria, her
magnificent tapettry, her cryflals of various colours, were con-
veyed toRome. The grain of the Thebais, and her abun-
dant produétions, fed the capital of Italy; fo that, from
this period, fhe no longer {tood in need of manufactures, and
fhe ceafed to encourage the labours of the hufbandman. After
Conftantine hadtranfported the feat of the empire from Rome,
Egypt long fupported the tottering throne of the emperors
of Byzantium. When Egypt became a province of the
empire of the Caliphs, fhe gradually loft her commerce and
the arts. The commerce of the Mediterranean was neglected,
through dread of interconrfe with Chriftian princes, and the
Egyptians confined themfelves to that of the Red fea, and
the interior of the country. Agriculture, however, flill
flourifhed, and fome of the Arab princes encouraged the
{ciences. At length the Venetians found means to open for
themfelves the ports of this country, and to keep confuls
there; and they carried on the trade with India under the
protection of the Egyptians. From this intercourfe they
derived great advantages, and became the firft navigators
of Europe, which they furnifhed with all the produ@tions of
Afia and Africa. The Genoefe partook with them for fome
time of thefe advantages 5; but the marine of the Venetians,
having rapidly increafed, reigned trizmphant in the Mediter-
ranean. When the Ottomans took Egypt from the Arabs,
they were excited and aided by the Venetians to equip a fleet
on the Red fea, and to put a ftop to the conquefts of the
Portuguefe, who had formed fettlements in India. Albu-

querque, who then governed them, fought the Ottoman fleet,
penetrated into the Arabian gulf, and determnied to deltroy
Egypt, by turning the waters of the Nile into the Red fea,
But this deftruGive project of ambition, for the execution
of which he had formed atreaty with the emperor of Abyf-
finia, was defeated by Albuquerque’s death. Whil% the
maritime powers of the world are endeavouring to found
the profperity of their ftates on the bafis of commerce, in
aid of internal cultivation and manufa@turea, Egypt, without
arts, without a marine, and groaning under the tyranny of
24 Beys, is unable to derive any advantage from her fitua-
tion, or to enter into competition with the Europeans. Her
ignorant mariners no longer navigate to India; fcarcely do
they dare to make the circuit of the Red fea. Their molt
diftant expeditions are aunual voyages to Mocha. Their
faiks, ill equipped, and incapable of defence, load there the
‘coffee ot Yemen, the perfumes of Arabia, the pearls of the
Babarein ifles, the muflins and the linens of Bengal, which
are brought there by the Banians. Even this limited com-
merce is advantageous to them, The coffee alone is an annual
obje& of eleven millions of livres. They export the prin-
cipal part to Conftantinople, to Greece, to Marfeilles, and
to the coaft of Syria, and confume the remainder in the coun-
try. Egypt might again recover her {plendour, as fhe con-~
tains within herfelf the fource of genuine riches. Her
abundance of grain, with which fhe feeds Arabia, Syria,
and a part of the Archipelago; her rice which fhe fends
throughout the Mediterranean; the flower of the char-
thamus, with which the inhabitants of Provence yearly load
feveral veffels; her fal-ammoniac, which is conveyed
throughout Europe; the kali produced there in abundance ;
ker beautiful flax, fo much valued in Italy, and her blue
linen are important and profitable articles of trade. The
Abyffinians bring her gold duft, elephants’ teeth, and other
precious fubftances, which they barter for her produce. The
articles exported thither by France are by no means fuffi-
cient to pay the various commodities fhe receives in exchange.
The copper veffels and the furs landed by the Turks in the
port of Alexandria do not balance the corn, the rice, the
lentils, the coffee, the perfumes they load there, which are
chiefly paid for in fpecie. Ina word, excepting at Mocha,
and at Mecca, where the Egyptians leave every year a great
quantity of fequins, all thofe who carry on a trade with them
bring them gold and filver. Thefe precious metals are ftill
in fuch abundance in the country, that Ali Bey, on flying
into Spain, carried with him about a million fterling, and
Ifmael Bey, who a few years after efcaped in the fame way,
loaded 50 camels with fequins, pataches, pearls, and precious
ftones. Egypt is itill capable of great improvement, and of
deriving great advantages from commerce, if the character
of her government and con{equent condition of her imhabit-
ants were meliorated. What cloth might be manufactured —
with the beautiful wool of her fheep! ‘What linen with
her delicate flax! What movflins with the two forts of
cotton, one annual, one perennial, which grow there! What
ftuffs, with the filks, which might be eafily introduced in a
country, where the filk-worms muft thrive! What an
affluence of benefits might be procured by clearing the ca-
nals, repairing the dykes, and reftoring to agriculture the
third part of her lands now buried under the fands! With
what tuccefs might not her mines of emeralds be explored,
almoft equailing in hardnefs that of the ciamond! The
granite, the porphyry, and the alabafter, which are found in
feveral of her mountains, would form a valuable branch of
commerce, The manufacturer might employ to great ad-

-vantage her indigo, her carthamus, and other materials for

dyeing, that are {pread over her deferts. Egypt has pof--
fefled

EGY TY: :

Seffed thefe advantages for many ages. She has loft them
by a defpotic government. A wife adminiftration would
reftore to her all the treafares which nature has lavithed
upon her, and which have rendered her in former ages emi-
nently diftinguifhed among the nations of the earth. ‘The
commerce with Egypt is, even now, when uninterrupted by
contending nations, far from being imconfiderable. Ac.
cording to Niebubr’s account, about 800 bales of cloth from
Languedoc and Provence, and the fame quantity from
England, Flanders, Germany, and Venice, arrive in Egypt
every year. hey alfo require in Egypt, every year, at
feaft 80 barrels of cochireal, and in times of war between
France and England, about 200 barrels pafs through Egypt
iato India. From Europe are annually exported into
Egypt 400 bales of pepper, each’ balé containing near 300
pounds. Europe fnrnifhes Egypt with feveral kinds of
drugs, both for medicinal and culinary ufe. The Euro-
peans fend thither annually 60: barrels of pewter, and as
many of wine, and a certain quantity of chefts containing
needles, fciflars, knives, {mall looking-glafles, &c. &c.
From Europe, and particularly from Venice, according to
the ftatement of Vanfleb, are exported, among other things,
a great quantity of fmall glafs ware, as beads, &c., writing-
paper, different fpecies of cutlery and looking glafles ; from
Zante, wine; from Leghorn, cloth; from Genoa, Chinaeware,
and pieces of eight in filver ; from Meffina,. Syracufe wine,
velvet, and other filk-Ruffs. Egypt has no dire commerce
with Holland and England ; but it is carried on by Venice
and Leghorn. From Marfeilles are conveyed money, nuts,
almonds, chefnuts, &c., and alfo cloth and paper.. Since
the time of Vanfleb, the commerce of Egypt has much in-
ereafed ; and it draws every {pecies of merchandize from the
different ftates of Europe. The Englifh, befides cloths,
fend thither works of polifhed fteel, and all forts of iron-
wares, fire-arms, and gunpowder. The articles-of trade
which arrive in Europe by the way of Alexandria: and _
Damietta are, flax, {pun cotton, printed cottons, muflins,
India camblets, dimities, all linens and cottons of different
qualities. ‘Ihe exportation of all kinds of grain, roots, and
feeds, with which the country abounds, is prohibited ; not--
withftanding which prohibition, great cargoes of rice and lin-
feed are fhipped for Europe. ‘Thefe two ports alfo afford:
coffee, affafcetida, fenna, caffia fiftularis, fugar, fal ammoniac,
the black vomica nut, tamarinds, gums, incenfe, myrrh, aloes,
fpikenard, cinnamon, carthamus tinétorius,. dates, oftrich-
feathers, balm of Mecca, coloquintida, buffaloes’, bulls’,
and cows’ hides, and precious ttones.

How different has been the government of Egypt in modern
times from that which laid the foundation of its celebrity atan
earlier period of its exiftence! The Egyptians are faidto have
Been the firft who found out the rules of government, and the
art of making lifeeafy,anda people happy. Their laws and
inftitutions were not only highly reverenced by thofe who
lived under their immediate influence, but by other nations,
and particularly the Greeks, whofe firlt fages and legiflators
_ travelled into this country to acquire a knowledge of them,
and who borrowed from them the beft part of thofe which
they afterwards eftablifhed at home. Neverthelefs, as much’
as the Egyptians feemed to excel other nations in the wifdom
of their laws and conftitution, they yet furpafled them more
in fuperftition.. Idolatry was fo ancient among them, that
the Grecians confeffed they borrowed not only their reli-

ious ceremonies, but the names of almoft all their gods,
rom Egypt.. For the Egyptians are faid to have been the
firft people who ereéted altars, images, and temples, and the
firft inventors of feftivals, ceremonies, and tranfaGtions with
thé gods-by the mediation of others; and alfo to have firft

given names to the twelve gods, They had a great many
deities of different ranks and orders. Thofe who were
chiefly honoured in Egypt were Ofiris and Ifis, by which
they moft probably meant the fun and the moon, whofe
influences governed, and preferved the world. Thefe
two luminaries being reckoned by them the great caufes
of nutrition and generation, and, as it were, the fources>
from which the other parts of nature, which they alfo looked
upon as gods, and to which they gave diltin& names, were
derived. Thefe were Jupiter or fpirit, Vulcan or fire,
Ceres or the earth, Oceanus (meaning the Nile) or moifture, -
and Minerva, called Neith, or air. Befides thefe celettial
or immortal gods, there were alfo terreftrial or mortal deities,
who had merited the honours paid them by the benefits
which they conferred on mankind. Several of them had
been kings of Egypt; fome of thefe bore the fame names-
with the celettial gods, and others had proper names of their
own.. Such were the Sun, Cronus or Saturn, Rhea, Jupiter,
called by the Egyptians Ammon, Juno, Vulcan, Vetta,
Hermes or Mercury, Orus, Venus, Pan, Anubis, Nephthys,
Harpocrates, and others. Serapis is faid to have been intro-
duced by one of the Prolemics at Alexandria; but othera
fuppofe him to have been the fame with Ofiris, who was alfo
called Bacchus. Ofiris was fuppofed to be a god of a good
and’ beneficent nature; but his brother T'yphon was the re-
verfe, and held in dete(tation for the evils brought by him on
his family and nation: Although the bodies of thefe mor-
tal deities remained in their fepulchres on earth, yet the
Egyptians believed their fouls fhone in the ftars of heaven,
as that of [fis in the Dog-ftar, that of Orus in Orion, and_
that of Typhon in the Bear. Notwithftanding the poly-
theifm of the Egyptians, they are faid in reality to have
acknowledged one fupreme God, the maker and ruler of the
world, whom they fometimes denoted by the name of Ofiris
or Serapis, fometimes by that of Ifis, and at other times by
Neith; who bad a temple at Sais. The inhabitants of
Thebais are reported to have wor(tipped only the immortal
and unbegotten god Cneph, (which fee, ). for which reafon
they were exempt from all contributions towards the
maintenance of the faered animals which’ were worlhipped
in Lower Egypt. From this god Cneph, they fuppofed a
fecondary. god proceeded, reprefenting the world, called
Phtha, a word which is ufed by the Copts to fignify the
divine being. Idolatry of the groffeft kind feems, in pro-
cefs of time, to have prevailed throughout Egypt; and they
beftowed divine honours on feveral animals, and even on
vegetables, as leeks and onions: asd thefe honours were ap-
propriate to particular places; infomuch that the chief cities
of Egypt were named by the Grecians.after the gods or ant-
mals that were worfhipped in them. This diverfity.of wor-
fhip was attended’ with veryeill confequences in fome cafes,
efpecially if their deities happened to be enemies to ove
another, and thus~the inhabitants of one place rendered -
worthip to animals, which were held in abhorrence im other
places. Hence proceeded difcord,' and even war; {uch as-
happened in particular between the inhabitants of Heracleo-
polis, who worfhipped the ichneumon, and thofe of Arfinoey
who worfhipped the crocodile ; and alfo between the ‘cities
of Oxyrynchus and Cynopolis, the former of which facri-
ficed and eat dogs, which were the deities of the latter. Tor
a more particular-account of the Egyptian deities, fee
Osiris, Isis, Serarrs, JurirER, and Ammon, ANUBIS, «
Harpocrares, Orus, Canopus, Apis, &c. &e, Ke. -
The objects of the Egyptian worlhip were fuch animals as
the cat, dog, ibis, the wolf, the crocodile, and feveral othera
of a fimilar kind; and they were treated with a refpect of a
fingular nature whillt they lived, and if they were Bee
cilled,

BG YR

killed, the guilty perfon was punithed with death; and when
they died, they were lamented with the deepeft concern and
forrow, and buricd with funeral honours. Gome have traced
the origin of this ftrange and prepoftcrous kind of wWorfhip
to the ufe they mede ot the imayes of thefe animals on their
ftandards for the arrangement of their troops; others fup-
pofe that thefe imag-s were nfed in the mott early times to
diftinguifh the firt civil focieties, which united for mutual
defence againit the violence of their fellow-creatures: others
again afcribe the worfhip of thefe animals to the benefits
that were derived from them; as the ox in tilling the land,
the fheep in fupplyinz milk and wool, the dog in proteGing
the houfe, the ibis and hawk in deftroying ferpents and noxious
infe&ts, the crocodile in defending the country againft the in-
curfions of the Arabian robbers, the ichneumon in prevent-
ing the multiplication of crocodiles, and the cat for its fer-
‘vice againft the afp and other venomous reptiles, &c. &c.
Others pretend, that the worfhip paid by the Egyptians to
animals did not terminate in the animals themfelves, but in
the gods, whofe fymbols they were, and to whom they had
fome peculiar relation. Such was the ftri¢t attachment of
the populace to the groflett kinds of polytheifm and fuper-
ftition, that Herodotus reprefents them as the moft religious
of men. As the obje&ts of their worfhip were not only
gods, heroes, and eminent men, but various kinds of animals
and plants; Juvenal has juftly ridicuied their fuperftition
in the following paflage, (Sat. xv. v. 1, &c.);

Quis mefcit, Volufi Bithynice, qualia demens
A®gyptus portenta colat? Crocodilon adorat
Pars hec.; -illa pavet faturam ferpentibus Ibin,” &c.

“Thus rendered,

«‘ Who knows not, that there’s nothing vile or odd,
Which brain-fick Egypt turns not to a god?
Some of her fools the crocodile adore,

The ibis cramm?d with {nakes, as many more.
A long-tailed ape, the fuppliants moft admire
Where a half Memnon tunes his magic lyre:
Where Thebes, once for her hundred gates renown’d,
An awful heap of ruins ftrews the ground ;
Whole towns in one place, river-fifh revere,
‘To fea-fith fome as pioufly adhere:

In fome a dog’s high deity is feen;

But none'mind Dian, tho’ of dogs the queen:
‘Nay vegetables here take rank divine;

On leeks and onions ’tis profane to dine.

Qh holy nations! where the gardens bear

A crop of gods through all the live-long year!

“The Egyptians were the firft who affigned each month and
day to a particular deity, and obferved the time of each per-
fon’s nativity, by which they judged of their future fortune.
1f they were not the firft people who eftablifhed oracles,
and introduced the cuftom of confultiog them, the moft an-
cient and celebrated oracles among the heathens, particu-
larly thofe of Jupiter in Libya, and at Dodona, owed their
original to Egypt. Amidft the numerous oracles which
exilted in Egypt, thofe which they chiefly reverenced were
the oracle of Latona in the city of Butus, and in later times
that of Serapis in Alexandria. The facred animals, as well
as the deities, Hercules, Apollo, Minerva, Diana, Mars or
Jupiter, had their refpeétive oracles, as the apis, the goat, the
lion, and the crocodile. The ancient Egyptians alfo offered
human facrifices at the tomb of Ofiris, at Heliopolis, and
to Juno or ‘Lucina, at a city in Upper Thebais. This bar-
‘barous cuftom, however, was abolifhed by Amafis, who or-
gered that fo many images of wax fhould be offered inftead

of them. Of their temples we fhall give an aecount in the
defcription of the cities in which they were conftruéted; »
and for their monuments of art, we refer-to CaTACOMBd,
LasyeintH, Oserisk, Pyramips, &c.

The theology, ard aifo the philofophy, ofthe Egyptians,
werecf two kinds; theoneexoteric, addreffed to the vulzar, the
other efoteric, confined to a fele& number of priefts, and to
thofe who poffeffed, or were’to poffefs, the regal power. The
my t{terious nature of their concealed doGrine was fymbolically
expreffed by images of {phinxes placed at the entrance of their
temples. ‘he former fort of religion is univerially known to
have confifted in the groffeft and moft irrational fuperftition.
Concerning the efoteric, or philofephical doétrineof the Egyp-
tians, it feems evident, that they conc2ived matter to be the
firlt principle of things, and that before the regular forme of
nature arofe, an eternal chaos had exifted, which contained,
in a ftate of darknefs and confufion, all the materials of future.
beings. This chaos, which was alfo called night, was wor-
fhipped, in the moft ancient times, as one of the fuperior
divinities. This material principle, called Chaos or Night,
was probably worfhipped. by the Egyptians under the
name of “ Athor,’? which, in the Coptic language, fig-
nifies Night. This divinity the Grecian mythoiogifts cons
founded with Venus. The fymbol of this divinity, which
in their ufual manner the Egyptians placed in her temple, was
acow. Betides tte material principle, it feems capable of
fatisfa&tory proof, that the Egyptians admitted an aétive
principle, or intelligent power, eternaily united with the
chaotic mals, by whofe energy the elements were feparated,

and bodies were formed, and who continually prefides over
othe univerfe, and is the efficient caufe of all effedts.

By the
united teftimony of many writers, who give accounts of the
‘Egyptian gods, *‘ Phtha,” or Vulcan, and ‘* Cneph,” of
Agathodemon, it is rendered probable, that thefe were
only different names expreffing different attributes of the
f{upreme divinity. The name “ Phtha,”’ in the Coptic lan-
guage, denotes one by whom events are ordained; and the ap-
pellation “‘ Cneph” denotes a good genius; and he was repre-
fented underthefymbol of a ferpent. Upon atemple dedicated
to Neitha, at Sais,the chief town in Lower Egypt, was this in=
{cription, ** 1 am whatever is, or has been, or will be, and no
mortal has hitherto drawn afide my veil; my offspring is in
the fun.” If it be granted, that Neitha and Phtha were
only different names of the fame divinity, this infcription
will confirm the opinion, that the Egyptians acknowledged
the exiftence of an a€tive intelligence, the caufe of all things,
whofe nature is incomprehenfible, The doétrine of an
ethereal intelligence pervading and animating the material
world, appears, among the Egyptians, to have been from the
earlielt time accompanied with a belief in inferior divinities.
Conceiving emanations from the divinity to be refident in va- _
rious parts of nature, when they faw life, motion, and en-
joyment communicated to the inhabitants of the earth from
the fun, not, as they fuppofed, from other heavenly bodies,
they afcribed thefe effeéts to the influence of certain divi-
nities derived from the firlt deity, which they fuppofed to
inhabit thefe bodies. . From the fame fource it may be eafily
conceived, that among the Egyptians, as well as in other
nations, would arife the worfhip of deified men. When they
faw their illuftrious heroes or legiflators proteéting their
country by their prowefs, or improving buman life by ufe-
ful inventions and inftitutions, they concluded that a large
portion of that divinity, which animates all things refided
in them, and that, after their death, good demons that ani-
mated them paffed into the fociety cf the divinities.

It is univerfally agreed that the Egyptians believed the
human foul tobe immortal. Herodotus aflerts, though per

hi

apa

EGY ET.

haps without fufficient ground, that they were the firft peo-
ple who tanght this doéirine, and Diodorus Siculus relates,
that the Egyptians, inltead of lamenting the death of good
men, rejoiced in their felicity, conceiving that, in the invifible
world, they would live for ever among the pious. But it
has been a fubjeét of difpute, into what place, according to
the Eeyptian doétrine, the fouls of men paffed after death.
Plutarch {peaks of the Amenthes of the Egyptians, cor-
refponding to the Hades of rhe Greeks,.a fubterraneous re-
gion, to which the fouls of dead men were conveyed. With
thiy agrees the account given by Diodorus Siculus of the
funeral cuftoms of the ancients. Herodotus, on the con~
trary, gives it as the opinion of the Egyptians, that when
the body decays, the foul paffes into fome other animal,
which is then born; and that after it has made the circuit of
bealts, birds, and fifhes, through a period of 3000 years, it
again becomes an inhabitant of an human body. Diogen-s
Laertius alfo relates, after Hecatzeus, that, according to the
tenets of the Eygptians, the foul, after death, continues to
live, and paffes into other bodies. Thefe different notions
might be held by different colleges of priefts, fome of whom
might maintain the doétrine of tran{migration, while others
held, that the fouls of good men, after wandering for a time
among the ftars, were permitted to return to the fociety of
the gods; or the feeming inconfiltency, of thefe opinions
may be reconciled by adopting the dodtrine, that God is the
fou! of the world, from which all things come, and to which
they will return. But as different minds have contraéted
different degrees of impurity by their union with the body, it
is neceflary that they fhould pafs through different degrees of
purgation, to be accomplifhed by means of fucceffive tran{-
Migrations. According to this fyftem, bad men would
undergo the metempfychofis for a longer, good men for a
fhorter period : andthe Amenthes or Hades may be con-
ceived to have been the region; in which departed fouls, im-
mediately after death, received their refpe€tive defignations.
The Egyptians, whilft they held that the world was pro-
duced from chaos by the energy of an intelligent principle,
conceived that there is in nature a continual tendency to-
wards diffolution.

Of preceptive do&rine the Egyptians had two kinds,
one facred, the other vulgar; the former, which re-
fpefted the ceremonies of religion, and the duties of the
priefts, was written in the facred books of Hermes, but too
carefully concealed to pafs down to pofterity. ‘The

_Jatter confifted of maxims and rules of prudence, virtue,
or policy. But it appears by ample evidence, that fuper-
tition blended itfelf with their notions of morals and. cor-
rupted them, Indeed, it is in vain to look for accurate
principles of ethics among an ignorant and fuperttitious
people. j

The Egyptiane paid particular attention to the educa-
tion of their children, accultoming them betimes to a frugal
dict, and inftru€ting them in two forts of letters, thofe called
facred, and thofe in which their common learning was writ-
ten. The Egyptian youth were taught betimes to behave
with great re{peét to their elders. In different parts of
Egypt they inculcated abftinence from feveral forts of ani-
mals, according to the different deities they worfhipped ;
and they all agreed in their averfion to fwine’s flefh, which
was accounted impure. Their animal food confifted of birds
and fifhes, thofe excepted which were deemed facred, and of
bread made of vegetables, and particularly the lotus and the
lower items of the papyrus. ‘Their common drink was the
water of the Nile; and their better fort of drink or wine,
as Herodotus calls it, was made of barley, fo that we are

robably indebted to this nation for the invention of beer.

Vou. XII.

The Egyptians ftill make a fermented liquor of maize, millet,
barley, or rice, pleafant to the tafte, but in the hot feafon it
will not keep above a day. ‘This is drank in confiderable
quantities in Cairo and in the Said. The native Clirittians
diltil for themfelves, from dates, a liquor called by the ge-
neral name §* Araki ;’? it is aifo made from currants, or the
{mall grapes, imported from Cerigo. The ancient Egyptians
ufed frequent ablutions and purifications; they ferupuloufly
avoided eating with f{trangers as unclean ; and the cuftom of
cireumcifion, which remains to this day, and which was ex
tended to women as well:as men, was obferved by. them from

time immemorial, and efteemed by.them fo neceffary, that Py-

thagoras, in order to.obtain the liberty of converfing with the
Egyptian priefts and entering into’ their temples, was obliged
to fubmit to this operation. In many of their manners and
cuftoms they feemed to aé in contradiction to the reft of
mankind ; for with them it was the cuftom forthe women to
be emp'oyed in trade and bufinefs abread, while the men
ftaid at home to {pin and minded-domettic affairs ; and this
practice, perhaps, gave occafion to the extraordinary law; by
which the fons were not obliged to provide for their parents,
but the daughters. were. They kneaded dough with their
feet, and tempered mortar with their hands: and though in
other countries, the places deftined for cattle were feparated
from thofe of the men, in Egypt men and beafts dwelt to-
gether. Gratitude was a virtue which the Egyptians held
in high eftimation ; hence they were led to honour their
princes, whom they confidered to be pofleffed of power and
will to do good to mankind, as gods, and hence alfo pro-
ceeded the great refpe& manifetted by them to the remains of
deceafed anceltors. Tne mourning for the dead, and funeral
rites in Egypt, were anciently performed with peculiar fo-
lemnity. When any eminent perfon died, all the women of
the fam'ly, having their heads and faces. befmeared with
dirt, their breaft bare, and their waits girt, left the body at
home, and marching in this garb, attended by all their rela~
tions of the fame fex, through the ftreets of the city, la-
mented the deceafed, and beat themfelves in the molt cruel
manner, The men formed another company and mourned
in the fame manner. This ceremony they continued till the
corpfe was interred, abitaining from the bath, from wines
and delicate meats, and from the ufe of their belt attire.
The body was afterwards embalmed/(See Empatminc), de-
livered to the relations, and put into a wooden coffin, which
was placed upright againft the wall of the edifice appros
priated to this purpofe. At the time prefixed for the in-
terment, the judges and friends were invited, and fat in a
certain place beyond the lake (fuppofed to be that of Me-
ris) which the body was to pafs. The veffcel, whofe pilot
was called Charon, being hauled up to the fhore, before the
body was fuffered to embark, every one was at liberty to ac-
cufe the deceafed. If any accufer made good his charge
that the deceafed had led a bad hfe, the body was denied the
cuftomary burial, but if the accufer charged the deceafed
unjuftly, he incurred a fevere punifhment. If no» accufer
appeared, or the accufation could not be fupported, the re-
lations recited the praife of the deceafed, and the attendants
joined their acclamations to this funeral oration. The body
was then depofited in the family fepulchre. Thofe, who
for their crimes or for debt were forbidden to be interred,
were depofited privately in their own houfes.’ This inftitu-
tion of the Egyptians relating to their treatment of dead
bodies, was well adapted to the encouragement of virtue
and the difcouragement of vice ; and from this pratice the
Greeks evidently deduced all their fables concerning the in-
fernal judges, and the recompence or punifhment of mea’
after deathe The fepulchres of the dead were adapted to
4L the

£G YP.

the rank and character of the deceafed. See Catacomss
and Pyramips.

It appears, by very ancient teftimonies, that the Egyptians
were diftinguifhed by their wifdom and learning, and that
they were the inventors of many arts and fciences. Geo-
metry is generally allowed to have been firft found out in
Egypt. Arithmetic and algebra, and alfo aftronomy, were
alfo diligently cultivated in this country. The fcience of
medicine feems to have owed its origin to the Egyptians ;
and their phyficians had a public provifion made for them
by thelaw. Herodotus relates, that, in his time, there were
diftin& phyficians for different difeafes; which they claffed
according to their feat in the human body. From Dio-
dorus Siculus we learn, that, inftead of prefcribing medicines,
according to the judgment and experience of the practitioner,
every phylician was obliged to follow a written code; and
if, in adhering to this, he was unfuccefsful, he was free from
blame; but if he ventured to depart from the prefcribed
forms, though the patient recovered, the phyfician was to
lofe his life. In adminiltering medicines, they called in the
aid of magical incantations, and pretended that fupernatural
virtues were thus communicated to certain plants. Upon
the whole, medical praétice was entirely empirical, and
artfully conneéted with fuperftition, to fecure the purpofes
of pricitcraft. Anatomy was likewife cultivated at an early
period in Egypt. ‘The invention of mufic, as far as it com-

rehends the firft elements of melody, is afcribed to the
Re ypeais: For aftrology and magic the Egyptians were
particularly famous; the art was very ancient among them;
and we find many references to it in the facred writings.
We need not here take notice of their fkill in architeéture,
mechanics, painting, and {culpture. The art of alchemy is
faid to have been known to the ancient Egyptians ; and trom
the imagined founder of the Egyptian philofophy, it has been
called the Hermetic art. (See the feveral articles above-men-
tioned). Asto the manner in which the Egyptians preferved
their knowledge, and tranfmitted it to pofterity, we may
here obferve, that their priefts were the depofitaries of all
their learning. They had the charge of their philofophy,
and other fciences, as well as of their religion and facred
rites; and they were the perfons to whom thofe who defired
to be inftru€ted were to appiy. For this purpofe they
had colleges, or academies, in feveral parts of the kingdom.
One of thefe, at Heliopolis, is mentioned by Strabo, who
vifited the apartments, where Eudoxus and Plato had
ftudied for feveral years. ‘The Egyptian learning was partly
infcribed on columns, and partly committed to writing in
their facred books. Of their columns, the moft famous
were thofe of Hermes, mentioned by feveral credible authors,
from which the Greek philofophers and Egyptian hiftorians
deduced much information, and to which Pythagoras and
Plato are faid to have been partly indebted for their philo-
fophy. Sanchoniatho and Manetho made ufe of thefe mo-
numents, which ftood in certain fubterraneous apartments
near Thebes. But it fhould be confidered, that the Egyp-
tians, like others among the ancients, had two forts of learn-
ing, the vulgar, open to all, and the fecret, which was veiled
and difguifed, written in a charaéter not commonly under-
ftood, and guarded by the priefts. Hence it happened, that
Pythagoras is faid to have found great difficulty in gaining
accefs to the fources of Egyptian knowledge and learn-
ing. The chief method which the Egyptians adopted for
concealing their dofrine, was that of wrapping it up in
hieroglyphics, fymbols, enigmas, and fables. In their in-
{criptions and writings, they made ufe of three different forts
of characters. The firft and moft ancient fort was that of
hicroglyphics ; which fee. They alfo ufed literal sharaéters,

of which they had two kinds, wiz. the facred letters, in
which their public regifters, and all matters of an higher
nature, were written ; and the other the vulgar, ufed by
every one in theircommon bufinefs. How far the Egyptians
were concerned in the invention of letters is a queftion to
which our attention will be direéted under the articles
Letters and WritTiInG.

The Egyptian language is, without doubt, one of the
moft ancient in the world, and, as fome have imagined, an
original, or mother-tongue. See Lancuace, and the
article Coputs.

We fhall clofe this article with a concife fketch of the
hiftory of Egypt. ‘This country confilted originally of a
narrow traét on the borders of the river Nile. ‘The region,
afterwards called Lower Egypt, and the Delta, was, in
thofe early ages, a gulf of the fea. The date of the popu-
lation of Egypt is uncertain. Some learned men have con-
jectured that, not long after the divifion of the earth among
the fons of Noah, Ham with his family retired to this
fertile tra€t; and that his fon Mizraim peopled the country
with his own iffue, which inhabited feveral parts of it, under
the names of Mizraim, Pathrufim, Cafluhim, and Caphtorim.
Some have added, that after the death of Mizraim, Egypt
was divided into feveral {mall principalities, which were
governed by their refpetive fovereigns. It is not probable,
however, that Mizraim fhould eftablifh a monarchy in
Egypt: but it is more likely, that the world waa at firft
planted by tribes, or colonies, compofed of different families
blended together without diftin@iion; and that every tribe
fhould remain feparate and independent, in its fettlement,
till it was conftrained to yield to fome powerful in-
vader, and that thus the monarchical form of govern-
ment was eftablifhed. The fources of information con-
cerning the ancient ftate of Egypt are thofe with which
we are furnifhed by Syncellus, Manetho, and Eratof-.
thenes. But thefe are fo fabulous, defeétive, and incon-
fiftent, that it is needlefs tor ws to recite them. The
reader may find them ftated and examiued, or rather expofed
in the 1{t volume of the Ancient Univerfal Hiftory. The
refult, however, from an examination of thefe fources is,
that in Egypt there were 30 dynalties, confilting of 36,525
years, and that, aftera period of fomewhat more than 34,200
years, during which their gods and demi-gods reigned, the
cynic circle fucceeded. ‘The duration of this dynafty is
fixed to 443 years, after which their kings began to reign 5
the firft of whom is Menes, In Blair’s tables, the kingdom
of Egypt is faid to commence under Mizraim, the fon of
Han, in the year 2188 B. €., and to have lafted for 1663
years, to the conqueit of Cambyfes, in the year 525 B.C.
Sir Ifaac Newton places Menes after Sefoftris, fuppofed by
him to be Ofiris, and in oppofition to other chronologers
who wrote before him, he thus tranfpofes the feries of the
kings. of Egypt mentioned by Herodotus. According to
his account, Menes was the fame with Amenophis and
Memnon, and was about 300 years older than Piammetichus,
with whom the Egyptian chronology begins to be unravelled,
and to acquire a certain degree of clearnefs and confiftency.
Sir Ifaac holds it irrational to fuppofe, that there was any
king of Egypt till after the expulfion of the fhepherds.

Menes, fuppofed to be the firft mortal who reigned over
Egypt, is faid to have found the whole country, except
Thebais, a morafs, fo that no Jand appeared between the
lake Meeris and the Mediterranean. He diverted the
courfe of the Nile, which before wafhed the foot of the
fandy mountain, towards Libya, and built the city of Mem-
phis within the ancient bed of the river. On the north fide
he made a lake, and on the weft another, both without the

walls,

_ children of Ifrael were the fame event.

EGYPT.

walls, and both fed by the Nile, which flowed along the
ealt fide of the town; and in the city itfelf he built the
famous temple of Vulcan. He is faid to have been the firft
who inftru@ted the Egyptians in religious matters, that in-
troduced magnificence and luxury, and that inftituted the
pomp of feafts. After an unafcertained fucceffion of kings,
the peace and felicity of the country were difturbed by the ap-
proach of a large body of adventurers, diltinguifhed in hiftory
by theappellations of Auritee, Hycfos, and Shepherds. Sir
John Marfham places this event 157 years before the exodus
of the children of Ifrael. Sir Ifaac Newton places their ex-
pulfion in the year 1070 B.C, Their irruption happened,
according to archbifhop Ufher, in the year 2048 B.C., and
their. expulfion in 1825 B.C.; the reign of Salatis, their
firft king, and his five fucceflors, as marked by Manetho,
amounting to 259 years. Ancient and modern writers have
entertained different opiniors concerning thefa enterprifing
people. Manetho, quoted by Jofephus, fuppofes that they
came from Arabia, and held the whole of Lower Egypt in
fubjeGtion for 259 years, at the end of which period they
were obliged, by a king of Upper Egypt, named Amolis,
and Thethmofis, to quit the country, and retire elfewhere.
When the Shepherds withdrew from Egypt with their fami-
lies, their number amounted to 240.000; and, taking the
way of the defert, they entered Syria; but, fearing the
Affyrians, who were then very powerful, they built for
themfelves, in the land now known by the name of Judea,
a city capable of holding fo great a multitude, and called it
Jeruialem: fuch is the account of Manetho. Others, as
Tatian, Juftin Martyr, Clemens of Alexandria, fuppofe,
that the expulfion of the Shepherds and the exodus of the
The ingenious and
learned Bryant maintains that thefe Shepherds were Cuthites,
who had been expelled from Babylon by the fons of Shem,
at the fecond difperfion; and that, abandoning a region,
which they could no longer poffefs in tranquillity, they pre-
cipitated themfelves into Egypt, drove the difunited tribes
of Ham from the moft fertile part of their territories at the
upper end of the Delta, and fettled there. This invafion
happened foon after the Affyrians had become formidable
by the conquefts of Ninus; ‘for we are told that the Aurite
fortified the eaftern borders of their new fettlaments towards
Arabia and Chaldza. About this time, as ancient hiftorians
affert, the Delta had acquired the confiftency of a morals.
Drained by the Shepherds, it foon became a temperate and
beautiful, as it naturally was a fertile region. For the
fpace of 2} centuries, that bold and enterprifing race kept
pofleffion of Middle and Lower Egypt. In the courfe of
this period, as we are told, they difcovered many ufeful arts
and inventions, and fent out colonies, from time to time,
in queft of new fettlements. Two hundred and fixty
years after their arrival in Egypt, the pofterity of the
original natives, not finding fufficient accommodation in
Upper Egypt, to which they had been confined, or en-
vying the fuccefs of their fortunate invaders, commenced
hoftilities againft them. Aftera long, doubtful, and bloody
eonteft, the Aurite were compelled to retire. They fepa-
rated into feveral bodies, and migrated into Pheenicia, Syria,
Greece, and other regions, carrying with them their inven-
tions and improvements, (See Aurir#and Sueruerps.)
This memorable revolution happened not long before the
defcent of Jacob, 1706 B.C. The land of Gofhen, that
had been evacuated by the expulfion of the fhepherds, was
allotted as a fettlement to him and his family. His pofte-
rity poflefled this province for a period of 215 years; and
in the year 1491 B.C. they were permitted to depart.
Soon after their departure the Egyptian monarch purfued
them with a powerful army, determined either to bring them

¢

back to fervitude or to deftroy them, unarmed and defence=
lefs, in the wildernefs. Providence, however, conduéted
and preferved them; and overthrew Pharach with his whole
hoft inthe Red fea, Soon after this event, which hap-
pened, as fome fay, in the reign of Amenophis, this king
was fucceeded (1485 B. C.) by his fon, as fome have thought,
Scfoftris, the Sefac or Shifhak of fcripture, according to
fir John Marfham, who fays that the more ancient kings of
Egypt are ftyled Pharaoh. Whilton has laboured to fhew,
that Sefoftris is the T'yphon of the mythologifts, and the
fame Pharaoh who perifhed in the Red fea. Sir Ifaac
Newton, as we have already faid, maintains, that Sefoftris
is the Ofiris of the Egyptians, the Bacchus of the Greeks,
and the Sefac or Shifhak of the fcriptures. However this
be, his reign, which lafted 68 years according to Blair’s
tables, formed the moft extraordinary part of the Egyptian
hiftory. Heis reprefented as having been very powerful,
both by fea and land, wife, jult, generous, valiant, and mag
nificent, but ambitious. (See Sesostxis.) After the death
of Sethon, about 675 years B. C., Egypt was divided into
12 kingdoms, andas many of the Egyptian lords were ap-
pointed rulers or fovereigns, who entered into the ftri@eft
affociation for the public welfare. The fea-coafts fell to
the lot of one of them, called Pfammetichus, who, encou-
raging commerce with the Greeks and Pheenicians, not only
accumulated great wealth, but acquired the favour and
friendfhip of feveral foreign kings and nations, The other
fovereigns became jealous and envious, and declared war
againft him. Finding himfelf unequal to the confli€&, he
hired an army of mercenaries, confilting chiefly of Ionians,
Carians, and Arabians, and repelling force by force, he at
length fubdued the other kings, and put an end to the duo-
decemvirate, after it had fubfifted 15 years. In the year
660 B.C. he became matter of the whole kingdom of Egypt,
and reigned with as much wifdom, magnanimity, and {plen-
dour, as any of his predeceffors had ever difplayed.. After a
long and profperous reign, he was fucceeded (616 B.C.)
by his fon Pharaoh-Necho, who was defeated by Nebuchad-
nezzar king of Babylon. Soon after ‘this defeat, Nebu-
chadnezzar returned to Egypt with a powerful army, laid
walte the kingdom, dethroned Apries, Necho’s fucceffor,
(587 B.C.) invefted Amafis with the fupreme power
(569 B. C.), and carried an incredible quantity of captives
and f{poils to Babylon. Amafis, confulting his~own fafety,
entered into an alliance with the Grecian ftates, and with
Creefus, king of Lydia. About this time the Perfian em-
pire had been much elevated by the viétories and triumphs
of Cyrus, ‘Twenty-three years after the conquelt of Lydia,
Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus, reduced Egypt, and made it
tributary to Perfia, 525 years B.C. In the fecond year
of Artaxerxes Longimanus (463 B.C.) Egypt revolted
from the Perfians, under Inarus, who procured for them the
affittance of the Athenians; but they were again compelled
to fubmiffion. In the roth year of Darius Norhus (414
B. C.) another revolt took place ; and Egypt had for a fhort
interval its own kings, the lait of whom was Netanebus,
when it was compelled to fubmit to the Perfians in the oth
year of Artaxerxes Ochus, 350 years B.C. In a few
years Alexander the Great, having fubdued Perfia(331 B.C.)
marched towards Egypt, and the whole kingdom fubmitted
without refiftance to his viétorious army. After his death
Ptolemy, one of his generals, took pofleflion of it, 323 years
B.C.; and his pofterity maintained themfelves upon the
throne for about 280 years. Upon the defeat of Antonys
and the death of Cleopatra, Egypt fhared the fate of other
kingdoms, and was reduced by Auguftus intoa Roman pro-
vince, in the 2d year of his reign, 30 B.C. Auguitus
divided the government among feveral perfons of equeftrian

aL2 order ;

paG yy

order; not venturing to confide in fenators, who were
already too powerful. No circumftances pertaining ‘to
Egypt of fufficient moment to be here recited, occurred
during the reigns of the firft emperors: but in that of Gal-
hienus, (about A.D. 254) Emilian, who had been pre-
fet for fome years, aflumed the imperial purple, and gratified
the people by delivering them from the yoke of Gallienus,
who was batedand defpifed. ‘The people and the foldiers
concurred in acknowledging his fovereign authority, and he
governed -the country’ for fome ‘time with prudence and
vigour. At length; however, he was taken by Theodotus,
and fent to Gallients, who ‘ordered him to be ftrangled in
prifon. Under Claudius (A. D. 269) Zenobia, who called
herfelf a defcendant of the kings of Egypt, and decorated
her pedigree with the names of the Ptolemies and Cleopatras,
from whom fhe pretended to derive her origin, took poffef-
fion of Egypt; but whilft Aurelian made war upon this am-
bitious fovereign in the Eaft, his lieutenant Probus re-con-
quered Egypt and annexed it tothe Roman empire. In
the year 640 Egypt was fubdued by Amrou, the famous
general of Omar, caliph of the Saracens. (See ALEXAN-
priA.) Under the adminiftration of Amrou Egypt prof-
pered; and his genius renewed the maritime communication,
which had been attempted or atchieved by the Pharaohs,
the Ptolemies, and the Czxfars; anda canal, at leaft So miles
in length, was opened from the Nile tothe Red fea. This
inland navigation, which would have joined the Mediterra-
nean and the Indian ocean, was foon difcontinued as ufelefs
and dangerous. Amrou’s letter to Omar exhibits in glowing
colours the riches and populoufnefs of this country. The
Saracens retained poffeffion of this country, until Saladin,
A.D. 1174, eftablifhed the empire of the Turks in Africa. In
the year 1250, the Turkifh government gave way to that of
the Mamlouks. (See Mamiouks.) This dynafty termi-
nated in 1517, when Selim, fultan of the Ottomans, annexed
the kingdom of Egypt to the Turkifh dominions. It ftill
remains in fubjeétion to the Sultans, and is governed by
Pachas or Bafhaws, and Beys, who, as we have already feen,
have reduced it to extreme mifery. (See Basuaw and
Bry.) Ofthe attempts that have been lately made both
by the Englifh and French, to take poffeffion of this country,
it is unneceflary to take notice, as they have terminated by
alternate victories and defeats between the contending parties,
and in the withdrawment of the forces of England and
France from this fcene of conteft. Anc. Un. Hift. vol. i.
Savary’s Travels in Egypt, vol. ti, Volney’s Travels in
Egypt and Syria, vol. 1. Sonnini’s Travels in Egypt.
Browne’s ‘Travels in Egypt. Brucker’s Hit. Philof. by
Enfield, vol. i.
EGYPTIAN Gyostics.
Eeyrtian Pebble. See Jasper.
Ecyptian Year. See Year.

' Eeyrrians, popularly Gypfes, in our ftatutés, im-
pottors and jugglers, forming a kind of commonwealth
among themfelves, who difguife themfelves in uncouth habits,
{mearing their faces'and bodies, and framing to themfelves
a canting language, wander up and down, and, under pre-
tence of telling fortunes, curing difeafes, &c. abufe the com.
mon people, trick them of their money, and tteal all that
they can come at. 2

The origin of this tribe of vagabonds is fomewhat ob-
{cures at leaft, the reafon of the denomination is fo. It is
eertain, the ancient Egyptians had the charaGter of great
cheats, and were famous for the fubtlety of their impoftures,
whence the name might afterwards pafs proverbially into,
other languages, ‘as it 18 pretty certain it did into the Greck
gud Latio; or elfe, the ancient Egyptians being much verfed

See GnosrTics.

EGY

in aftronomy, which in thofe days was little elfe but aflro+
logy, the name was on that {core affumed by thefe tellers of
good fortune. ay
Be this as it will, there is fcarcely any country of Europe
but has its Egyptians, though not all of them under that
denomination: the Latins call them gyptii : the Italians,
Cingani and Cingari; the Germans, Zigeuner ; the Frenchy
Bohemiens ; others, Saracens; and others, Yartars, &c.
Muntfter, Geogr. lib. iii, cap. 5. relates, that they made
their firft appearance in Germany, in 1417, exceedingly -
tawney and fun-burnt, and in pitiful array, though they
affeted quality and travelled with a train of buat tose
after them, like nobles. The above date fhould probably
have been 1517, as Munfter himfelf owns, he never faw
any till 1524. He adds, that they had paffports from king
Sigifmund of Bohemia, and other princes. ‘Ten years aftere
wards, they came into France, and thence paffed into Eng-
land. Pope Pius II., who died A. D. 1464, mentions
them in his hiftory as thieves and vagabonds, thus wander-
ing with their families oyer Europe, under the name of
Zigari; and whom he fuppofes to have migrated from the
country of the Zigi, which nearly anfwers to the modern
Circaffia. Several hiftorians inform us, that when fultan
Selim conquered Egypt, in the year 1517, feveral of the
natives refufed to fubmit to the Turkifh yoke ; but being at
length fubdued and banifhed, they agreed te difperfe in
f{mall-parties over the world, where their fuppofed flall in
the black art gave them an univerfal reception, in that age
of fuperftition and credulity, In afew years the number
of their profelytes multiplied, and they became formidable
in molt of the ftatesof Europe. Pafquier, in his Recherche
liv. iv. chap. 19. relates a les probable origin of the Gyp-
fies, thus: on the 17th of April 1427, there came to Paris
twelve penitents, or perfons, as they faid, adjudged to pe-
nance, viz. one duke, one count, and ten cavaliers, or per=
fons on horfeback: they took on themfelves the character -
of “ Chriftians of the Lower Esypt,” expelled by the Sara-
cens; who, having made application to the pope, and
confeffed their fins, received for penance, that they fhould
travel through the world for feven years, without ever lying
onabed. Their train eonfilted of 120 perfons, men, women,
and children, which were all that were left of -1200, who
came together out of Egypt. They had lodgings affigned
them in the chapel, and people went in crowds to fee them.
Their ears were perforated, and filver buckles hung to them;
their hair was exceedingly black, and frizzled; their women
were ugly, thievifh, and pretenders to telling of fortunes,
The bifhop foon afterwards obliged them to retire, and ex
communicated fuch as had fhewn them their hands.
Ralph. Volaterranus, making mention of them, affirms,
that they firft proceeded or ftrolled from among the Uxii, a
people of Perfis or Perfia. Mr. Grellman, ina German ‘ Dif-
fertation on the Gypfies,” of which an Englifh tranflation
by Matthew Raper, .efq. was publifhed in 1787, has given
a circumftantial and conneéted account of thefe wandering
tribes and their manner of living in different parts of Europes
Having colleéted the opinions of feveral writers on the origia
of the Gypfies, and, as he conceived, refuted the argu-
ments alleged in fupport of them, heafferts, that they came
from Hindooftan: this hypothefis he grounds chiefly on the
fimilarity of the Gipfy language to the Hindooftanic; and
upon a comparifon it muft be acknowledged that many words
are the fame, whilft many are different. Many of thefe
words, as fir William Jones has obferved (Afiatic Ref.
v. iil. p. 7.) are pure Sancrit, fearcely changed ina fingle
letter. Mr. Grellman, moreover, fuppofes, that the
Gypfies are of the loweft clafs of Indians, viz. ‘ Pa-
ras,’ or, ag they are called in Hindooftan, « Suders."”
He

EG '¥

He compares the manners of this clafs with thofe of the
Gypfies, and enumerates many citcumftances in which they
agree ; but fome of his comparifons are frivolous, and prove
nothing. In anfwer to the queftion, How and when did
the Gypfies migrate from Hindoollan, he replies, that there
is no caufe to be affigned for their retreat from thence by
any means fo plaufible as the’ war of Timur Beg in India.
The date of their arrival, he fays, marks it very plainly. It
was in the year 1408 and 1409 that this conqueror ravaged
India; and his progrefs was fo alarming and deltruétive,
that thefe, among other terrified inhabitants, faved themfelves
by flight. Accordingly this author endeavours to trace
their route from Hindooltan to Europe; but he acknow-
ledges that nothing can be faid on this fubje€t beyond
mere furmife. Sir W. Jones (ubi fupra) fuggelts, that, in
fome piratical expedition, they might have landed on the
eoalt of Arabia; or Africa, whence they might have rambled
to Egypt, and, at length, have migrated, or been driven into
Europe. A race of banditti, refembling them in their habits
and features, is found among the Troglodytes, in the rocks
near Thebes.

Mf. Grellman eftimates the number of thefe wanderers in
Europe to be between 7 and 800,000. As to the
favourite food of thefe people our author fays, that they are
fo far from being difgufted with the carrion of a fheep, hog,
cow, or other beaft, horfe-fleth only excepted, that their
fill of fach a meal is with them the height of epicurifm.
He has then defcribed their drefs, their family-economy,
their occupations and trades, their marriages and education,
their difeafes and burials, their political regulations and re-
ligion. In thefe particulars we cannot follow him. With
regard to their character he fays, that they are lively, and
uncommonly loquacious, extremely fickle and inconftant in
their purfuits, and faithlefs to every body even of their own
éalt, deftitute of gratitude, and frequently recompenfing be-
nefits with the moft infidious malice: flavifh when intimidated,
and cruel when unapprehenfive of danger, revengeful and
violent in their refentments ; fo addifed to drinking as to
part with any neceflary for fpirits; and exceedingly vain and
fond of fine clothes. Such are the levity and infenfibility of
a Gipfy’s temper, that in the {pace of an hour he forgets
that he has been juft releafed from the whipping poft.

But there are other traits of chara€ter much more atrocious
than any we have already mentioned. The depravity of
their mahners, with regard to the intercourfe of the fexes, is

-extreme. The mother, fays our author, endeavours, by
the moft fcandalous darts, to train up her daughter for an
offering to fenfuality, and the daughter is fcarcely grown
up to maturity, before fhe becomes a feducer of others.
Lazinefs is fo predominant among them, that if they were to
fubfift merely by their own labour, they would hardly have

_ bread for two days in the week. ‘This indolence increafes
their propenfity to ftealing and cheating. It is not matter
of furprife, if this pifture be fairly drawn, that almoft every
European ftate has exerted its utmoft power to get rid of
thefe noxious intruders. Mr. Grellman enumerates feveral
ediéts that have been pafled for the banifhment of the Gyp-
fies out of Spain, France, Italy, England, Denmark, Swe-
‘den, the Netherlands, Holland, and Germany. He difap-
proves of thefe laws, and recommends other methods for
making them ufeful fubjeéts in the feveral kingdoms, where
they are now dangerous and mifchievous vagabonds. One of
the means which he propofes is not likely to anfwer any
valuable purpofe. The civilization of a favage mult be
effcGted by gentle treatment, and not by corporeal punifh-
ment, which he recommends.

‘By an ordonnance of the ftates of Orleans, in the year
1560, it was enjoined all thefe impoftors, under the namie of

EHR

Bohemians and Ezyptians, to quit the kingdom, on penaltY
of the gallies. Upon this they difperfed into Icfler com-
panies, and {pread themfelves over Europe. They were ex-
pelled from Spain in 1591. The firft time we hear of them in
England was inthe year 1530, when they were defcribed by
the ftatute 22 Hen. VIII. cap 19. as * an outlandifh peo-
ple, calling themfelves Egyptians, ufing no craft nor feat of
merchandize, who have come into this realm, and gone from
fhire to fhire and place to place in great company, and ufed
great, fubtile, and crafty means to deceive the people ;
bearing them in hand, that they by palmiltry could tell men’s
and women’s fortunes; and fomany times by craft and fubtlety
have deceived the people of their money, andalfo have com-
mitted many heinous felonies and robberies.’? Wherefore
they are direted to avoid the realm, and not to return under
pain of imprifonment, and forfeiture of their goods and
chattels ; and upon their trials for any felony which they
may have committed, they fhall not be entitled to a jury
«de Medietate linguz.”’? And afterwards, it is enaGed by
ftatutes 1 and 2 Ph. and M. c.:4, and 5 Eliz. c. 20, that: if
avy fuch perfon fhall be imported into this kingdom, the
importer fhall forfeit 40/7, Andif the Egyptians themiclves.-
remain one month in this kingdom, or if any perfon, being
fourteen years old, (whether natural born fubje& or ltranger,)
which hath been feen or found in the fellowthip of fuch Egyp-
tians, or which hath difguifed him or herfelf like them, thail
remain in the fame one month, at one or feveral times ; it is
felony without benefit of clergy: and fir Matthew Hale
informs us, that at one Suffolk affizes no lefs than 13 Gyp-
fies were executed upon thefe ftatutes, afew years before the
Reftoration. But to the honour of our national humanity,
there are’ no inftances more modern than this of carrying
thefe laws into pra@tice. Now, indeed, by ftat. 23 Geo. III.
c. 51. the faid.a& of 5 Eliz.c. 20. is repealed: and the
flatute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. regards them only under the de-
nomination of rogues and vagabonds. See VaGcranTs.

EHENHEIM, or Urrer Enennem, relatively to the
village of the fame name, called Lower Ehenheim, in Geogra-
phy, isa {mall town of France, in the departmentof the Lower
Rhine, on the river Ergel, or Ergers; 15 miles S.W. of
Strafbourg. It was anciently a free imperial city.

EHINGEN, a {mall town of Germany, in the king-
dom of Wirtemberg,. fituated on the Danube; 12 miles
S.W. of Ulm, remarkable for a very ancient nunnery.—Alfo,
a {mall town of Germany of the fame kingdom, fituated on
the Necker ; 6 miles W. of Tubiogen.

EHLE, a river of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, which runs into the Elbe, near Magdeburg.

EHRENBERG, a {mall town of Germany, in the king-
dom of Bavaria, firuated inthe Tyrol, on the frontiers of
Suabia, in the lordfhip of the fame name. It is remarkable
for an ancient caftle, which formerly was confidcred as very
ftrong. It is go miles S.. of Kempten,—Allo, a {mall
town of Germany, in the former principality of Fulda,
with a chapel dedicated te the Virgin Mary on the top of a
very high hill, which its termination derg, the German for
mountain, denotes. ;

EHRENBREITSTEIN, (the broad rock of honour,) an
important fortrefs of Germany, near the Rhine, on a hizh
mountain oppofite Coblentz, at the place where the river
Mofelle falls into the Rhine... The rock is fo fleep, and the
fortifications are fo ftrong, that it can be reduced only by
famine. It furrendered to the French in 1798, after a
blockade of eighteen months. The eleGtoral palace of the
archbifhops and eleGtors of Tréves, whofe territory was
ceded to France by the peace of Luneville, isat the foot of
the rock, and furrounded with works of defenc:. Ehren-

‘breititein is now in the territory of the grand duke of Naf.

fag

EHR

fau Weilburg, one of the princes of the Confederation. of
the Rhine.

EHRENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Weftphalia, and county of Hoya; 15 miles W.S.W.
of Hoya.

EHRENFRIEDERSDORF, anciently IrnpersporF,
a {mall town of the kingdom of Saxony, in the circle of the
Ertzgebirge, on a fmall rivulet, which, after having re-
ceived feveral other brooke, takes the name of Wilfch, and
falls into the Z{chopau near Griefbach. It is chiefly in-
habited by miners occupied in the adjacent mines; its po-
pulation amounts to 1300 individuals, and its chief manu-
faGure is that of thread, lace, and yarn.

EHRENSTEIN, a town and ceftleof Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and principality of Schwartzburg
Rudolftadt ; 10 miles N.W. of Saalfeld.

EHRETIA, in Botany, fo named by Browne, in honour
of George Dionyfius Ehret, a German, much celebrated for
his beautiful botanical drawings, which now fetch a high
price among colleétors. Mr. Ehret was the friend of Mille ry
as well asacorrefpondent of Linneus. He drew from dried
{pecimens the excellent plates of Browne’s Natural Hittory
of Jamaica, and after refiding long in England, where he
had many pupils, even among the nobility, who highly re-
{peéted him, he died about go years ago, and was interred
near his friend Miller, in the burial ground of ‘the Kiny’s-
road, Chelfea. He was born in 1708. Browne’s Jam. 168.
t. 16. f. r. Linn. Gen. 102. Schréb. 139. Willd. Sp. PL.
v. t. 1077. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 2. Juff. 128. Clafs and
order, LPentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. <Ajperifolie,
Linn. Borraginee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, fmall,
permanent, divided half-way down into five obtufe fegments.
Cor. of one petal; tube twice as long as the calyx; limb in
five, nearly ovate, recurved, obtufe fegments. Stam. Fila-
ments five, inferted into the bafe of the tube, awi-fhaped,
fpreading, the lewgth of the corolla ; anthers roundifh, in-
cumbent. Pi. Germen fuperior, roundifh; flyle thread-
fhaped, {welling upwards, the length of the ftamens; ftigma
obtufe, cloven. eric. Berry, according to Juffieu, of
four cells, but feparable intotwo hemifpheres, each of two
wells. Seeds one in each cell, convex on one fide, angular on
the other.

Obf. E. Beurreria has the fruit feparable into four parts,
each of which has two cells and two feeds. Fuf Hence
Linneus’s paradoxical account, that each /eed is of two cells
in that {pecies.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, inferior. Berry of four or
cight cells.. Seeds folitary. Stigma cloven.

This genus in Willdenow confifts of feven fpecies. E.
tinifolia 15 the original one. ‘* Leaves oblong-ovate, entire,
fmooth. Flowers panicled.”’—Figured in Browne as above-
faid, and in Trew’s Plante ScleSiz, t. 25, where it is re-
prefented as hexandrous, with fix fegments to the corolla,
which the editor erroneoufly terms fo many petals. This
tree grows in Jamaica “ in the lower lands,’” and is from 16
to 20 feet high. The flowers are white, not remarkable
for beauty. Berries yeilowifh, about the fize of currants.
Browne faya they ferve to feed poultry, and are fometimes
eaten by the poorer fort of people. The plant having not
much to recommend it to general notice, is only occafionally
cultivated in the Englifh ftoves. Miller introduced it in
I . :

La ae is ftill more unfrequent in our colleéions.
& Jeaves ovate, entire, f{mooth. Flowers fomewhat corym-
bofe Calyx {mooth.’? —Native of Jamaica, figured in Browne
t. 15. f.2, who defcribes it as growing in the Savannahs,
-to the height of 14 or 15 feetonly, The flowers are white,

FHR

fewer, but much larger, thanin the former. Berries faffron-
coloured, with eight feeds.

E. buxifolia, Roxburgh Ceromand. v. 1. t. 57, is an
Eaft Indian fpecies, unknown to Linneus, and as yeta
ftranger in England. ‘ Leaves cluftered, obovate, be-
{prinkled with callous points, obf{curely three-toothed at the
fummit. Stalks many-flowered.”? A rigid fhrub, remark-
able for the white callofitics on its eaves. From three to fix
white {mall flowers grow on each flower-ftalk. Berry redy
the fize of a pea.

Jufficu fufpeéts this genus may be the fame with the
Menais of Linneus; but the latter has been feen by Locfling
and Aymen only, and we know not how the queftion is to
be clearly determined.

If it fhould prove fo, the name of Ehretia has a prior
claim, in point of time, to Menais, not to mention the
greater inconveniences of changing it. If, however, the
calyx of Afenais be corre@tly defcribed, as ‘* of three loofely
fpreading leaves,” this genus muft be diftin@, and the -
linear and feffile anthers moreover abundantly mark it as fuch.

EHRFELDEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of the Upper Rhine, and principality of Hefle
Darmftadt; 8 miles W. of Darmftadt.

EHRHARTA, in Botany, named by Thunberg and
the younger Linneus after their friend Frederick Ehrhart,
a Swifs botanift of great diligence and acutenefs, who
ftudied at Upfal, and fettled as an apothecary at Hanover,
where he died fome years fince. He publifhed feveral
colleGtions of dried plants, with authentic names, for the
ufe of the medical pra&titioner as well as botanift, and a
mifcellaneous work, entitled Bcitrdge, in 7 vols. 8vo. in
German, full of excellent botanical remarks, with fome pe-
culiarities of epinion and ftyle. He beftowed great and
commendable attention upon many common garden trees and
flowers, which other botanifts had confounded or negleéted,
as well as on cryptogamic plants. Being employed to fuper-
intend the printing of the Supplementum Plantarum, he intro-
duced fome of his own genera of mofles, with new, affected,
and unauthorized terms, which geve fo much difpleafure to
Linnzus, that the fheet was cancelled. ‘Thunb. Stockholm
Tranf. for 1779, 216,t. 8. Linn. fil. Nov. Gram. Gen,
32. fig. Suppl. 28. Smith Pl. Ic. fafc. 1. t. 9. Schreb.
236. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 246. Juff. 32. Mart. Mill. Di&.
v. 2. Swartz Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 40. t. 3, 4. (Trochera ;
Rozier Journ. for 1779, 225.) Cla{s and order, Hexandria
Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina, near Oryza.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume of two valves, fingle-flowered 5
valves ufually fhorter than the corolla, ovate, acute, concave,
channelled, beardlefs, a little fpreading, unequal; the outer
generally {maller, ovato-lanceolate, embracing the inner by
its bafe; inser rather larger, ovate, broad, acute. Cor.
double, longer than the calyx, fcarcely gaping. Outer of -
two-folded, compreffed, unequal valves, embracing each
other, often furnifhed with one or two tufts of hairs at the
bafe; the inner valve narrowelt, witha noteh at each fide of its
bafe; outer valve in an early ftate almoft concealing the
other, and conneéted with it by a fort of joint at the very
bottom. Inner coro'la comprefled, two edged, of two

.valves, which are folded, membranous, keeled, unequal 3

the outer valve broadeft, embracing the oppofite glume of
the outer corolla with its bafe, at the notched fides of that
glume; inner valve tapering, fomewhat incurved. At the
bafe of the interior corolla, adjoining to the inner valve of the
outer corolla, is a feffile, roundifh, uneven tubercle; perhapa
the rudiment of another floret. Ne¢tary of two minute mem-
branes, thickened at their bafe, very thin at the fummit,
enfolding the organs of impregnation. Stam, Filaments fix,

‘very fhort, inferted round the germen; anthers linear, erect,
8

notched

EHR

notched at the bafe, cloven at the fummit, of two cells,
each of which burfts obliquely at the top. Pi/f. Germen
fuperior, ovate, minute, fmooth; ftyles two, very fhort,
erect, contiguous; ftigmas long, approaching each other,
at length divaricated, each confifting of two oppofite, fea-
thery rows. Peric none, except the permanent valves of
the corolla. Seed folitary, {mooth,

The above defcription is taken from Dr. Swartz’s paper,
the only correét hiftory of this curious and elegant genus, in
which the contrarieties and errors of preceding authors are
explained and corre@ed. Dr. Swartz remarks, that in thofe
{pecies where the tubercle, or rudiment of a floret, is want-
ing, a petal-like fcale is found in its ftead, on both fides,
where the inner valve is notched.

Eff. Ch. Calyx a glume of two valves, fingle-flowered.
Corolla double, each of two valves; the outer corolla
notched at the bdfe.

The celebrated Thunberg firft founded this genus upon
a fingle fpecies in 1779; about the fame time the abbé
Rozier publifhed a defcription of another {pecies by Richard,
under the name of Trochera. ‘The name of Thunberg how-
ever was adopted by Linnzus in the Supplementum, who de-
fcribed his original Z. capen/is, by the name of E. Mnema-
teia, a name probably fuggetted by Ehrhart himfelf, who
was partial to words of Greek derivation. Dr. Smith firft
diftinguifhed thefe two fpecies, and added three others to
the genus, in his Plantarum Icones. Finally, Profeffor
Swartz has inveftigated the whole, and afcertained four more
fpecies, making nine in all. Profeffor Willdenow was not
acquainted with this excellent treatife when he defcribed the
genus in his Sp. Plantarum; and this popular work being
therefore deficient, as well as the fubjeé very curious, we
fhall briefly elucidate all the fpecies. ‘They all grow, as far
as is at prefent known, near the Cape of Good Hope
only, In habit they moft refemble Melice, but the flowers
have a fingular and elegant afpect, efpecially fuch as have
the outer corolla tranfverfely wrinkled. Some bear terminal
awns on that part, others none.

* Beardle/s.

1. E. mnematea, Sw. in Tr. of L. Soc. v. 6 44, f. 1.
Linn. Suppl. 209. Thunb. Prod. 66 (E. capenfis; Thunb.
Stockh. Tranf. for 1779, 216. t. 8. E. cartilazinea; Sm.
PI. Ic. fafc. 2. fub t. 33. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 246. E. nu-
tans; Lamarck Encycl. v. 2. 346.) ** Outer corolla rugofe,

“obtule, beardlefs. Panicle fimple, lax. Stem fimple.
Margin of the leaves cartilaginous and crifped.””— The haves
have a cartilaginous edge, very elegantly notched and
ope Flowers tinged with purple, on capillary drooping

alks.

2. E. panicea, Sw. 47. f. 2. Sm. Pl. Ic. fafe. 1. t. 9.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 247. (E. ere€ta; Lamarck 347 )
* Outer corolla fmooth, fomewhat rugged, obtufe. Pani-
cle flightly branched, drooping. Stem fubdivided.””—Cul-
tivated in the ftoves at Kew and Cambridge, flowering in
June and July. It has the habit and {mall green flowers of
a Panicum or Poa, but the flighteft infpe€tion fhews its true

enus,

4 3. E. ramofa, Sw. 49. f. 3. (Melica ramofa; Thunb.
Prod. 21. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 383.) ‘ Outer corolla
rough, abrupt. Panicle clofe. Stem much branched, rather
fhrubby.”,—Dr. Swartz informs us this is alfo the Lhrharta
digyna of Thunberg, the only botanift who feems to have
found it ; and that the flowers fomewhat refemble Fe/uca
decumbens of Linnzus. ‘Fhe calyx is nearly as long as the
sorolla. The fem jointed, branched, and almoft woody. —

4- E. melicoides, Sw, 51. £. 4. (Melica capenfis ; Thunb.

EJA

Prod. 21. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 383 ) « Outer corolla very
fmooth and ebtufe. Panicle widely fpreading.’”-—Much
relembling a Melica. Glumes of the corolla peculiarly bare
and rounded, and panicle very much branched. Sw.

5. E. calycina, Sw. 53.f.5. Sm. Pl. Ic. fafc. 2. t. 33-
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 247. (Aira capenfis; Linn. Suppl. 108.)
“ Outer corolla fomewhat hairy, obtufe with a fhort point.
Panicle clofe, nearly fimple. Stem branched.’’—-Sparrman
was the difcoverer of this fpecies, whofe pointed hairy
S/umes diftinguifh it from the laft, as well as its clofe panicle.

** Aqwned.

6. E. geniculata, Sw. 55. f. 6. (Melica geniculata ;
Thunb. Prod. 21. Wiild. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 352.) ¢* Outer corolla
hairy ; one valveawned. Panicle clofe. Stem decumbent,
bent at the joints.””-—-Habit of the laft, but its crifped
leaves, and pointed awned corolla diftinguih it.

7. E. longifora, Sw. 56.f. 7. Sm. Pl. Ic. fafe. 2. t. 32
Willd. Sp. Pi.v. 2.246. (E. ariltata; Thunb. Prod. 66.)
** Outer corolla rugged, hifpid, both valves awned. Pant-
cle rather lax, branched.’’—A large f{pecies, with the habit
of an Avena. Dr. Swartz found fix ftamens, Dr. Smith
but three, in the flowers they feverally examined. The
length of the awns varies.

8. E. gigantea, Sw. 58.f.8. (Melica gigantea; Thunb.
Prod. 21. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.382. Aira villofa; Linn.
Suppl. 109.) ‘ Outer corolla hairy, both valves awned.
Panicle clofe, fomewhat whorled. Stem remotely jointed.
Leaves involute ””—One of the largeft fpecies, being fix feet
high. Tue flowers alfo are larger and more hairy than
in any other. Calyx very membranous, half as long as the
corolla.

y. E. dulbofa, Sw. 60. f. 9. Sm. Pl. Ic. fafc. 2. fub t. 33.
(Trochera ftriata; Richard in Rozier’s Journal, vy. 13. 225.
t. 3.) ‘¢ Outer eorolla with obovate, emarginate, rugged,
fhort-awned glumes. Panicle lax.’”-—The roof is more
bulbofe in this than in fome others. It was defcribed by
Richard froma plant in fome of the French gardens, and he
attributes * but three ftamens to the flowers.”? We have
found four, with appearance of abortive filaments, fo that
the number probably varies. This moft refembles the firft
{pecies, with which indeed Lamarck confounded it.

EHRIAH Gross, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Schwartz-
burg ; 4 miles W. of Greuffen.

EHRNAU, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Stiria;
fix miles N. of Knittelfeld.

ERRNHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Stiria, at the conflux of the Salm and the Muebr;
ro miles N. of Mahrburg.

EHRNSPRUNN, a town of Germany, in the archduchy
of Auftria; 8 miles S. of Laab.

EIA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the fea of Azoph,
at Eifkoi.

E1a, or Zy, in our Old Writers, are ufed for an ifland.
Hence the names of places ending in ey, denote them to
be iflands. Thus, Ramfey, the ifle of Rams; Sheppey,
the ifle of Sheep, &c.

Era is alfo fometimes ufed for water; and hence the
names of places near waters or lakes, terminate in ey.

EJACULATION, in Medicine, the a& of emitting feed,
from the Latin, ejaculare, to caft outwards. See Emission.

EJACULA'TOR Seminis, in Anatomy, a mulcle of
the urethra, called alfo accelerator urine ; which fee.

EJACULATORY Ducts, aterm which has been ap-
plied to the openings of the vafa deferentia in the urethra

See GENERATION, Organs of.
EIBESWALD,;

ELGG

EIBESWALD, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Sctria; 16 miles S. of Voitfberg.

EICET A, called alfo Heicete and Hiceta, heretics of the
feventh century, who made profeffion of the monatftic life.

From that paflage in Exodus, where Mofes and the chil-
dren of Ifrael are faid to have fung a fong in praife of the
Lord, after they had pafled the Red fea, wherein their enc=
mics had perifhe!, the Kicete concluded, that they mutt
fing and danc’, to praife God aiirht; and as Mary the pre
phictefs, filter of Mofes and Aaron, took a drum in her hand,
on the fame occafion, and all the women did the like, to tef-
tify their joy, by playing, beating, and daacing, the Eicete,
the better to imitate their condu@ herein, endeavoured to
draw women to them to make profeffion of the monattic life,
and affift in their mirth.

_EICHENBUBL, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleGtorate of Mentz;
3 miles’S E. of Miltenberg.

EICHHOLZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up
per Saxony, and principality of Anhalt Zerbft; 3 miles
dS.W.of Zerb.

EICHMED, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Na-
tangen; fix miles SSE. of Raftenburg,

EICHNER, M. in Biography, an eminent performer on
the baifoon, and an excellent compofer, not only for his own
inftrument, but for the harpfichord and piano-forte. He
was in this country about five and twenty years ago,
and introduced a ftyle between that of Schobert and the
prefent; with Jefs fire than Schobert, and more talfte
and expreffox. He was accufed by. the critics of his
own country of being too modern. He was in.a bad
ftate of health during his refidence in England, and played,
but little in public; yet from that little it was ealy
to difcover a ftyle, tafte, and expreflion, of the molt re-
fined and polfhed kind. His pieces for keyed-inftruments,
printed by Bremner, were elegant, correét, and extremely
pleafing. He died at Berlin the beginning of 1778.

EICHSFELD, in Geography, frequently but improperly
called the Zisfeld, is a country of Germany, fituated in the
Eleétoral Rhenilh circle, bounded by Hanover, Heffe, and
Thuringia, about 35 miles in its greateft length from fouth
to north, and 24 miles in breadth from ealt to weft, having
altogether a territorial extent of 185 fquare miles. It is di-
vided into Lower and Upper Eicksfeld, the Lower being the
northern, and the Upper the fouthern part. The latter.is
very mountainous, and gives birth to feveral rivers, as the
Leine; the Lutter, which firft runs into the Wiefel, and
then conjointly with this into the Werre; the Unitrut ; the
Wipper, and the Rume. ;

The E:chsfeld contains four cities, three boroughs, and
one hundred and fifty villages. Duderftadt, in the Lower
Eichsfeld, was confidered as the capital. Its population, at
the peace of Luneville, was about 120.000 individuals.

Anciently the Eichsfeld belonged to Thuringia, The,
Upper Eichsfeld was ceded by Henry, count of Gleichen, in
the year 1294 to Gerhard I]. eleCtor of Mayence ; the re-
maining parts of this country were fucceffively added to the
eleGorate in 1334, 1563, and 1692.
Luneville, the archbifhop of Mayence was fecularized, and

the Eicshfeld given as an indemnity to Pruffie for the Pruf-.

fian provinces on the welt fide of the Rhine. This ceffion
was confirmed by the convention of the 26th of December
1S02, between Auftria, Ruffia, and France. But Proflia
loft the Eichsfeld again at the peace of Tilfit in 1807, and by
Napoleon’s decree of the 18th of Auguft of the fame

year, the Eichsfeld was conttituted a part of the new king-
dom of Weltphalia.

But at the peace of,

EJE

EICHSTAEDT,, Ercusrsrr, or Aichfadt, an ancient
town of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, tormerly the
chief city and epifcopal refidence of the bifhopric of the fame
name, is fituated in a fertile valley on the river Altmilal, 45
miles S. of Nuremberg, ina tract of country called the Nord-
gau. The place on which the townof Eichftett ftands belonged
anciently to the counts of Hirfchberg, one of whom ceded,
it to St. Boniface, and the latter to his filter’s fon Willibald,
who founded a convent, near which houfes were gradually
built, and this aflemblage of buildings obtained the name of
Eichftett from the number of large oaks. with which it was
furrounded. In 745 Boniface confecrated Willibald bifhop:
of Eichflett.

The bifhopric of Eichftett, which was nearly 54 miles,
long and about 21 in breadth, contained 10 towns and one
borough: but it was fecularized at the peace of Luoneville,
and firft given to the king of Bavaria, who full retains a,
{mall portion of ir. The principal part, together with the
town of Erchftett, was afterwards transferred as part of his
indemnities to the grand duke of Tufcany, who was created
eleGtor of Salzburg,and whofe poffeflions in Germany are now
known by the name of the grand duchy of Salzburg. They
are confidered as under the protection of Aultria. ~~

EIDA, in Afodern Hiftory, a Mahometan fpring feftival,
celebrated annually by the Nawab of Lucknow, in Hin-
dooftan, on the rit of March, after the new moon becomes.
vifible, and kept, as it is faid, in commemoration of Abra-
ham’s facrifice.. A camel is here fub{tituted fora ram. The
princes of Hindooftan march in proceffion, at this ceremony
with all their courtiers, and a large military efcort. ° On fuch
occafions, the oriental tafte for fhew and gaudy magnificence
is difplayed with extraordinary attention. The howdahs,
palankeens, and harneffing of the elephants, are fo contriveds
as to exhibit a blaze of gold, in which the numercus orna-
ments cannot be well diftinguifhed. After the pomp and
oftentation of the proceffion, during which alms are diftri-
buted, when the firlt part of it arrives on the ground, the
ceremony confifts in a folemn invocation of the Deity for
plenty and profperity during the enfuing feafon. It is ob-
ferved, however, that the tranfitions from outward 2é&ts of
devotion to the groffeft crimes is fhort and frequent.’ This
feftival feems to refemble the feaft of Tabernacles among
the Jews, which, as we learn from the complaint of the
prophet, was obferved by that people with as little moral
effect, or purity of intention, as this is by the Muffulmans,
Both Jews and Muffulmans have, in too many inftances,
equally regarded fuperftitious obfervances, as a fubftitute for
every moral virtue, and a -compenfation to the Deity for
the violation of hig laws.

EIDE, in Geography, a town of Norway; 36 miles
E.S.E. of Berghen. Bhi

EIDER, a river, which, in a great part of its courfes
divides the duchy of ‘Slefwick from that of Holltein, and
runs into the German ocean; 12 miles W.S.W. of
Lunden.

Eper-Duck, in Ornithology. See Ducx.

EIDWALD, in Geagraphy.a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Leitmeritz; 16 miles W.N.W. of Leitmeritz. —

EJECIT Inrra Terminum. See Quare Zjecit.

EJECTION, the 2& of throwing out, or difcharging”
any thing at fome of the emun@tories, as by ftool, vomiting
or the like.

EJECTLIONE Cusropia, Ejedément de Garde; in Lats,
a writ which lies againft him that catts out the guardian
from any land during the minority of the heir. See
Guarpian. f :

EJEcTIONE firme, a writ that lies for the leffee ona

4 who

who is ejected before the expiration of his term, either by the
~ Aeffor, or a ftranger. '

Alfo eje&tment may be brought by a leffor againft the
Neffee, for rent in arrears, or holding over his term, &c.
Reg. Orig. 227. This writ of ejedione firme, or action of

‘trefpafs in efe@ment, lieth where lands or tenements are let for
term of years, and afterwards the leffor, reverfioner, re-
mainder-man, or any ftranger, doth eje&, or oult the leflee of
‘his term. (1 Inft. 45-) In this cafe, he fhall have his writ
of ejedlion, to call the defendant to anfwer for entering on
‘the lands fo demifed to the plaintiff for a term that is not

_ yet expired, and ejefting him. And by this writ the plain-

iff fhall recover back his term, or the remainder of it, with
damages. Eje¢tment is now become an aétion in the place
ef many real actions, as writs of right, formedons, &c. which
are very difficult, as well as tedious and chargeable ; and this
is the common aétion for trying of titles, and recovering of
ands, &c. illegally kept from the right owner. However,
all titles cannot be tried by this ation. This method feems
to have been fettled as early as the reign of Edward IV.
(7 Edw. IV. 6.) ; though it hath been faid (F.N.B: 220.) to
have firft begua under Henry VII., becaufe it was then
firft applied to its prefent principal ufe, that of trying the
title to the land. In order to apprehend the contrivance,
by which this end is effeCted, it fhould be recolleGed, that
the remedy by eje&tment is, in its or'ginal, an a¢tion brought
by one, who hath a leafe for years, to repair the injury done
him by difpoffeffion. For the purpofe of converting it into
a method of trying titles to the freehold, it is firft neceflary
that the claimant do take poffeffion of the lands, to em-
power him to conftitute a leffee for years, that may be
capable of receiving this injury of difpoffeffion. Tor it
would be an offence, called in our law ‘* Maintenance,” to
convey a title to another, when the grantor is not in poffef-
fion of the land. When, therefore, a perfon, who hath
right of entry into lands, determines to acquire that poffef-
fion, which is wrongfully withheld by the prefent tenant,
he makes (as by law he may) a formal entry on the premi-
fes; and being fo in poflcflion of the foil, he there, upon the
land, feals and delivers a leafe for years to fome third perfon
or leffee; and, having thus given him entry, leaves him in
poflcffion of the premifes. his leffee is to ftay upon the
land, wll the prior tenant, or he who had the previous pof-
feffion, enters thereon afrefh and oults him ; or till fome other
perfon (either by accident, or by agreement, before-hand)
comes upon the land, and turns him out or ejects him.
For this injury the leflee is entitled to his aétion of ejeétment

, againit the tenant, or this “ cafual ejector,”” which-ever it
was that oufted him, to recover back his term and damages.
But where this ation is brought againft fuch a cafval
“ejector, before-mentioned, and not againit the very tenant in
‘poffeffion, the court will not fuffer the tenant to lofe his
pofftffion, without any opportunity to defend it. Accord-
ingly, it is a ftanding rule, that no plaintiff thall proceed in
ejectment to recover lands againft a cafual ejector, without

* notice given to the tenant in poffeffion (if there be any), and
making him a defendant, if he pleafes. In order to main-
tain the action, the plaintiff muft, in cafe of any defence,

make out four paints before the court ; viz. title, kea/e, entry,
and oufler. He mutt, firit, thew a good ¢itle in his leffor, which
brings the matter of right entirely before the court ; they,
that the leffor, being feifed or pofleffed by virtue of fuch a

- title, did not make him the /afe for the prefent term ;
thirdly, that he, the leffee, or plaintiff, did enter, or take
poffeffion, in confequence of fuch leafe; and, laftly, that the
defendant ouffed, or ejected him. Whereupon he fhall have
judgment to recover his term and damages ; and fhall, in

Vou, XII.

EJECTMENT.

confequence, have a writ of poffe/fion, which the fheriff is to
execute, by delivering him the undifturbed and peaceable

‘poffeffion of his term. ‘

This is the regular method of bringing an ation of eje@-
ment ; and this method muft ftill be continued in due form
and ftri€tnefs, except only as to the notice to the tenant,
whenever the poffeflion is vacant, or there is no aétual
occupant of the premifes; and alfo in fome other cafes.
But, as much trouble and formality were found to attend
the aétual making of the leafe, entry, and oufler, a new
and more eafy method of trying titles by ejeétment,
when there is any aétual tenant, or occupier of the
premifes in difpute, was invented above a century ago by
the lord chief juftice Rolle, who then fat in the court of upper
bench, fo called during the exile of king Charles II.

This new method entirely depends upon a ftring of legal
fi&tions : no a@ual leafe is made, no aétual entry by the
plaintiff, no aGtual oufter by the defendant ; but all are
merely ideal, for the fole purpofe of trying the title. To
this'end, in the proceedings, a leafe for aterm of years is
{tated toe have been made by him who claims title, to the
plaintiff, who brings the a€tion, as by John Rogers to
Richard Smith, which plaintiff ought to be fome real per-
fon, and not merely an ideal fiitious one, as is frequently,
though unwarrantably, praétifed (6 Mod. 309.): it is alfo
ftated, that Smith, the leffee, entered ; and that the defendant,
Willam Styles, called the * cafual ejector,”? oufted him ;
for which oufter he brings this aGion. As foon as this
ation is brought, and the complaint fully ftated in the de-
claration, Styles, the cafual ejeGtor, or defendant, fends a
written notice to the tenant in poffeffion of the lands, e. g-
George Saunders, informing him of the a€tion brought by
Richard Smith, and tranfmitting him a copy of the declara-
tion ; affuring him that he, Styles, the defendant, has
no title at ailto the premifes, and fhall make no defence ;
and therefore advifing the tenant to appear in court, and
defend his own title ; otherwife, he, the cafual ejeor, will
fuffer judgment to be had againft him; and thereby the
aétual tenant, Saunders, will inevitably be turned out of pof-
feffion. On receipt of this friendly caution, if the tenant in
poffcffion does not, within a limited time, apply to the court
to be admitted a defendant in the ftead of Styles, he is fup-
pofed to have no right at all; and, upon judgment being
had againft Styles, the cafual ejector; Saunders, the real
tenant, wiil be turned out of poffeffion by the sheriff.

But, if the tenant in poffeffion applies to be made a de-
fendant, it is allowed him upon this condition ; that he en-
ter into a rule of court to confefs, at the trial of the caufe,
three of the four requifites for the maintenance of the
plaintiff's aGtion, viz. the /eafe ot Rogers the leffor, the
entry of Smith the plaintiff, and his oufler by Saunders him-
felf, now made the defendant inftead of Styles ; which re-
quilites being wholly fiGtitious, fhould the defendant put the
plaintiff to prove them, he mult of courfe be non-fuited for
want of evidence; but by fuch ftipulated confeffion of /ea/ey
entry, and oufter, the trial will now ftand upon the ments
of the site only. When this is done, the declaration is
altered by inferting the name of George Saunders inttead
of William Styles, and the caufe goes down to trial under
the name of Smith, the plaintiff, on the demife of Rogers
the leffor, againft Saunders, the now defendant. And
herein the leflor of the plaintiff is bound to make out a clear
tile: otherwife bis fi€titions leflee cannot obtain judgment
to have poffeffion of the land for the term fuppofed to be
granted.” But if the leflor makes out his title in a fatisfac=
tory manner, then judgment and a writ of pofleflion fha'l go for
Richard Smith, the nominal plaintiff, who by this trial hag

4M proved

EJE

proved the right of John’ Rogers his fuppofed leffor, "Yet to
prevent fraudulent recoveries of the poffeffion, by collufion
with the tenant of the land, all tenants are obliged by ftatute
11 Geo. Il. c. 19. on pain of forfeiting three years’ rent,
to give notice to their landlords, when ferved with any de-
_Claration in ejeciment: avd any landlord may, by leave of the
court, be made a co-defendant to the action, in cafe the te-
nant himfelf appears to it; or if he makes default, though
judgment muft be then figned againft the cafual ejeétor,
yet execution fhall be ftayed in cafe the landlord applies
to be made a defendant, and enters into the common rule ;—
aright, which indeed the landlord had, long before the
provifion of this ftatute ; in like manner as (previous to the
ttatute of Weftm. 2.c. 3.) if ina real aGtion the tenant of
the freehold made default, the remainder-man or reverfioner
had a right to come in and defend the pofleffion ; left, if
judgment were had againft the tenant, the eitate of thofe
behind fhould be turned to a naked right. (Braéton, |. 5.
c.10. § 14.) But if the new defendants, whether landlord
ortenant, or both, after entering into the commonrule, fail
to appear at the trial, and to confefs leafe, entry, and oufter,
the plaintiff Smith mult be non-fuited, for want of proving
thefe requifites; but judgment will in the end be entered
againft the cafual ejector Styles ; for the condition, on which
Saunders, or his landlord, was admitted.a defendant, is broken,
and therefore the plaintiff is put again in the fame fituation
as if he never had appeared at all; the confequence of which
would have been, that judgment would have been entered
for the plaintiff, and the fherifi, by virtue of a writ forthat
purpofe, would have turned out Saunders, and delivered
pofleffion to Smith. The fame procefs, therefore, as would
have been had, provided no conditional rule had been ever
made, muft now be purfued as foon as the condition is
broken. ; j

The damages recovered in thefe ations, though for-
merly their only intent, are now ufually (the title being
confidered as the principal queftion) very {mail and in-
adequate ; “amounting commonly to one fhilling or fome
other trivial fum. In order, therefore, to complete the
remedy, when the pofleffion has been long detained from
him that had the right to it, an aétion o€ trefpals alfo lies,
after a recovery in ejectment, to recover the mefne profits
which the tenant in poffeflion has wrongfully received. This
ation may be brougbt in the name of either the nominal
plaint ff in the ejectment, or his leflor, againft the tenant in
poffeffion ; whether he be made party to the eje@tment, or
fuffers judgment to go by default, (4 Burr. 668.) In this
cafe the judgment in ejectment is conclufive evidence againit
the defendant, for all profits which have accrued fince the:
date of the demife ftated in the former declaration of the
plaintiff ; but if the plaintiff fues for any antecedent profits,
the defendant may make a new defence.

This isthe modern way, now univerfally adopted, ofoblique-
ly bringing in queition the title to lands and tenements. It
js founded on the fame principle as the ancient writs of af-
fife, being calculated to try the mere foféfory title to an
eftate, and hath fucceeded to thofe real actions, as being in-
finitely more convenient for attaining the ends of juftice; be-
caufe the form of the proceéding being entirely fictitious, it
js wholly in the power of the court to dire&t the application
of that fiGtion, fo as to prevent fraud and chicane, and evif-
cerate the very truth of the title. The wnt of ejectment,
and its nominal parties, as was refolved by all the judges
(Mich. 32 Geo. IL. 4 Burr. 668. Stra. 54.) are * judicially
to be confidered as the fiGtitious form of an aétion, really
brought by the leffor of the plaintiff againft the tenant in
poflcilion: invented, under she controul and power of the

ETG

court, for the advarfcement of juftice’ in many refpects ; and

to force the parties to go to trial on the merits, without

being entangled in the nicety of pleadings on either fide.””
But a writ of ejeétment is not an adequate means to try

the title of al! eftates; for on thofe things, whereon an ene —

try cannot in faét be made, no entry fhall be fuppofed by any
fiction of the parties. Therefore an ejeétment will not lie of
an advowfon, a rent, acommon, or other incorporeal hereditae
ments. (Brownl. 129. Cro. Car. 492): except for tithes in
the hands of lay appropriaters, by the exprefs purview of ftat.
g2 Hen. VII. c. 7., which dodirine hath fince been ex-
tended by analogy to tithes in the hands of the clergy (Cro.
Car. gor. 2 Lord Raym. 78g.): nor willit lie in fuch.cafes,
where the entry of him -that bath right is taken away by
defcent, difcontinuance, twenty years’ difpoffeffion, or other-
wife.

The ation of ejefiment is, however, rendered a very
eafy and expeditious remedy to landlords, whofe tenants are
in atrears, by ftatute 4 Geo. II. c. 28, which enacts, that
every Jandlord, who hath by his leafe a right of re-entry
in cafe of non-payment of rent, when half a year’s rent is
due, and no fufficient diftrefs is to be had, may ferve a de-
claration in ejectment on his tenant, or fix the fame upon fome
notorious part of the premifes, which fhall be valid, without
any formal reentry or previous demand of rent ; and a reco
very in fuch ejeétment fhall be final and conclufive, both in
Jaw and equity, unlefs the rent, and all colts, be paid or ten=
dered within fix calendar months afterwards. Blackit,
Comm. B. iii. c. 11. For the praétice relating to eject.
ments, fee Jacob’s Di. by Tomlins, art. Eje@ment. See alfo
Bull. Ni.Pri. and Gilbert’s Zjeéments by Runnington.

EIGHT-FOIL, or Double Quarter foil, in Heraldry, a
modern difference, denoting the ninth fon of the firlt houfe.

Ercurt, Piece of. See Pirce of Light. ¥

EIGHTH Pair of Nerves, in Anatomy, the fame with
the par vagum. See Nerves.

Eicurtu, in Afufic, is, next to the unifon, the molt pers
fe&t concord, and the boundary of the prefent mutical fyftem ;
it includes 12 femitones, which produce 24 keys, 12 major
and 12 minor; it contains all the intervals, concords and dif-
cords ; as ail beyond the o€tave are but replicates, cr recur-
rences of the fame founds: the flat 9th being but the otave
ofthe flat 2d, and the major oth of the major 2d; the roth
of the 3d, &c. It is an effential note of the triad or com-
mon chord, and is fo near unifon in its eflects, that when a
male and female, or a man and an adolefcent fing the fame
melody together, it feems, to perfons ignorant of mufic, as
if they {ung in the fame pitch. of voice. In inftrumental
mulic, as well asin the accompaniment to vocal, the tenor
often plays Cel. Baffo; that is, an o&ave above the bafe 5
and the 2d violin playing an ottave below the firft, has
fometimes a beautiful effect. See Octave.

EIGNE, from the French ei/ne, in Law Books, is vfed
for eldeft, or firft-born. Thus we fay, baftard eigne, and
muler puifne, for the elder baftard, and the younger lawfully

orn.

EIGNOTZ, in Modern Hiflory, the name of a party
which fprung up in Geneva about the year 1530, denoting
a confederacy in defence of liberty, fo called in oppofition to
another, reproachfully denominated MJamelukes, or flaves.
When the proteftant opinions began to fpread among the
citizens, A. D. 1532, thefe opinions infpired fuch as em-
braced them with a bold enterprizing {pirit, which always ac-
companied, or-was naturally produced by them intheir firft
Operation. As. both the duke of Savoy and the bifhop
were, from interelt, from prejudice, and from political cons
fiderations, violent enemies of the reformation, all the new

converts

ErK

converts joined with warmth the party of the Eignotz; and
zeal for religion, blended with the love of liberty, added
ftrength to that generous paffion. The rage and animofity
of two faétions, fhut up within the fame walls, occafioned
frequent infurreGions, which terminated moftly to the ad-
vantage of the friends of liberty ; and therefore they daily
gained ground.

EIKON Basrzixe, a pofthumous publication bearing
this anonymous title, is generally fuppofed to have been the
compofition of king Charles I. and to have been written by
his own hand. It was entitled Ziton Bafilike, that is, the
royal jmage, ‘* or portraiture of his facred majefty in his
folitude; and fufferings,’? becanfe intended to reprefent the
religious difpofition of that unfortunate monarch, and depict
the unmerited treatment he experienced at the hands of his
fubje&ts. It was firlt printed in the year 1649, and pafled
through 50 editions in different languages within 12 months.
By the friends of royaity it hasbeen confidered as the king’s
pious meditations and confeffions, during the long period of
his trying perils, and unavailing ftruggles againft the ufurped

~ power of his parliament: and by the efpoufers of repube
lican ptinciples, as an apology in which he vindicates his
own character, endeavours to fupport the juftice of his caufe,
and to fhew the unprecedented and unjuitifiable condu@ of
his opponents. The book comprifes twenty-feven fections;
the firlt containing the king’s thoughts on calling his laft
parliament, and the laft, meditations on death. This work
produced an animated and feyere reply from a molt able
writer, entitled Eikonoklaftes ; for which title the author in
his preface gives the following reafon: «In one thing I
mauft commend his opennefs, who gave the title to this book,
Eszuy Bacsrsxn, that is to fay, the king’s image; and by the
{brine he dreffes out for him, certainly wouid have the peo-
ple come and worfhip him. For =:hich reafon this anfwer
alfo. is entitled EsxavoxAwsns, the famous furname of many
Greek emperors, who ia their zeal to the command of God,
after long tradition of idolatry in the church, took courage
and brake all fuperititious images te pieces.” Whatever
fentiments the reader of the work and its anfwer may enter-
tain, there can exilt but one opinion, as to which performance
fhould be affizned the palm of vi@tory. :Indeed, whatever
eaufe fuch a writer as the author of Paradife Loft were in-
duced to defend, leaving the merits of the queftion totally

- out of confideration, he would not fail, by logical fubtlety
_and eloquent elucidation, to make it appear incontrovertibly

~.thebeft. After the work made its.appearance, the queflion
was ftrongly agitated, whether the Eikon Bafilike was the
produdtion of the deceafed monarch, and the honour or dif-
grace attached to the writing of it .was affixed to different
perfons among the abettors of the royal caule:—Lord
Clarendon, author of the ‘* Hiftory of the Rebellion;”” bifhop
Burnet, who in his youth accompanied prince Charles in his
exile; bifhop Juxon, the king’s chaplain, who pofleffed his
confidence, was his fecret advifer, and attended the monarch
in his laft moments, &c. &c.

The grounds and evidences of the {purioufnefs of the book

are hele 1. That lord Clarendon, in his Hiltory of the
‘Grand Rebellion, makes no mention of it. 2. Bifhop Burnet
fays, the duke of York, afterwards king James II., told
‘him in the year 1673, that the book called Eikon Balilike
was not of his father’s writing, but that Dr. Gauden writ it:
‘that after the reftoration, the doctor brought the duke of
Somerfet to the king and to the duke of York, who both
affirmed that they knew it to be his (the dotor’s) writing,
cand that it was carried down by the earl of Southampton,
and fhewed the king during the treaty of Newport, who
sead and approved it. j. The carl of Anglefey gave it

EIK

under his hand, that king Charles II. and the duke of York
declared to him, in the year 1675, that they were very fure
the faid book was not written by the king their father, but
by Dr. Gauden, bifhop of Exeter. 4. Dr. Gauden himfelf,
after the reftoration, pleaded the merit of this performance
in a letter to lord chancellor Hyde, who returned for anfwer,
that the particular he mentioned (i. ¢. of his being the author
of that book,) was communicated to him as a fecret: I 2m
forry, fays his lordfhip, that it was told me, for when it
ceafes to be a fecret it will pleafe nobody but Mr. Miltcn.
5» Dr. Walker, a clergyman of the church of England, after
Invoking the great God, the fearcher of hearts, to witnefs te
the truth of what he declares, fays, in his treatife entitled
‘A True Account of the Author of E:kon Bafilike,??
I know and believe the book was written by Dr. Gauden,
except chap. 16th and 24th by Dr. Duppa. ‘ Dr. Gau-
den, fays he, acquainted me with his defign, and thewed me
the heads of feveral chapters, and fome of the difcourfes.
Some time after the king’s death I afked him, whether his
majefty had ever feen the book? He replied, I know it
certainly no more than you; but I ufed my belt endeavours
that he might, for I delivered a copy of it to the marquis of
Hertford, when he went to the treaty of the Ifle of Wight.”
Dr. Gauden delivered the MS. to this Walker, and Walker
carried it to the prefs; it was copied by Mr. Gifford, and
both the doGtor’s fon and his wife affirm, that they believe it
was written in the houfe where they lived. Notwithftanding
all this evidence, Mr. archdeacon Eachard fays, the book is
inconteftably the king’s; and bifhop Kennet adds, that thofe
who pretend Eikon Bafilike was a fham put upon the world,
are a fet of men that delight to judge and execute the royal
martyr over again by murdering his name. Dr. Holling-
worth, Dugdale, Wagftaffe, and others, have endeavoured
to invalidate the above-mentioned authorities, by fhewing
that Dr. Gauden was not capable of writing fuch a book;
but the evidence already produced is aa ftrong and con-
vincing as any thing of this nature can poffibly bee Neal’s
Hift. of the Puritans, vol. ii. p. 369, &c. gto.

When the Eikonoklaftes was publiflled the writer was
not ‘known, or it would doubtlefs: have been mentioned.
The author of that treatife was in doubt, and ftill * ftat
neminis umbra.””? Whoever was the writer, there can no doubt
remain as to the {cope and tendency of the faéts producec,
and the arguments ufed in the Eikon Bafilike. It appears
to have been written, not merely as an apology for the pait,
but a vindication of the then prefent meafures, and to further
the canfe of royalty. In this view it has been confidered by
the favourers of a republican form of governments To
counteract the effets likely to be produced by it on the
minds of the public, Milton was afligned the tafk of drawing
up aconfutation. In the light above ftated he faw it; for ‘*it
appears manifeftly the cunning drift of a factions and defeated
party, to make the fame advantage of his (the king’s) bock,
which they did before of his regal name and authority; and
intend it not fo much the defence of bis former actions, as
the promoting of their‘own future defigns; and that by pub-
lifhing, difperfing, commending, and almoft adoring it, feem
to place therein the chief ftrength and nerves of their caule,
For how much their intent, who publithed thefe over-late
apologies, and meditations of the dead king, drives to the
fame end of ftirring up the people, to bring him that ho-
nour, that affeGtion, and, by confequence, that revenge to
his dead corpfe, which. he himlelf living could never gain
to his perfon ; it appears both by the concerted portraiture
before his book, drawn out to the full meafure of a malking
f{cene; and fet thefe to catch fools: and filly gazers; and by
thofe Latin words after the end, ‘* Vola dabunt qua bella

4M2 negarunt:”*

EIM

negarunt ;” intimating, ‘that what he coald not compafs
by war, he fhould atchieve by his meditations.’ See pre-e
face to Milton’s Eikonoklaftes, edition by Baron.

EILAMIDES, from satw, J involve, a word ufed by
Hippocrates, to exprefs the meninges, or membranes of the
brain, and dura mater and pia mater.

EILENBURG, in Geography, in old times called Ie-
burck, Ileburg, Llinburg, Inungenburg, Iiburg, is a very
ancient town of the kingdom of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipzic, on the high road leading to Breflau, 15 miles from
Leipzic, pleafantly fituated in an ifland formed by the
river Mulde, over which th-re is a wooden bridge. Brewing
conflituted its chief induftry before and fome time after the
thirty years’ war, during which it fuffered feverely. It 19
now chiefly remarkable for its hops, which are reckoned the
beit in Saxony. Eilenburg has about 3500 inhabitants.
There is clofe to the town an ancient cattle, in which Mar-
garet, the widow of the eleGtor of Saxony, Frederick I.
furnamed the Mild, refided 22 years, from 1464 to 1486.

ELMBECK, or Einseck, anciently Embike, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Grubenhagen, which con-
ftituted part of the electorate of Hanover, and now, by Na-
poleon’s decree of the 18th of Auguit, 1807, forms part of
the new kingdom of Weitphalia, is fituated on the river
Ilme, which, at afmall diftance from the town, falls into the
river Leine, 15 miles N. of Goettingen, and 30.5. W. of
Hildefheim. 1t contains about 5000-inhabitants, and is re-
markable for its manufaétures of woollen cloth, flannel, ferge,
crape, dimity, and other cotton ftuffs, Eimbeck is fur-
rounded with mountains, part of the Hartz or Hercynian
foreft, which yield filver, copper, iron, and lead.

EIMEO, or Imao, one of the Society Iflands, in the
fouth Pacific ocean ; about four leagues W. from the N.W.
part of Otaheite. It has two harbours, vz. Taloo and
Parowroah ; the former is fituated upon the north fide of
the iffand, inthe diftri€&t of Oboonchoo-or Poonohoo, S. lat.
17° 30!. Ey long. 210° 0!. It runs in S. or S. by E. be-
tween the hills above two miles.
Capt. Cook, for fecurity and goodnefs of its bottom, to any
harbour belonging to the iflands in this ocean; and it has
this advantage over moft of them, that a fhip can fail in and

put with the reigning trade-wind, fo that the accefs and
Pitas equally eafy. There are feveral rivulets that fall
into it) “Wood and water are to be procured here with great
facility. The harbour of Parowroah, on the fame fide of
the ifland, is much larger within, than that of Taleo, out
the entrance is much narrower, and lies-to leeward of the
harbour: The inhabitants of this ifland were anxious to
trade in bread-frnit, cocoa-nuts, and hogs, which they ex-
changed for hatchets, natls, and beads. Eiméo fupplies
abundance of firewood. ‘There is little difference between
the produce of this iffland and that of Otaheite; but theres
a firiking difference in their women, Thofe of Eiméo are of
low ftature and dark hue, and their features are generally
forbidding. The general appearance of this ifland is very
different from that of Otaheite. The latter rifesin one fteep
hilly body, has little low land, except fome deep vallies, and
a flat border that furrounds it, towards the fea, Eiméo,
on the contrary, has hills running in every dire&tion, which
are fteep and rugged, inclofing large valleys, and covered
almof'to their tops with trees) Near the harbour where
Capt. Cook lay, in Oftober 1777, were two large ftones,
or rather rocks, concerning which the natives have fome
{uperftitious notions. They confider them as ‘* Eatooas’’
or divinities, faying that they are brother and filter, and that
they came, by fome fupernatural means, from Ulietea.
Ceok’s Third’ Voyage, vol, iis

This is not inferior, fays-

EDR

EINABI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Natolia;. 36 miles N. of Degnizlu.

EINBLINDER, in J/chthyology, the name of a fort of
lamprey, without eyes, called by the writers on thefe fub-
je&ts the lampetra caca, or blind lamprey. See Perro
my zon branchialis.

EINECIA, in our Old Writers, is ufed for primoges
niture. It is fometimes writ ¢/necia and efiecy. See
Esnecy.

EINICH, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in-
the province of Natoiia; 44 miles S.W. of Arteki.

EINSIEDLEN, or Ernsiepet, a {mall town of Swit-
zerland, in the canton of Surtz, remarkable for the ane
cient and rich abbey of the fame name.

This abbey, which is alfo called ‘ St. Meinrad’s Cell in
the Dark Foreit,” in Latin Eremus Deipare Matris; Ere~-
mus Dive Virginis; Monaiterium Eremitarum; Eremitarium
Ceenobium in Helvetiis ; 1n ancient records Monafterium in.
Silva, Megtnradi Cella, in I’'rench, Notre Dame des Her=
mites ; in Tralian, La Madonna di Waldo, is fituated in a
thick gloomy foreft, to which St. Memrad or Meginrad ie-
faid to have retired. In 838, the firft abbefs of the Frauen-=
milniter at Zurich, caufed a chapel and cell to be built for
him, but after the murder of the hermit in 863, they fell to-
ruin, About the year 906 St. Bennolaid the foundation of
the abbey, which is the fecond of the Beneditine order in
Switzerland. In 1704 the convent was rebuilt, and is now
a large {plendid edifice. It has an extenfive library, and:
rooms for the reception of ftrangers. The church of our
Lady was rebuilt in 1719. Ina chapel is-an image of the
Virgin, which particularly ufed to attra& a great number
of pilgrims, and which has been produtive of confiderable-
wealth to the abbey. ‘The manors of Erlibach and Manne=
dorf, in the canton of Zirich,. the lordfhips of Sonnenberg,
Gachrang, and Freudenfels, in the canton of Thurgau, the
parifh of Oberkirch, and feveral villages in Germany, be>
longed to Einfied!en.

EINVILLE, a fmall town of France, in the department’
of the Meurthe, in the diftri&® of Lunéville, 3 miles N. of
that place, remarkable for a palace which king Staniflaus
of Poland built: here during his retreat at Nancy.

EINZELLEE, one ofthe Perfian havens ‘of theCafpiany
which, though it be only-a wretched village, is the moft fre=
quented for the Perfian commerce. Formerly veflels ven
tured through the ehannel into a’bay; but this bay being
choaked up, they are now oblized to lie at anchor in the
road. Ejinzellee is fituated on’ the fouth-weltern coaft, &
few miles N. of Rethd, capjtal of the province of Ghilan :
it confilts of Old and New Einzellee ; the former inhabited by
the Perfians and Armenians, under the jurifdiGtion of the
fophy; the latter by the Ruffian merchants, and thofe Ar=
menians who are fubjeé& to Ruffia. A garrifon of 30 fol-
diers is flationed under the command of the conful. It’
contains a Ruffian-and Armenian’ church, and about 300.
houfes, moftly formed with mud. The refufe only of the’
Perfian and European commodities is expofed to fale at
Rinzeilee: the great mart being at Re/hd, which fee.

EION, in Ancient Geography, atown of Thrace, near the

mouth of the river Strymon; four miles from Amphipotis
and its port.

EIRE. See Eyre,

EIRESIONE, Eipiciwvn, from siges, qwool, in Antiquity,
an olive branch, bound: about with wool, and crowned with
all forts of firft fruits, which was cariied in proceffion in
the Athenian feftival, called Pyanepfia. Pott. Archzol.
Gree. lib. ii. cap. 20. tom,i. p. 428.

EIRON, in Geography, a river of South Wales, in Car=

j diganthire,

EIS

diganhhire, which, defcending threugh @ narrow vale ‘be.
tween fteep impending hills, falls into the fea, alittle below
a picturefque bridge at Abereiron, in the road from Car-
digan to Aberyfwith.

EISENACH, in Latin. J/éenacum, a town of Germany,
in the duchy of Saxe Weimar, formerly the chief city of
the principality of Saxe Eifenach, which devolved to the
dukes of Weimar in 1741, is fituated in an agreeable fertile
valley on the fmall river Neffe, 45 miles S. W. of Erfurt,
and has an ancient palace, which has been converted into
ftables. Eifenach contains between S and gooo inhabitants ;
it has feveral manufa@tures of woollen cloth, ferge, and
woollen and cotton ftuffs; which are cenfiderably benefited
by an excellent fuller’s earth, that abounds in the neigh-
bourhood. The grammar fchool, which was founded by
the duke John-William in 1707, has a very extenfive and
valuable library. The town has been much improved of
Yate, the flreets are regular, well paved, and weil lighted.
The vicinity of Eifenach is alfo remarkable for hops and
madder, At a diitance of two miles is an ancient cattle,
called the Wartburg, in which Luther was confined in the
year 1521; and at nearly the fame diitance is the fummer-
palace of Wilhelm’s Thal (William’s Dale) with a large
park, founded in 1729, by the duke John- William.

EISENBACH, a {mail town of Hungary, near Schem-
nitz, remarkable for a warm bath, and furrounded by lime-
ftone rocks. ,

EISENBERG, a fmall town of Germany, inthe duchy
of Saxe Gotha, principality of Altenburg, 6 miles from Zeitz,
with an ancient. ducal palace, and a good grammar fchool.
It contains 3500 inhabitants, and has a brifk timber and
deal trade, belides feveral manufa@tures of chairs, waggons;
woollen ftuffs, and leather.—AIfo, a {mall town of Germany,
with an old ruined caflle, in the principality of Waldeck.

EISENHARYTZ, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Stiria, enriched by iron mines, difcovered in 702; 10 miles.
N. of Leoben.

EISENSTADT, a fmall town of Hungary, three miles
to the left of the road from Vienna to Oedinburgh, with
a palace, which is the refidence of prince Efterhazy, who
has large eftates ‘tn its neighbourhood. »

EISETERIA, Escirneix, from sicsivs, L enter, in Anti-
quity, the day on which the magiftrates at Athens entered
upon their office ; upon which it was cuftomary for them to
offer a folemn facrifice, praying for the preletvation and
profperity.of the commonwealth, in the temple of Jupiter
Berezuos, and Minerva Betcux, 7. e. the Counfellors. Pott.
Archeol. Gree. lib. it. cap. 20. tom. I. p. 385.

EISFELD, anciently d/feld; Efefeld, Effefeld, or Efzfeld,
in Geography, a {mall town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe
Cobourg, ontheriver Werra, g miles from Cobourg, with
a good grammar fchook and an o'd ducal palace,. ufually-
the refidence of the duchefs dowager, if any.

EISKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Cau-
eafus, fituated at the mouth of the river Eia, ou the ealt
coatt of the fea of Azoph; 5o miles $.W. of Azoph.’

EISLEBEN, or E1iszuesen, in Latin //eba, an ancient
and confiderable town cf the kingdom of Saxony, chief
city of the county of Mansfeld, fituated on a hill near a
brook, called the Klippenbach, 15 miles’ E. of Halle, 20
of Merfeburg, and 30 of Leipzic, containing 903 houfes,
and’a population. of 5000 individuals. It is divided into the
Old and New Town. The former, which was knowa as a
flourifhing city in 1024, has.an ancient caftle, three parifh
churches, and an excellent grammar fchool, attended by
feven profeflora... Brewing was the principal occupation of
the inhabitante-in former times. They brewed a ftrong

EIS

beer called Zrappel, which ufed to be exported to a great
part of Germany ; they are now chiefly employed in agri-
culture, and in the making of faltpetre and potahh, There
are alfo fome mines of importance in the neighbourhood.
The New Town has only one parifh church.

But Eifleben derives its principal celebrity from being the
birth-place of Martin Luther. The houfe in which he was
born has been rebuilt, after the great conflagration of 1594,
and is ftill vifited by travellers. The furniture of the room
in which this eminent reformer firft faw the light, is reported
to have been faved from the fire, and is fhewn as a curioficy,
to which the fuperftition of the vulgar attaches the fanétity
of a relick, and the power of healing certain difeafes. Since
the year 1772 a part of the houfe has been converted into a
charity fchool, than which nothing could have been more
appropriate, to honour the memory of him who reftored the
freedom. of confcience, and enforced the extenfion of a more
enlightened inftruétion in the facred records of revealed re-
ligion to all and every member of the community.

EISTEDDFOD, in Antiquities, was an annual feffion of
the Britith bards. The learned Mr. Owen, in his Sketch
of Bardifm, prefixed to his tranflation of the Heroic Elegies,
by Llyware Hen, obferves, that the bards generally held
annual affemblies, called Gorfeddau ; at which the tradi+
tions of the bardic fyftem were rehearfed, and all matters
refpeGing their religion and policy tranfatted. But, fub-
fequeut to the introduétiou of Chriftianity, genuine bardifm
declined. A fchifm took place in the bardic body, not, as
he fuppofes, from the two fyftems clafhing with each other;
but through the introduétion of fuperititions from the prac-
tice of the Romiflr. church.. A prince, by the name of
Belus, propofed numerous deviations from the tenets of the
original inftitution, with which moft of the order complied.
Among many of the privileges of which they were deprived
on that occafion, eligilility ta the priefthood appears to have
been one. But from the tenor of hiftory, it is moft pro-
bable, that the nonjuring bards were fuch as were tenactous
of their Ethnic opinions; and thet the Beirdd-Beli, Over-
Veirdd, or Pfeudo-bards, on the other hand, were fuch as
complied with the inftitutes of Chriftianity. This {chifm
took place in the sth century. After which, the diffenting
party continued to hold gorfe ddau, and propagate their tenets,
till rie death of the laft Llywelyn ; when, by the cruelty of
the Enplith monarch, bardifm was nearly annihilated. From
the time of the fehifm, the chara€ter of the bardic orders,
generally acknowledged as fuch, was materially changed ;
and their occupations became widely different. They ap-
pear, however, to have been divided into three clafles, or
orders, as pocts, minitrels, and fingers 5. and, in imitation of.
their ancient 2ffemblies, or gorfeddan, they held annual
meetings, which, from the fpirit of party, they termed Eif-
teddfodau. Thelearned authorof the Welth Diétionary,
however, confiders them as a {purious race, and although
they were an incorporated fociety,; governed by pecuhar
laws, yet they were not bards. ‘he cilteddfod, or cons
grefs, was held under the fanétion of the Welfh princess
and as North Wales was the laft part of the country which
preferved its independency, and with that its peculiar laws;
the moft authentic veftizes are there to be traced of the ancient
ufages of Cambria. At this meeting the princes and chief-
tains, as well as bards, attended. It was ufually held at
one of the royal refidences, Aberfraw, Mathraval, or
Caerwys ; which circumitance has induced fome to fuppofe
ita trienvial, rather than an annual meeting. For the calle.
ing of thefeaflemblies, a {pecial commiffion was iffued by the
Welth princes, while they continued matters of the couatry,

and afterwards by royal authority under the Englifh mom
narchs-

.

EKA
warchs. At thefe Britify olympics were colle&ed ina focus
the fcattered rays of mufical aad poetic genius. ~ Britifh
bards pour-d forth their moft animated ftrains, and minftrels
tuned their fafcioating harps to ‘melody. This was con-
fidered not only as: an opportunity of difplaying flall, but
as a college of harmony, where genius was regiftered, and
merit rewarded with honours and emoluments. _Cand:dates
for bardic profeffions were admitted, others were affigned
precedence, and the bard moft diftinguifhed for his talents
on the occafion was folemnly chaired, and had awarded to
him, as the highelt mark of refpeét, the badge of merit, the
fiver harp. Without an examination at this public meeting,
and receiving a diploma in confequence of being approved,
none was qualified to exercife the profeflion, either of bard,
or minftrel. The laft eifteddfod convened by royal authority
was held in the reign of Elizabeth. The commiffion for
the purpofe was granted to fir Richard Bulkley, and other
perfons of diftinétion, OGober zoth, in the year 1567. Ia
purfuance of that, an eifteddfod was held at the town of
-Caerwys, in Flintfhire, the requifite notice having been pre-
vioufly given to the principality. The -aff-mbly was nume-
rous, and many perfons of eminent genius difplayed extra-
ordinary talents, both in mufic and. poetry. - Fifty-five
bardic degrees were conferred ; feventeen in vocal, and thirty-
eight in inftrumental mufic. From that period, the eiftedd-

“fod was difcontinued, bards and minitrels funk into infig-

nificance; and bardifm may now be faid to have expired.
The cruelty of Edward was the preparatory -ftep to the
downfal of the inftitution, and the fubjecting of the Welhh to
the jurifprudence of England, in the reign of Henry VIIL.,
has been operating to accomplifh it. A public {pirited fo-
ciety in London, affociated under the name of the Gwyned-

-digion, determined to revive a practice calculated to elicit

genius ; and, by rivalfhip, to produce .poetical and mufical
excellence. The ancient notice of a year and a day was
given previous to the meeting, and the enthufiafm of the
country was increafed by the aid of locality. -Caerwys was
appointed as the place of meeting, and the old town-hall
was fitted up on the occafion, for the reception of the com-
pany. It was numeroufly and refpectably attended, and
many excellent performers on theharp, aswell as poetical com-
pofers, and others of great vocal powers, difplayed abilities ;
ewhich evinced, that however the: genius of harmony had
been negle&ted, or the bardic {pirit fuppreffed, it. was not
extinguifhed among the inhabitants of North Wales. The
number of bards in attendance was twenty, of minftrels
twelve, and of datceiniaid, or fingers, eighteen. Having
elected a proper perfon to fill the cader, or chair, the firlt
day was occupied in hearing the poetical compofitions re-
eited; and on the fecond, the vocal and inftrumental can-
didates difplayed their refpeCtive abilities. The diflinguith-
ing honours of bardd braint, or principal bard ; pencerdd
dant, or chief performer on the harp; and pencerdd dafod,

-or chief of vocal powers,

** Who gave to fong refiftlefs powers to charm,”

were then conferred: and the meeting, which had been
highly gratifying to the lovers of genuine mufic and poetry,
then adjourned, fine die. Evans’s Tour in North Wales.

EITHON, or Yruon, in Geography, a river of Scot-
land, which runs into the German fea; 26 miles N. of
Aberdeen.

EITIAT, a town of Africa, in the empire of Morocco,
and province of Tedla, defended with walls, and contain-

‘ing about 3000 inhabitants. :

EKA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smoland;
11 miles N. of Wexio.

ous as the petals.

ERE

EKANGA, 2 river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Frozen fea; 140 miles E. of Kola.

EKARMA, one of the f{maller Kurile iflands, in the
North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 19° 30!. E. long, 154° 29’.

EKASTROV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Archangel; 80 miles S. of Kola. :

EKATERINGBURG. See Catuerinennurc.

EKATERINOGRAD, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Caucafus, on the Malva; 260 miles S.E. of
Azoph., N.lat. 44° 15!. . Ee long..432 38!

EKATERINOSLAV. See CarTHaRinENSsLar.

EKATERINOSLAVSKOI, a province of Ruffia, ia
the government of Ekaterinoflay, comprehending what was
formerly called Budziac Tartary, and the Ukraine, now
part of the coverament of Ekaterinoflav. See CarHart«
NENSLAF. 3

EKATERINSKAIA, a bay of the. North fea, in
Ruffian Lapland, near Kola. N, lat. 68° 50!. E. long.
Zoo nls wea 5

ENEBERGIA, in Sotany, named by Sparrman after fir
Charl-s Guftavus-Ekeberg, knight of the order of Wafa,
captain of a Swedifh Indiaman, who took him to China for
the purpofe of making inquiries in natural hiftory, and who
firft brought the tea plant alive to Europe. (See Amen.
Acad. v. 7.498.) Sparmann finding this tree, of a new
genus, during their vifit to the Cape of Good Hope, juftly
dedicated it to his friend and patron, and has deferibed it,
with a figure, in the Stockholm Trapfaétions for 1779, 282.
t.9. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 43. Murray in Linn, Sytt. Veg.
ed. 14. 399. Schreb. 284. . Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 549.
Juff..265. Mart. Mill. Diét. v. 2. Clafs and order, De-
candria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilate, Linn. Melia, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, downy,
in four or five deep, ovate, obtufe fegments. Cor. Petals
four or five, oblong, obtufe, rather larger than the fexments
of: the calyx, being about a line long, externally downy.

etary a ring encompafling the bafe of the germen.
Stam. Filaments ten, inferted into the ne€tary, broad and
fhort, downy, fomewhat cohering together; anthers ere&,
oblong, acute, much longer than the filaments. Pi/?. Gere
men fuperior, round; ftyle cylindrical, very fhort ; ftigma
large, capitate, umbilicated. Peric. Berry globofe, mealy.
Seeds from two to five, oblong, angular.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in four or five fegments. Petals four or
five. Neétary a ring round the germen, bearing the ftamense
Berry fuperior, with from two to five feeds.

Obf. Juffieu doubts, with great reafon, that the corolla
can really be of four petals, while the ftamens are ten, and
accordingly we find on diffeGtion that the flowers are, fome-
times at lea(t, five-cleft, the ftamens being twice as nume-
From the hairinefs and minutenefs of
the parts, it is difficult to afcertain precifely the mode of
conne¢tion between the filaments and the nectary, or to de-

fine the limits of each, but analogy feems to have rightly

guided Juflicu to improve the defcriptions of Thunberg and
Sparrman. ,

E. capen/is, the only known {pecies, is reported by Thun-
berg to grow in the woods of Hauteniquas and Effenboch
atthe Cape. The Dutch colonifts call it Effen or Effchen-
boom, and Hauteniquas Effen, from its refemblance to the
European afh. It forms a tall tree, with greyifh bark, and
a hard wood ufed for many utenfils. Branches alternate,
knotty, rugged, fcarred, downy when young. Leaves clul-
tered about the tops of each branch, alternate, much re-
fembling thofe of the afh in general appearance, being pin=
nate and fmooth, but the leaflets are entire. The panicles
of whitith {mall fowers come forth in November and the

I following

ee

ch Be i

following months, and are axillary, much fhorter than the
leaves. Sparrman defcribes the fruit as about half an inch in
diameter, mealy and rather bitter, with five feeds refembling
thofe of an orange. Thunberg obferves that they vary from
two to five, probably from partial abortion, and not from
any original diverfity of number in the germs,

_EKENAS, in Geography, a fea-port towa of Sweden, in
the province of Nyland, on the north coalt of the guif of
Finland, with an indifferent harbour; 50 miles S.E. of Abo,

EKERDEN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Natolia; 16 miles E. of Lfbarteh.

EKESIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smoland; 60,miles N.W. of Calmar.

EKHONT, Gersrant VANDEN, or rather EckHONT,
in Biography, a painter bornat Amiterdam in 1621, Heis
better Keown by the excellence of the manner in which he
imitated the peculiarities of his maiter Rembrandt, than for
original genius in thought; or execution. He is elteemed as
one of the moft perfect difciples of that great man; but he
never obtained that jult perception of truth and tafteful ar-
rangement of the materials compofing his pictures, which
was Rembrandt’s grand charateriltic; although many of
his pictures are highly efteemed for their force and colour.
He painted portraits principally ; but oftentimes he at-
tempted hiftorical compofitions, in which he was not fo fuc-
cefsful. He died in 1674, aged 53.

Ecxuont, AntHony Vanpen, a fruit and flower
paiuter, born at Bruffels in 1656. His works are much
efteemed for the peculiarities of their compofition, more than
for the truth of their execution. He travelled to Lifbon,
where he was married to a young lady of quality and great

_ fortune: this fuccefs and affluence excited the envy of fome
abandoned ruffians, who fhot him in his carriage, in 1695,
and remained undifcovered.

EKIE, in Geography, a town of Afia, in Tibet ; 55 miles
S. of Toffon-Hotun,

EKKI-TEKKI, a town of Africa, in the country. of
Commendo.

; ae hinds atown of Egypt; to miles S.E. of Mon-
alout.

EKRON, in Ancient Geography. See Accaron.

EKSAS, in Geography, a town of Egypt; 21 miles S.
of Cairo. ‘

EKSENIDE, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia;
84 miles S. of Degnizlu.. N. lat. 36° 27'. E. long. 28° 59’.

ELABORATION, the a& of finifhing or perfecting
any thing with labour and time.

The term is chiefly ufed in Medicine, where the chyle,
blood, and femen, are faid to be well elaborated, when they
are well conditioned, have undergone ali the f{ecretions,
mixtions, impregnations, and circulations, neceflary to bring
them to perfection.

If the chyle went dire&ly from its receptaculum to the
breafts, it would not be fufficiently elaborated to afford
good milk. See Miix.

ELABORATORY. Sce Lasorarory:

‘ELABUGA, in Geography, a town of Roffia, in the
government of Viatka, on the Bielaia; 156 miles S. of
Viatka. é

ELACATZUM, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Greece in Theffaly.

_ EL-ADDA, in Zoology. See £/ Appa.

ELA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of Afia
Minor, in the Eolide, at the mouth of the river Caicus, op-
polite to the S.E, part of the ifle of Lefbos.—Allo, a town
of Phoenicia, between Tyre and Sidon.—Alfo, a promontory
im the eaftern part of the ifle of Cyprus, S.E. of Serapis.

EL Zz
Prolemy.—Alfo, an ifland of the Propontis, fo called on

account of its ouives. Pliny,—Alfo, a mountain of Paleltine,
fix ftadia E. of Jerufalem. Jofephus.—Alfo, atown and
fea-port of Afia Minor, in Bithyt-a, near Myfia. Steph.
Byz.—Allfo, a port of Ethiopia. Id. :

ELAAGNUS, in Botany, sraxyos of Theophraftus,
from chuim, the olive, and ayvos, the chaflé tree. Linn. Gen.
62, Schreb.85.. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.683.. Mart. Miil. Did.
v.2. Jufl. 75. Tourn. t. 489. Clafs and order, Tetran-
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calyciflore, Linn. Eleagni, Jufl.

Gen. Ch, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, four-gleft, fuperior,
ere, bell-fhaped, rough on the outfide, coloured within, de-
ciduous. Cor. Petals none. Neétary in the bottom of the
flower, globofe, four-cleft at its fummit, furrounding the
bale of the ftyle. Stam. Filaments four, very fhort, in-
ferted below, and alternate with, the fezments of the calyx;
anthers oblong, incumbent. Pi/?. Germen inferior, oblong ;
{tyle fimple, rather fhorter than the calyx ; ttigma fimple.
Perice Drupa ovate, obtufe, {mooth, with a minute point
at thetop. Sved. Nut folitary, oblong, obtule, of one cell.
Some flowers, according to Adanfon, are male.

Eff, Ch. Corolla none. Calyx four-cleft, bell-fhaped,
coloured. Drupa inferior.

A genus of fhrubs, elegant for their white fealy filvery
pubefcence, which is moft. copious on the under fide
of the leaves, the upper being nearly fmooth and naked.
Tlowers axillary, folitary, or cluftered, f{mall, externally
{caly, yellow, or greenifh within, the calyx partaking of the
nature of acorolla, The fruit 1s ufually reddifh, pulpy, but
ufelefs.. Willdenow. enumerates ten f{pecies, fix of which
are natives of Japan.

E. angu/lifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 176. Sm. Prod. Fl. Gree. .
v. 1. 105. Pallaf. Rofl. ve 1.10. t. 4. Duhamel Arb.
V..1.213.t. 89. (srosx cubsorinn. Diofe. book 1. chap. 137.)
© Leaves lanceolate.”? Native of the eaftern and fouthern
parts of Europe ; it is very hardy in our gardens, but fel-
dom bears fruit. The flowers have a ftrong ‘fcent, efpeci-
ally at night, and are yellow. Tournefort and Pallas de-
{cribe the fruit as {weetifh.. The ancierts thought this tree
barren of fruit. The leaves they celebrate as aftringent.
Its natural foil, according to Pallas, is moilt and fandy.

E. orientalis and jpinofa are very nearly akin to the above;
the thorns appear to be a variable chara¢ter of the Jatter
fpecies, as in Amygdalus, Pyrus, &c.—E. latifolia, * leaves
ovate,’’ is a native of Ceylon, of which we know little, and
ftill lefs of the fix Japanefe fpecies deferibed by Thunberg
and partly by Kempter.

ELAS, in Ancient Geography,aport of Greece, in Epirus,

EL/EGNON. Sce Acnus Cajlus.

ELIS, in Botany, fo named by Jacquin from shasa, the
olive, in allufion, to its oily-fruit. Jacq. Amer. 288, t. 172.
Linn. Mant. 21. Schreb. 776. . Jufl. 38. Gertn. t. 6
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2. Clafs and order, Dioecia Hexandria,
Thunb. and Gaertner. (Monoecia, Jacq.) Nat. Ord.
Palme.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of fix concave upright
leaves. Cor. of one petal, the length of the calyx,’ with
fix acute upright fegments, Stam. Filaments fix, awl-fhapedy
the length of the corolla; anthers oblong, acute. ;

Female, Ca/. asin the. male.. Cor. ot fix petals. Pit.
Germen fuperior, ovate, of three cells; ftyle thickifh, triangue
lar; ftigmas three, obovate, depreffed, reflexed. Peric. Drupa
ovate, fomewhat angular, internally fibrous and oily, of ove
cell. Seed. Nut folitary, ovate, ob{curely triangular, thick
and hard, ofone cell, without any valves, with three pores at
the bafe. Embryo at the bafe of the feed.

EM, Ch. Male, Calyx of fix leaves, Corolla fix-cleft,

Female,

ELZ

Female, Calyx of fix leaves. Corolla of fix petals. Stigmas
three, dilated. Drupa fibrous. Nut folitary, ftony.

Gertner has improved Jacquie’s defcription of the fruit,
but we apprehend the latter to be molt corre€&t as to the
female flower.

E. guincenfis, Linn. Mant. 137. Gertn. v. 1. 17. (Palma
foliorum pediculis fpinofis, fruétu pruniformi iuteo oleofo ;
Sloane Jam. v. 2. 113. t. 214.) The Oily Palm. Native
of Guinea, from whence it is faid to have been carried to
America. Jacquin found it cultivated, though -rarely, in
the gardens of Martinico. The ‘tree he defcribed and
figured was 30 feet high, and, as he conceived, 10 years
old. Trunk ere&, befet with the remains of old leaf-ftalks,
and crowned by a tuft of long, pinnated, eaves, unarmed,
but having hooked {pines on the edges of their ftalks; leaf-
lets {word-fhaped, a foot and half long, entire. Spadixes
axillary, folitary, large, repeatedly compound, and very
denfe ; their ftalks imbricated, compreffed, covered, (except
their naked triangular points,) with lowers, which in the
evening efpecially exhale a ftrong anife-like-fmell. Fruit
about the fize of a pidgeon’s egg, yellowith variegated with
black and red, its pulp -abounding with oil, which exudes
on the fligheft preflure between the fingers. Nut very bleck,
marked with whitifk, longitudinal, interrupted ftreaks.

Gartner defcribes and figures the fruit of.an £. mela-
necocca which he efteems a mere variety of the above. Jt
is {maller, more oblong, and internally blacker,:but no clear
{pecific mark of diftin&tion appears.

ELZOCARPUS, compounded of sre, the oltve, and

xepres, fruit, the drupa bearing fome refemblance to an olive.
Burm. Zey].93.t. 40. Linn. Gen. 268. Schreb. 356. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1169. Mart. Mill. DiG@..v. 2. ‘Juff. 258.
Gertn. t. 43. (Dicera; Forft. Gen. 40.) +Clafs and order,
Pelyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Akin .to Gutiifere,
Jufl.
? Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, :permanent,
divided to the bafe into five linear-lanceolate, concave, acute
fegments. Cor. Petals commonly five, with claws, three-
cleft, and ufually deeply ‘laciniated, equal, fcarcely longer
than the calyx, inferted at the bafe-of the ne&tary ; their
ultimate fesments often capillary. WNe€tary an orbicular,
adepreffed, flefhy, lobed, villous gland, in the centre of the
calyx. Stam. Filaments from 20 to 30, capillary, fhort
and flender, ereét, inferted into the ne€tary ; anthers fhorter
than the corolla, ereét, linear, rough, taper-pointed, of two
cells, opening by two common reflexed valves, ufuaily more
orlefs unequal inlength. Pi/?. Germen fomewhat globofe,
hairy, feated on the neciary; fiyle thread-fhaped; longer
than the ftamens; fligina acute. eric. Drupa oblong or
globefe, {mooth aod pol:fhed. Seed. Nut oblong or round-
ith, furrowed and tuberculated, with an imperfe&ly three-
valved fhell, and one cell ; kernel bluntly triangular.

Obf. The number of fegments of the calyx, as well as
the petals, and the fegments of the latter, vary from three
to five. ‘The number of ftamens alfo is from 8 to about 30,
fome fay 40,

Ef. Ch. Petals three to five, torn. Anthers with two
walves at the fummit. Calyx in three to five deep fegments.
Drupa fuperior, with a furrowed crifped nut.

The {pecies of this genus. are fo il d-fined by authors,
that aithough we are not farnifhed wich fufficient materials
to clucidate them all as we could wifh, we wiil not with-
hold fuch information as we have. In arranging the known
{pecies we find new fpecific characters requifite, i order to
explain the new once.

1. E. ferrata. Linn. Sp, Pl. 734. Fl. Zeyl. 92. Burm.
Zeyl. 93. t- 4o.— Leaves elliptical, obtufe,: bluntly ferrated,

ELA

f{mooth; divarications of their veins glandular, anthers with
nearly equal valves, bearded. Native of Ceylon, where it
is called Weralu. We havea fpecimen from thence whofe
leaves are two or three inches long, with veins glandular only
at their bafe. Petals three-cleft, and ‘beautifully laciniated.
Calyx in five downy fegments. The fruitis faid to be oval.
Another, either from the fame ifland or fome other part of
the Eaft Indies, fent by Koenig to David Van Royen, has
eaves but half as long as the former, with veins much fub-
divided, and glandular at moft of their fubdivifions, ae well
as at the'bafe. ‘The petals are fallen, but all the other parts
agree. Both rhefe plants have a pairof glands at the bafe
of the leaves, as defcribed in FI. Zey/. or rather at the fum-
mit of their footftalks, and both have long fimple axillary
-clafters.of flowers. We cannot refer any fynonym of Rum-
phius or Rheede with fatisfa@ion to either, nor dare we
affert, that the two fpecimens-are diftin@ fpecies.

2. E..cblonga. Gaertn. v. 1. 202. t. 43. (Ganitrum ob-
longum, 'Catuiampa; Rumph. Amb. v. 3. 163. t. 102.)—
Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed, with fhallow ferratures ;
veins: downy underneath. Anthers with nearly equal valves,
fcarcely bearded. Fruit oval. Sent by Dr. Buchanan
from the Eaft Indies, by the name of £. ferrata. It is ne-
verthelefs manifeftiy dittin€&t from the genuine Weralu above
deferibed. The /eaves are five or fix inches, or more, in
length, fharp-pointed, with numerous fhallow, though acute,
ferratures; {mooth above, but the veins, which are numerous
and ftrong, deftitute of glands, are downy and ruity at the
under fide, which gives that foftnefs to the touch mentioned
-by Rumphius. As to thefize, they accord with his de-
fcription, and it muit always be remembered that his figures
are diminifhed. The foot/falks, which are bi-glandular at
their fummit, are bkewife downy, as well asthe flower-
fialks. The latter grow from above the fears left by the laft-
year’s leaves, not as in LZ. ferrata (the genuiae Ceylon plant
at leaft) from the bofoms of the foliage of the prefent feafon.
Each c/uffer is five or fix inches long, fimple, much refem-
bling thofe of Prunus lufitanica, or Portugal Laurel. Calyx
in five downy fegments, fhorter and rather blunter thanin
the firft fpecies. Petals five, each in five moderately deep
aod equal divifions, cut into vatious capillary pomts. Stamens
20 er more; anthérs with nearly equal valves, only very
flightly and occafionally bearded at cheir points. Germen
oblong, furrowed, briftly ; ftyle hairy ; ftigma naked. The
neGary {eems to {well into five hairy globofe glands. Fruit
oblong, according to Rumphius and Gertner. Their fy-
nonyms depend on each other, and we have no doubt of
their belonging to our plant.

3. E. ell:ptica—Leaves elliptical, entire, fmooth on both
fides ; veins deftitute of glands. Annthers flightly bearded.
Thisis the {pecimen deferibed by Linnzus Mant. 2. 4o1,
which Willdenow copies. It is avery miferable fpecimen,
apparently from the Eat Indies, and if the flowers have, as
he fays, but three petals and eight ftamens, which we cannot
correétly verify, they confirm that fpecific difference from
both the foregoing, which the Jeaves {ufficiently evince. The
latter are about three inches long, imooth all cver, as well
as their footitalks, which have no glands at their fummit,
neither are the veins glandular. Flowers {mall. Calyx
acute. Germen globofe, filky, wth five large fwellings of
the nectary under it; ftyle filky near the bale only, and
longer in proportion than the laf, though the flowers are

‘not above half fo large.

4. E. integrifélia.. Lamarck Encycl.v. a. 604. Willd,
Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1170, excluding the fynonym.—Leaves obo-«
vate, obtufe, entire, fmooth; divarications of their veins
glandular, Petals filky on both fides. Anthers with equal

valves.

ELEHOCARPUS.

valves. Gathered by Commerfon in the ifland of Mauritius,
and given by Thouin to the younger Linneus, among the
duplicates of his whole herbarium. The /eaves are about
2% inches long, obovate, obtufe at each end, either quite
entire, or very rarely and flightly ferrated here and there,
{mooth on both fides, fhining above, paler beneath, cluttered
about the points of the branches. At the origin and fub-
divifions of each vein isa glandular tubercle, open at the
top on the under fide of the leaf, and projeéting much
more on the upper, where each forms a globofe red {welling.
Footfalks thick and fiort, {mooth, without glands. C/u/lers
axillary, flout, rather longer than the leaves, with finely
downy ftalks. Flowers fewer thanin 2. oblonga, and twice
as large. Calyx four-cleft, broad and bluntifh. Petals four,
filky on both fides, not very deeply three-cleft, obtufely
jagged. Anthers with equal beardlefs valves. Neary very
ese and wrinkled. Germen roundifh, hairy, like the lower
half of the ftyle. “7 yvit unknown. Lamarck quotes with
a doubt, and Willdenow abfolutely, the fynonymof Rum-
phius, which we refer, without any {cruple, to our £. oblonga,
and which has no affinity to the f{pecies before us.

5. E. grandiflora.—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, undulated,
obtufe, without glands. Petals filky. One valve of the
anthers elongated, awl: {haped. Communicated to the writer
of this article by the late fir G, L. Staunton, bart. who
colleéted it in his voyage to China, but in what country is
not mentioned. ‘This is the fineft {pecies we have feen of its
genus, the flowers being twice as large as thofe laft defcribed,
and diftinguifhed from all the foregoing by the long taper
points of the anthers, formed by the elongation of one of
their valves. The calyx has five linear acute downy feg-
‘ments. Petals five, filky on both fides, except the jagged
part. The c/uflers confilt but of few flowers, with {mooth
flender ftalks, and grow among the long, crowded, {mooth,
crenate or undulated /eaves, about the extremities of the
branches.

6. E. reticulata. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated, reticulated
with interbranching veins, which are glandular at their
origin. Petals laciniated, fmooth. One valve of the an-
thers taper-pointed. Gathered near Port Jackfon, New
South Wales, by Dr. White. Zeaves about three inches
long, on fmooth fomewhat glandular foot-ftalks, lanceolate,
pointed, ftrongly ferrated throughout, fmooth, fhining above,
reticulated on both fides with innumerable veins, which have
ufually a {mall gland, or pore, at their origin on the back

of the leaf. C/uflers axillary, fhorter than the leaves, of
eight or ten white flowers, not half fo large as the laft, with
{mooth ftalks. Ca/yx in five or fix {mooth, linear-lanceolate
fegments. - Petals imooth, three-cleft, fcarcely half-way
down, finely jagged. One valve of each anther terminates
in a flender point, at length recurved, but much fhorter than
in E. grandiflora. Germen ovate, fhort, quite {mooth, as
~ well as the furrowed annular zedary beneath it, and the
whole /lyle. Fruit globofe, larger than a pea, blue. Nut
curioufly tuberculated and wrinkled. This fpecies would
prove a great acquifition to our greenhoufes and conferva-
tories, and poffibly may be in fome colle@tions already ; but
_ we have not heard of its flowering, till which it would hardly
be juftly appreciated, and might be miftaken for an Olea, or
fome unoftentatious fhrub of the clafs Pentandria.

4. E. dentata, Willd. Sp. Pl. v, 2. 1169. (E. ferratus ;
Linn. Suppl. 269, but not, as Willdenow rightly remarks,
Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 410. It may poflibly be what Murray
meant as E. monogynus, Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 494. Dicera
dentata; Forft. Gen. 40. t. 40. Prod. 41.) Leaves
obovato-lanceolate, obfcurely toothed; veins glandular
and pouched at their origin. Petals fimply three-lobed-

Vor; XII.

anthers with taper-pointed valves. Gathered by Forfter in
New Zealand. From his fpecimen given to the younger
Linnzus,, though a poor one, it is eafy to perceive its clofe
affinity to our E. reticulata, with which it agrees altogether
in habit, but differs in the following particulars. The
leaves are inclining to obovate, finely filky beneath,
though not perceptib!y fo till examined with a high mag-
nifier, crenate, or flightly dentate ; the bale of their lateral
veins not merely glandular, but forming a deep triangular
pouch, very prominent on the upper fide. We are aware,
however, that this part may, in the different f{pecies, vary,
according to the age of the leaf, or other circumftances,
though-it appears, in fome fhape or other, to be almoft uni-
verfal in the genus before us. Clu/lers much like thote of
the lait, but the flowers are effentially different, having petals
only fimply three-lobed; the central lobe broader, and longer
than the other two, and all of them entire and undivided,
not jagged, or torn, as in all the foregoing fpecies. The
anthers appear to us to have one of their valves awned, as in
the laft,; but Forfter defcribes them, from this very plant,
as having two equal capillary points, or horns. A {ftill
greater contrariety occurs in his account of the fruit, which
we have never feen. He defcribes and figures itas a “ cap-
fule of two cells, containing numerous feeds.” This, if true,
would make the plant a moft diltin@ genus from L/zocarpus,
and the petals would ftrengthen its chara€ter. But the
authority of fir J. Banks and Dr. Solander, marked by
Linnzus the younger in his own copy of Forfter’s work,
declares it an Eleocarpus, and therefore Forfter muft have
fallen into an unaccountable error. The fame authority
makes a new genus of the following fpecies; but, as
Forlter and all his followers have called it a Dicera, or
Elcocarpus, we fhall defcribe it under this laft name, in
hopes that Mr. Brown, or fome {uch original oblerver, will
difpofe of it better.

8. E. Dicera. Linn. Fil. Suppl. 266. Murray Syft.
Veg. ed. 14. 494. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1170. (Dicera
ferrata; Forft. Gen. 40. Prod. 41.) Leaves oppofite,
ovate inclining to heart-fhaped, unequally ferrated. Cluf-
ters compound. Petals fimply three-lobed. Styles four.
Native of New Zealand. The /eaves are oppolite, (not
alternate, as in all the foregoing), on flender flightly hairy
ftalks, ovate, broad, pointed, unequally and fharply ferrated,
thin and pliant, apparently deciduous, fmooth on both fides
except the rib and veins. Small glandular pores are plenti-
fully {cattered over the under fide, generally adjoining to the
veins, but feldom at their divarications. ‘Thefe foon become
perforations with a white membranous border. Clu/fers two,
from the bafe of the prefent year’s fhoot, oppolite, much
fhorter than the leaves, compound, but of few flowers, with
flightly hairy ftalks, and oblong draéeas in the lower part.
Flowers {mall, greenifh. Peta/s {mooth, and, as far as we
can difcern, divided into three obtufe entire lobes. Anthers
hairy ; we cannot perceive any horns, or terminal briltles.
Styles four, {mooth, recurved, with obtufe ftigmas. Fruit,
according to Forfter, a berry with four cells, and two feeds
in each cell. The ftudy of botany would be truly fatif-
faGtory, and extremely eafy, were every genus as ealily de-
fined as this plant is diftinguifhable from Z£/eacarpus, and
even from that f{pecies with which Forfter aflociated
it. We beg leave to remark, that it muft not, when efta-
blifhed as a genus, be called Dicera, with the characters of
which, and the name thence derived, it has nothing in
common, merely agreeing in its three-lobed petals only with
Forfter’s real Dicera, which is, according to all appearance,
an L/zocarpus. Even the {pecific name, therefore, which
we have been forced to retain, for the prefent, is falfe; nor

aN could

ELS

could we adopt that of Forfter, /errata, as belonging to the
firt £leccarpus, however excellent, for this plant, when
eftablifhed as a feparate genus,

We have purpofely omitted E. integerrima of Loureiro,
being uncertain of its genus and f{pecies. Still lefs reafon
do we find to follow Retzins and Vahl in reducing Vateria
indica of Linnzus, a plant, indeed, we have never feen, to
this genus. S- :

ELAZEOCOCCA, from :axim, an olive, and xoxxas, a berry,
2 name given by Commerfon to a tree called in French arbre
a’hutle, or oily tree. This, Jufficu tells ns, isa fpecies of
Dryandra, poflibly the very fame plant as D. cordata;
which fee. .

ELHODENDROUM, from era, an olive, and dxdzov,
a tree. Jacq. jun. in Nov. Aét. Helvet. v. 1.36. Jacq.
Te. Rar. v. x. t.48.- Murray Syft. Ver. ed. 14. 241.
Schreb. 152. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1148. Mart. Mill.
Did. v.2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 278. Gertn. t. 57?
(Rubentia; Jufl. 378, and 452.) Clafs and order, Pentan-
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rhamni, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five fmall, deep,
roundifh, obtufe, concave, widely {preading, permanent,
fezments. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, obtufe, concave,
widely fpreading, twice as long as the calyx. Neary a
gland bereath the germen. S¥am. Filaments five, awl-
fhaped, recurved, infcrted under the betary; anthers
roundifh, ere. Pi/?. Germen roundith, pointed, flanding
on the rectary; ftyle conical, fhort ; ftigma obtafe, cloven.
Peric. Drupa ovate, obtufe. Seed. Nut ovate, of two
cells, with a very hard thick fhell, and two oblong com-
preffed kernels.

Eff. Cn, Calyx in five deep fegments.
Drupa fuperior, ovate. Nut of two cells.

1. E. ortentale. Jacq. as above. “* Withcut thorns.
Leaves lanceolate, acute.”” A fhrub, native of the ifles of
Mauritius and Bourbon, where it is called Bois d’Olive, or
Bois Rouge. The dranches are {preading, ard, at length,
pendulous. Leaves lanceolate; thofe of the lower branches
entire, longeft, and narroweft, elegantly marked with a red
nerve; the upper ones broader, crenate, with a pale nerve.
In the bofoms of thefe laft ftand fmall ftalked clufters of
greenith fweet-fmelling flowers. Fruit a reddifh drupa,
ufually perfe€ting but one feed, from which an oil is ex-

Petals five.

preficd.
2. E. Argan. Retz. Obf. Fafc. 6.26. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. rt. 1148. (Rhamnus pentaphyllus; Jacq. Obf. v. 2. 17.

Murray Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 233. R. ficulus; Linn. Syit.
Nat. v. 3.229. R. ficulus pentaphyllus; Bocc. Sic. 43.
.2t. Kaiti Hilt. 1626.) ° * Branches fpinous. Leaves
obovate, obtufe.”” Native of Sicily and Morocco, in which
Jaft country it is called Argan, and the expreffed oil of the
feed is ufed for food and other purpofes. _ It forms a thorny
bufh. The /eaves grow ufually about five together, on
Jong ftalks. FYowers in denfe clufters. Linnzus defcribes
five barren filaments between the ftamens. fruit ovate,
generally perfe€ting but one feed.

ELZOMELT, inthe writings of the ancient Phy/icians,
the name of a fubftance, thus de{cribed by Diofcorides. In
Palmyra, acountry of Syria, the eleomeli, which is an oil
thicker than honey, and of a {weet tafte, flows from the
trunk, of a tree. Two cyathi of this oib, he adds, drank
with a hemina of water, evacuate crude and bilious humours
by ftool. There was much good obtained from the giving
of this medicine; but it had this remarkable effe@, that
thofe who took it were feized with a torpor, and privation
of ftrength for a time: this was, however, of no ill confe-
quence, but people knew of and expected it, and ufed

ELIA

always to keep thofe perfons awake who had taken it, and
the f{ymptoms {oon went off. The fame author alfo adds,
that the oil was fometimes prepared from the buds of the
tree; and fuch of this kind was efteemed the belt that was
old,-thick, fatty, and not foul, or turbid. It was judged
of a heat'ng nature, and frequently applied externally to the
eyes, with good effect in the cure of dimnefs of fight, and
contributed to the cure of leprofies, and pains of the nerves.
Hermolaus Barbarus has a ftrange conjefture i regard to
the fubftance, which is, that it was the fame with the
manna mentioned in Scripture, only ufed in medicine inftead
of food: but the account which Diofcorides gives of the
effets of it is a very fufficient anfwer to the abfurdity of
fuch an opinion. JD ofcorides, lib. i. cap. 37-

ELON, in ducient Geography, a mountain of Paleftine,
one ftadium from Jerufalem. See Mount of Orives.—Alfog.
a maritime town of Greece, onthe cealt of Beeotia.

ELZOSACCHARUM, in Pharmacy, is the term
given to a powder compofed of fugar rubbed with a little
effential oil, or other aromatic matter, fo as to give it the
fragrant {meil and aromatic tafte when diffolved in any wa-
tery liquid, in which the fugar promotes the folution of the
efiential oil.

As an example, the eleofaccharum anifi is compofed of
an ounce of white fugar candy, cr, in the room of it, of the
fineX and drieft loaf fugar, rubbed into fine powder, with
20 drops of oil of anifeed. About a dram of this, diffolved
in barley-water, or any other watery liquid, may be taken
for a dofe, and it isa convenient and elegant way of exhi-
biting this effential orl.

The eleofaccharum citri corticis, or fugar imbued with
the oil of lemon-peel, is commonly in ufe in confectionary,
and is prepared by rubbing a lump of hard loaf fugar upon
the rind of a whole lemon, by which the cells in which the
flavoury effential cil is contained are broken down, and the
{ugar abforbs it. In-this way a very perfect extemporaneous
lemonade may be made by the elzofaccharum of lemon
pecl, aed the concrete acid of lemons mixed with water,
when wanted, and the dry materials will keep unimpaired
for any length of time.

ELAOTHESIUM, EnaaicSciov, in Antiquity.
ALIPTERIUM.

ELAUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Lycia.—Atfo, a town of the Thracian Cherfonefus, on
the bank of the Hellefpont ; now a caitle on the ftrait of the
Dardanelles. —Alfe, a town placed by Strabo and Pliny in the
gulf of the Doride.—Alfo, a town of the Peloponnefus, in
the Argolide. Steph. Byz.—Alio, a town of Greece, in
Epirus, according to Ptolemy; probably the fame with
that placed by Polybius in Calydonia, a country in the vi-
cinity of Epirus.

ELAUSSA, an ifland fituated upon the coaft of Cilicia,
near Corycos. It was {mall according to Strabo, who fays,
that Archelaus made it his place of refidence.—Alfo, an
ifland of Afia Minor, near Smyrna. Pliny and Livy, the
latter of whom calls it Lica.

ELAGABALUS. See HEriocasatus.

ELAHAJAN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
country of Yemen; 100 miles S. E. of Amanzirifdin. -

ELAIS, ia Ancient Geography, a town of Pheenicia,
between Joppa, Gaza, and Tyre. P

ELAITIS, a fmall country of Afia Minor, in the
Eolide, adjoining to the territory of Pergamus, and watered
by the Caicus,

ELAIUS, a mountain ef Arcadia, S.W. of Megalopolis,
and N. of Phigalia. In this mountain Ceres had a grotto,
in which facrifices were offered to her, at which a female

prefided,

See

ELA

prefided, who had for her affiftant one of the ptiefts, ealled
“ Hierothytes.”” The grotto was fituated in the midi of a
facred wood.

ELAM, in Scripture Hiflory, one of the fons of Shem,
and grandfon of Noah, who is fuppofed to have feteled in
the fouthern tra& beyond the Tigris or Euphrates. This is
inferred not only from the authority of Scripture, in which
the inhabitants of the faid tra& are plainly aad frequently
denoted by the name of Elam; but alfo from the teftimony
of heathen writers, who mention a country in this tract
called Elymais, and a city of the fame name. The name

‘am, however, is fometimes taken in a ftri€ter fenfe, as
when it is diftinguifhed from Sufiana and the adjoining pro-
vinces, and fometimes in a larger fenfe, fo as to include
Sufiana and other adjacent provinces. Hence Pliny and
Ptolemy mention the Elymai, as a people inhabiting on the
Perfian gulf; and hence the prophet Daniel {peaks of
Shufhan, the chief city of Sufiana, as lying in the province
of Elam. (Dan. viit, 2.) The Elamites were a warlike peo-
ple, living by rapine, and fighting with bows and arfaws,
(Uf, xxii. 6. Jer. xlix. 35.) and they were joined to Sufia,
as Strabo fays, and there was an ingrefs to them from
Perfia, and the Sufians and Elamites are mentioned apart.
(Ezra iv. 3.)

_ Exam, in Aacient Geography, a city of Edom, on'the Elani-
tic gulf of the Red fea. It wastaken by David when he fub-
cued the Edomites; and again, after they had recovéred

their liberty and independence, by Uzziah or Azariah.

(2 Kings, xiv. 23.) But Rezin, king of Syria, drove the Jews
out of it. Elam is by the ancients named Elana, Elalh,
Elas, Alan, or Elon: and hence the gulf near the ifthmus
of Suez is called the Elanitic gulf. Strabo places it 1260
furlongs from Gaza. ~ St. Jerom fays, that Elam lies at
the extreme of Paleftine: and Precopius places it at the
eaftern extremity of Paleftine.

ELAN, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the country
of the Coffacks,on the Don ; 68 miles S.W. of Achadiafkaia.

Evan of Buffon, in Zoology. See Cervus dices. See
alfo Tarir.

ELANITIC Gutr. See Exvam.

ELAPHEBOLIA, EnaGrGoma, in Antiquity, a feftival
kept in honour of Diana EaAxPnSoro;, i.e. the Huntrefs, for
which reafon, a cake, made in form of a deer, and upon
that account called sAx@os, was offered to her. Fora farther
account of it, fee Pott. Archzol. Grec. lib. il. cap. 20.

ELAPHEBOLION, EaxQnGorsay, in Ancient Chronology,
the ninth month of the Athenian year. It confitted of
thirty days, and an{wered to the latter part of our February
and beginning of March. See Montu.

It was thus called from the feitival E/aphebolia kept in it.

ELAPHIS,. See Exaps.

_ELAPHITES, in Ancient Geography, iflands on the
coaft of Illyria, fo called on account of the deer, with
which they abounded. Pliny enumerates three of them, which
he places 15 miles from Melita.

ELAPHITIS, an ifland of the Ionian fea, in the vicinity
of Ephefus. Pliny.

ELAPHOCAMELOS, in Zoology, a name by which
feveral authors have called the Peruvian camel, ufually called
glama, and employed there as a beaft of burden. See
CaMELus.

ELAPHONESUM Marmor, a name vufed by the an-

_. cients to exprefs a {pecies of marble ufed in ftatuary, and called

alfo Proconnefium marmor; it was of a blueifh white, varie-
gated with flender veins of black. See Proconnesium.

ELAPHONNESUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
the Propontide, over-againft the town of Cyzicus. Hence
was obtained the marble to which it gave name.

ELA

ELAPHUS, a mountain of Afia, in the ifland of Ar-
ginufla.—Alfo a river of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadias
called lake D/atum by Pliny.—Alfo, a rapid ftream of
Arcatia, N:E. of Megalopolis.

ELAPHUS. See Cervus.

ELAPHUSA, az ifland of the Ionian fea, near that of
Corcyra. Pliny.

ELAPS, or Exapnis, by fome called alfo elops, the
name of a ferpent defcribed by many authors, and met with
by Bellonius in the ifland of Lemnos: it grows to about
three feet long, and is on the back of a dark grey, with
three longitudinal black lines, running from the head to
the tail, and on the belly of a bright yellow, according to
Aldrovandus. The people of Lemnos cail it /aphiati.

ELARABAD, or Ex Harasan, in Geography, a town
of Spain, in the province of Seville; 20 miles N. W. of
Seville.

ELASERE, a town of Arabia, in the country of
Yemen; 28 miles N. of Chamir.

ELASMIS, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a geaus of
foffil bodies, of the tale clafs, the diftinguifhing characters
of which are, that they are compofed of {mall plates, in
form of fpangles, each of which is either fingle, and not
farther fiffile; or, if complex, fiflile only to a certain
degree, and that isto fomewhat thick laminz.

The word is derived from the Greek ?rxzp05, a lamina,
or plate: the feveral component parts of thefe mafles being
fo many {mall plates.

The bodies of this genus have been ufed to be named
mica, glimmer, and catfilver, by authors, in the fame man-
ner with the bractearia. ‘There are only four known fpecies
of this foffil.

ELASTIC, (from the Greek srzsns, impulfor, of sAxurtiry
to impel, pufh, &c.) {pringy, viz. having the power of re~
turning to the form from which it has been forced to deviate,
or from which it is withheld. Thus a branch of a tree, the
blade of a fword, &c. are faid to be elaftic, becaufe if they
are bent to a certain degree, and then let go, they will of
themfeives return to their former fituatidn.

Exvastic Bodies are fuch as will fuffer their form to be
altered by the application of a force or preffure, and will
recover it on the removal of that preffure. In this refpect
all the bodies which come within our knowledge are come
prehended under the following diftin@tions. If two bodies,
when preffed towards each other, fuffer an alteration of their
forms, and if afterwards, on removing that preffure, they re-
cover their original forms, then they are faid to be ela/lic ;
if, when prefled, their forms are not altered in the leait,
or if their forms, when once altered by preflure, are never
afterwards recovered, then the bodies are faid to be aon-

* elaftic, and the former are called perfectly hard, whilft the

latter are called perfedly foft. So that a hard body is that
whofe parts do not yield to. any preffure or percuflion; but
retains its original form unaltered ; a body perfedly elaflic, is
that whofe parts yield to any ftroke or preflure, but recover
their original form as foon as the preflure is removed; and a
body perfe@ly /ofi, is that whofe parts yield to any itroke or
preflure, but does not after the removal of the preflure ina
the leatt endeavour to recover its original form.

As far as we know, there do not exilt in nature bodies
that are perfectly hard or perfely foft; for they al] feem
to be elaflic in a greater or lefs degree. With refpe& to
perfec elafticity, perhaps air alone may be faid to poflefs
it; for a long continued preflure does not feem to affect its
elatticity. A quantity of air has been left for feveral years,
much comprefled in proper veflels, wherein there was nothing
that could have any chemical action upon it ; and afterwards
on removing that preflure, and replacing it in the fame temp

4N2 perature,

ELASTIC.

perature, under the fame barometrical altitude, as it had
before ; that air has been found to recover its original bulk
without any perceptible difference. Mott other aerial Auids,
or gafies, as far as they have been tried, feem to be equally
et but they have not been fubmitted to trials equally
ong. :

Glafs, certain metals, ivory, moft woods, feathers, anda
few others, are the moft elaftic bodies, next to the aerial
fluids. Soft clay, wax mixed with oil, butter, and fome
other bodics, in a temperate degree of heat, come neareit
to a ftate of perfe& foftnefs. It has long been doubted
whether water had any elafticity or not; but Mr. Canton’s
difcovery of the compreffibility of water, determined the
queftion, by fhewing that by the application of force, water
may be compreffed in a {mall degree. See the article
Compression.

The form of an elaftic body may be altered by force, three
different ways; viz. by compreffion, by diftenfion, and by
bending, which laft mode, in faé, is only a combination of
the other two; for when an oblong ftraight body is bent, thofe

articles of it which are on the concave fide are compreffed,
whilft thofe of the convex fide are diftended. In an elaftic
bedy the change of form is greater when the preflure is
greater, and wice werfa; but it is not always exaétly pro-
portionate to it, excepting in the cafe of air and other aerial
fluids, the bulk of which is always inverfely proportional to
the comprefling force.

In the recovery of their form from a ftate of compreffion,
after the removal of the comprefling force, elaftic bodies
exert a greater power at firft than at laft, fo that the whole
progrefs of reftoration is a retarded motion. Thus, let a
quantity of air be condenfed in a ftrong metallic veffel, and
then let the ftop-cock, or any other fmall orifice, be opened,
and it will be found that the air rufhes out of it with great
violence at firft, but it flackens its power gradually, until at
laft it can hardly be perceived to move.

The clafticity of moft bodies, efpecially of long and flender
forms, may be eafily fhewn, but even in very hard and com.
pact bodies their elafticity may be manifefted without much
difficulty ; for inftance, leta marble flab, ora flat and {mooth
iron, be covered with black-lead, or with printing ink, then
drop an ivory ball upon it fucceflively from different heights,
and the degree of compreffion will be. indicated by the mag-
nitude of the {pot which will be found upon the ivory ball.

The elafticity of folids appears to be more perfe&t when
they are fubje€ted to a low degree of compreflion, than
when they are expofed to a higher degree of it. Or, in
other words, an elaftic folid in general will recover its full
original form after having been little defle&ed from it; but
not after a violent diftortion ; for in the latter cafe its parts
Suffer another fort of derangement, from which they are not
capable of recovering. Thus, take a watch fpring, bend it
in a moderate degree, and afterwards on removing the hand,
the fpring will be found to recover its original direGtion
without any perceivable deviation; but if you bend it toa fharp
angle as far as it will bear without breaking, then it will re-
main confiderably bent, or defle&ted from its original dire@tion.
Thus alfo, if a mufical chord be ftruck gently, it will exprefs
a certain found which is produced by its vibrations, and
thefe vibrations are performed in confequence of its elafticity.
And if it be thus repeatedly ftruck, it will exprefs the fame
found precifely; but if it be ftruck violently, then, on being
ftruck again, it will exprefsa lower found, which fhews that
it has fuffered an elongation, that is, a derangement of its

arts.
x Elaftic bodies are either folid or fluid, and it is neceffa
to confider them feparately on account of their poffefling

fome remarkable peculiar properties. The elaftic folids are
very numerous ; for all folid bodies are more or lefs elaftic;
but fome of them are elaflic in fo {mall a degree as almoft to
deferve the appellation of /oft, whilft others poffefs that pro-
perty in an eminent degree, on which account they are exe
tremely ufeful in the arts, in civil economy, and, above all,
in mechanics; for there is hardly a machine, wherein the
elafticity of one or more folids is not effentially concerned.
The: principal bodies of this latter fort are certain metallic
bodies, moft kinds of wood, glafs, bones, ivory, dry meme
branes, and feathers, caout-chouc, and a few others.

The metallic bodies, in the ftate in which they remain
after fufion, are not very elaftic, but they may be rendered
fo, more or lefs, by various operations. Steel, whether per-
fetly hard, or of the fofteft temper, refifts flexure with
equal force, when the deviations from the natural ftate are
fmall; but at a certain point of the fteel, if foft, it begins to
undergo an alteration of form; at another point it breaks if
much hardened: but when the hardnefs is moderate, it is
cap2ble of a much greater curvature without either permae
nent alteration or fracture. In order to give it the above-
mentioned degree of hardnefs, a piece of fteel is firft of all
rendered quite hard and rigid by plunging it, when red
or white hot, in cold water, and it is then heated to about the
sooth degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which gives it
what the workmen call a /pring temper ; for by heating it
more or lefs, fteel, that has been hardened in the abovemen=
tioned manner, may be rendered more or lefs elaftic. Platina,
gold, filver, copper, and fteel, may be rendered elaitic to a
confiderable degree, by hammering, or by treatments of the
like nature, fuch as wire-drawing, milling, &c. Amongft all
the other metallic bodies, there are few which will acquire
any moderate degree of elaflicity by any known method.
Metallic alloys generally are (or they may be rendered,
by hammering, millisg, &c.) much more elaftic than any
of the fimple metals which enter into their compofition.
Thus, brafs may be rendered much more elaftic than either
the zinc or the copper, which are its component fimple
metals.

The elafticity of folids is apt to be diminifhed: by heat;
and a high temperature foftens metallic bodies fo as to de-
prive them of all the hardnefs and elafticity which had been
given them by any of the above-mentioned means. But the
prefence or abfence of air does not appear to affe&t the
elafticity of folids.

Thus much relates to the bending and unbending of
elaftic folids ; but with refpeé to diftenfion and compreffion,
it has been found by experiment, that the meafure of the
extenfion and compreffion of uniform elaftic bodies is fimply
proportional to the force which occafions it, at leaft when
the forces are comparatively fmall. Thus, if a weight of
toolbs. lengthened a rod of fteel one hundredth of an inch,
a weight of 200 would lengthen it very nearly two hun-
dredths, and a weight of z3oolbs. three hundredths. The
fame weights, aéting. in a contrary direGion, would alfo
fhorten it one, two, or three hundredths refpe@tively. The
former part of this law was difcovered by Dr. Hooke, and
the effe€ts appear to be analogous to thofe which are more
eafily obfervable in elaftic fluids.

The elafticity of the fame metallic body feems to be
greater or lefs, according as that metal is more or lefs coms
pact; thus, by hammering or milling, a piece of Silver is ren-
dered more elaftic and more compa€t ; for its {pecific gravity
is thereby increafed ; but this is not the cafe with fteel har-
dened and tempered, as appears from the following ftate-
ment. The {pecific gravity of foft fteel is 7.833; that of
ftecl hardened in water is 7.816. Mr. Cavallo mentions the
following experiment of Mr. R. Pennington, as a confirma-

tion

ELASTIC.

tion of the expanfion of fteel by hardening, Mr. Penning-
ton found, that a piece of fteel, which when foft meafured in
length 2.769 inches, after having been hardened by plunging
it, when red hot, in cold water, was found to meafure 2.7785
inches; and after having been let down to a blue temper,
it meafured 2.768 inches, Cavallo’s Philofophy, vol. ii.

the elaflic fluids have a tendency to expand, when at
liberty, with an elaftic force which is proportional to their
dentity, and of contraGting when preffed into a {pace which
is inverfely proportional to the preffing force. It has been
queftioned, however, whether this rule holds good in all de-
grees of rarefa@tion or of condenfation. But no limit has
been found to the rarefaction or condenfation of air. (See
the articles Ain and Atmospuere.) Not only common
air, but all the gaffes, or permanently elaftic fluids, follow the
fame law, as alfo thofe which are not permanently fo, fuch
as vapour, or the fteam of water, and of other fub{tances,
provided they be kept in the fame temperature. (See the
articles Gas and Pyeumartics.) The elaftic power of
thefe fluids (contrary to that of folids) is increafed by heat,
viz. by an elevation of temperature, and is diminifhed by
cold. The bulk of common air becomes augmented: of
412 thoufandths, or (according to more recent experiments,)
of 375 thoufandths, by the heat-of boiling water above that
of freesing. he elaftic power of fteam is capable of being
raifed to a prodigious degree by the application of heat.
Thus, in diftilleries the vapour of fpirit of wine has often oc-
cafioned terrible explofions; the vapours of mercury have
burft an iron box; and thofe of nitrous acid, muriatic acid,
and various others, when ‘confined in veflels, have burft
forth with great violence. In founderies a {mall quantity
of water accidentally poured over the melted metal, has
often occafioned the total deftruGion of the.foundery, It
is in confequence of this property, that the elafticity of
fteam has been employed with wonderful fuccefs in fteam-
engines; and that it has been fuppofed to be the caule of
earthquakes, of volcanoes, &c. fince, by the increafe of
heat, its force may be rendered fuperior to any obftacle.

The elaftic force of fteam, or the vapour of water, in
different temperatures, has been examined by various phi-
lofophers, and their interefting experiments, which have
been conduéted different ways, do not materially difagree in
their refults. The principle upon which thefe experiments
are in general conduéted is as follows; though the peculiar
conftruGion and application of the apparatus may be varied
at pleafure. An inverted glafs fiphon is conneéted with a
clofe veffel containing fome water, viz. one extremity of the
fiphon is cemented tight into the veffel, and fome mercury
is poured into the arched part of the fiphon. Now, in a na-
tural ftate, viz. when the preffure of the atmofphere only
ais upon the fiphon, the mercury muft have the fame
altitude in both legs; but if the vapour of water begins
to prefs upon the furface of the mercury in that leg
which communicates with the above-mentioned veffel, then
the furface of the mercury mult defcend in the faid leg,
and mult rife in the oppofite one; therefore the alti-
tude of the furface of the mercury in the latter, above the
level of the former, indicates, or meafures, the elaftic power
of the fteam; and hence that power is exprefled in perpen-
dicular altitudes of mercury: and when that altitude is
about 29.89 inches, then the elaftic force of team is faid to
be equivalent to the ordinary preflure of the atmofphere,
becaufe, at a mean, the preffure of the atmofphere balances
a perpendicular column of quickfilver 29.89 inches high in a
common barometer. The principal refults of the experi-
ments of the Chev. de Bettancourt (De Prony’s Archit.

Hydraul. vol. i, p. 557.) are concifely expreffed in the fol-
lowing table; the firft column of which contains the tempe-
rature of the water in degrees of Fahrenheit’s {cale; and
the fecond contains the correfpondent altitudes of mercury
in inches and decimals, which the fteam of the water can

fuftain, fuppofing the barometer to ftand at its mean alti-
tude, viz, 29.89,

50° | 0.106
100 1.600
150 6.715
160 8.740
170 | 11.405
180 | 14.709
190 | 18.227
200 | 22.703

212 | 29.89

Beyond the boiling point, the Chev. de Bettancourt found
that every additional 30° of heat nearly double the elaftic
force of fteam ; fo that at the temperature of 242°, that
elattic force is equal to twice the preflure of the atmofphere;
at 272° it is equal to four times the preflure of the atmo-
iphere ; at 302° it is equal to eight times the preflure of the
atmofphere, and fo on.

The following table contains the refults of Mr. Dalton’s
valuable and accurate experiments, together with thofe of
other experimenters. The firft column contains the degrees
of heat according to Fahrenheit’s fealé ; the fecond fhews
the correfponding elattic powers of fteam according to Dal-

ton; and the third contains promifcuous obfervations made
by various philofophers,

A eeeeeeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEe
Elafticity of
fteam in per-
pendicular
inches of
mercury.

ELASTIC,
a Te a

) Elatuicity of
j team in per-

Elafiicicy of

fteam in per-

Heat. | pendicular Heat, pendieylar
| inches of inches of
| mercury. mercury.
GO"! 80.375 103° 2.04
51 | 0.358 104 2.11
52 O40] 105 2.18
Siu, Otts 106 2.2
54 | Ong29 Io7 2.32
55 0-443 Muriate of lime .o22 Dalt. as water 108 2 39
18° lower. TOO 2.46
56 O45 Alcohol 1.5; as water 36° higher. Tio OS
Ammoniz 7.7 ; as water 95° higher. Tit 2.60 |
Ether 13.3 5 as water 118° higher 112 2.68 |
57 0.474 113 2.76 |
58 © 4G0 114 2.04 |
59 9.507 115 2.92 | 5
60 © 524 Alcohol 1 45 D. as water 30° higher. 116 3+09
Ammonia 4.3 D.; as water 69° Duy 3.08
higher, 118 316 |
61 0.542 119 3.25
62 0.560 | Ether 12.755 a8 water 110° higher, 120 3°33 Al:. ce waver 6° higher. Rebifon.
Dalt. £21 3-42
63 | .0578 122 3-50 |
64 0.597 123 3259 a
5 0.616 | Muriate of lime 0.3 Dalt.; as water 124 3-69
: 19° lower. 125 3°79
66 0.635 126 3-89
67 0.055 127 4.coO
68 0.676 126 4.11
69 0.698 12 4.22
7° O.721 Muriate of lime 6.4 D, as water 18° 130 Hes A
lower. Il 4-47
71 0.745 332 4.60
72 0.770 133 4-73
3 0.796 154 4.56 Ale. ag water 29. Achard.
74 0.523 135 5:00
75 0.851 136 5-14
76 20.880 137 5:29
77 | 0.9r0 138 | 5-44
48 0.940 139 5.59 !
79 0.971 140 5-74 Alc. as water 30° higher. Robifon,}
So 1.000 Ammonia 30, as water 72° higher,
8 1.04 Dalton,
2 1.07 141 5.90 :
83 I.10 142 6.05
84 1.14 143 6.21
85 1.17 144 6.37 ;
86 1.21 145 6.53
87 1.24 146 6.70
88 1.28 147 6.87 Alcohol, as water 35% 5 higher. Ach,
89 132004) Ether 64.75 D. as water 105°
go 1.36 higher. y
gl 1.40 148 7.05
92 1.44 140 7-23 y
93 | 1.48 150 | 7-42 4
94 1-53 : 151 7-01 i
95 1.58 Muriate of lime 0.9 Dalt.; as water] | 152 7.81 %
18° lower. 153 8.01 ( i
96 1.63 154 8-30) 7M} 5
97 1.68 165 8.40 4
98 1.74 156 8.60 ,
99 1.80 157 8.81 ’
100 1.86 158 g 02 ;
Ior 1.92 , LAS) 9:2 P
102 1.98 | Ether 30: as water rro° higher, Dalt. 160 0.46 *.

SME A A

Heat.

161°
762
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171

172
173

174
- 175.
176
177
i738

179
' 180
CAT or

182

183

i84

185

186
- 187
Purse

~ 189

oIGe
191
192
193

Elaficity of

{team in per-
pondicular
inches of
mercury.

9.68

gt
10.15
10.41
10.68
10.96
11,2

TI.S54
11.83
12-13
12-43
£2.73
13.02
13632
13.62
13.92
T4.22
14 52
14.83
15.05
15-52
15.86
16.23
16.01
17.00
17 40
17.80
18.20
18.60
1().00
19.42
19 86
20.32
29.77
Diag
21.68
22.13
22.69
23-16
23 64
24-12
24-61
25:10
25-68
26.13
26.66
27,20
27-74
28.29
28.84
29.41
30,00

ELAS

Alc. as water 33° higher. Achard.

Alc. as water 36° higher. Achard.

Alc, 30. Dalt. as water 37° higher.

Alc, as water 37° higher. Robifon.

Ether 137.0 D. as water 54° higher.
Ale. 58.5 D. as water 35° higher.

Biker.

3103
319
32.5
33:2
33°7
34.6

TIC,
| Elatticity of
| fteam in per-
Heat. pendicu ar Biker.
inches of
mercury.
219° 35-1
220 35-9 | Alc. as water 42° higher.
Robifon.
221 36.4
222 | 36.25 37-0
230 43-2 -
231 Muntate of lime 30 D. as
water 18° lower.
232 43-24 44.8
240 2.2 | Alc. as water 46° higher.
Robifon.
24251) 51-34, 539
248 . 60.76 Schmidt.
250 62.7 | 696.8 Robifon.
252 | 60.05 64.8
257 71.57 Schmidt ; 76.9 Bet-
tancourt.
260 75.0 | 80.3 Robifon.
262} 69-72 °
266 83 81 Schmidt ; 90 Bettan-
court.
270 88.6 | 94.0 Robifon.
WIZ IN 19:96 923
27 98.53 Schmidt.
278 , 105.2
_ 280 109 Schmidt: 105.9 Robi-
fon; 106 Bettan.
282 | 90.99
284 116.98 Schmidt.
286 120.5 Schmidt.
290 126 Schmidt.
292 | 102.45
3o2 | 174.15 |

We fhall not in this article take any notice of the elaftic
powers of the eleétric fluid, of the magnetic fluid, of light,
or of caloric, becaufe the nature of thofe powers is mercly
hypothetical, and their properties will bé. defcribed elfee
where.

The contemplation of the claftic powers of bodies, fo
common, fo evident, and fo ufcful, naturally induced philo-
fophers to enquire into the caufe of it ; and accordingly va-
rious hypothefes have been formed and publifhed in explana-
tion of thofe phenomena. But as yet no fatisfa€tory infor-
mation has been obtained either from conjeéture, or from
the refult of the numerous experiments that have been in-
{tituted exprefsly for that purpofe. Air being one of the
molt elaftic fubltances known, the fpeculations of philofo-
ph-rs were principally dire€ted towards it; but of the hy-
pothefes previous to fir I. Newton’s, we need not take any
particular notice, fince their infufliciency is too evident to
need any formal refutation ; it .was thought, for inftance,
that the particles of air were like watcn {prings coiled up,
or that they were a kind of elaltic flikes, &c. Newton
contented himfelf with faying, that the phenomena of the
air’s elafticity could not be folved on any other fuppofition,
but that of a repulfive power diffufed all round each of its
particles, which became ftronger as they approached, and
weaker as they receded, from each other. And he farther
fuppofed, that this repulfive power was increafed by heat.

A fimilar uncertainty exifts with refpe& to the elattic
power of folids; it being abfolutely unknown how the er

ticles

ELA

ticles of a folid can approach one another on one fide of it,
and recede from each other on the oppofite fide of the fame
body ; (for this muft a@ually take place when an elaftic
body is benc;) and then recover their former pofition when
the preffure is removed. Or how the pores of the elaftic
body can undergo an alteration, and a fubfequent reftoration
of their forms. The Cartefians account for it from the ef-
fort of a materia fubtilis, to pafs through pores that are too
narrow for it. But as neither the mechanical aétion of this
effort, nor the exiftence of their materia fubtilis is at all known,
we need not delineate their hypothefis more at large. Other
philofophers have endeavoured to modify the Cartefian hy-
pothefis by fubftituting an etherial elaftic fluid to the ma-
teria fubtilis ; but if the elaftic property of a folid is faid
to depend upon the elafticity of that ether; the caufe of
elalticity ftill remains unexpla‘ned. But the exiftence of
this ether is merely hypothetical. The preffure of the at-
mofphere certainly. is unconcerned in it; for the elaftic
power of bodies is the fame either in vacuo, or in the
open air. Malebranche’s idea of the elafticity being caufed
by vortices of matter included within all bodies, is too
firange to require long examination. The particles of all
folid bodies have been fuppofed to be endowed with a
fort of polarity fomewhat like magnets; fo that they
care difpofed to attra each other with their friendly poles
or extremities, and to repel each other with their oppofite
extremities; and this indeed feems to be corroborated by
the phenomena of cryftallization ; for the particles of almott
all bodies, in the aét of affuming a folid form, arrange, or
endeavour to arrange, themfelves in particular orders. Thus
all metailic fubfanccs, after fufion, fhew that tendency ;—
earthy and faline particles, flowly depofited from their fo-
Jution in water, fhew. the fame tendency;—the fame
thing takes place in fublimations; and even water, in the
at of freezing, (which may be confidered as a depofition
from its folution in caloric,) affumes a peculiar cryttallized
form.
to arrange themfelves in certain orders, will go a very fhort
way towards elucidating the phenomena of elaftic bodies;
for. in the firft place, it is not applicable to thofe bodies
which become elaftic by hammering, or by being put in a
State of tenfion ; and fecondly, it would, even in the moit
favourable cafes, go no further than to explain the caufe of
elaticity by another unintelligible property ; meaning the
attraction and repulfion between the frieedly or unfricndly
poles of the particles of bodies. See Defaguliers on the
Caufe of Elafticity. Phil. Tranf. vol. xli. for 1739.

Upon the whole it muft be acknowledged, that the caufe
or caufes, upon which the elaftic property of bodies depends,
are utterly unknown. Various ufeful particuiars have been
a(certainec with refpeét to the variety, the powers and the
durability of elaftic bodies; and whilft we remain fatisfied
with the knowledge and the application of thofe important
fats, we muft leave the inveltigation of their caufe to future
exertions.

Several other obfervations refpeGting the elaftic property
of bodies, wiil be found under the articles STEEL, SPRINGS,
and Tension.

Exastic Bitumen.

Exvastic Curve. See CATENARIA.

Exvastic Gum. See Caourcuouc.

ELASTICITY, or Evasric Force, is that property in
natural bodies, in confequence of which they are faid to be
elaftic ; ‘< being a difpofition to have their form altered by
preflure, and to recover it on the removal of that preflure.
See Evastic Bodics.

See Birumen.

This tendency, however, of the particles of bodies -

ELA

Exasticity of Air.

Exasricity of Fluids.

Exasticity of Solids.

Evasticiry of Steam.

Exasticity of Springs.
Bodies.

ELASUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor, in
Bithynia, the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy between
that of the Hypius and the town of Diofpolis,

ELATAS, ariver of Afia Minor, in Bithynia, which dif-
charged itfelf into the Euxine fea, near Parthenium.

ELATE, ia Botany, (‘ fo named rapa zo ecko», from ite
great height ; cAwrn oupvounxns, Hlomer. Suppofed to be
a fir. Itis however put for a palm, or perhaps rather the
fruit or fpathe of a palm, in Galen and Diofcorides.”? Mar-
tyn.) Linn. Gen. 564. Schreb. 777. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.
403. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.477. Mart. Mill, Di&. v. 2.
Juff. Gen. 38. Clafsand order, Monecia Hexandria. Nat.
Ord. Palme.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Spathe of two valves; fpadix
branched ; perianth with three teeth. Cor. Petals three,
roundifh. Stam. Filaments none; anthers fix, feffile. Fe-
male in the fame fpadix, Ca/. Spathe as above ; perianth with
three teeth. Cor. Petals three, roundifh, permanent. P3/,
Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle awl-fhaped ; ftigmas three,
Peric. Drupa ovate, pointed. Seed. Nut ovate, marked
with a furrow. ‘

Eff. Ch. Common fpathe of two valves ; common fpadix
branched. Male, Calyx three-toothed. Petals three, ane
thers feflile. Female, Calyx three-toothed. Petals three.
Stigmas three. Drupa with one nut.

E. /ylvefris. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1659. (Katou-indel; Rheede
Malab. v. 3. 15. t. 22—25. Kempf. Ameen. 667.) Nas
tive of the Ealt Indies. Defcribed in the Hortus Mala-
baricus, where, like other palms, it is illuftrated with fplen-
did and ample figures, as of a moderate height, about 14 feet.
Wood white and very hard. Leaves pinnate, fpinous in their
lower part ; leaflets oppofite, lanceolate, acute, keeled, en-
ure. Spathe thick and coriaceous; {padix with a thick.
compreffed bafe, very much branched upwards, bearing in-
numerable, {mall, greenifh-white, {centlefs fowers. Fruit
oval, the fize of a floe, fharp-pointed, blackifh and fhining ;
its pulp white, {weet, farinaceous, and aftringent. Nut red,
with a white bitter kernel. The natives of Malabar weave
hats of the leaves. Elephants are fond of the fruit ftaiks.

ELATEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
which was only inferior to Delphi. It was fituated on a
plain, over which paffed the Cephiflus, near Amphiclea; and
is faid to have been founded by Elatus, who came from Are
cadia to affit the Delphians againft the Phlegians, in their
attempt to plunder the temple. Elatea was one of the
towns burned by the Perfians; but though it. afterwards
repulfed the enterprifes of the Macedoniars, it was fubdued
by Demetrius. It continued faithful to the Macedonians
when Titus Flamininus was fent from Rome to refcue the
Greeks from flavery, and fuftained a fiege. The inhabitants
were afterwards reconciled to the Romans, and recovered.
their liberty. Efculapius had a temple in this place, and
his ftatue exhibited him with a long beard. Here were alfo
a theatre and a bronze itatue of Minerva, which appeared
to be very ancient. Minerva Carnea had a temple fituated
on a craggy rock, at the diftance of 20 ftadia from
Elatea. The goddefs was reprefented in the attitude of
combat. 3
ELATER, in Entomology, a genus of coleopterous in=
fe&is. The antenoz are filiform, and fituated in a groove
under the head-and thorax; under fide of the thorax ter= _

minating ©

See EvAsric Bodies.

See Sprincs, and Etastic

‘{pot.

Native of Cayenne.

stinating in an elaftic {piney placed inthe cavity of the ab-
domen. .

The fpecies of this genys are generally of an elongated
and fubcylindrical form, and {pring to a confiderable diftance
by means of the fpine at the extremity of the thorax ; when
placed on the back, thefe infeéts ftrike the {pine forcibly
againft the body, and by the fudden jerk turn over and
recover their natural pofition. Many of this genus afford
alfo a {trong phofphoric light in the night-time, like the
glow-worm, but of greater luftre. A number of the fpecies
are found in Europe, chiefly thofe of {mall fize, the larger
kinds being moftly natives of hot climates.

Species.

FiLanevticornis. Brown; antenne with fan-like tuft
of eight large lamina. Lian.

Native of India, and one of the largeft fpecies.

Fascicucaris. Thorax moufe-colour; wing-cafes pale,
with brown undulated ftreaks ; antenne with fan-like tuft.
Oliv. :

‘The antennz are black; wing-cafes ftriated ; body moufe-
colour ; legs pitchy. An American {pecies.

Sreciosus. White, {potted with biack. Linn.

Native of the Eaft Indies. In this fpecies the antennz
are fhort and black.

Lurivus. Downy, cinereous; wing-cafes fomewhat
firiated ; end of the legs black. Olivier.

A large {pecies found in Coromaadel.

Foveatus. Black; thorax with two imprefled white
dots; wing-cafes ftriated. abr.

‘Inhabits Guinea. This is a large fpecies, entirely black ;
the thorax {mooth ; wing-cafes immaculate.

Ocuratus. Thorax with two black ocellate {pots ;
body black, {potted with white. Olivier.

Native of North America.

Luscus. Thorax with two black ocellate. {pots ; body
black and immaculate. Olivier.

Inhabits the fame country as the preceding.

Corecus. Black; thorax with two ocellar {pots; wing-
24 with two arched ftreaks, and a ferreginous dot behind.

abr.

An African infec.
with a large oblong ferruginous ring ; wing-cafes {mooth.

Lintarus. Black; thorax and wing-cafes with rufous
fines: Oliv. .

A Brafilian infe&t of large fize, defcribed by Olivier from
afpecimen in the mufeum of the late French king.

Nocritucus. Sides of the thorax witha glabrous yellow
Oliv.

This fpecies inhabits South America, and emits from the
two glabrous fpots on the thorax a vivid phofphoric light.
f PuHospHorevs. Thorax with two yellow {pots behind.

inn.

Poffeffes the fame luminous property as the Jaft. The
fpecies inhabits South America.

Ienitus. Fufcous; thorax black, with yellow margia.

liv.

Fuscires, Black; antennz and legs brown. Oliv.
_ A large f{pecies found in the Eaft Indies.

4-Macutatus. Cinereous; thorax with four black
dots; wing-cafes with two. abr. ‘
Native of Africa.

Rusicinosus. Blackifh, fpotted with grey ; large {pot
on the wing-cafes. abr.
Inhabits Sierra Leone. The head of this fpecies is black ;

breaft black, with the fides ruft-coloured ; legs black.
Vo. XII,

The thorax is marked each fide.

ELATER.

Licnevs. Ferruginonus; wing-cafes mucronate; am-
tennz black. Oliv.

Native of South America.

Rurus. Ferruginous; head and thorax darker. Fabr.

Inhabits Gérmany. The bead is brown; antennz fer=
ruginous; thorax brown, ferruginous at the fides; wing-
cafes ftriated. ,

Ferrucineus. Thorax and wing-cafes ferruginous;
body and pofterior margin of the thorax black. Oliv.

Found in Europe.

Porcatus. Brafly-green; wing-cafes with villous white
grooves. Fabr.

The future of the wing-cafes black and polifhed, Oliv.
Inhabits South America.

Sutcarus. Covered with whitifa down; wing-cafes
with three elevated black glabrous lines. abr.

Native of South America,

Gara s. Body downy, blackifh-green ; antennz black.
Vv.

Inhabits American iflands.

Furcens. Blue polifhed, beneath coppery ; wing-cafes
pointed. Oliv. .

Native of India.

Inzxquatus. Black blue; thorax uneven; wing-cafes
ftriated, red. Fabr.

The antenne are black ; thorax grooved; feutel dulky.
An Italian {pecies.

Arerrimus. Thorax black, and polifhed ; wing-cafes
ftriated and black-brown. Oliv.

An European fpecies.

Nicer. Black-brown, and opake; wing-cafes ftriated ;
antennz and legs fame colour. Linn, :

Found in gardens in Europe.

Mourinus. Thorax dull cinereous ; wing-cafes clouded
with cinereous ; ends of the legs rufous. Linn.

Common in gardens in Europe.

Hoxosericevs. Dull; thorax and wing-cafes fome-
what filky, and clouded with cinereous and brown. Fabr.'

Inhabits Germany. e

Tesseruatus. Wing-cafes brafly, with crowded paler
fpots; claws red. Linn. Oliv. &c. ;

Found in gardens in Europe.

Fasciatus. Thorax varied with black and pale; wing-
cafes blackifh, with an undulated white band. Linn.

Native of Sweden, and moft other parts of Europe.

Varius. Black; edge of the thorax, band on the pof.
terior part of the wing-cafes and bafe yellowifh downy.
Olivier,

Found in the vicinity of Paris.

fEneus. Thorax and wing-cafes brafly ; antennx black
and fimple. Olivier.

An European fpecies.

Germanus. Thorax and wing-cafes black blue; body
and legs black. Olivier.

Native of Europe.

Imeressus. Pubefcent, black; thorax with an impreff-
ed dorfal line and two dots; wing-cafes ftriated, fhining,
brafly. Fabr. '

Found in Sweden by Schneider.

Pectinicornis. Thorax and wing-cafes brafly; antennx
of the male petinated. Linn. Later fufcus viridi encus,
Geoffr.

Native of T.urope.

Furcatus. “Vhorax “ferruginous, with a black dorfal
line ; wing-cafes tapering ; tetaceous with five black
ftreaks; head furcated. Fabr.

49

Iokabite

ELATER,.

* Ynhabtts India, and is of the middle fize. Defcribed
from a fpecimen in the Britifh Mufeum.

Sururatis. Thorax one-toothed each fide ; ferrugi-
nous with a black dorfal line; wing-cafes tcftaccous, with
three black fillets. abr.

Native of Senegal.

Virtatus. Brown; band on the wing-cafes and legs
teflaceous. Fabr.

The antennz of this {pecies is pitchy; head and thorax
fomewhat downy ; abdomen ferruginous, Fousd in Ger-
many.

Cupreus.
low. Olivier.

Native of Britain.

Linearis. ‘borax rufous, in the middle brown; wing-
eafes linear and teftaceous. Olivier. _

Livens. Black; thorax red and glabrous ; wing-cafes
teftaceous. Olivier.

This, and the preceding, inhabit Europe, and are fup-
pofed by Hoppe to be varieties of the fame fpecies.

Cruciatus. Thorax black, with ferruginous fides ;
wing-cafes yellow, with black edge and crofs. abr.

Native of Europe.

Denticotris. Linear, black; wing-cafes and thorax
rufous. Fabr.

Inhabits Germany.

Castaneus. Thorax teftaceous and pubefcent; wing-
cafes yellow, tipped with black ; body black. Olivier.

Native of Europe.

Osscurvs. Piceous; thorax and wing-cafes dull black.
Olivier.

Found in Europe, and common in England.

Fravires.. Thorax dull biack; wing-cafes ftriated and
brown ; legs teftaceous.

Inhabits Europe.

_ Casraniets. Brown, with cinereous down; antenne
and fhanks teftaceous. Gmel. Later caflaneus, Fabr.

Native of Guadaloupe. The wing-cales are ftriated.

Macuratus. Ferruginous; wing-cafes dotted with
black. Olivier.

A South American {pecies.

Fitirormis. Brownifh-afh, and immaculate.

Inhabits Italy.

Tristis. Thorax black and polifhed ; bafe of the
wing-cafes and exterior margin livid. abr.

Lives in decayed wood in Europe.

Marcinatus. Thorax brown; wing-cafes teftaceous,
edged with black. Olivier.

This, and the eleven following fpecies, inhabit Europe.

Troracicus. Black; thorax entirely rufous. abr.

Ruricoiiis. Black; thorax, at the polterior part, red
and polifhed. abr.

Brunnxevus. Thorax rufous, black in the middle; wing-
cafes and body ferruginous. Fabr.

Hemaropes. Black; thorax pubefcent and fulvous ;
wing-cafes ftriated and fanguineous. Olivier.

Coppery; upper half of the wing-cafes yel-

Fabr.

Enroneatus. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous, with the
tips black. abr.
Laterauis. Black and dufky; wing-cafes ftriated,

with an oblong yellowifh {pot at the bafe. Fabr.
Sancuinevs. Black; wing-cafes ftriated, fanguineous
andimmaculate, Olivier.
Ernirrium. Black; wing-cafes ftriated, fanguineous
with a common dorfal black fpot. Olivier.
Found on decayed pines.
Preustus. Black; wing-cafes ftriated, fanguineous
with black tip. abr. 7

white dots.

Testraceus. Black; ftriated; wing-cafes and legs
teftaceous. Fabr.

Batyeatus. Anterior half. of the wing-cafes rufous ;
body black. Fabr.

MeEvaAnocerHaALus. Sanguineous, head, thorax, dorfal
line on the wing-cafes, and tips black. Olivier.

Native of Coromandel, Bankfian cabinet.

Evecans. Biack; margin of the thorax and wing
cafes, with the fillet on the latter, and the legs teftaceous.
Fabr.

An- American [pecies.
teflaceous.

VariaBILis. Thorax brown dufky; wing-cafes ftriated.
and teltaceous. Fabr.

Native of Germany. The wing cafes in, this infect are
fometimes fufcous.

Patuirrs. Brown; wing-cafes ftriated; antenne and
legs yellow. Fabr.

A fpecies of {mall fize, and inhabits Tranquebar.

Striatus. Black; wing-cafes brown with four pale:
lines. Olivier.

Native of Sweden.

Ruriees. Black; thorax polifhed; wing-cafes ftriated 5,
legs rufous. Fabr.

Inhabits Saxony. Hybner.

Mrnutus. Thorax deep black, and polifhed; wing-cafes.
and legs blackifh.. Linn.

An European fpecies of fmall fize.

Patiens. Black; wing-cafes ftriated, and with the lege
teftaceous. Geoffr. ;

Found by Bofc in France.

Limsatus. Thorax black, and polifhed; wing-cafes
teftaceous. Thunberg.

Inhabits Kiel.

Riparivs.
fous. Fabr.

Found by Paykull in Lapland, where it inhabits princie
pally the banks of lakes and rivers.

Avvena. Black; wing-cafes and legs dull cinereouss
Fabr.

A {mall infe&t, found in Spain.

Nitiputus. Wing-cafes ftriated with two yellow fpotss-
antennz and legs yellow. Fabr.

The head is black and deftitute of fpots; wing-cafes black»
The fpecies is a native of Cayenne.

Purcnettus.. Head and thorax black; wing-cales.
blackih with yellowith {pots; legsyellow. abr.

Inhabits Europein gardens.

2-Guttatus. Biack; wing-cafes ftriated, with a rue
fous {pot in the middle. Olivier.

Found in the fouth of France.

2-Macvuratus. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous, tip black
with awhitedot. Olivier.

Inhabits fame part of Europe as the preceding.

The head is black; antenna

3-Macuratus. Black; wing-cafes ftriated, teltaceoug, —

and marked with three black fpots.. Fabr.

Native of Saxony. Hybner.

4-Macuratus. Above black; border of the thorax and
two {pots on the wing-cafes teitaceous. abr.

Inhabits Italy.

Poritus. Black, and polifhed; wing-cafes ftriated ;
anterior legs pale. Paykull.

Found onthe higher mountains of Dahlikarbia, and is
very {mall. :

6-GutTratus. Smooth, black; wing-cafes with three
Thunberg.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.

BuPResTOIDESe

Brafly black; wing-cafes ftriated ;_ legs ruc -

_

ELATER.

Buerrestomwes, Cylindrical, black and immaculate ;
thead retra@ed. Hybner.

Inhabits Saxony.

Pycmzus. Dull black, with the fhanks pitchy. Fabr.

Native of Germany, and is found in rotten wood.

Norartus. Thorax rufous, with two black {pots ; wing-

cafes rufous at the bafe, the tip black with two white fpots. .

Olivier. - ~

Found in Coromandel.

Festivus. Thorax ferruginous; wing-cafes black with
two yellowifh bands, Forft.

Native of Egypt.

Tetrasticuon. Black fpotted with yellow; wing-
cafes with confluent fpots; abdomen with four dots. Gmel.

Inhabits Africa.

Deustus. Teftaceous; thorax and hind part of the
wing-cafes with a branched black line. Thunberg.

Native of Ceylon.

Cravicornis. Green, antenne clavated. Thunberg.

Native of India.

Gicanteus. Deprefled ; wing-cafes brafly green with
a yellow fpot; breaftand abdomen yellow. Schail.

This and the following inhabit America.

Inpicus. Black; thorax convex, pun@tured with a ful-
vous margin, finuate in the middle; wing-cafes black ftriate
punétured. Herbft.

Vutcaris. Black; wing-cafes brown with punctured
ftrie; future black; legs pale. Herbit.

Found at Berlin, as are likewife the three following
{pecies.

' Gristus. Dull grey; thorax convex; wing-cafes with
pun@ored ftrie; beneath black; antenne and legs brown.
Herb.

CinEREusS.
tarfi ferruginous. Herbit.

Eguiseti. Black, thorax convex ; wing-cafes ftriated;
legs yellowifh. Herbit.

Monranvus. Somewhat villous, fhining black ; bafe of
the antennz and fhanks fulvous. Scopoli.

Inhabits the alpine regions of Italy.

Puxius. Black, polifhed and pubefcent; wing-cafes
punétured; legs chefnut brown. Miiil.

Native of Denmark.

Tusercutatus. Black, opake; thorax with two tu-
bercles; wing-cafes finely ftriated with ferruginous dots.
Pontopp.

Inhabits Denmark.

Guineensis. Green bronzed;
antenne black; wing-cafes ftriated.

Inhabits America, ;

Fimsriatus. Black, thorax edged with red; wing-
cafes with two yellow interrupted lines at the future. Le-
pechin. :

Found in the deferts of Ural.

Black, with hoary down; thorax corvex ;

thorax fub-pubefcent ;
Gronov.

Averatus. Green-gold; legs black. Gmel.

Nariveof China. Drury.

Virratus. Black, wing-cafes brown with a longitudi-
nal fulvous ftripe. Geoffr.

Native of France.

Piceus. Entirely black, and polifhed; wing-cafes very
{mooth. Degeer. 5

Native of America.

Livipus. Pale reddifh-brown; antenne rufous; legs
yellow-teltaceous. Degeer. :

Native of America.

Puncru.atvs. Dullteftaceous; anterior part of the

thorax black; wing-cafes with two irregular black {pots~
Degeer.

Native of Surinam. :

‘Srcetis. Black; antennz and tarfi brown; wing-cafes
with black and brown longitudinal lines. AG. Holm. 1779.

Deftru@ive in the larva fate to the roots of cora.

Found in Sweden.

Puncratus. Elongated, brown; thorax pun&ured;
wing-cafes with crenate ftrie; mouth and legs ferruginous.
Lefke.

This and the following fpecies are natives of Europe.

Pusescens. Pitchy and pubefcent; wing-cafes ftriated ;
ends of the legs ferruginous. Lefke.
Vanians. Brown with yellow down; legs rufous; wing-

cafes finely ftriated with brown foots. Gmel.

Crassives. Black, wing-cales finely ftriated; thighs
thick. Gmel.
Cinerascens. Teftaceous with cinereous down; thorax

brownifh; legs rufous, Gmel.

Quaprisutcus. Black; wing-cafes obfoletely ftriated
with four imprefled grooves at the bafe; antenna, thanks,
and ends of the fore legs rnty-brown. Goel.

Survuratis. Brown; margin of the thorax ferruginous;
wing-cafes teftaceous with a brown future. Gmel.

Carvucinus. Black; wing-cafes, anterior legs, and
thanks teltaceous. Gmel.

Soricinus. Moufe-colour; thorax gibbous; wing cafes
teftaceous; antennz and legs ferruginous. Gmel. :

Funereus. Teltaceous; wing-cafes ftriated; head brown.
Gmel.

Cuatysevus. Brafly-black, and polifhed; bafe of the
anterior thighs and fhanks rufous. Gmel.

Osscurus. Ferruginous; head and thorax brown ; the
latter on the pofterior part with the wing-cafes and legs tef-
taceous. Gmel.

Furicinosus. Piceous and pubefcent; antenne, legs
and wing-cafes teftaceous, the latter edged with brown.
Gmel. S

Pusitius. Chefnut brown ; three lalt joints of the an-
tennz lamellate; wing-cafes finely ftriated and pubefcent.

Unicoror. Entirely rufous-teftaceous; .eyes blacks
thorax elongated with an imprefled line in the middle.
Marhh. Ent. Brit.

This with the following {pecies are natives of Britain,
and have been recently defcribed in the Entomologia Brie
tannica.

Futvus. Entirely ferruginous with eyes black. Marth.

Lateratis. Thorax ferruginous black; wing-cafes
brafly teftaceous; margin and future brownifh. Marfh.

Rucosus. Dull black; thorax rugofe; antenne and
legs rufous. Marth.

Nicro-/Enevs. Linear, beneath black; above brafly
black; thorax polifhed. Marth. ;

Evoncatus. Entirely chefnut; wing-cafes ftriated.
Marth. 5

Oxssocetus. Brafly black; wing-cafes obfoletely firi-
ated; antennz fetaceous. Marth. ;

Cyaneus. Entirely purple-blue minutely dotted; wing-
cafes ftriated. Marth. ;

Nicrinus. Black; thorax pun@ured; wing-cafes {tris
ate downy. Marth.

ELATERIUM, in Botany, (:rxrnjso, or ewild cucumber,
of the ancient Greek writers, from :Azwo, to urge, force, or
impel, is certainty Momordica Elaterium of Linveus, well
charaAterized by its fruit Diofcorides ; but the word being
unoccupied as a generic name, was adopted by Jacquin for
this American genus, whofe elaftic fruit agrees in that

402 refpect

ELA

yefpe& with the original rAwrnpov.) Jacq, Amer. 241. Linn,
Gen. 477. Schreb.619. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 192. Juff. 394,
Clafs and order, Monecia Monandria, or rather perhaps
Monacia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Cucurbitacee, Linn, Jull,

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. none. Cor. of one petal, falver-
fhaped ; tube cylindrical, ftraight, abrupt at the bzfe; limb
in five lanceolate, acute, equal, horizontal fegments, whofe
edges are deflexed fo as nearly to meet underneath, and whole
intermediate notches are each furnifhed with a little tooth.
Stam. Filaments fimple, columnar, ere€t, rather fhorter than
the tube of the corolla; anther linear, continued in a five-
folded zig-zag line, fo as to make a ring crowning the fila-
ment. Female, Ca/. none. Cor. asinthe male. Pi/. Ger-
mien inferior, roundifh, fomewhat incurved, clothed with
foft prickles; ftyle columnar, {welling upwards, inclofed
within the tube; ftisma capitate, large, cylindrical, con-
vex at the fummit. eric. Capfule coriaceous, prickly,
kidney-fhaped, flightly compreffed, of one cell and two un-
equal valves, of one cell filled with pulp; the dorfal valve
is furnifhed with a highly elaftic appendage, bearing the
feeds, which it fcatters at the flizhteft touch. Sveds feveral,
about 18, imbricated, ovate, angular, flattened.

Ed, Ch. Male, Calyx none. Corolla falver-fhaped. Fe-
male, Calyx none. Corolla falver-fhaped. Capfuie inferior,
prickly, elaftic, of one cell and two unequal valves. Seeds
numerous, imbedded in pulp.

1. E. carthaginenfe. Jacq. Amer. 241.t. 154- Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1375. ‘¢ Leaves heart-fhaped, angular.”’—Found on
the fummit of a hill at Carthagena by Jacquin, the only
botanift who feems to have feen this plant, and from whom
Linnzus adopted it. The root is {uppofed to be annual.
Stems diffufe, or climbing by means of tendrils fo as to cover
all the neighbouring buafhes, round, fmooth, herbaceous.
Leaves alternate, ftalked, five-angular, heart-fhaped, finely
ferrated; roughifh above, fmooth beneath. Flower-ftalks
axillary, in pairs ; one branched, bearing feveral male flowers ;
the other fimple, with one female flower. Fowers white,
fragrant in an evening only, not unlike thofe of Jafmine.
It bloffoms in O&ober and November, foon ripening its
fruit, whofe pulp is watery, with the {cent of a cucumber.

2. E. trifoliatum. Linn. Mant. 123. (Sicyos foliis ternatis;
Gron. Virg. part 2. 191. Leaves three-lobed, cut.”—
Gathered by Clayton in Virginia. He deferibes it as a {mall
procumbent plant like a Convolvulus. Leaves on long ftalks,
three-lobed, cut, efpecially the fide lobes. S/owers white,
{mall, with a five-leaved hairy calyx, which, if true, does not
agree with the generic charaéter. Cap/ule brown, flightly
hairy, of one cell and two valves buriting elaftically. when
ripe. Seeds one or two, ovate. The elaftic capfule-induced
Linnzus to remove this plant from his Sicyes angulata, with
which he and others had confounded it, to the prefent genus.
He does not appear to have feen any fpecimens, and he feems
to miftake Clayton’s defcription with refpe& to the leaves
being ternate; we prefume it rather exprefles their being
three-lobed.

Exvarerium is the infpiffated juice of the wild cucum-
ber, (Momorpica Elaterium,) an extremely violent purga-
tive, which is fometimes employed in medicine, in dropfics,
and other vifceral diforders. The juice of the momordica
has an unpleafant fmell, anda naufeous bitter tafte; on ftand-
ing fome hours it depofits a thick fecula. According to
Beaumé, 23olbs. of the fruit will yield as much juice as when
flowly evaporated to the proper confiftence will produce
6ilbs. of the extraét or elaterium. The defe of this power-
ful medicine is from one to three grains, and it generally
operates violently.

ELATINE, in Botany, (craswn of the Greck writers,

ELA

is thought to have been fo called from srxrn, a pine, to
which neither its form nor qualities, as mentfomed by Diof-
corides at leaft, feem to have any reference. Linnzus, how-
ever, took advantage of this lagen to apply the name to
what Buxbaum had called Potamopitys, or Pond Pine, on
account of its afpeét.) Linn. Gen. 198. Schreb. 267.
Willd.) Sp. Pl. v. 2. 472. Sm. Fl. Brit.-433. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 2. Juff. 309. Gaertn. t. 112. (Alfi-
naftrum; Vaill. Par. 5.t.1. f. 6.) _Clafs and order, Ofane
dria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Inundate, Linn, Caryophyl-
lee, Jufl. ;

Gen. Ch.
nent leaves.

Cal. Perianth of four roundifh, flat, perma-
Cor. Petals four, ovate, obtufe, feffile, fpread-
ing, about the fize of the calyx-leaves. Stam. Filaments
eight, the length of the corolla; anthers fimple. Pi, Gere
men fuperior, large, globofe, a little depreffed; {tyles four,
erect, parallel, as long as the ftamens; fligmas fimple.
Peric. Capfule globofe, rather deprefled, large, of four cells
and four valves, the partitions fixed in the central column,
oppolite to each future. Seeds numerous, oblong, curved,
angular, inferted into the column,

Obf. Sometimes the flowers are only three-cleft, with fix
ftamens.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of three or four leaves. Petals three or
four, Capfule fuperior, of three or four cells, and as many
valves ; the partitions oppofite to the fiffyres. Seeds many.
Sm. Engl. Bot. 955+ ; '

1. E. Hydropiper. Linn. Sp. Pl. 527. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2.
124. Oed.in Fl. Dan.t.156. Engl. Bot. t.955. (Al-
finattrum ferpyllifolium, flore rofeo tripetalo, et flore albo-
tetrapetalo; Vaill. Par. 5. t. 2. f. 1, 2. Hydropiper;
Buxb. Cent. 2. 36, t. 37. f. 3.) Leaves in pairs—Found
in fandy inundated places throughout Europe, though not
obferved in Britain till the Rev. Mr. Williams found it in
Auguft 1798, on the eaftern fhore of Bomere pool, near
Condover, Shropfhire. Perhaps its clofe refemblance to.
Montia fontana may often have caufed it to be overlooked.

The root is annual, white, and fibrous. Herd {mooth in
every part, generally under water, even the flowers, which
remain clofed to. fhelter the ftamens. When out of the
water, it appears from Vaillant that the petals affume a red
tint. Luxuriant flowers are four-cleft, others. three-clefr.
The ffems are procumbent, and take root as they ga.
Leaves oppofite, {patulate, entire. //owers on folitary, fim-
ple, axillary ftalks. y

2. E. Aifinafirum. Lion. Sp. Pl. 527. Sm. Fi. Brit. 433.
Fluds.173. (Alfinaftrum gratiole folio; Tourn. Inft. 244.
Dull. in Rai Syn. 346. A. gailii folio; Vaill. Par. 6. t. 1. f. 6.)
Leaves whorled.—Found in France, Switzerland, and Gere
many, growing in ditches and ponds. Its having been ag-
mitted into our Britifh Floras, from whence it mut now be
excluded, arofe from a moft unaccountable error of Dille-
nius, whofe memory, it could not be his judgment, mifled
him fo far as to take Centunculus minimus tor this plant, as
his herbarium fhews. The real LE. /fna/frum is a {pan or
more in height, with hollow, round, ttraight, leafy /lems,
branched only at the bafe. Leaves whorled; thofe under
water linear, narrow, about twelve in a whorl; thofe above
the furface four, ovate, entire, ribbed. Flowers axillary,
folitary, feffile, white. It bloffoms in Auguit, and is pe-
rennial,

What profeffor Leche found in ditches, near Abo, in
Finland, and which Linngus took for this plant, fee Fl.
Suec. ed. 2, 133, isthe Hippuris tetraphylla, Linn. Suppl. 81,
as appears from his herbarium, where alfo we learn that
Pallas made the fame miftake in Kamtf{chatka, This may
almoft excufe the above error of Dillenius. Retzius does
not

a a

4

ag
7

My

“precifely the fame genus as Forfter’s Zlatoflema.

ELB

not appear aware of his Hippuris lanceolata, falc. 3. t. 1,
being the fetraphylla of Linnzus, any more than the Zlatine
Alfinafirum of Fl. Susc. which laft cireumftance, one would
think, might have occurred to this generally acute writer,
when he was mentioning the fimilitude of the two plants
being fuch as to render a defcription of his new Lippuris
fuperfluous.

Exatine, in Medicine, has been greatly recommended as
an aperient, refolvent, and vulnerary. Its fimple water has
been ufed for the fame purpofes, though it retains very lit-
tle of the virtues of the plant. The infufion is much bet-
ter, and the expreffed juice preferable ftill It has been
praifed by fome in leprous and fcrofulous cafes; alfo ex-
ternally for cancerous and other eating ulcers. An oint-
ment was made of it for thefe purpofes, At prefent, how-
ever, it is very little ufed.

_ A combination of its a€tive matter with honey, prepared
by boiling four pints of the depurated jaice with four
pounds of clarified honey, was fometimes kept in the fhope.

ELATITES, Fir-srone, in Natural Hiflory, a name
given by authors to that fort of petritied wood which fhews
the lineaments of the fir-tree wood, and has been originally

_ either that or fome wood of a like kind.

Evatires was alfo a name ufed by the ancients for an
iron ore, elteemed a fpecies of hzmatites: it was of a yel-
lowifh white colour, and was more ufually called xanthus.

ELATIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Decapolis,
between Jordan to the weft and Poiladelphia to the ealt,
towards the confines of Arabia Deferta; go miles from
Damas and as far from Petra. Pliny mentions this town.

_ELATMA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tambof, on the Occa; 132 miles N. of Tambof.
IN. lat.155° 2! Es long. 41° 42!

ELATOSTEMA, in Botany, from cruzos, elaflicy and

sna, the flamen of a plant. Forlt. Gen. t. 53. Juff. 403.

, (Procris; Commerfon MSS. Joff. 403. Willd Sp. Pi. v. 4.

344. Poiret in Lamarck Encycl. v.'5. 627. tab. 763. f. 2?)
A genus of plants referred by fubfequent.writers to Dorflenia,
for Juffieu and Willdenow were not aware of Procris being
How
truly all the fpecies comprized under both are really Dor/le-
nig, we have not materials fufficient to determine. Their
habit is more caulefcent than the original ones, leaves undi-
vided, lanceolate, or oblong, ‘alternate, on fhort foot{talks.
Flowers in lateral round heads, having in one fpecies, Procris
“eephalida Willd. 346, evidently the habit, {truéture, and feeds
-ot a Dorflenia, but in others, P. fagifolia and maculata, more
the appearance of a compound flower with an imbricated
calyx, and fcales between the florets. Thefe latter {pecies,
however, do not agree with either Forfter’s or Commerfon’s
generic defcription. Poiret has referred to Procris feveral
lants {till more generically diftinét.

ELATRIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in

Thefprotia, a country of Epirus, fituated at the mouth of

_ the Aphas, in the lake of Ambracia.
t
i ‘of Paufanias.

- ELATUM, a river of Greece, in Arcadia ; the Zlaphus

ELATUS, a mountain of the ifland of Cephalonia.
Pliny.

ELAVER, a river of Gaul; the modern Allier.

ELAY, in Geography, a river of Wales, in the county of
Glamorgan, which runs into the Brittol chaanel, near Pen-

‘narth point.

ELBA, Exse, Zlve, an ifland of Italy, which, with

‘the neighbouring iflends of Capraja, La Pianofa, Pal-

majola, and Monte Chrifto, was added to the territory of
France on the 26th of Auguft, 1802, by-right of conqueft,

EL-B ;

and forms now a feparate departmert, adminiftered by a
commiffary general and a council of adminiftration.

The ifland of Elba is fituated in the Mediterranean fea,
between the Etrurian or Tufcan coaft, from which it is fepas
tated by a channel, 20 kiliometres, or about 12. Engiifh
miles in breadth, and the ifland of Corfica, which is 50 ki-
hometres, or about 30 Englith miles diftant from its fhore.
It fhape is nearly triangular ; its territorial extent 95 ki-
liometres, cr about 20 leagues; and its chief towns, are
Porto Ferrajo, Porto Longone, Capolibri, Rio, Marciana,
and Campo.

The climate of the ifland of Elba is milder than that of
Etruria or Tufcany, on account of the fea breezes, which
moderate its heat ; and fuch is the influence of this climate,
that although but 12 miles diftant from the Tufcan coatt,
the foil produces -plants and fruits which do not grow in
Tufcany.

There is no river in the ifland, but it has a confiderable
number of fprings. The Rio is the principal brook by
which it is irrigated; it has its fource near the town of Rio,
flows through the celebrated mine alfo known by the fame
name, and after a courfe of a kiliometre runs into the fea.
It is chiefly remarkable for the abundance of its waters ; in
its fhort progrefs it fets eighteen different mills in motion,
and what is very extraordinary, the volume of its waters is
increafed and diminifhed with the length of the days; at the
fummer folftice, when other brooks are almoft dried up, its
ftream is confiderable,

The ifland of Eiba is covered with high mountains, which
offer a rich and {pontaneous vegetation of multifarious odori-
ferous plants and fhrubs, by which the atmofphere is per-
fumed. There are, however, a few extenfive plains, of which
that of Lacona is the principal. It opens a wide field to
agricultural fpeculations, as the leaft labour would render
it uncommonly fertile.

Grapes, which are plentiful, are converted into a wine
refembling that of Spain; there is alfoa great abundance of
figs and olives, Turkey corn, peafe, and beans, but little
wheat. The trees which thrive beft are the cork tree, the
green oak, the lemon tree, the orange tree, and all the fruit
trees of Europe except the apple tree; it is, however, fuppofed
that the latter would thrive in the northern part of the
mountains. Melons, particularly thofe known by the name

of Pafleques, are excellent.

Notwithftanding the beauty of its climate and the fertility
of its foil, the ifland of Elba is moftly unimproved by til-
lage. Paftures are fearce; thgre are no cattle reared, and
there are very few horfes and Mules, Wood, owing to the
carelefsnefs of the inhabitants, is likewife {carce ; pines, oaks,
and other trees, would grow in the mountains, which are co-
vered with a luxurious vegetation of various fhrubs. And,
notwithflanding the many flowers and odoriferous plants that
cover the ifland, there are no bees. At the foot of the town
of Porto Ferrajo is a falt work, but its harbour has a dan-
gerous entrance; many more might be eftablifhed in other
parts of the ifland.

Nature appears to have heaped together all the treafures
of mineralogy in the ifland of Elba. It has mines of gold,
filver, copper, iron, magnet, lead, fulphur, vitriol, and quar-
ries of marble, granite, flate, and others. But it is its tren,
and chiefly the iron mine of Rio, which conftitutes its princi-
pal riches. According to letters written at Vienna in 1780,
on the natural hiftory of the ifland ef Eiba, by Mr. Heary
Koefllin to the Count de Borch, this {mali ifland fupplied
Corfica, Genoa, Tufcany. the Papal dominions, and part of
the kingdom of Naples, with iron from the fingle mine of
Rio, which afforded the prince of Piombino, to aa Be

uland

ELB

ifland belonged at that time, an annual revenue of nearly
59,000 crowns. The mines are now farmed, and produce
annually 500,000 livres to the French government.

The moft important branch of induftry next to the minea
is the Tunny fifhery, which is extremely productive; and as
its veffels are now proteéted again{t the Algerine pirates
by the French flag, the commerce of the ifland mutt be
benefited by this circumftance ; its fituation renders it, at
leaft, a moft important ftation for the French trade in ge-
neral.

The whole population of the ifland of Elba amounts to
12,250 individuals; the electoral affembly ts compofed of
62 members. It contains three cantons, Porto Longone,
Porto Ferrajo, and Marciana, and feven communes. Porto
Longone is fo called from the harbour, which is long and
narrow, and is divided into the Upper and Lower Towns.
The latter lies on the fhore of the harbour, and the former
contains a citadel on the fummit of the hill. There is at
Porto Ferrajo a court of juttice, confifting of feven judges.
Near this town, on a fteep rock, ftands the tower of Volta-
rajo, which can be reduced only by famine.

During the war, which ended at the peace of Amiens,
the ifland of Elba was a long time occupied by the En-
glifh; who, from this tation, fuccefsfully annoyed the
trade of their enemies in the Mediterranean fea by their
numerous cruizers. Herbin. Statiftique de la France.

ELBE, a {mali town of France, in the department of
Lot and Garonne ; fix miles W. of Villefranche.

Exvse, in Latin /dis, and in the Bohemian language
Labe, is cne of the mott confiderabie and important rivers
in Germany. It has its fource on the confines of Bohemia
and Silefia, in that part of the Carpathian mountains which
is called the Ric/engeburge, or the Giants’ Mountain, where
the Oder and the Viitula likewife take their rife at an
inconfiderable diftance from each other. Its courfe is at
firft through Bohemia, where it receives the river Mol-
dau above Melnick. It begins to be navigable at Leut-
meritz, above which place it receives the river Eger, which
comes from the lichtclberz in Franconia. Leaving Bohemia,
the Elbe enters the kingdom of Saxony, pafles by Drefden,
and in the principality of Anhault Dcilau receives the
Mulde not far from Deffau; in the duchy of Magdeburg,
it receives the Saale above Barby, flows afterwards through
part of the German dominions of the king of Pruffia, where,
near Werben, not far from Havelberg, it reccives the Havel,
which communicates with the Oder by means of the Spree,
through Berlin, ‘The Elbe then purfues its courfe through
the confines of the duchies of Luneburg and Mecklen-
burg Schwerin, where it receives che Elmenan, up to Ham-
burg, in the neighbournood of which it divides itfelf into
feveral branches that form feveral lands: but uniting its
waters again below Hamburg, it divides Hanover from
Holiftein, receives the Stor below Gliuckftadt, and about
one hundred Englifh miles farther runs at laft into the
North fea, not far from the ifland of Heiligeland or Heligo-
Jand. At its mouth,-as well as in its courfe, particularly be-
Jow Cuxhaven, which may be confidered as che port of
Hamburg, the Elbe forms feveral {mall iflands, and has
many fand-banks, which render its navigation extremely
difficult.

The principal places whofe commerce is animated by the
Elbe, are Drefden, Lauenburg, Magdeburg, and Hamburg.
The inland commerce of that great emporium of Germany
by means of the Elbe was very confiderable, before the oc-
cupation of Hanover by the French caufed that fine river
to be blockaded by an Englifh fquadron ; it was, indeed,
more extenfive than the commerce of the Rhine, or of any

ELB

other river in Europe, although it laboured under feveral
reftrictions and inconveniences, arifing from an exceflive
number of tolls, extravagantly high duties, and abfurd
ftaple privileges, fuch as that of Magdeburg, where all
veflels, not under Pruffian colours, or not laden with
Pruffian produce, were obliged to unload, and to re-fhip
their goods in Pruffian veffels, three hundred of which were
employed by Magdeburg alone; and befides this detention
and lofs of time, goods fent, for inftance, from Pirna in
Saxony to Hamburg had not lefs than thirty-two tolls to
pay. Well might an old Englifh chronicler ftyle the Ger-
man tolls ‘* Mira infania Germanorum.”? (Wicke’s Chron.
ad annum, 1260.) How far the newly created kingdom of
Weftphalia, through which the Elbe now flows in its pro-
grefs from the kingdom of Saxony towards Hamburg, is
hikely to be influenced by more liberal maxims of commerce,
and whether the circumitance of both the new kings being

members of the confederacy of the Rhine will lead to the

adoption of lefs confined views of policy, it is impoflible to
conjeGiure: but the Elbe certainly appears deftined to con-
vey the principal commerce of Europe at fome future pee
riod. Tre inland communication from Hamburg, by means
of this river, extends from the weftern and northern extre-
mity of Germany, through the kingdoms of Weltphalia and
Proffia, to Auftria, and the interior ef Ruffia, and even down
the Dneiper to the Black fea.

Many years ago, a canal was projected betwecn the Elbe
and the Weler, to tranfport goods from Bremen to Stade,
and fo on to Hamburg. A fluice was built at Stade: but
from the nature of the foil the canal itfelf was fonnd imprac-
ticable. However, the Elbe might eafily be made to
communicate with the Danube by the Moldau, which again
might be conneéte! with the Rhine, by either the Mayn
or the Necker. (Oddy’s European Commerce).

Evee, a river of Germany, in the circle of the Upper
Rhine, which runs into the Eder, two miles S.S.E. of
Fritzlar, in the county of Waldeck.

ELBEDOUI, a town of Arabia, in the country of
Yemen; 14 miles S. of Abu Aniich.

ELBENAU, a {mall town of the kingdom of Saxony, in
that part which was formerly called the EleGoral circle,
(Caurkocis) with a royal bunting feat. Together with the
town of Gommern it conitituted, in ancient times, the burg
graviate of Magdeburg, which was a diftin&t province from

rt

Ci

the bifhopric ot Magdeburg, which was fecularized in favour

of the electors of Brandenburg, by the ttle of a duchy, and
now forms a valuable part of the new kingdom of Weft.
halia.

ELBERFELD, or Erverrerp, a town of Germany,
in the grand duchy of Berg, which, fince the late acceffion
of Joachim Murat to the throne of Naples, has been an-
nexed to France. It is fitnated on the Wipper, 18 miles
E. of Doffeldorf. The new town, which is called Gee
mark, is remarkable for the beauty of its buildings. Its
principal manufa&tures, which are very flonrifhirg, are thofe
of linen cloth, thread, and thimbles. There are alfo fome
coal mines ih its neighbourhood.
inhabitants. It has 2500 weaver-looms, and 1e0 bleach-
ing grounds ; thefe lait alone employ 700 individuals: _

ELBERT, a county of America, in the Upper dif-
trict of Georgia, between Tugulo and Broad rivers; the
S_E. corner of the county is at their confluence, where

Elberfeld counts 8700 _

flands the town of Peterfburgh. On the N.W. it is —

bounded by Franklin county. It is divided into 17 town-
oe and contains 10,094 mhabitants, of whom 2816 are

aves.
ELBERTON, a town inthe above county, in which are
the

ELB

the poft-office and the feat of juilices; 23 miles N.W. of
Peterfburg.—Alfo, a poft town of Effingham county, in the
ftate of Georgia, on the N.E. bank of Ogeechee river;
about 19:miles W. of Ebenezer, 48 N.W. of Savannah, and
55 SE. of Louitville.

ELBEUF. a fimali town of France, in the department of
the Lower Seine, chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of
Rouen, fituated on the river Seine, 12 miles fouth of Ronen,
and 78 miles.N.W. of Paris, with a population of 5.400 in-
dividuals. It is particularily remarkable for its manutaciure
of woollen cloth, which was citablifhed here under the ad-
miniftration of Colbert in 1666 by. two Proteftant gentle.
men of the name of Le Monnier and Le Cointre, who,
during the religious perfecutions, carried this manufaéture to
Holland. ‘They were, however, replaced by Catholic manu-
faéturers ; the number of whom, in 1686, amounted to 28.

In 1687 Etbeuf made 3443 pieces of cloth.

$608) 3s =) S838
1750 - - 18.771
1768 - only 14,059

And this manufa@ure has declined ever fince, and its de-
eline has been much more fenfible after the revolution of
£789. The canton of Elbeut contains eight communes,
and 16,096 inhabitants, upon a territorial extent of 50 ki-
liometres.—A !fo, a {mall town. of France, in the department
of Eure, 18 miles N. of Andely, with a fine caftle.

ELBING, a confiderable town of Pruffia, in the circle
of Marienburg, on the river Elbing, near a bay of the
Baltic fea, called the Frifche Haff. N. lat. 54° 12!/. E,
long. 20°, in a very fertile diftriét; 36 miles S.E. of Dant-
zick, 120 miles N. by W. of Warfaw. Its origin dates from
‘the year 1230; itsfirlt inhabitants were a colony from Lubeck;
and Elbing was in the Hanfeatic league till the end of the
r6th century. The fortifications have been demolifhed fince
the town was ceded to Pruffia by Poland, in the year 1772.
The population in 1802 amounted to 19,200 individuals,
without the garrifon, but has probably been reduced by the
difaftrous war which terminated in the peace of Tilfit in
3807.

The trade of Elbing has always been confiderable. From
1577, to 1660, there was an Englifh trading fociety at El-
bing, which owed its diffolution to political circumiftances.
But it is chiefly from the year 1772, that its commercial
importance had been progreffively increafing till 1806.
€apital warehoufes have been ereéted in an ifland formed
by the river Elbing and a moat. The corn warehoufes
alone hold 30,000 lafts ; and the cuftom-houfe, which is in
the fame lituation, keeps all goods that arrive by fea from
Pillau, at a moderate rent, till they are difpofed of. At
‘the end of 1803, the fhipping confifted of 7110 tons, be-

fides 50 coalters and 25 lighters, which take cargoes to the
fhips loading at Pillau, diftant about 50 miles. Veffels of
30 tons may come up to Elbing and load the greatett
part of their cargoes at the warchoufes. But the trade with
fir timber, deals, and ftaves, is trifling, in comparifon with
that of Dautzick. Flax is the principal article of export-
ation. Elbing has alfo a fhare of the tranfit trade to the
Roffian and Auttrian provinces.

Elbing has an extenfive manufacture of foap, one of tobac-
co, two of wecd-afhes, two of ftarch, a fugar-honfe, and a
faw-mill for cutting deals, The diftriét of Elbing includes
ten parifhes. Oddy’s European Commerce,

ELBINGERODE, or Ervetincerope, Elvenigerode,
Eilgerode,.a handfome town of Germany, in the principality
of Grubenhagen, which formed part of the eleGtorate of

- Hanover, is fituated on a rivulet called the Bode, or Bude,
is the Hercynian foreft, in German the Hartz; 7 miles of

Jun.

ELC

Blankenburg, 5 of Wernigerode, and 15 S.W. of Halber-
ftadt. Its origin dates from the year 1189 : but the oldelt
record which mentions Elbingerode as a walled town is of
the year 1571. The walls, however, have long ago been de-
ftroyed. The number of houfes, which are mottly new
and hand{fome, having been almoft all re-built, after a dread-
ful conflagration that confumed the town on the 17th of
May, 1753, amounts to goo. It contains 2500 inhabit-
ants.

The diftri& of Elbingerode is nearly ten miles long, and
five miles broad, It abounds with wood and excellent paf-
tures ; but is chiefly remarkable for its iron mines, two warm
{prings, quarries of marble and flete, and ruins of four ancient
caftles, one of which, called the Konigfburg, was a hunting
feat of the kings and emperors of Germany of the houfe of
Saxony.

ELBOCORIS, or Excosoris, a town of Spain, in
the interior of Lufitania,

ELBONTIS, a town of Africa, between Egypt and
Cyrene. :

LLBOW, in Anatomy, is the joint formed b.tween the
humerus, radius, and ulna. See Extremities.

Evsow is alfo ufed by the architeéts, mafons, &c. for ai
obtufe angle of a wall, building, or road, which diverts it
from its right line.

Exsow in the Hawfe, in Sea Language, denotes a partis
cular twiltin the cables, by which a fhip 1: moored.

Ex.zow //land, in Geography, an iflend in the north-wef=
tern part of Jake Superior, in Upper Canada, which lies to
the N.E. of the grand Portage, and W. of ifle Maurepas.

ELBUGA, a river of Ruffia, in the government of
Caucafus, which runs into the Kagalinfk; 12 miles E. of
Azoph

ELBURG. or Erzurcu, a town of Guelderland, feated
on the eaftern fhore of the Zuyder fea; 34 miles N.N.E.
of Utrecht. N. lat. 52° 28/. E. long. 5° 24!

ELCESAITES. Heccesaires, or Licefaians, as Theo«
doret calls them, ancient herctics, thys denominated from
their great prop!et Elcefai.

This Eicefat, by others called Elxei, was a Jew, atteched
to the worfhip of one god, and full of veneration for Mofes,
who lived in the time of Trajan, and corrupted the religion
of his anceftors, by blending with it a multitude of f¢tions
drawn from the oriental philofophy ; pretending alto, after
the example of the Effenes, to give a rational explication of
the law of Mofes, he reduced it to a mere allegory. He is
likewife faid to have adopted the fentiments-of the Ebionites,
with regard to Jefus Chrift; though he altcred and reform-
ed them in fome things, to denominate himfelf the author of
a feet.

His fundamental doétrines were, that Jefus Chnift, who.
was bora from the beginning of the worid, had appeared
from time to time under diverfe bodies; that he was a
celeftial power, or virtue, called the Chrifl, whereof the
Holy Spirit was fifter- (note the Hebrew word for /pirié
is feminine); and that both of them had defcended into
Jefus, the fon of Mary, who was clothed with a corporeal.
appearance, but not with a real body.

The Elcefaites, according to St. Epiphanius, were by
fome aifo called Samp/eans, from the Hebrew word /gmesy
Scaliger was notorioufly miltaken, in holding that

lxai was no more than Effat, or Effene; on which fup-
polition he made the Elcefaites the fame with the deé& of
Effenes, which is contrary to all antiquity.

Origen makes mention of the Eicefaites, in one of his
homilies, as a herefy newly rifen. The retainers hereto,
fays he, do not admit all the books of the canon, parealy

ome

ELD

fore of them; they allow fome paflages out of the Old
‘Tcitament and the Evangelifts, but reject all the Epiftles of
St. Paul. Add,that they have produced a book, which they
pretend defcended to them from heaven: and maintain, that
whoever perform what is enjoined therein, fhall obtain par-
don of all their fins. See Eufevius, Hilt. lib. vi. cap. 33,
who remarks, that this herefy became extiné almoft as foon
as it arofe.

St. Epiphanius is very full on the fubje&t of this fe.
Her. 19, where ke obferves, that Elxai was a Jew by birth;
and that, not being able to live according te the law of
Mofes, he invented new opinions, and gained followers.
He was a profefied enemy to Virginity, and obliged all, who
followed his doctrine, to marry. He tutored them to hypo-
verify in times of perfecution; pretending it was lawful to
adore idols, provided the heart had no fhare therein.

Some have doubted whether the Elcefaites fhould be
reckoned among the Chriftian, or Jewith {eGs ; for though
they acknowledged Chrift as a great king, it is not certain
whether they meant Jcfus Chrift, or fome other pretended
Meffish. -

ELCESIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily.
Ptolemy...

ELCHE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
of Valencia, in the midtt of plantains and olive-trees. ‘The
-palm-trees, about the month of May, are loaded with fruit,
tn pendant clufters, which, forming a complete circle, re-
femble, whenripeé, a crown of gold, with a plume of feathers
rifing from its centre. Each clutter, fays Mr. Townfend,
( Travels, vol. ii.) would, to appearance, nearly fill’a buthel,
and ts faid to weigh from fix toten arrobas. Elche is divided
into three parithes, and contains 17,400 perfons. The
great church is 2 beautiful building, with a majeftic dome,
and is elegantly ftted up. .This city, which was the
‘* Tlic’? of the Romans, and may not be improperly deno-
minated the ‘* city of dates,’’ fromthe palms that furround
uate belongs to the count of Aldamira. , It is governed by
his corregidor, four regidors, as many deputies from the
commons, two alcaldes, and one alguazil mayor. The
ducal palace is fituated on the brink of a deep ravin, and
bears the marks of the moft remote antiquity. It was re-
,covered froth the Moors by Peter, furnamed the Cruel,
A. D. 1363. Elche is diftant four or five leagues S.W.
from Alicant. Its envisons abound in wine and fruit.

ELCHINGEN, originally Aichlingen, formerly a rich
imperial abbey of Germany, on a high mountain clofe by
the Daaube, furrounded on all fides by the territory of Ulm.
At the peace of Luneville it was fecularized and given
as an indemnity to the king of Bavaria. It is from this
place that the French marfhal Ney takes his new title of
duke. :

ELCOSIS, or Hetcosts, from iaxos, an ulcer, fome-
times alfo elcoma, or helcoma, terms fynonymous with exu/ce-
ratio.
and the ulcerations which occur in {ma}l-pox, fyphilis, {cro-
fula, &c. conftitute the fpecies. See Nofol. Meth. clafs X.

Ciore ;

ELDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
ef Valencia; 29 miles W.N.W. of Alicant.

ELDAGSEN, or Expacsuausin, a town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of
Calenberg ; 16 miles N.E. of Hameln.

ELDANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
the other fide of the Gaages.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragonefe territory, in the country of the Vacczans.
Prolemy.

ELDEN Hots, in Geology, a natural cavern in Der-

Sauvages ules the word Licofis as the generic title ;_

ELD

byfliire, about three miles from Caftleton, and four frota
Buxton, is juftly confidered one of the-wonders in the peak.
And a writer, who gives 2 defeription of it from an aétual
furvey, near.a century ago,. properly obferves, ‘* would
former writers have been content with one wonder inftead
of feven, it would have done more honour to the peak, than
the adding the fix imaginary miracles to it, that had nothing
in them; and which really depreciated the whole.” In-
deed, the charaGter anciestly given of three will all apply
to this;
«¢ Mira alto pecco tria fant, barathrum, fpecus, antrum.”

And it may be added, if a modern travelier, who has given

an account of this geological curiofity, had not been impofed

upon by the defcription of thofe fond of the marvellous,

his work would net have been the lefs valued by thofe who,
have too much good fenfe to become the dupes of eredulity.
Elden Hole is a large, deep, perpendicular chafm in the lime-
ftone ftrata of a hill, which forms part of the elevation
termed the peaé ; and from the difficulty which has attended ~
the attempts to afcertain its real depth, and the variation in

the accounts, it has been reckoned unfathomable, or, what
is vulgarly termed, without a bottom. From the bufhes,
brambles, and proje&ting maffes of ftone which encumber the
margin of the aperture, it is not eafy to obtain a proper
ftation to p'umb it with accuracy. More than a centur

ago, Mr. Cotton affirmed, that, after letting down 884.
yards, he was unable to reach the bottom; the plummet
ftill drew, and the line, when drawn up, appeared to have
pailed through deep water. According to this ftatement,
it muft have been near half a mile in depth. Another gen-
tleman let down a line 933 yards, without difcovering a
bottom. From a probable fuppofition, that in all thefe
inftasces the plummet might have been unfkilfully ufed,

recourfe was had to another mode of difcovéring its depth.
Stones were feverally let fall into the cavern, and the
time, as accurately obferved from the delivery out of the
hand, till the reverberated found from the bottom of the
abyfs reached the ear, was 9! 11" tol. Allowing, there-
fore, with Dr. Halley, that ponderous bodies fall fixteen
feet and a half in one minute, and the velocity of found to
be 1142 feet per fecond, it will follow, from the compound
equation of the defcending body, and the afcending found,
that the depth of the cavern is 1266 feet, or 422 yards.
Dr. Snort again tried to afcertain the truth of this refult,
by plumbing from feven different ftations, from fix of which
he could only fink the plummet 192 yards; but from the
feventh, after repeated trials, it funk 295 yards, forty of
which the line appeared to have pafled through’ water.
Thus, has the depth been diminifhing by the repeti-
tion of inveftigation, as the marvellous part ef it has
been abating, by the extenfion of fcience. An account
of a perfonal defeent, by Mr. Lloyd, into this fif-
fure is given in the fixty-firft voiume of the Philofophicai
Tranfaétions: which, as it appears to be a plain unexagger-
ated defcription of this celebrated place, may be accept=—
able to fuch as might not choofe to gratify their curiolity,
or inform their judgment, by a perfonal furvey of this fub-
terraneous cavern, “ this terrific profound abyls of {pace
and horror.” The entrance into Elden Hole confifts of a

fiffure in length from north to fouth about thirty yards, and
nine wide. ‘The defcent was for tweaty yards in an oblique
GireGtion, when the aperture of the fiffure contra@tedyand
the paflage became narrower, and more difficult from late-
ral projectiog crags. Ten yards beneath this the rope, by
which Mr. Lloyd was fulpénded, inflected full fix yards from
the perpendicular, and at this depth the length of the

opening —

j
4
5

ELD

opening appeared ahout fix, and the breadth three yards.
The fides were very irregular, covered with various moffes,
2nd dripping continually with water, Whenhe had defcended
forty-eight yards, the rock opened on the eattern fide ; and
at fixty-two yards he f{wung to the floor of the cave.
The light he defcribes as fufficient to fee to read the {mallelt
print; and by means of which he was enabled to explore
the interior of the cavern. This confilts of two parts; the
one cavity being like a large oven, and the other fimilar
to the dome of a glafs-houfe, with a vaulted communication
between them, The largeft is about fifty yards in diameter,
and the height too great for afcertaining with facility. At
the entrance-is a grand ftalatitical column, ninety feet in
height. To the fouth of the fecond cavity isa third fmaller
hole twelve feet long, and fix feet wide, beautifully ceiled
with gold-coloured ftalaétites : to the north is another {mall
hole, and a large fragment of rock fpangled with a fimilar
fubitance. From the margin of the fecond cavern projects
a large mafs of rock covered with ftalaGites, and fhaped
like a buttrefs. The cavern, fixty feet in height, is inter-
nally craggy, and lined with ftalaétitieal concretions ; fome
of which hang from the roof, like pendent drops and
icicles, from four to five feet long, and two in diameter.
In different dire€tions are feveral columns with incruftations,
covering the lime-ftone like a party coloured varnifh ; the firlt
a deep yellow, the fecond a ftone colour, and the third a
rough cfHlorefcence in the fhape and colour of rofes. Such
are the particulars of this extraordinary cavern, as delivered
by Mr. Lloyd, and the account as to the depth of it is con-
firmed by feveral miners, who have fince defcended for the
purpofe of afcertaining it. What was the caufe of fuch a

* cavernous {pace, or by what convulfive throes of earth fuch

fiffures as this have been made in the moft folid parts of the
ftrata, has exercifed the ingenuity of the moft able philofo-
phers. Some have contended that they are vifible detnon-
{trations of the univerfality of the deluge, and of the globe
having been in a ftate of folution and mixture. And an
advocate for this theory in its fulle/t extent, Mr. Catcott, con-
fiders them as /wallet holes, by which the waters, which for
the purpofe of drowning the world had been brought
from the great abyfs at the centre of the earth, again re-
treated at its reformation. But one queftion does not ap-
pear to have been anfwered by the advocates of this fyitem.
For if, as they {tate, the power of gravity were removed, fo
that the whole fubftance of the globe was in a ftate of folu-
tion and intermixture ; how came thefe fiffures to remain?
or be again formed in the folid rocks, when the power of
gravity fad been reftored ? Another, but equally improbable
account, has been given as a fatisfactory one. ** This cavern
feems to have been occafioned by fome /hake, as it is here
provincially termed, or depreflion of the earth, effeéted by
the force of water. When the fubterraneous paflage, which
carries off the circulating water from thefe invifible caverns,
is plugged up, fo that its vent is ftopped, being an incom-
preflible body ; and the impinging weight of feyeral columns
of the fame Huid are added to the prodigious preffure, they
will force a new vent in fome direGtion, and having lifted
up the fuperincumbent earth and once got vent, leave the
earth to fubfide wherever it may.’? The language of this
account is philofophical, but the reafoning is unfatisfaGory.
For as thefe fhakes, or caverns, are obferved to exift in the
drieft parts of the earth, in indurated rocks ; and almolt in-
variably in lime-(tone {trata, a fubftance of eafy folubility in
water; a fimple mode of accounting for fuch fiffures in-
ftantly prefents itfelf, only admitting that at fome period
or other thefe parts of the globe were once fubmerged, or
that ‘‘ the waters once prevailed over the earth.’? Nature
VOL. Uells

ELD

is fimple in her energies, and though fhe exhibits infinite va-
riety, yet a conftant analogy prevades the whole of her ope-
rations. ‘Uhefe fiflures evidently appear to have been form-
ed at the departure of the waters, in the time of fome deluge,
by the fudden abforption ‘of moifture, and conderfation of
the dereliG& matters ; the fubftances of fuch rocks in which
they are found exhibiting, by the marine exuviz' imbedded jn
them and other extraneous matters, that they have once been
in a flate of folution. ‘This is clearly evinced by a fa&,
which oftec takes place in modclling, to the great annoyance
of the artit; when the fubftances under his platic hand, by
a too fudden evaporation of the aqueous particles, crack in
various directions: or as is more vifibly exemplified in lands ,
compofed of argillaceous fotis, where the ground, after great
or fudden drought, is feen to crack, and exhibit clefts or
crannies of confiderable length, breadth, and depth. ‘This
fimple and eafy folution of the phenomenon accords with
any theory, in which the earth is fuppofed to have been
once ccvered with water. But refpeGing Elden Hole it
appears, whether naturally .or artificially made, to have been
oace a mine. For in the floor of the largett cavern is a
fhaft now covered, which once reached to the water; and
is by fome fuppofed to be a continuation of the fubterra-
neous river, which runs out of the cave at Caftleton, and
there difcharges a kind of grit only found in Elden Hole.

ELDER, a word ufed in fome parts of the kingdom for
fuel. Dict. Rutt.

Exper Tree, in Botany. See Sampucus.

The common elder will grow on any foil, or in any fitua-
tion; the trees are frequently feen growing out of old walis,
or c.ofe to ditches, in very moilt places, or from the hollow
of another tree; for wherever the feeds are feattered, the
plants will come up. ‘he leaves and ftalks are fo bitter
and naufeous, that few animals will browfe upon them.

The young fhoots of this cree are very full of pith ; but as
the trees grow old, the wood becomes very hard, and will
polifh almoft as well as the box-tree ; and is often uled for
the fame purpofe. y

The bark, leaves, flowers, and berrics of this tree, are
ufed in medicine. The inner bark is efteemed good for
dropties. Sydenham direéts three handfuls of the inner
bark to be boiled in a quart of milk and water, till only a
pint remains, of which one half is to be taken in the morn-
ing, and the other at night; and this repeated every day.
Boerhaave recommends the exprefled juice of the middle
bark, given from a dram to half an ounce, as the belt of
hydragogues, when the vifcera are found. The leaves,
which are faid to be purgative and emetic, are outwardly
ufed for the piles and inflammations. The flowers are in-
wardly ufed to expel wind ; infufions made from them while
frefh are gently laxative and aperient; when dry, they are
faid to promote the cuticular excretion, and to be particus
lariy ferviceable in eryfipetalous and eruptive diforders ; and
the berries are efleemed cordial, and ufeful in hyfteric dif-
orders; and are frequently put into gargarifms for fore
mouths and throats. Miller and Lewis.

Officinal preparations of the elder, are the aqua florum fam-
buci, the bleam fambucinum, the unguentum fambucinum,
made of the leaves and inner bark, and alfo of the flowers,
and the fyrupus fambuci. See Samsucus.

On the trunk of this tree frequently grows a fungous ex-
crefcence, wrinkled, and turned up like an ear, whitifh on
the outlide, and black within, with feveral little veins.
Thefeare called Jew’s ears, auricule Judeorum; they are
accounted good for inflammations and {wellings of the ton-
fils, fore throats, and quinzies.

Exper, Marfh, or Water. See Vinuanum.

ae ELDERS,

ELD i
ELDERS, Seniors, in the Fewi/h Hiflory, were the

moft confiderable perfons, for age, experience, and virtue,
among that ancient people; probably the heads of tribes,
or rather of the great families of Ifrael, who, before the
fettlement of the Hebrew common-wealth, exercifed go-
vernment and authority over their families, and the people.
Mofes, we read, affembled the elders of the people together,
and acquainted them with what the Lord had commanded.
(Exod. xii. 16: 21. iv. 29, &c.) Mofes and Aaron treat the
elders of Ifrael as reprefentatives of the Jewifh nation.
The number of thefe elders was 70; but we may fuppofe,
that as there were 12 tribes, there were 72 elders, 6 of each,
and that 701s fet down inftead of 72; or rather Mofes and
Aaron made the 71{t- and 72d, and exclufively of them,
there were but 4 elders of the tribe of Levi. This eftablifh-
ment of 70 elders by Mofes feems to have continued, not
only during his life, but under Jofhua likewife, and under
the Judges.

Long afterwards, thofe who held the firft rank in the
fynagogues were ufually called [O159*, zekenim, elders, in
imitation of the feventy elders, whom Mofes eftablifhed
for the judges of the fanhedrim. Numbers x!. 16, 17. 24,
25. Exod. xxiv. 1.9. 14. See SANHEDRIM.

The prefident, or chief, had, in a particular manner, the
appellation of elder ; being, as it were, the decanus /eniorum,
dean of the elders.

In the affemblies of the primitive Chriftians, thofe who
held the firft place or rank affumed the denomination of
prefbyters, or elders ; for the word pre/byters, which occurs
fo frequently in the Old Teftament, and which includes
alike both bifhops and priefls, does properly fignify elders.
See M. Simon’: obfervation thereon, in his Supplement aux
Ceremonies des Juifs.

The prefideut, or bifhop, as being the chief of the elders,
did Jikewife 2fflume the denomination of elder; whence it is,
that in the New Teéftament the name bifhop is frequently
confounded with that of prefbyter. See. Bisuop, and
PRESsBYTER.

For the like reafon, the council of the firft churches was
called pre/byterium, or council of the elders, where the bi-
fhop prefided in quality of firft elder, being feated in the
middle of the other elders. The priefts, or elders, who fat
by him, had each his judge’s chair; for which reafon they
are called, by the fathers, afefores epifcoporum. Nothing of
any importance was done till it had firit been examined, and
refolved, in this aflembly, where the bifhop only made one
body with the other elders, or priefts; the jurifdiétion which
we now call epifcopal, not being then dependent on the
bifhop alone, but on all the elders, over whom he was only
the prefident.

Expers is alfo a denomination ftill retained in the prefby-
terian difcipline.

The elders are officers, who, in conjunétion with the pae
ftors, or minifters, and deacons, compofe the confiftories, or
kirk-feffions, meeting to confider, infpe€t, and regulate mat-
ters of religion and difcipline. They are chofen from among
the people, and are received publicly with fome degree of
ceremony. In Scotland, there is an irdefinite number of
elders in each parifh; generally about twelve. See Kirx-
Seffions, and PREsBYTERY.

EL DORADO, or Manoa, a fabulous region and city,
{uppofed to exift in the Span:fh dominions of America,
abounding with gold, and diftinguifhed by a community of
Amazons. The late difcuffions of Depons concerning this city
are of little moment ; as it is now known that Manoa only
fignifies a lake or a river; and the name originally belonged
toa river, which runs into the Ucaial. See Manoa.

ELE

ELDPACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auftria; 6 miles S. of Ips.

ELEA, or Eee, in Ancient Geography, a river of Ltaly, in
Lucania, on this fide of the Apennine, wich gave name to
the gulf, called by the ancients ‘* Eleates Portus”? and
“ Eleates Sinus.” It is at prefent Pi/ciota.

ELEANOR of Guienne, in Biography, queen of France
and Enxland, was married in 1137, at the age of fifteen, to
Louis VII. king of France, to whofe dominions her eftates,
as he:refs of Wiiliam, lat duke of Guienne, made a very
confiderable addition. She had two daughters by Louis,
whom fhe accompanied to Paleftine. Her own condu&
and intrigues with the prince of Antioch, and with a young
handfome Turk named Saladin, led toa divorce, which took
place in r152. In the following year fhe married Henry
duke of Normandy, who fucceeded to the throne of England,
in 1154, under the title of Henry II. Henry, by the pof-
feffions of his wife, became a formidable rival to the French
king, who had reafon ever afterwards to regret the feparas
tion for which he had preffed. From her own indifcretions
Eleanor had been divorced from her firlt hufband, yet fhe
could not overlook fimilar failings in Henry, and by her
jealoufy of fair Rofamond, caufed much uneafinefs to the
king. (See Rosamoxp.) Her jealoufy has been called in
by hiltorians to account for the rebellion of her fons againft
the king, whofe unnatural condu& has been imputed wholly
to her mftigation. She wasat length feized, and imprifoned
jult as fhe was attempting to efcape to France. In confine-
ment fhe remained feveral years, but on the acceffion of
Richard I. in 118g, fhe was fet at liberty, and was, when he
went upon his crufade, made regent of the kingdom. The
zeal which fhe manifetted for this prince led her to con-
fiderable exertions on his behalf: fhe went to Navarre to
procure him, for a wife, Berengaria, daughter of the king
of the country ; and when Richard, on his return from
Palettine, was imprifoned in Germany, fhe proceeded thither
with a ranfom accompanied by the chief jufticiary in 1194.
After his death fhe fupported the fucceffion of John her fon,
in prejudice of her grandfon Arthur. She died in 1202 5
though, according to fome writers, fhe took the veil this year,
at the abbey of Fontevrault, and there finifhed her bufy and
chequered life in the year1204. Moreri. Hume’s Hitt.
vol. 1.

ELEATIC Puirosopny, among the Ancients, a name
given to that of the Eleatic feét, fo called becaufe three of
its moft celebrated preceptors, Parmenides, Zeno, and Leu-
cippus were natives of 7EAcz, in Latin Velia, a town in Magna
Grecia, built by a colony of Phoczans in the time of Cyrus.

The founder of this philofophy, or of the Eleatic fe&, 1s
fuppofed to have been Xenophanes, who lived about the fifty-
fixth Olympiad, or between five and fix hundred years
before Chrift. (See Xtnopuanes.) This feet was divided
into two parties, which may be denominated metaphyfical
and phyfical; the one reje€ting, and the other approving, the
appeal to fat and experiment. Of the former kind were
Xenophanes, Parmenides, Meiiffus, and Zeno, of Elea.
To the latter clafs belonged Leucippus, Democritus, Pro-
tagoras, Diagoras, and Anaxarchus. For the peculiar and
diftinguifhing tenets of each of thefe philofophers, fee their
refpeGtive articles. Of the writings of the Eleatic fchool,
nothing remains except a few fragments colle€ted by Henry
Stephens; and therefore we chiefly depend for information
concerning this feét upon the authority of Plato and Arif-
totle. We may here obferve in general that the philofophers
of the firft clafs are fuppofed to have maintained principles
not very unlike thofe of Spinoza; they held the eternity and
immutability of the world ; that whatever exifted was only

ore

baat cee eer ote

} gp i

ene being ; that there was neicher any generation nor cor-
ruption ; that this one being was immoveable and immutable,
and was the true God; and whatever changes feemed to
happen in the univerfe, they confidered as mere appearances
and illufions of fenfe. However, fome learned men have
fuppofed, that Xenophanes and his followers, {peaking me-
taphyfically, underftood by the aniverfe, or the one being,
not the material world, but the originating principle of all
things, or the trae God, whom they exprefsly affirm to be
incorporeal, Thus, Simplicius reprefents them as merely
metaphylical writers, who. diltinguifhed between things na-
tural and fupernatural ; and who made the former to be com-
pounded of different principles. Accordingly, Xenophanes
maintained, that the earth confilted of air and fire, that all
things were produced out of the earth, and the fun and ftars
out of clouds, and that there were four elements. Parme-
nidcs alfo diitinguifhed between the doftrine concerning me-
taphyfical objects, called truth, and that concerning phyfical
or corporeal things, called opinion ; with refpeét to the for-
mer, there was one immoveable principle, but in the latter
two that were moveable. viz. fire and earth, or heat and cold;
in which particulars Zeno agreed with him. The other
branch of the Eleatic feet werethe Atomic philofophers, who
formed their fy{tem from their attention to the phenomena of
nature. See Aromic philofophy, Epicurtans, and Sroics.
See a farther account of the opinions of thefe ancient philo-
fophers in Cudworth’s Intellectual Sy{tem, and Brucker’s
Hitt. of Philof. by Enfield, vol. i.

ELECAMPANE, in Botany. See Inuva.

The root of the iaulo, or elecampane, has been long fa-
mous in all diforders of the breaft and lungs. It is alfo

“recommended as a fudorific and alexipha-mic, and, as fuch,
has a place in moft of the compofitions of that intention.
Taken freely, it is aid to gently loofen the belly, and increafe
the urinary difcharge. The dofe of the dry root in fubftance
is from a {cruple toadram, or two. An ointment made of
the frefh roots and leaves with lard, is alfo much recommended
in the itch, and other cutaneous fou!ncfles. The roots yield
in diftillation an effential oil, which concretes into white
flakes, refembling camphor in many of its properties, and
foluble in fpirit of wine. An extraét may alfo be obtained
from the dry root, both by water and fpirit ; an ounce yield-
ing by water 64 drams, and by fpirit 23.

Evecampane, Bafard. See Hevenia.

Evecampane Wine. See Wine.

ELECT, from eligo, I chufe, chofen, in the Scripture, is
applied to the primitive Chriftians. In which fenfe, the eleé&
are thofe chofen and admitted to the favour and blefling of
Chrittianity.

Evicr, in fome fyftems of Theology, is a term appropria-
ted to the faints, or the predeftinated. In which fenfe the
ele& are thofe perfors who are faid to be predeftinated to
glory as the end, and to fanétification as the means.

Dr. Taylor, in his excellent Paraphrafe, &c. on the Epiftle
to the Romans (p, 96.) obferves, that fome of the expref-
fions, whereby the antecedent bleffings are fignified, (that is,
thofe benefits, which were granted to mankind by the mere
grace of God, antecedently to their obedience, and without
ref{pe& to it, but fo that they were intended to be motives
to obedience), fuch as eled, ju/lify, fandify, &¢é. may be uled
in a double fenfe; namely, cither as they are applied to all
Chriftians in general, in relation to their being tranflated into
the kingdom of God, and made his peculiar people, enjoy-
ing the privileges of the gofpel, or as they fignify the efeds
of thofe privilezes, vix. either that excellent difpofition and
character, which they are intended to produce, or that final
itate of happinefs, which is the reward ofit. Wherever any

ee

blefling’ is affigned to all Chriftians, without exception ;
wherever it is faid, not to be of works; wherever Chriftians
are exborted to make a due improvement of it, and threat-
ened with the lofs cf God’s blefling, and of eternal life, if
they do not, in this cafe the expreffions, which fignify that
bleffing, are to be underftood in a general fenfe, as denoting
a gofpel privilege, profeflion, or obligation. And in this
general fenfe, faved, eled, chofin, juflified, fundified, are
fometimes ufed, and calling, called, election are, as this writer
conceives, always ufed, in the New Teitament. But when
any bleffing connotes real holinefs, as aétually exifting in the
fubject, then it may be unde: ftood in the fpecial and emi-
nent fenfe, and always mutt be underftood in this fenfe, when
it jmplies the a€tual poffeffion of eternal life: and in this
fenfe faved, ele, chofen, juflify, fandify, born of God, are
fometimes ufed. (Matt. xx. 16. xxiv. 35. xi, 36, 37-
1 Theff. v. 24. 1 John, ii. 29. iv. 7.) See Exvecrion and
PREDESTINATION, ArMINIANS, CaLvVinisTs, &c.

Exeer is likewife apphed to archbifhops, bifhops, and
other officers, who are chofen, but not yet confecrated, or
actually invefted with their office, or jurifdiétion.

The emperor is faid to be elect, before he is inaugurated
and crowned ; a lord mayor is cleét before his predeceflor’s
mayoralty is expired, or the {word is putin his hands.

ELECTARY, in Pharmacy. See Evectuary.

ELECTI, in Church Hiflory, a fe& of heretics, who
neither ufed flefh nor married. See Auprrors.

ELECTION, a choice made of any thing, or perfon,
whereby it is preferred to fome other.

There feems this difference, however, between choice and
election, that eleétion has vfually regard to a company or
community, which makes the choice ; whereas choice is fel-
dom ufed, but when a fingle perfon makes it.

We fay, the election of a bifhop, a member of parliament,
&c. See Bisuor, Burcess, Parriament, Scots PEERS,
SHERIFF, &c.

The moft folemn eleétion is that of a pope; which is per-
formed by the cardinals in four different ways. The firit by
the Holy Spirit, as they call it: when the firft cardinal who
{peaks, having given his vote for any perfon, proceeds to the
adoration, and proclaims him pope, as by a fudden imfpira-
tion of the Holy Ghoft. In which cafe he is deemed duly
eleGted, if all, or at lealt two-thirds of the affembly, be con-
fenting thercto.

The fecond, by compromife, when the whole college
pitches on three cardinals, to whom they give a power of
nominating the pope ; which power expires upon the burning
out of a candle lighted on that occafion.

The third by way of poll or ferutiny, which laft is the
moft ufual; the cardinals throwing fealed tickets, on which
their votes are written, into a chalice, or cup, placed on the
altar, Two-thirds of the votes are required to determine an
election by fcrutiny.

The fourth is by way of acccflion ; when the votes being
too much divided to elect any body, fome of the cardinals
defift from their firft fuffrage, and accede, that is, give their
voices to him, who has already the majority by fcrutiny.

The way of acceflion, however, is always added to the
fcrutiny ; it being the conftant praGtice for all the cardinals
to give their voices, after the laft fcrutiny, to him whom
they find to have the plurality already. So that all cle&ions
of popes are with the unanimous confent of all the cardinals.
See Carninats, Concrave, and Pore.

ELection of numbers, or quantities, in Arithmetic and
Algebra, denotes the different methods of taking any num-
bers or quantities given, either feparate!y, or in pairs, &c.
or it ig the fum of all the combinations that can be made

4P2 with

ELECTION,

with a different number of quantities, in each fet of combi-
nations, out of any number of quantities propofed. Thus,
the election of three quantities a, b, c, is 7; a, b, c, ad,
ec, be, abc; of four quantities 15 ; and if N reprefent the

number of quantities given, 2. — 1is equal tothe num-
ber of eleGtions. required; but as the tingle quantities are

€qual in number to-the given quantities, the number of pro-=

ee N—1i.

Exectron of a clerk of ftatutes.merchant, in Law, a writ
that lies for the ehoice of a clerk effisned to take bonds
called flatutes merchant. It is granted ont of chancery, on
fuggeftion that the clerk, formerly affigned, is gone to
iwell at fome other place, or is under an impediment to
end the duty of his office, or that he has not land fuffi-
cient to asfwer his tranfgreffions, if he fhouid act amils.
Firz-Herb. Nat. Brev. 164.

Evecrion of ecclefiaflical perfons. Ele&tions for the dig-
nities of the church ought to be tree, according to the tat.
9 Ed. IL. cas. 14. If any perfons, that have a voice in
eleGtions, take any reward for an ele&tion in any church,
college, fehool, &c. the eleétion fhall be void. And if any
perfons of fuch focieties refign their places to others for
reward, they incura forfeiture of double the {ym ; and both
the parties “are rendered incapable of the place. Stat.
31 Eliz. cap. 6.

Evection of a verderor of the fore/? (elefione virtdariorum
Sorefle), a writ that lies for the choice of a verderor, where
any of the verderors of the foreft are dead. or removed from
their offices. his writ is dire&ed to the fheriff, and the
verderor is to be elected by the freeholders of the county, in
thefame manner as coroners. New Nat. Brev. 366.

Exection, in Aetaphyjics, is aifo the flate of a perfon
who is left to his own free will, to take or do either one
thing or another, which he pleafes. See Liserry.

Evection, in Theology, fignifies the choice which God,
of his good pleafure, makes of angels or men, forthe objects
of mercy and grace.

The eleGtion of the Jews was the choice God made of
that people to be more immediately attached to his worfhip
and fervice, and for the Meffizh to be born of them.

This grand and gracious defign of Providence commenced
swith the {eletion of one family of the earth, to bea repofitory
of true knowledge, and the pattern of obedience and reward
among the nations. To this family God particularly re-
vealed himfelf, vifited them with feveral public and fignal
difpenfations of providence, and at laft formed them into a
nation, under his fpecial prote€tion, governed them by laws
delivered from himfelf, and placed them im the open view
of the world; firft in Egypt, and afterwards in the land of
Canaan. The head or root of this family was Abraham,
who, though he had been an idolater, was feleGted for this
important and beneficial purpofe. Accordingly God efta-
blifhed a covenant with Abraham, and his feed, or pofterity
after him, and appointed circumcifion as a token of the cer-
tainty and perpetuity. of this covenant. For about 215
years, from the time when God ordered Abraham to leave
his native country, he and his fon Ifuac, and grandfon Ja-
cob, fojourned in the land of Canaan, under the fpecial
protection of heaven, till infinite wifdom thought fit to fend
the family into Egypt, which was then, as it were, the head-
quarters of idolatry, that they might there increafe and
become a great nation. At length God delivered them
from the fervitude of Egypt by dreadful difplays of ‘his
almighty power, by which he demonftrated himfelf to be
the one true God, ina fignal and complete triumph over

per eleCtions will be 2 See ComBINATION.

idols, even in their metropolis, ard in a country celebrated
ameng all furrounding nations. Thus freed from the moit
humiliating and oppreffive bondage, he formed them into a
kingdom, of which he himfelf was the fovereign ; gave them
a revelation of his nature and will, anflituted fusdry or-
dinances of worfhip, taught them the way of truth and o! life,
and fet before them various motives to duty ; promifing fin-
gular bleffings to their obedience and fidclity, and threat.
ening apoitacy and difobedience, or revolt from his govern-
ment, with very awful judgments. Having fettled their
conftitution, he led them thratgh the wildernefs, where
he difciplined them for 40 years, canfed them to triumph
over every kind of oppofition, and at lait brought them to.
the promifed land. It is here to be obferved, that God did
not choofe the Ifraelites from any partial regard to that
nation, nor becavfe they were better than other people,
(Deut. ix. 4, 5.) and would always obferve his laws. Indeed,
he knew the contrary (Deut. xxxi. 29. xxxil. 5, 6. 15.)
lt was, indeed, with great propriety, that, among other
advantages, he gave them alfo that ef being defcended from
progenitors iluitrious for piety and virtue; and that he
grounded the extraordinary favours they erjoyed upon
Abraham’s feith and obedience (Gen. xxii. 16. 17, 18.)
But it was not on account of the moral chara€ter of the
Jewith nation that God made choice of thefe people; any
other naticn would have ferved as well in this refpeét ; but
as he thought fit to fele&. one nation of the world, ta
an{wer the purpofes of his all-wife and benevolent providence
in the moral adminiltration of the world, he feleéted the
Ifraelites, from refpe& to the virtue and piety of their an-
ceftors. (Exod. ii. 15. vi. 3,4,5. Deut. iv. 37-) It fhould
alfo be obferved, that God fele&ted the Ifraclitifh nation,
and manifefted himfclf to them by various difplays of his
power and goodnefs, not principally for their own fakes,
to make them a happy and flourifhing people; but to be
fubfervient to his own great and kind defigns with regard
to all mankind. The feleétion of this nation, and the di-
vine difpenfations’ refpeéting it, would ferve as a public
voucher of the keing and providence of God, and of the
truth of the revelation delivered to them in all ages, and in
all parts of the world. Accordingly the divine fcheme, in
relation to the Jewifh polity, had reference to other people,
and even to us at this day, as wellas to the Jews them-
felves. In proof of which we may add, that the fitvation
of this nation, lying upon the borders of Afia, Europe, and
Africa, was very convenient for fuch a general purpofe.
This {cheme was alfo wifely calculated to anfwer great ends
under all events. If this nation continued obedient, their
vilible profperity, under the guardianfhip of an extraordi-
nary providence, would afford very extenfive and ufeful in-
ftruétion to the nations of the earth. If thefe people were
difobedient, their calamities and difperfions would an{wer a
fimilar purpofe, by fpreading the knowledge of the true
God, and of revelation, in the countries where before they
were not known. So wifely was this fcheme laid at firit,
with regard to the laws of the nation, both civil and reli-
gious, and fo carefully has it all along been conduéted by
the divine Providence, that at this day, more than 3600
years from the time when it firft took place, it is of great
importance and of public ufe, for confirming the truth of
revelation: not only becaufe the Chriftian profeffion, diffufed
overa great part of the world, has grown out of this {cheme,
but as the Jews themlelves, in virtue of it, after a difperfion
of about 1800 years, over the whole face of the earth, every
where in a ftate of ignominy and contempt, have, notwith-
ftanding, fubfifted in great numbers, diftin& and feparate
from ali other nations. This {mall nation, generally cee
4 an

ELECTION.

and hated, haraffed and perfecnted, has fubfifted in a body,
diltinét and feparate from all other people, evenina {tate of
difperfion and of general contempt and oppreffion, for nearly
1800 years, agreeably to the predi@ion. (If. xlvi. 28.)
Heace we derive a demonftration, that the wifdom, which
fo formed them into a peculiar body, and the providence,
which has fo preferved them, that they have, almoft ever
fince the deluge, fubfifted in a ftate divided from the relt of
mankind, and are fill likely fo to remain for a lorger period,
is nothumana, but divine. Forno human wifdom or power,
could form, or, however, could execute, fuch a vat, exten-
five defign.

As God, in his infinite wifdom and goodnefs, was pleafed
to prefer the Ifraclites before any other people, and to
fingle them out for the purpofes of revelation, and for pre-
ferving the knowledge, worfhip, and obedience of the true
God, he is faid to choo/e them, and they are reprefented
as his chofen, or ele people. (Dent. iv. 37. vii. 0. x. 15.
1’ Kings, vi. 8. 1 Chron. xvi. 13. Pf. xxxii. 12. ev. 6. 43.
evi. 5. cxxxv 4. If. xh. 8; 9. xlii. 20. xliv. r,2. xlv. 4.
Tezek. xx. 5. If. xiv..r. Zech. i. 17. ii.12!) The’ firtt
ftep that was taken by the almighty fovereign, 1n execution
of his purpofe of eleétion, was to refeue them from their
{tate of bondage and idolatry in Egypt, with a view to
which they are faid to be delivered, faved, bought, or pur-
chafed, and redeemed. Moreover, as they were not on'y ref-
cued from Egypt, but invited by the Almighty to the ho-
nour and happinefs of his people, and by many exprefs de-
clarations and a&ts of mercy engaged to adhere to him es
their God, he is faid to call them, and they were his called ;
and many other expreflions occur, which deferibe not only
their deliverance from an oppreffed condition, but their
eftablifhment in a more happy, and their inveftiture with
many privileges and honours. All the bleflings, to which
we have already referred, and others of a timilar kind which
might have been enumerated, were conferred on the Ifrael-
ites, as the elect people of God by his mere grace or free-
favour; they were antecedent to their obedience, and had no
refpe& to it; neverthelefs, they were intended to be mo-
tives to obedience. If they produced this effeGt, their elec-
tion and-re:lemption were confirmed; and they were en-
titled to all the bleffings promifed in the covenant fubfitting
between God and them; which bleflings, contrafted againtt
the former, or confidered in reference to them, may be

-called confequent: becaufe they were given only in confe-
quence of their obedience.

All the honours and privileges pertaining to the Jews

as a people eleéted by God, and affigned to the whole.

body of them, do not import an abfolute, final ftate of
happinefs and favour of any kind; but they are to be con-
fidered as difplays and inftances of God's love and good-
nefs to them, which were to operate as means of holinefs
and motives to obedience. We may further obferve, that
this feleGtion of the Jewifh nation, and their introduction
into a peculiar relation to God, was a {cheme for promoting
true religion and virtue in all its principles and branches,
upon motives adapted to the rational nature of mankind,
which principles and branches of true religion are particu-
larly {pecified in their law. Nor was this conftitution in fa-
vour of the Jews in any refpect prejudicial to the ref of
mankind; fo far otherwife, it was ere€ted and maintained
for the good of the whole world, and the Jews themfelves
were initruéted and commanded to exercife kindnefs and
hofpitality towards thofe who might be confidered, with re-
gard to them, as aliens and ftrangers. However, though
the Jews were directed and required to exercife benevolence
towards perfons of other nations, yet about the time when

the gofpel was promulged, they were unduly elevated on
account of their diftinguithing privileges, looked upon them-
filves as the peculiar favourites of heaven, and regarded the
rett of mankind with a fovereign contempt. Their conftitu-
tion, they were ready to imagine, was permanent and im-
mutable; and thofe who did not fubmit to their law, were in
their eftimation unworthy of a place in the church, and unfit
for the kingdom of heaven. But the Jewith difpenfatioz,
as they ought to have confidered, which lafted, if we reckon
from the call of Abraham, 430 ycars before the law was given
on mount Sinai, to the coming of Chrift, about 1921 years,
was introduétory to another more perteét and more ptrmanent,
to be introduced and eftablithed by the promifedMeffiah. Ac-
cordingly, Abraham, the head, or root, of the Jewifh nation,
is reprefented as the * father of usall,”” (Rom. iv. 16, 17.)
Gentiles as wellas Jews; and the believing Gentiles are taid
to partake of all the {piritual privilezes which the Jews en-
joyed, and from which the unbelieving Jews fell; and to be
taken into that kingdom and church of God out of whicis
they were caft. Hence, the ftate, privileges, and honours,
é&c. of profeffed Chriftians, particularly of the. believing
Gentiles, are cxpreffed by the fame phrafes with thole of
the ancient Jewifhchurch. Thus, as God chofe or elecfed his
ancient people the Jews, and they were his cho/en and cles
fo now the whole body of Chriftians, Gentiles as well es
Jews, are admitted to the fame honour ; 2s they are felected
trom the reft of the world, and taken into the kingdom of
God, for the knowedge, worfhip, and obedience of God, in
hopes of eternal life. (Rom. viii. 33. Eph.i. 4. Col. iii. 124
2 Theil 23) oDite tr. .2\Pimea. te) om Pet. 1.0, 26
i. 9. v. 13.) The fame and fimilar expreffions are applied
to Chriftians under the difpenfation of the gofpel, which
were applied to the Jews under their difpenfation, and which
defcribed the outward privileges and benefits with which they
were invefted; and in the fame manner particular nations are
ele&ted to the participation of the outward bleflings of
Chriftianity. The advocates of this opinion maintain, that
the ele@'on, which the apoftle Paul {Yates and defends in ©
the oth chapter of the Epiitle to the Romans, and in fome
other places, is not an eleétion by the abfolute decree and
purpofe of God, to eternal life, but only election to the pre-
fent privileges and external advantages of the kingdom of
God in this world ; and that reprobation, or rejection, is not
that by an abfolute decree to eternal mifery, but thar it fig=
nifies the not beinz favoured with the forementioned privi-
leges and advantages. ‘J’o the fame purpofe we fhall here
fubjoin the following paflage from Mr. Pyle’s preface to
the Epiftle to the Romans, cited by Dr. Tomline, the pre-
fent bifhop of Lincoln, in his ** Elements of Chriftian
Theology,” (vol. ii. p. 304.)

‘©The errors and vain difputes,” fays Mr. Pyle, ‘ that
have arifen in the latter ages of Chriftianiry concerning
faith and works, jultification and fanctification, eleGion
and reprobation, that have diftra&ted the minds of many
Chriftians, have proceeded from applying particulay phrafes
or paflages in the Epiftles to particular perfons, which ori-
ginally referred to the ftate and condition not of particular
perfons, but of whole churches in their collective capacity.
Thus the body of heathens, while in their heathen ftate, are
called aliens, flrangers, enemies to God, &c. but fuch of them
as were converted (the churches to whom the apottles
wrote) are ftyled no longer ftrangers, but of the houfe-
hold of God, a cholen or eleted generation, a royal prielt~
hood, juftified, fan@tified, faints, &c. So the major part of
the Jewifh nation, who obftinately rejected the gofpel of
Chnitt, inltead of being any longer the holy nation, the
people of God, are called the veflels of wrath, fitted (by

their

Lead ORR

their own obitinacy) for deflruction, reprobate; while the
believing Jews becames veffels of mercy, fore-ordaiued, pre-
dettinated, to be called into the kingdom ‘or covenant of
the golpel, chofen to eternal life ; which expreffions mzan
no more than their having been offered the means avd op-
portunities of attaining tothe future happinefs of heaven, by
their knowledge and praétice of Chrilt’s religion. Their
adtual enjoyment of future happinefs depended entirely on
their virtuous obedience to the gofpel ; on their diligence to
make their calling and eleétion fure, that is, effe€tual to their
falvation. No private perfons are ever mentioned in thefe
writings as elected to eternal life by any abfolute decree of
God. Paul was achofen veffel; but he was chofen asa
proper minifter of Chrilt’s gofpel, to bear his name to the
Gentiles ; his being chofen to the crown of life hereafter,
was the fruit of his earneft endeavours to keep the faith,
(his fidelity) to finifh his courfe, and of his labouring abun-
dantly. T’o take thefe expreffions otherwife, is to pervert
the defign of thefe writings. It is this miftake that has di-
verted the minds of many good men from attending to the
more excellent parts of thefe writings, the moral and weighty
exhortations given to Chriltians; and by puzzling them
about former controverfies that do very little, if at all,
concern us now, have turned off their thoughts from the
great matters of the Chriftian law, which are moft eafy to
be underftcod, and requifite to be put i_ praétice.””
For a farther illuftration of thefe obfervations, in their
peculiar reference to the flate of Chriltians, the reader may
confult Dr. Taylor’s Key to the Epiftle to the Romans,
pafim. Locke on the Epiltles. »See the next article.

Evection alfo, in the lauguage of fome divines, fignifies
a predeftination to grace and glory, and fometimes to glory
only. And it has been enjoined as an article of faith, that
predeftiation to grace is gratuitous, merely and fimply fo;
gratia, quia gratis data. But the divines are much divided
as to the point, whether election to glory be gratuitous,
or whether it fuppofes obedience and good works, i. ¢.
whether it be before, or after, the previfion of our obedi-
ence. Foran account of the different opinions that have
been maintained on this fubje€t, fee Grace, Prepesti-
NATION, and ReproBaTION.

Exection is aifo ufed for a part of Pharmacy, being
that which teaches how to chufe the medicinal fimples,
drugs, &c. and to diftinguifh the good from the bad.

Some diltinguifh a general ele€tion, which gives the rules
and marks for all medicines in general ; and a particular one
for each medicine in particular. Pomet, in his Hiftory of
Drugs, gives very good rules for this election.

ELECTIVE, fomething that is done, or paffes, by
eleGion. See Erector.

Evecrive Attradion, in Chemifiry. See AFFinity.

ELECTOR, formed of the Latin edizere, to choofe, any
perfon who has aright to choofe or ele& another to an
office of honour or truft. But the term eleGor ufed to be
applied more particularly, and by way of eminence, to thofe
few princes of the German empire, in whom was veited the
right of eleGing or choofing the head of the empire,
They were all fovereign princes, and the principal members
of the Germanic body. The German name is Churfiir/?,
Kurfirft, or Wahlfiirp.

The origin of the eleGtoral dignity, and of the right in-
herent in the fame, is not exatly afcertained. Some place
it in the year 996, and attribute the inftitution to an edi&
of Otho III. confirmed by pope Gregory V. But this opi-
nion is contradiéted by hiitory. It appears, that from the
earlieft period in the hiftory of Germany, the perfon who
vas to reign over all was elected by the fuffrage of all,

ELE 7
Thus, Conrad L was eleQed either by all the princes and

chief men, or by the whole nation. In 1204, pofterior to
the fuppoled regulations of Orho III., Conrad II. was
elc&ted by all the chief men, and his ele@tion was approved
of and confirmed by the pecple; and at the election of Lo-
thavius IT., in 1225, 60,000 perfons of all ranks were pre-
fent, and he was named by the chief men, whofe nomination
was approved by the people.

Others refer the origin of the eletcral dignity and ex-
clufive funGion to Frederick IL. who died in 1250; and the
firt author who mentions the feven eleCtors is Martinus
Polonus, who flourifhed in this reign. It appears, after
all, that this reftritive privilege was obtained by degrees,
The princes of greater authority were firlt allowed to name
the perfon whom they wifhed to be chofen emperor, and the
nation retained the right of approving or difapproving the
nomination. When they had thus fecured the right of
voting firit, it became needlefs for the inferior ecclediaftics
or barons to attend merely to confirm their choice, more
efpecially as their attendance would be troublefome and ex-
penfive. And as the electors were fovereign princes, pof-
feff=d of moltxtenfive territories, they were ftrongly fup-
ported by their numerous attendants and allies, and con-
fidered as the reprefentatives of all the higher clafles of
German nobility. Sce Robertfon’s Charles V., vol. i.
chap. 5.

The infiitution of eleStors has alfo been afcribed to
Rudolph of Habfburgh, the founder of the houfe of
Auftria, in 1280. Their number, however, was unfettled
till the fourteenth century; it was Charles 1V. who, by
his golden bull of the year 1356, limited the fame to feven,
three ecclefiaftical, vz. the archbifhops of Mayence or
Mentz, Treves, and Cologne; and four fecular, viz. the
king of Bohemia, the count Palatine, the duke of Saxony,
and the margrave of Brandenburg. In 1648, the duke of
Bavaria was put in the place of the count Palatine, who
was outlawed by the emperor for having accepted the crown
of Bohemia: but as he was at length reftored to his rank, and
a new eleCtoral dignity was created for the duke of Bavaria,
which increafed the number of electors to eight. In1692 a
ninth ele€torate was added by the emperor Leopold, in
favour of the duke of Hanover, of the houfe of Brunfwick
Luneburg. From that period to the year 1777, the ele&o-
ral college confifted of the three ecclefiattrcal eleGtors,
Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, and the fix fecular, Bohemia,
the palatinate of the Rhine, Saxony, Brandenburg, Ba-
varia, and Hanover.

The dominions of the laft eleGor palatine of the Rhine,
having devolved, in December 1777, to the eleGtor of Ba-
varia, the electoral college was again reduced to eight meme
bers, until the peace of Luneville; when the three eccleti-
attical eleGtorates were fecularized, the archbifhop of Ratif-
bon introduced as a new eleGtor arch-chancellor, and the
duke of Wirtemberg, the landgrave of Heffe Caffel, the
margrave of Baden, and the grand duke of Tofcany, as
duke of Saltzburg, raifed to the eletoral dignity. This
increafed the number of eleftors to ten, vis. the elector arch-
chancellor, Bohemia, Bavaria, Saxony, Brandenburg, Han-
over, Wirtemberg, Hefle Caffel, Baden, and Saltzburg. -

Bat this arrangement was not of long duration. In the
year 1806 the German empire was diffolved. Bavaria and
Wirtemberg, on joining the Confederation of the Rhine,
under the proteétion of the French empire, aflumed the
royal dignity; Hanover was in poffeffion of the French;

Baden and Saltzburg took the titles of grand dukes; the -

eletor arch-chancellor that of the prince primate of the
Confederacy of the Rhine ; and the year following Saxony
likewife

1 OS

likewife affumed the royal dignity; Heffe Caffel was an-
nexed to the new kingdom of Weftphalia; Bohemia as part
of the dominions of Aultria, and Brandenburg as part of thofe
of Pruffia, reverted to thefe two houfes as independent mo-
narchical flates. Thus the eleétoral college was not obly
diffolved with the diffolution of the German empire: but
the title of eleCtor, a title which for fo long a feries of years
conferred a rank eq:tal to that of the old kings of Europe,
became altogether extinct.

Belides the power of ele&ting an emperor, the eleGtors had
aright to capitulate with the new head of the empire, to
diGtate the conditions on which he was to reign, and to de-
pofe him if he broke thofe conditions. They actually de-
pofed Adolphus of Naffau in 1298, and Wenceflans in rgor.
They were foveretgn and independent princes in their re-
{pective dominions, had the * privilegium de non appellando
illimitatum,””? that cf making war, coining, and exercifing
every a& of fovereingty. They formed a feparate college
in the diet of the empire, and had among themfelves a par-
ticular covenant, or league, called the “* Kur verein.’”’? They
bad precedence of all the other princes of the empire, even
of cardinals, and ranked with kings. There was, however,
a difference between the fecular and ecclefiaftical electors ;
none of the latter cou'd be chofen emperor, and they were
to be thirty years of age before they could attain the elefto-
ral dignity, whiift the majority of the fecular eleQors was
fixed at eighteen years of age, and any of them might be
placed at the head of the empire; indeed they might even
vote in their own favour.

The feveral functions of the ele&tors were exercifed by
deputies. The ele€tor of Mentz was arch-chanccllor in
‘Germany ; Treves, in Gaul and the kingdom of Arles ;
Cologne, in Italy; Bohemia was arch-cupbearer; Bavaria,
arch-fewer, or officer who ferves out the feats; Saxony,
arch-marfhal; Brandenburg, arch-chamberlain; Hanover,
arch-treafurer. During the vacancy of the imperial throne,
the elector of Saxony ufed to be vicar of the empire in the
north, and the elector of Bavaria ruled as vicar over the
fouthern circles.

The latt electors of the German empire were; 1. Charles
Theodore, baron Dahlberg, eleGtor of Ratifbon and arch-
chancellor, now prince primate. 2. Frederick William III.
king of Pruffia, eleGtor of Brandenburg. 3. George III.
king of Great Britain, eleGtor of Hanover. 4. Ferdinand
Jofeph, ele&tor of Saltzburg, now duke of Saltzburg.
5. Frederick II. elector, now king of Wirtemberg.
6. Charles Frederick, eleGtor, now grand duke of Baden.
7. William IX. eleGtor of Heffe Caffel, driven from his
dominions by the French. 8. Maximiiian Jofeph, ele&or,
at prefent king of Bavaria. go. Frederick Auguftus IV.
eleGtor, at prefent king of Saxony; and, 10. Francis II.
eleGtor of Bohemia, at prefent emperor of Auttria.

Evecror of Bavaria, the late, {on of the emperor Charles
VII., was not only a very fine performer on the viol da
gamba, but agood compofer. And it is but jultice to the
memory of that prince to fay, that upon an examination of
the {core of an-entire mafs for four voices, with inftrumental
accompaniments, which is now before us, we find the defign
and compofition much fuperior to the generality of dilettanti

roduGtions.

ELECTORAL Crown, or Coronet. See Crown.

ELECTORATE, aterm ufed formerly to denote the
dignity of an elector of the German empire, die Churfiir/l-
liche Wiirde, or the territories belonging to an eleétor of
Germany, cin Churfiirflenthum. See Erector.

ELECTRA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of the

ELE

Peloponnefus, in Meffenia, upon the route from Andania to
Cypariffie, according to Paufanias. It was watered by two
rivers, one of the fame mame, and another called Coeus.

ELECTRAS,a river placed by Ptolemy in the fouthern

art of the ifle of Crete,

ELECTRESS Dowacer of Saxony, the late, daughter
of the emperor Charles VII. and fifter of the late elector
of Bavaria, was not only an illuftrious dilettanti in mufic,
but a princefs of great knowledge and talents in the art.
After the deceafe of her confort, when her time was no
longer occupied by cares of ftate, applyiug herfelf wholly to
the ftudy of the fine arts, and travelling into Italy, fhe not
only wrote two ferious dramas in the Italian language,
Taleftri,”? and * I] Trionfo della Fedelta,”? but fet them
to mufic, and performed the principal part: both were printed
in fcore at Leipfig; and much admired all over Germany,
where they have frequently been performed. This princefs
had fearried to fing at an early period of her life of Porpora,
and been taught the principles of compofition by Haffe, and
both fung and wrote in fuch a manner as did honour to thofe
great matters, as well as her own genius and application,

This princefs was celebrated all over Europe for her talents,
and the progrefs fhe had made in the arts, of which fhe was
a conftant proteétrefs. Her eleGoral highnefs was a poetels,
a paintrefs, and fo able a mulician, that fhe played, fung, and
compofed, ina manner at which dilettanti feldom arrive.

ELECTRIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the ancient
names of the ifle of Samos.

ELECTRIC, or Execrricar, adj. (from the Latin
elefrum, amber, or from ndsxtgov, the Greek name of the
fame natural fubftence,) belonging to that branch of natu-
ral philofophy which has been denominated eleéfricity.
Thus we hear of the eleétric fluid, eleétric attraGtion and re-
pulfion, eleétrical machine, eleétrical apparatus, &c.

Evecrric, ful. denotes a body capable of being ex-
cited (either by means of fri€tion or otherwile) fo as to ex-
hibit the phenomena of electricity ; and which body is at
the fame time impervious to that power. Some of the
phenomena of electricity are faid to have been firlt obferved
in amber, hence the word eleétric was derived from the Latin
or Greek name of that fubftance.

All the bodies which come under our notice are more or
lefs capable of being excited fo as to exhibit electrical phe-
nomena ; and are more or lefs pervious to that power. And
it is to be remarked, that thofe bodies, which are lefs per-
vious, are more capable of being excited: whilft, on the
other hand, thofe which are more pervious, are lefs capa-
ble of being excited. ‘Thofe bodies, in which the capability
of being excited is more confpicuous than their permeability,
are called e/efrics, or non-condudors, and thofe in which the
capability of being pervaded is more confpicuous than that
of being excited, are called condudors, or non-eledrics.

Both thefe clafles of bodies contain a vaft gradation from
the moft perfect co the molt imperfect of each kind; the
mott perfect conduors, or non-electrics, being thofe through
which the paflage of the electric power meets with the lealt
refiftance ; and the molt perfe& ele&trics, or non-conductors,
being thofe which oppofe the greateft refiftance to the paf-
fage of that power. Thefe mav alfo be more powerfully ex-
cited. Butit mult be obferved, rit, that, ftri@ly fpeaking,
there is no fubftance known, which may be cootidered as a
perfect eleG@tric, or a perfect condudtor ; for the eleGric
power finds fome refiftance in going through the beft con-
duétors, and it will, in fome meafure, pafs through, or, at
leaft, over the furface of, the beft elegtrics ; and, 2dly, that
the limits of the above-mentioned two claffes of bodies es

5 2

ELECTRIC.

fo near to each other, that feveral bodies may, by the leaft
alteration of temperature, or of fome other circumftance, be
rendered either more of the nature of an eleGtric, or more
ofthe nature of a conductor. See Conpucrors of eleéricity.
We fhall now arrange the eleétrics, or (as they are fome-
times called) the e/edrics per /e, in the following lift, and in
the order of their perfection, commencing with the beft ;
as far as fuch arrangement is practicable ; we fhall then add
feveral neceflary remarks refpecting fome of thefe bodies.
Eleétrics.

Glafs, and all vitrifications, even thofe of metallic fub-
ftances.

All precious ftones, the moft tranfparent of which are
generally the beft ; fuch as diamonds, rubies, emeralds, to-
pazes, fapphires, garnets, &c.

Amber,

Sulphur,

Shell-lac, nd all refins, or refinous compounds,

Alt bituminous fubftances,

Silk,

Wax,

Cotton,

All dry animal fubftances, as feathers, wool, hair, &c.

Paper, @

White fugar, and fugar-candy,

Air, and gaffes,

The vapour of quicktfilver, according to Dr. Prieftley,

A perfe& Torricellian vacuum,

Ice of diftilled water at the temperature of 13° below o
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.

Oils,

Metallic oxyds,

The afhes of animal and vegetable fubftances,

All dry vegetable fubftances,

Allhard ftones, the hardett of which are the beft.

It has been faid above, that, in general, the cleétrics are
fuch as will not condu& the electric power, and are at the
iame time capable of being excited. This laft property,
however, mutt not be confidered as belonging to them all,
or rather, that they may all be fubjeGted to the trial, for
feveral of them, though impervious to the ele&tric power, are
not capable of being excited on account of their peculiar
confirmation, and fuch are air, oils, the Torricellian vacuum,
&e.

Mott of the above-mentioned fubftances, and probably all
thofe which are capable of being fubje( to experiments,
when rerdered very hot, lofe their electric property, and be-
come quite, though not equally, good condu@tors.’ The de-
gree of heat at which this change of property takes place
is various in various bodies. Thus, red-hot glafs, melted
yefin, baked wood made very hot, ice in a temperature above
o of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and water, &c. are conduc-
tors of the elc€tric power. It 1s rather fuprifing that the
focus of a burning glafs is not aconduGtor. It has been
obferved, that glafs, efpecially the hardeft and beft vitrified,
often isa very impericét electric, or even a pretty good
conduGtor. The ab! é Nollet and others have endeavour-
ed to imveftigate the caufe of this occurrence in glafs, by
means of experiments; but they have not been able to afcer-
tain it. Glafs veffels, mace for ele€trical purpofes, are
olten rendered very good eleétrics by ufe-and time, though
they were bad eleétrics when new. And, on the other
hand, fome glafs veffeis, which had been long ufed for exci-
tation, have fometimes loft néarly all their power,

With refpect to the non conduéting property of a va-

cuum, the following obfervations deferve the attention of the
{cientific reader. It is well known that the vacuum pro-
duced by means of an air-pump, even of the molt perfeé&
conftruction, is a conduétor of the electric power: or that
the more the air is rarefied within a given veffel, the more
eafily will the ele€tric power pafs through that veffel. But
Mr. Walth, affiited by Mr. De Luc, boiled the quickfilver in a
double barometer, v3. in an arched glafs tube, the legs of
which formed two barometers, connected at top by the
curved part, in which the vacuum or abfence of air was as
perfect as could be effected ; and they found that the elce-
tric power would not pals throuzh this vacuum (Prieftley’s
Obfervations on Air, &c. vol.i.) Mr. Morgan, fome time
after, made feveral experiments of the like fort, which con-
firmed the above-mentioned difcovery ; ( Phil. Tranf. vol. 73.)
fo that the fact feems to be fully afcertained, though
one cannot comprehend why it fhould be fo; for if the elcec-
tric power can pals eafier and eafier through a given {pace,
in proportion asthe air in it is more and more rarefied, why
does it not pafs in the eafieft manner poffible when the air
has been entirely removed? And this fa& appears ftill
more furprifing, if it be admitted that the eletric phenomena
are produced by a fluid highly elattic.

The various tranfitions of water from the ftate of a con-
duétor to that of a non-conduGtor, or an ele€tric, are alfo
deferving of notice. Ice, as we have already mentioned, is
an ele&tric below a certain temperature, and fo much fo, that
Mr. Achard, who difcovered this property of it in the year
1776, whirled a {pheroid of ice in a proper machine with a
rubber, &c. like the glafs cylinders of a common eleGrical
machine, and by this means he electrified the prime conduc-
tor, fo as to attract, repel, give fparks, kc. Above that
degree of temperature, the ice begins to condué, and this
conduéting property increafes as the temperature is raifed,
fo that the water, when preity hot or near boiling, 1s a moft
excellent conductor ; but as foon as it is converted into va-
pour, the conduéting property diminifhes, and when the va-
pour is mixed with the air, fo as to become invifible, its con=
duGting power ceafes altogether ; as is indicated by the
hich eleétric ftate of the atmofphere in dry weather, when
it is known that a great deal of aqueous vapour is mixed
with the air.

After the preceding difcrimination of fubftances, with
refpet to their eleGtric, or their non-conducting property,
the reader may naturally afk, how is it to be afcer-
tained whether a body is or is not an electric? The

anfwer is, that there are various methods of determining ~

thefe properties in bodies, and which can not all be applicd
indifcriminately in all cafes.
an eleGtrical machine, (furnifhed with a prime conductor,
to which an electrometer is affixed,) is in a¢tion, in which
cafe, the cletrometer is diverging, if you touch the prime
ccenduGor with any given fubttance, you will eafily perceive
whether that fubftance is an eleétric, or a conduGtor; for,
in the firft cafe, the ele€trometer will continue in a ftate of
divergency ; whereas inthe latter it will collapfe. For this
purpofe, the fuditance in queftion muft have a certain ex-
tenfion ; and whilft one extremity is prefented to the prime
conduétor, the other extremity of it muft communicate
with the ground, either through the body ofthe perfon that
holds it, or otherwife; for, if it be too fhort, though an
electric, the eleCtricity from the prime conductor will pafs
over tts furface to the hard that holds it, and the eleétro
meter will of courfe collapfe. ‘The experiment may be per-
formed nearly as well without an eleGtrometer; viz. by
drawing {parks from the prime conductor with-one bend,

or

For commen purpofes, when-

f.

a

ELE

or with 7 knobbed wire, and prefenting the fubftance in
queftion with the other hand; forif that fubftance ts a con-
ductor, the fparks will ceafe; and if an eleftric, the {parks
will continue. Thus, the eleétric nature of any fubftance
may be determined in a profs manner; but when an accurate
determination is required, then recourfe muit be had to
other means, which mutt be diverfified according to the
fubftance in queftion. Thus, if it be an elatlic fluid, a
glafs veffel may be filled with it, and an cle@rified electro-
meter may be admitted to it. Ifit be a liquid, a glafs tube
may be filled with it; putting a cork at each end, and paf-
fing a pin through each cork, fo as to touch the liquid ;
with this tube, then, you muft repeatedly touch the eleétri-
fied prime condutor of an elegtrical machine, and mark
the eff-Gs produced upon the eleGtrometer ; you mutt alfo
try how it will convey the fhock of a charged jar, viz.
whether filently, or with a report, &c. The belt way of
determining the ele@ric property of folids is, by rubbing them
again{ft the hand, or a piece of filk, or woollen cloth, and the
like. But in condu€ing thefe experiments, the operator
may be eafily deceived by the moilture which feveral fub-
flances abforb with great readinefs ; and in cgnfcquence of
which, thefe bodies will appear as pretty good condudors.
Thus, white paper, and efpecially the thick brown paper,
in its common {tate, will be found to be a condu@tor, and,
of courfe, incapable of being excited ; but when well dried
before a fire, and whilft it remains in a hot ftate, it is quite
a non-conduétor, and it may be powerfully excited by fric-
tion, Even baked wood, if not well varnifhed, (which
ought to be done immediately after its being taken out of

' the oven,) will eafily abforb moifture, and in confequence
of which it wiil lofe its non-conduting property. The va-
rious methods of exciting eleétrics are defcribed under the
article Excitation.

A natural tranfition from the effe& to the caufe will in-
duce the human mind to inquire why are certain bodies
eleétrics, whilft others are conductors of the ele&tric power ?
But though innumerable experiments have been initituted
exprefsly for that purpofe, and various conje€tures have
been offered, yet, it muft be acknowledged, that no fatif-
fa&tory information has been obtained ; for no peculiar pro-
perty has been difcovered to belong exclufively to either of
the above-mentioned claffes of bodies. When the catalogue
‘of ele&trics and conduétors was very fhort and imperfe, it
was fuppofed that the two conduéting principles were metals
and water; fo that whatever contained a certain quantity
of either of thefe fubftances, or of both, was a conduGtor;
otherwife it was an eleétric. But in a more advanced {tate
of the fubjeét, the fallacy of the above-mentioned fuppofition
‘was readily manifefted ; nor, in truth, has any thing elfe
been fubftituted which might furnifh a fatisfaGtory explana-
tion of the queltion.

The word c/e@ric is often ufed to denote that part of the
‘ele@rical machine which furnifhes the eleétric power, when
rubbed, &c. viz. an cleric body of a paseulal configura-
fion, which, being moved againft a rubber by the me-
charifm which is annexed to it, is thereby excited, and com-
municates the ele&tric power to the prime conduétor. (See
Exvecraicar, Machine.) For this purpofe, various fub-
ftances and various forms have been tried and often ufed ;
fuch as glafs, fulphur, rofin, fealing!wax, varnifhed patte-
board, varrifhed filk, and baked wood: and thefe have
‘been formed into globes, {pheroids; cylinders, plates, &c.
When the two elettricities were firlt difcovered, and it was
found that glafs, or vitrifications in general, produced one
kind of ele€tricity, which was thereby called the vitreous
elefricity ; whilft {ulphur and refinous bodies produced the

Vox. XII.

ELE
other kind, called the refinous elericity ¢ then ele&trical ma-
chines were mounted with eleétrics of one of thefe materials,
or of the other, according as one or the other of thofe kinds
of eleétricities was required. But when it was found that
a machine, mounted witha fingle ele€tric of any kind, would
produce both eleétricities at the fame time ; for if the prime
condu@or acquires the vitreous ele€tricity, the infulated
rubber would acquire the refinous, and wice ver/d ; then the
neceflity of ufing two different ele€trics was removed, and
the only thing which was attended to was the choice
of an electric that might be very durable, and at the fame
time capable of a powerful excitation. After an innume-
rable variety of experiments made with the above-mentioned,
and various other fubftances, glafs has been found to be the
material fitteft for the purpofe, and altogether preferable to
all others. Its fhape has alifo been often varied; but the
forms which are at prefent principally ufed, as having been
found more advantapeous, are cylinders, globes, and flat cir-
cular plates, efpecially the firtt and the lait; for now one hard.
ly ever finds a machine mounted witha globe. Amongft the
various kinds of glafs which have been tried for this purpofe,
the preference has been given to the belt flint giats;
and, accordingly, of this material the cylinders, or the plates,
for ele@rical machines, are at prefent mofily made. The
abbé Nollet obferves, that the bardelt, moft compact, and
belt vitrified kind of French glafs, is the moft difficult to be
excited. But Dr. Priefiley fays, ‘* 1 have fome reafon
to think that common bottle metal is fittefl for the
purpofe of excitation; at leaft, the beft globe Ihave yet
{een is one that I have of that metal. Its virtue is cer-
tainly exceeding great, and I attribute it in part to the
great hardnefs of the metal, and in part to its exquifite
olifh.”” .

Though a glafs veffcl exhantted of air does not fhew any
figns of ele@ricity on its external furface, yet ‘it has been
found, that the eleétric power of 2 glafs globe, or cylinder,
is ftrongeft, when the air within it is a,little rarefied.

It has long been queftioned, whether a coating of fome
ele&ric fubftance, as rofin, turpentine, &c. on the infide
furface of the glafs, had any effet towards increafing its
electric power ; and, after a great many trials, it feems, that
if it does not increafe the power of a good glafs globe, or
cylinder, it does at leaft improve a bad one. The molt ap-
proved compofition for this purpofe confifts of four parts of
Venice turpentine, ome part of rofin, and one part of bees”
wax. This compofition muft be boiled gently over a fire,
ftirring it continually for about an hour ; afterwards it is
left to cool, and referved for ule. Whena globe, or acylin-
der, is to be lined with it, fome fmall pieces of it are intro-
duced into the glafs; then, by holding the glafs near the
fire, the mixture is melted, aad is equally fpread over its
internal furface to about the thicknefs of a fix-pence. In
this operation, care muft be taken that the glafs be heated
gradually, and be continually turned, fo as to heat it pretty
equally in all its parts, otherwile it is apt to break.

At prefent, however, this refinous lining is hardly ever
applied ; for, with a pretty good cylinder, or globe, and the
zinc amalgam upon the rubber, the modern ele&rical ma-
chines furnifh as muck ele@ricity as can reafonably be ex-
pected.

Exvecrare Charge. See Cuancs and Levnen Purav.

ELECTRICAL-Atir-Thermometer, is an initrument
contrived by Mr. Kinnerfley of Philadelphia, for the pur-
pofe of obferving the effects of eleCrization upon air, and
with this inftrument Mr. K. made feveral experiments,
which he defcribes in aletter to Dr. Franklin, dated March
the rath, 1761. Fig. 26. of Plate lV, Eletricity, reprefents

4Q. this

EULECTRIGAL,

this inftrument ; the body of which confifts of a glafs tube
AB, about eleven or twelve inches long, and about two
inches in diameter. tis clofed air-tight at top and bottom
by two brafs caps, the lower one of which is faftened to
the wooden ftand D. Through ahole in the upper cap, a {mall
giafs tube H O, open at both ends, is introduced, and its
lower apertire is. immerfed in a {mall quantity of water at the
bottom of the large tube. Two wires FG, 1 E, proceed
throuzh the brafs caps witkin the tube A B, and their ex-
tremities G, I, are furmfhed with brafs balls, which may be
fituated nearer or farther from each other, by fliding FG
up or down through the hole inthe upper bralfs cap. The
external part of the wire FG is alfo furnithed with a ball F,
that of the wire | E terminates in a hock. The holes
through which the tube H O, and the wires F G, I E, pafs,
mult be fecnred, fo as to prevent the paflage of any air.
It will be eafily comprehended, that when the air within the
tube A Bis rarefied, it will prefs upon the water at the
bottom B of the tube, and will force it to rife in the cavity
of the {mall tube HO; then, according as the water rifes
mor- or lefs in the {mall tube, foit fhews the greater or lefs
rarefa@ion of the air within the tube A B.

If the water, when this inftrument isto be ufed, is all at
the bottom of the large tube, and none of it has rifen with-
in the fnall tube, it willbe proper to blow into the fmall
tube. by applying the mouth at H; after which, on remoy-
ing the mout», the water will be found to nfe alittle with-
in the {mall tube; and a mark may be fixed on the outfide
again(t the furface of the water that has thus rifen within
the {mall tube. The experiments which Mr. Kinnerfley made
with this inftrument are as follows:

He fitusted this thermometer on an eletric ftand, and
connected the wire F with the prime conduétor of an elec-
trical machine in aGtion. Thus he kept it well eleétrified
for a confiderable time, but it produced no remarkable
effet; from whence he inferred that the ele@tric virtue, when
in a ftate of reft, had no more heat than the air, and other
matter wherein it refides.

When the two wires within the tube A B were in conta&,
a large charge of elcGricity, from above thirty fquare feet
of coated glafs, produced no rarefaction in the air; which
fhewed, that the wires were not heated by the ele&tric power
paffing through them.

When the wires were about two inches afunder, the charge
of 2 three pint bottle, darting from one to the other, rare-
fied the air very evidently; which fhewed, that the cle¢tric
fire produced heat in itfelf,as Mr. Kinnerfley fays, as wellas
in the air, by its rapid motion. :

The charge of a jar, which contained about five gallons
and a half, darting from wire to wire, would caufe a prodi-
gious expanfion of the air; and the charge of his battery of
thirty {quare feet of coated glafs would raife the water in
the {mall tube quite tothe top. Upon the coalefcing of the
air, the column of water, by its gravity, inftantly fubfided,
till it was in equilibrio with the rarefied air. It then gra-
dvally defeended, as the air cooled, and fettled where it flood
before. By carefully obferving at what height the defcend-
ing water fi-ft topped, the degree of rarefaction, he fays,
might be difcovercd, which, in great explofions, was very
confiderable. Mr. Kinnerfley obvioufly remarks, that the
firft fudden rife of the water, uponran explofion being made
in the veffel A By is not to be afcribed to the rarefaétion of
the airby heat, but tothe quantity of air aCtually difplaced
by the eleétrical flafh. It is only when that firft fudden rife
has {ubfided, that the degree of its rarefaction by the heat
can be eftimated, viz, by the height at which the water then
itands above the common level.

If the experiments be performed in a room, wherein the
temperature is variable, then an allowance muft be made
for this circumftance in eltimating the effe€t of the eleétri-
zation ; for the cle@trical air-thermometer is affected by heat
or cold in general, as well as by that which is occafioned by
an cle€trical explofion.

Since this initrument was fir made known to the {cien-
tie world, the philofophical inftrument makers have often
varied its form; but this variation of fhape has not been ac-
companied with any realimprovement.

Evecraricat Apparatus, is an affortment of all the elec-
trical inflruments that have been invented for the purpofe of
performing any experiments that belong to the f{cience of
eleQricity ; comprehending even the materials neceflary for
conftruGting thefe and other inftruments that may be occa-
fionally fuggelted in the courfe of any experimental inquiry.
For the fake of diltinGion, the articles of an eleGrical appa-
ratus may be arranged under the following divifions.

1, Inftrnments and materials neceflary for producing elec»
tricity. _

2. Inftruments neceflary for afcertaining its quality, and
for meafuring its quantity.

3. Inftruments neceffary for the accumulation, retention,
and employment of eletricity.

4. Inftruments neceflary for the experimental demonftra-
tion of the laws that have been afcertained in the
feience of eleétricity.

5- Inftruments ufeful in the performance of entertaining
experiments.

6. Inftruments neceffary for atmofpherical eleGricity. ,

7. Inftruments belonging to that branch which has been
denominated Galvanic eledricity, or Galvanifim.

8. Inftruments peculiarly ufeful in medical eleétricity. ,

g. Materials and tools principally ufeful to a practical
electrician.

As moft of thefe inftruments have obtained, and are known
by particular names, their defcriptions willbe found under
thofe names; therefore, the prefent article needs not con-
tain more than an enumeration of them, accompanied with
general remarks, and fome explanation of fuch inftruments,
materials, &c. which are not commonly known under any
particular appellations. '

1. The principal inftrument for the produGtion of elec-
tricity is the electrical machine, viz. a machine containing
an electric, and a mechani{m, by means of which that elec-
tric may be whirled or moved again{t a rubber, fo as to ex-
cite and to communicate the eleétricity, which is thereby
produced, to an infulated condutor, called the prime con-
dudor. ‘The fize and form of thefe machines have been
contiaually varied, according as experience, and new difco-
veries, have pointed out any old defeéts, or fome new ad-
vantages ; and likewife accordirg to the fancy, the wants,
and the opulence of the proprietor. ‘The defcription of
the principal eleGtrical machines, together with the. inftruc-
tions neceflary for the proper ufe and management of the
fame, will be found under the article Execrricat Ma-~
chine.

Next to the ele&trical machine, properly fo called, comes
the ele&trophorus, which, when its fize is upwards of fix
inches in diameter, and it is properly managed, will furniff
eleGtricity fufficient for a variety of experiments, for it will
give pretty long {parks, it will charge a Leyden phial, &c.
See the article ELecrroruorus.

But a great variety of experiments, efnecially of the
theoretical kind, (viz. {uch as tend to explain the principles
of the {cience,) may be performed with inftruments much

a ; fimpler

BPLECRRITCAL

fimpler than the eleGtrical machine or the ele€trophorus; and
thefe are a few glafs tubes, anda ftick of fealing wax. In
order to obtain a great deal of ele&tricity, thefe tubes
fhould be.madeas long as a perfon can well draw through his
hand at one ftroke, (which 1s about three feet,) and about
two inches in diameter. The thicknefs of the metal is not
material, but if it be equal to that of common window glafs,
it may be reckoned fufficient both for ftrength and for excita-
tion. Vhefe tubes fhould be clofed at one end; and it will be
ufeful to have a brafs cap witha ftop-cock fitted to the other
extremity of at leaft one of thefe tubes; for in this cafe,
the air within the tube may be rarefied or condenfed by
means of an air-pump, or a condenfing fyringe ; and expe-
riments may then be tried with it in thofe different ftates.
One or two other tubes ought to have the polifh taken off
from their external furface, (which may be accomplifhed by
means of emery, ora grinding-ftone,) for the purpofe of
producing negative electricity. This, however, may alfo
be obtained by rubbing a ftick of fealing wax, or even a ftick
of baked wood, as long as this is preferved free from
moitture.

The plafs tubes for excitation muft be kept perfe@ly clean,
and dry both within and without. They act beft when they
are alittle warmer than the ambient air. If the operator
hold one of thefe tubes with one hand by one extremity, and
draw his other hand (provided this be clean and dry) gently
over the tube from one extremity to the other, a few times
repeatedly; the tube will foon fhew figns of excitation, by
attracting light bodies, giving fparks, affeéting an eledtro-
meter, &c. The application of a proper rubber is better

‘than the human hand, and will occafiona more powerful ex-

citation. The beft rubber for a {mooth glafs tube is the
rough fide of black oiled filk, efpecially when a little
amalgam of mercury and tin, or rather of mercury and zinc,
is {pread upon it. The beft rubber for a rough glafs tube,
fora ftick of fealing-wax, or of {ulphur, or of baked wood,
is foft new flannel, or rather fkins, fuch as hare fiins, cat
fins, &c. tanned with the hair on.

2. The inftruments neceflary for afcertaining the quality,
and the quantity of eleéricity, are called Elecrometers,
which fee. .
. 3. The inflruments proper for accumulating, retaining,
and employing the eleéiric power, are very numerous, but
they may be comprehended under the following general ap-
pellations, viz. infulated conduétors, and infulating ftands ;
coated eleCtrics, or the Leyden phial in its various fhapes ;
difcharging rods, and the univerfal difcharger. See Insu-
LATION, Leypen Puiar, Evecrricat Battery, and
Discuarcer of EleGricity.

4. Under the appellation of inftruments neceffary for the
illuttration of the laws of eleétricity, ina general fenfe,
one fhould comprehend all thofe which are enumerated in
the other {eétions of the prefent article; fince the experi-
ments that are made with them do all tend to illuttrate the
laws of ele&tricity; excepting, however, a few, which are
mere variations of others.

5- Theinftruments ufeful for the performance of enter-
taining experiments are likewife very numerous; but they
will be found defcribed under the artjcle Evectricav
Experiments.

6. The inflruments neceflary for exploring the ele&tricity
of the atmofphere, are defcribed under che article Evec-
wricity, Atmofpherical.

4. The apparatus peculiar to that branch of ele&tricity,
which has been called Galvani/m, will be found defcribed
under that name,

8. The application-of electricity to medical purpofes re-

quires very few partigular inftruments, befides thofe which
ar® commonly in ufe for other experiments. They confitt
of a few direGtors,a difcharging eleG@trometer, a few wooden
poipts, and fome other trifling appendages, for which fee
Medical Evecrricity.

g. The extenfive and fertile {cience of electricity perhaps
furnifhes more opportunities for fignalizing the genius of the
operator, than any other branch of natural philofophy.
There is hardly an eleétrician whofe mind does not fuggeft
fome alteration, or fome contrivance, entirely new, in the
courfe of his experiments. His ideas may fometimes be
ill founded, and may at other times be proper and ufeful.
In either cafea prompt and ready conftruction is defirable ;—
the aid of regular workmen is dilatory and expenfive ; and,
though in an imperfe& [tate, the workmanfhip of the elec-
trician himfelf may, in molt cafes, expeditioufly put his
ideas to the teft of afual trial. Therefore, for the accom-
plithment of this objeé, he ought to furnifh himfelf with fe-
veral articles or materials ready to be worked upon, and fome
tools to work with. The articles moft ufeful are, glafs
tubes, and glals fticks of various fizes, glafs plates, and flips
of flat glafs, and glafs phials of different fizes; (fome of
thofe ufed by apothecaries will frequentiy be found very ufe-
ful ;) fealing wax, rofin, fulphur, fhell-lac, and Venice turpen-
tine ; tin-foil; brafs and iron wire, fome brafs balls of dif-
ferent diameters. Each of thefe balls ought to have a hole,
in order to fix it, or {crew it upona wire. Alfo fome elec-
trical cement, and fome eleétrical varnifh, the firft of which
is defcribed under the article CarmenT, and the fecond un-
der the article Coatine of EleGrics. To thefe there may
be alfo added filk threads, {mall pith-balls, and cork-balls,
gold and filver leaf, gilt paper, &c. But, befides all thefe,
a variety of other materials may be fuggefted by new dif-
cOveries, or new ideas, which cannot be forefeen. With re-
{pe& to tools, it is not poffible to ftate the precife number
and ‘kind that may be wanted; but for moft purpofes, thofe
which are ufually put in the middle fized tool chelts, that.
are fold by ironmongers, will be found fully fufficient.

Evectricau Atmofphere. See Armospuere, in Elec
tricity. :

Evectricat itradion and Repulfion. This kind of
attraction takes place between bodies that are electrified,
and all other kinds of bodies, in certain circumftances ; or,
more properly {peaking, it takes place between bodies pof-
feffed of different eleGtricities ; that is, between bodies pof-
feffed of the pofitive or vitreous eleétricity, and bodies
poffeffed of the nezative or refinous electricity. The repul-
fion takes place only between bodies poffefled of the fame
kind of eleétricity. The various peculiar phenomena, which
attend both this attraction and this repulfion, are highly de-
ferving of attentive confideration, for upon them the fubjec&t
of electricity principally depends. But though their ef-
feGts are evident and ftnking, though they have been exhi-
bited under an endlefs variety of forms and combinations,
though innumerable experiments have been made, and many
hypothefes have been offered for their explanation ; yet the
true caufe upon which they depend is by no means under-
ftood. In order to proceed with that regularity, which
feems more likely to be attended with perfpicuity, we fhall,
in the firft place, briefly endeavcur to point out the difler-
ence between this and all other kinds of attraction and re-
pulfion; we hall, in the next place, defcribe the phenomena
of this kind of attraétion and repulfion, to which we fhall
annex the explanation according to the moft approved hypo-
thefis, viz. that of a fingle eleétric fluid, which goes under
the name of the Franklinian hypothefis; and we fhall, laflly,

4Q2 examine

a

ELECTRICAL,

examine fome of the other hypothefes that have been ad-
vanced in explanation of thoie pheaomena.

Five kinds of attra&tion have been obferved amongft na-
tural bodies; viz. iit, the attraction of gravitation, which
forces all bodies, when not hindered, to fall towards the
ceatre of the earth. This attraGtion is mutual between all

odies ; but unlefs one body be vaftly larger than the other,
this attraétion between them cannot be difcerned ; 2dly, the
attraction of cohefion, by which the particles of bodies
adhere to each other, and form the different forms of bodies,
or lumps of matter. This kind of attraction vanifhes ata
diftance vaftly fmall; fo that though a body be very hard,
yet if once broken, and the parts be adapted to each other,
the cohefion cansot thereby be reftored ; 3dly, the chemi-
cal aitra&tion, or affinity, which takes place between certain
heterogeneous fubdliances when they come in conta& with
each cther; athly, the magnetic attraGion, which takes
piace principally between the oppofite poles of magnets, or
between a magnet and iron, including fuch compound bo-
dies as contain iron. We have {aid principally between thofe
fabftances, becaufe a few other bodies, which are faid not
to contain any iron, are flightly attraéted by the magnet.
The magnetic repulfion takes place between the homolo-
gcus poles of magnets-only ; 5thly, the ele@ric attraction,
which takes place between bodies of every kind, provided
they are poffefied of different eleGtricities; for though
in common experiments aa eleCtrified body attraQs another
body which appears to be in a natural, or uncletrified, ftate ;
yet, on a clofer examination, it will be found, that the latter
body does a€tnally acquire the eletricity contrary to that of
the former, before any attration takes place, as will be
fhewn in the fequel. From the above-mentioned properties
peculiar to each kind of attraGtion, that of electricity may
be eafily diftinguifhed from the reft. We fhall now pro-
czed to defcribe the phenomena.

If light bodies of any kind, fuch as pieces of paper, of
ftraw, of thread, of metallic Jeaves, feathers, &c. be ftrewed
wpon a table, and an excited glafs tube be he'd horizon-
tally over them at the diftance of four or five inches, as in
J¥- 275 the {mall bodies will inftantly fiy towards the tube,
and after having touched the furface of it, feveral of them
will be inftantly repelled by it ; whilft others will adhere to
it a confiderable time before they are repelled; and fome
of them will continue to adhere to it without their being
ever repelled. Thofe bodies which have been repelled, as
foon as they come in conta with the table, or with
fome other conduéting body, at no great diftance from the
excited tube, will foon after be attraQted again by the tube,
then they will be repelled a fecond‘time, and fo on repeat~-
edly for aconfiderabie number of times, or until the eleGiric
power of the tube is in great meafure exhaufted. The fame
thing tekes place, 1f, inflead of the excited glafs tube, an elec-
trified and infulated conductor, {uch as the prime conductor
of an eleirical machine, be prefented to the light bodies
or if an excited cleric of any other kind be ufed.

‘Tre general explanation of thefe apparently itrange and
contradi€tory phenomena, upon the Franklinian theory of a
fingle eleétric fluid, is as follows. The pofitive, or pilus,
ele&ricity of the excited glafs tube, forces the light bodies,
which come within its {phere of adtion, to depofit their na-
tural fhare of eleGtric fluid upon the table, in confequence of
which they beeome electrified negatively, or minus, and in
that {tate they are attrafted by the tube; which explains
the affertion, that electric attraGion takes place only be-
tween bodies poflefled of different eleGricities, When the bo-
dies, on being attra&ted, come in contaét with the tube, they
acquire the cle@ricity of the tube, viz. become pofitive, and

in that fate they are repelled, which explains the other af-
fertion, namely, that repulfion takes place between bodies
poffeffed of the fame kind of eleGtricity.. If the bodies thus
repelled come in contact with the table, or with any con-
dutor, they depofit their pofitive ecle€tricity upon it, be-
come eleétrified negatively for the reafon already alleged,
and in that ftate are again attraéted by the tube. The rea-
fon why fome bodies adhere to the tube longer than others,
is, that their being bad conduGtors prevents their acquiring
the electricity of the tube fo foon as other bodies that are
better conduGtors. A few bodies remain adhering to the
tube without any tendency to fly off, when, in conf: quence
of their having fome fharp corners or proje€tion a little re-
moved from the furface of the tube, they throw out the
ele&tric fluid into the ambient air as falt as they receive it
from the excited tube; hence they cannot actually become

poffeffed of the fame kind of eleGiricity as the tube, and, of

courfe, cannot be repelled. If, inftead of the excited glafs
tube, which, in the ufual way of rubbing it, is poffcfled of
the pofitive eleCricity, you ufe an excited flick of Sealing
wax, which is negatively ele&rified, the light bodies will be
attraGted and repelled exa€tly in the fame manner, «and the
explanation is the fame, excepting that the acquifition and
depofition of the eleGric fluid muft be reverfed ; viz. the
flick of fealing wax being negative will oblige the {mall bo-
dies to acquire fome electric fluid from the table, which renders
them poiitively ele@trified, and, of courfe, capable of being
attracted by the fealing wax; then on their touching the
fealing wax, they depolit their eleCtric fluid upon it, become
negative, and are repelled, and fo forta. This experiment
exhibits all che phenomena of ele&ric attraction and repul-
fion ; but in order to prove the various affertions that have
been made with refpeét to the acquifition and depofition of
eleGtricity, &c. every one of the various phenomena muit be
fhewn apart, by a particular experiment: and thefe experi«
ments now follow.

Experiment 1.—Faften a {mall body, as, for inftance, a
{mall piece of cork, to a filk thread of about eight or ten
inches in length ; and holding the thread by its extre-
mity, let the [mall body hang at the diftance of about feven
or eight inches from the prime conductor, when this is
moderately eleGrified. This {mall body will not, in this
cafe, be attracted, becaufe, being infulated, it cannot, by
depofiting its fluid upon, or by receiving it from, fome other
bedy (when the prime conduétor is electrified negatively, )
become poffeiled of the contrary ele&tricity. But ifa finger
or any conducting fubftance be prefented to that fide of the
{mall body which is fartheft from the prime conductor,
then the {mall body will be immediately attra&ted ; for it
has now depofited its own fluid upon, or has acquired fome
(if the prime conduétor be negative) from the body that has
been prefented to it. And when this fufpended body has
touched the prime conduéter, it wiil inftantly fly from it,
on account of the repulfion which takes place between
bodies pofleffed of the fame kind of eleCiricity. It muft,
however, be cbferved, that if the infulated {mall body be
brought too near to the prime conductor, or the latter be

too powerfally eleGtrified, then the {mall infulated body will”

be attracted, though no condu€ting’body has been prefented
toit. But in this cafe its natural quantity of eleétric fluid
will be either propelled into the contiguous air, or will be
crowded on that part of the body which is fartheft from the
conductor, when the prime condudior is eleGirified pofitively 5
but if it be electrified negatively, then the additional quantity
of fluid, which is required to render the {mall body pofitives.
will be acquired from the air; or the natural quantity of
fluid belonging to that body will be all crowded on rey

2 fide

ee

Ee

ae

ELECTRICAL.

fide of it, which is neareft to the prime condu@ior. If, in-
ftead of the filk thread, this fmall body be fulpended by a
Iinen thread, then the attra@ion will take place at a much
greater diftance, as in this cafe the cleric fluid will be
eafily conducted by the linen thread, &c,

Lexperiment 2.—Put a {mall light body upon a pane of
glafs, and, holding the glafs by one corner, place it
under an ele¢tritied conductor, or an excited eleftric, at a
moderate diftance from it; which muft be proportionate to
the intenfity of the eleGtricity. The {mall body thus fituated
will not be attra&ted; but if in this ftate you apply a finger
to the lower furface of the glafs plate, juft againft the place
where the body ftands, then the attraction will take place
immediately ; becaufe the lower furface of the glafs will
give its ele€tric fluid to the finger, in confequence of which
its upper (urface is enabled to receive the ele€tric fluid from
the {mall body, and then that body is attra€ted by the con-
duétor, or by the excited eleétric.: In fa&, if the pane of
glafs be examined by means of an ele€trometer, that part of
its furface, which has been contiguous to the {mall bedy,
will be found eleCtrified pofitively, and its cppofite furface
will be found negative. In this difpofition of the apparatus,
the {mall body, though a&ted upon by the electricity of the
conductor, could not diveft itfelf of its own eleCric fluid,
becaufe the glafs being an electric could not receive that
fluid on one {urfacc, unlefs its oppofite furface could depo-
fit its own fluid upon fome other condu&tor. (See Leypen
Pura.) It mult be obferved, however, that when the elec-
tricity of the conductor, or of the excited electric, is too
powerful, and is brought too near, the {mall body will be
attracted though the finger be not applicd to the lower fur-
face of the pane of glals. But in this cafe the electric fluid
of the lower part are glafs will be forced into the air.

Experiment 3.—A B and B C, (fig. 28.) are two pieces of
thick iron or brafs wire, infulated upon two tticks of fealing
wax, which are ftuck fatt upon two pieces of wood, {fo as
to form two infulating ftands. Each of the wires has a cork-
ball cleétrometer affixed to one end. Place thefe two wires
in contaé& with each other at B, and in one direction, as
fhewn in the figure, with the ele€trometers at their farther
extremities A,C. Bring an excited glafs tube D within
feven or eight inches of the ele€trometer C, and it will be
found that both the electrometers at A and C will diverge ;
with this difference, that the eleGrometer at C diverges with
negative, and the electrometer at A with pofitive ele¢tricity,
which may be proved by prefenting an excited ftick of fea!-
ing wax to each electrometer, as will be fhewn in experi-
ment 6. Thefe electricities arife from the action of the ex-
cited tube D, which, being pofitive, drives the eleGtric
fluid from the ele¢trometer C, and the wire BC, to the
electrometer A, and wire A B; thence the former becomes
uadercharged or negative, and the latter overcharged or po-
fitive. Jf the tube D be removed, both the electrometers
will collapfe; for the ele@ric fluid will return from A B to
BC, and both the wires, &c. will remain in the fame ftate
as they were before.. But if whilit the tube D remains near
the end C, asin the figure, and the electrometers are di-
verging, the two wires with their ftands be feparated, then,
on withdrawing the glafs tube, the ele&trometers will con-
tinue to diverge C with negative, and A with pofitive elec-
tricity; becaule now the contact of the wires at B being
interrupted, the cleric fluid cannot retura from the wire
&B to the wire BC; and this plainly thews the effect
which an eleétrified body produces upon other bodies that
are brought within its {phere of action. If in the above de-
{cribed experiment an excited ftick of fealing-wax be ufed
inflead of the glafs tube, the fame appearances will take

place; excepting that the eleArometer C will be pofitive,
and A negative.

Experiment 4.—This experiment fhews, that a body, once
repelled by an eleGtrified body, will not be again attraéted
by it, unlefs it firft depofits its eleCtricity upon fome other
body.

Take a-glafs tube (whether {moath or rough ig not ma-
terial), and after having excited it by rubbing, let a {mall
light feather be let out of your fingers at the diftance of
about eight or ten inches from it. ‘This feather will be im-
mediately atcraéted by the tube, and will ftick very clofe to
its furface, for a few feconds, and fometimes longer; after
which time it will be repelled, andif the tube be kept underit,
the feather will continue to float io the air at a confiderable
diftance from the tube, without ever coming near it, ex-
cepting when it comes in contact with fome condudting
body, upon which it may depolit its eleGtricity ; for after
that it will be readily attraéted again. If the excited tube
be managed dextroufly, the feather may be driven at plea-
fure through the air of a room from one part of it to another.
The reafon why, when the feather is firft attraéted by the
glafs tube, it remains adhering to it for a confiderable time,
and fometimes will not fly from it without fhaking the
tube, is, that being an eleétric, it will not eafily acquire the
eleGtricity from the tube.

This experiment is attended with a remarkable circum-
flance, which is, that when the feather is kept floating
in the air at a diftance from the, excited tube, by the force
of eleétric repuilion, it always prefents the fame part towards
the tube; fomewhat like the moon, which always prefents
the fame part of its furface towards the earth. You may
move the excited tube fwiftly abouc the feather, and yet the
{ame fide of the feather will be conftantly turned towards it.
The reafon of this phenomenon is, that the equilibrium of
the electric fluid in the various parts of the feather, being
once difturbed, cannot be eafily reftored, becaufe the fea-
ther is an eleétric, or, at leaft, avery imperfect conduor,
When the feather has acquired a certain quantity of eleétri-
city trom the tube, it is plain that the aétion of the excited
tube will drive that fuper-induced electricity to that fide of
the feather which happens to be fartheft; hence, that part
will always be repelled the farthett.

Experiment 5 —Hold a common linen thread by one end,
and prefent it to an excited eleétric, or to an eletrified con-
ductor, fuch as the prime conductor of an eleCtrical machine,
the thread will be attrated by it, and will remain adhering
to it aslong as the ele¢tric or the conduétor continues elec-
tried. The reafon why in this experiment the thread, after
having been attracted, is not repelled by the ele&trified body,
is, that it cannot become poflefled of the fame kind of elec-
tricity with the eleétrified body, on account of its being held
by the hand of the operator ; for whatever kind of eleri-
city is communicated to it, will be conveyed to the hand of
the operator, and from it to the ground, &c. In this ex-
periment care muft be had that the thread be not very ery 5
for, in that cafe, the paflage of the electricity through it,
being partially interrupted, the lower extremity of the thread
may, for a fhort time, acquire the fame electricity as the
electrified body poffeffes, and may of courfe be repelled.

Lxperiment 6.—-Place an eletrometer, confifting of two
cork balls fufpended by threads, upon an infulating fland,
as in fig. 29, and the threads of the electrometer will hang
dowa parallel to each other, If then you bring an electrified
body near it, the cork balls will be inftantly attraéted, and
having acquired fome eletricity from it, will foon after be
repelled, and will afterwards, when the electrified body has
been removed, continue diverging, which is the ftate 7

ite

ELECTRICAL.

bited in the figure. If now you bring any ele&trified body
near them, they will either fly from it, as in fiz. 30; when
that body is pofleffed of the fame kind of eleétricity, or they
will fly to it, as in fig. 31, when that body is poffeffed of the
other kind of ele&tricity. And this is the method by which
it may be determined, whether an electrified body is pofitive
or negative. It muft, however, be obferved, that if the
body in queftion be powerfully electrified, and be brought
too near to the cork-balls, the latter will at laft be attraéted
by it; for in this cafe, the aGion of the eleGtricity in that
body is fufficient to drive the natural fluid of the ele&trometer,
together with that which occafioned its divergency, to the
remoteft part of it; or is capable of attracting the fluid
when negatively electrified, &c.

That the repulfion amonglt bodies poffcfled of the fame
kind of eleétricity is more confpicuous when the eletricity
is {tronger, and vice ver/z, nobody will doubt; but it may
be enquired, whether the angle of divergency of an eleétro-
meter bears any affignable proportion to the intenfity of the
electricity which a¢tuates it. The dezermination of this
queftion was attempted by the ingenious Fr. Beccaria, of
Turin, and his experiments were performed in the following
manner.

Lxperiment 7—In the middle of a large room he infulated
a cylinder of tin, which meafured about four feet in length,
and about three inches in diameter; and to it he affixed a
very delicate elc&trometer: another tin cylinder, exaétly
equal and fimilar to the former, and having a long infulating
handle, was held by an affitant. Things being thus pre-
pared, this philofopher communicated fome eleétricity to
the former cylinder, in confequence of which the ele&trome-
ter, which had been affixed to it, diverged; in this ftate,
by means of fights placed upon a ruler at a diftance, he
meafured the angle of divergency, and noted it. He then
defired the effiltant to touch the firft cylinder, which was
electrified, with the fecond, which was not; and immedi-
ately to withdraw. By this means it is evident, that the
ele&tricity of the firft cylinder mu& have been divided into
two equal parts, and that this cylinder muft now retain only
the half of what it contained before. In this ftate Fr. Bec-
caria meafured the angle of divergency of the ele€trometer
in the fame manneras he had done before, and alfo noted it:
The whole of this experiment he repeated feveral times both
in the fame, and in different days, and from the concur-
rence of the refults, he found that the chord of half the
angle of divergency was proportionate to the quantity of
electricity in the cylinder; viz. the chord of half the large
angle was double the chord of half the {mall angle ; anfwer-
ing to the quantities of eleGtricity in the cylinder. See Bec-
caria’s Elettricifmo Artificiale, chap. vi. p. 1. art. 1.

M. De Sauffure attempted the determination of the fame

queftion in the following manner. He took two ele€trome-
ters as equal and fmilar as could be made; and ele@rified
one of them, fo that the balls were feparated by about fix
lines. He then touched the top of the cle@trified eleétro-
meter with the top of that which was not eleétrified ; by
which means the ele&tricity was equally divided between the
two eleétrometers; and in this {tate each pair of balls di-
verged four lines; confequently a diminution of half the
dentity of eleétricity had leflened the feparation of the balls
by one-third. One of thefe ele&trometers was then deprived
of its electricity, and was afterwards brought in contact
with the other as before, in confequence of which the elec-
‘tricity was divided, and the divergency of the balls was di-
mintfhed likewife by one-third, &c. This experiment being
repeated feveral times, either with pofitive or negative elec-
tricity, was conitantly attended with the (ame refulte.

Upon the Franklinign hypothefis of a fingle eleGtric fluid,
the attraGtionof bodiesdifferently eleCtrified is eafily explained,
for, according to that hypothefis, the ele@tric fluid is elaftic,
viz. repulfive of its own particles; but attractive of all other
kinds of matter ; therefore it is eafy to conceive that the
eleGtric fluid, fuper-induced upon a body eletrified politively,
attra&s the undercharged matter of a body ele€trified nega-
tively. The attraction between a body pofitively, and an-
other negatively electrified, is fo obvious as to require no
farther illuftration.

The repulfion of bodies eleGrified poftively is alfo
eafily explained; but the repulfion of bodies eleCtrified ne-
gatively requires much more’ attentive confideration. The
firlt explanation which occurred to thofe who adopted
the above-mentioned hypothefis is, that when bodies are
electrified pofitively, that excefs of eleGtric fluid which re-
fides upon their furfaces forms two atmofpheres repulfive
of each other, and the bodies remaining in the centres of
their refpeétive atmofpheres muft neceffarily recede from
each other. If the bodies are electrified negatively (viz.
are in part exbaufted of their natural fhare of ele€tric fluid,)
then they are attracted by the denfer fluid exifting either in
the atmofphere contiguous to them, or to other neighbour-
ing bodies, which occafions them ftill to recede from one
another. Other patrons ef the fame hypothefis obferved,
that as the denfer eleétric fluid furrounding two bodies
negatively eleétrified, a€ts equally on all fides of thofe bodies,
it cannot occafion their repulfion. Is not the repulfion, they
fay, owing rather to an accumulation of eleGtric fluid on the
furfaces of the two bodies ; which accumulation is produced
by the attraction of the bodies, and the difficulty the fluid
finds in entering them. This difficulty in entering was fup-
pofed to be owing chiefly to the air on the furface of bodies,
which is probably a little condenfed there.

Lord Mahon, in his Principles of EleGricity, explains the
ele€trical attra€tion and repulfion in a very ingenious manner.
He placed an electrified eleGrometer under the receiver of an
air-pump ; then began to exhanf the receiver, in confequence
of which the divergency of the eleGtrometer decreafed. He
then let the air return into the receiver, and this circumftance
alone caufed the electrometer to increafe its angle of diver-
gency. ‘ From thefe experiments, he fays, it appears, that
when bodies are charged with eleGtricity, it is the particles
of circumambient air being eledrified, that conftitutes the elece
trical atmofphere which exifts around thofe bodies.

** Now fince an eleétrical atmofphere, (whether negative or
pofitive,) confifts of ele&trified air; it evidently follows that
the denfity of the eleCtricity of that air muit be in fome
inverfe ratio of the diftance from the charged body, which
canfes that ele€trical atmofphere. _

“From thefe fimple confiderations, it is eafy to reduce
all the different phenomena of eleGrical attraétion and repul-
fion to one plain and convenient principle, derived trom the
very nature of a difturbed eleGrical equilibrium ; namely, to
the elaftic tendency of the eletrical fluid, to impel every
body, charged either in plus or in minus, towards that part
of its electrical atmof{phere where its natural ele€trical equili-
brium would be the mott eafily reftored.

« From this fimple principle, it is evident, that bodies,
which are charged with contrary eleétricities, mult tend to
approach each other, whenever the flirts of their oppofitely
eleGrified atmofpheres interfere.

“ From the fame fimple principle, it is alfo eafy to under-
ftand, why bodies, that are charged with the fame kind of
electricity, tend to diverge from each other. Every body
that is electrified, (whether iz plus or in minus,) has aconftant
tendency to return to its natural ftate ; and this caufes it te

electrify,

ELECTRICAL,

electrify, in a certain degree, other bodies in conta with
it, and the air in its vicinity, in a manner fimilar to that
explained above.

** If two bodies (for example) be both pofitive ; neither
body will b: able to depofit its fuperabundant ele&tricity upon
the other body, which is alfo fimilarly ele€trified in plus. Tt
is, therefore, evident, from the fimple principle mentioned
above, that if thefe bodies be brought near each other, each
body will be impelled towards the particles of air on its
other fide, which are eleétrified in plus only ina {mal degree.
That is to fay, that each body will tend to diverge from the
other.

«If the bodies, on the contrary, be both negative ;
neither body will be able to have its deficient electricity fup-
plied from the other body, which is alfo fimilarly electrified
in minus. It is therefore evident, from the fimple principle
mentioned above, that if thefe bodies be brought near each
other, each bedy wiil be impelled towards the particles of air
on its other fide, which are eleétrified ix minus only in a {mall
degree. That is to fay, that each body will tend to diverge
from the other. So that bodies, which are charged with
the fame kind of ele&tricity, (whether pofitive or negative, )
muft neceffarily tend to diverge from each other.’’

Mr. Cavallo explains the repulfion of bodies negatively
eleGtrified in the following manner. (Treatife on Electr. vol. iit.
p- 193. of the 4th edit.)

“ Proposition I.—Noeledricitycan appear on the furface of
a body, or no body can be electrified either pofitively or negatively,
unlefs the contrary electricity can take place on other bodies con-
tiguous to it. :

© This propofition may be proved by a great many experi-
ments and obfervations, fuch as may be feen in vols.i. and
ii. of this my work.

“ Prop. I1.—There is fomething on the furface of bodies which
prevents the fudden incorporation of the two eleclricities 3 v\2« of
that poffefjed by the electrified body, with the contrary electricity
pofefed by the contiguous air, or other furrounding bodies.

«« Without examining the nature, the extent, and the
laws of this property in bodies, it will be fufficient, for the
prefent purpofe, to obferve, that the fact is certainly fo ; for
otherwife a body could not poffibly be ele@rified, or it would
not remain eleétrified for a fingle moment.

«© Prop. I1].—Suppofing that every particle of a fluid has
an attradlion towards every particle of a folid ; if the folid be
left at liberty in avcertain quantity of that fluid, it will be at-
traded towards the common centre of attraéion of all the parti-
cles of the fluid.

‘© Let the body be extremely {mal!, and it is evident that
it mult be drawn towards the common centre of attra¢tion ;
for if it be placed on one fide of the faid centre, the attrac-
tive particles on the oppolite fide, being more numerous, will
naturally draw it that way. Ifthe body be large, the fame
reafoning fhews that the effe&t mult be the fame ; for the
attractive force of all its particles being concentered in a
point or centre, will draw that centre towards the centre of
attraétion of all the particles of the fluid. ‘Thus, if the fluid
be of a {pherical form, and the folid body be likewife {pheri-
cal, the centre of the latter will coincide with that of the
former.

“ Corollary 1—The fame thing muft happen, when the
quantity of fluid is {maller than the bulk of the body; in
which cafe the former mult be within the latter.

“ Cor. 2.—If the attraétion of the particles of the fluid
be exerted only towards the furface ef the folid, and not
towards its internal parts ; the effeét will be the fame; when
the body is of a regular shape, as {pherical, cubical, &c. but

with very irregular fhapes, the difference will be very trifling,
and not deferving of notice in this place.

‘¢ The appiication of the foregoing propofitions in expla-
nation of the repulfion which takes place between bodies
pofleffed of the fame kind of eleétricity is very eafy, and, in
my opinion, conclufive. According to the Franklinian
hypothefis, the electric fluid is elattic, or repullive of its
own particles, and attra@tive of the particles of other matter.
Let then Aand B. (fig. 32.) be two {pheres of metai fufpended
in the open air, contigueus to each other, and capable of
being eafily moved. Let fome ele&ricity be communicated
to them, and by Prop. I. it will appear, that whilft the
bodies touch each other, as fhewn in fig. 32, the electricity
which is communicated cannot be difperfed equally all over
their furfaces, but it muft be thicker, or more condenfed, on
the parts that are remote from the mutual point of contact,
becaufe there the air is at liberty to acquire a contrary elec-
tricity; whereas, near the point of contaét the electricity
cannot be manifefted, becaufe in that place there is no air or
other body that can acquire the contrary electricity. There-
fore the atmofpheres of contrary eleétricity cannot be con-
centric with the {pheres A and B; but mutt be fituated as
in fig. 32. It follows, therefore, by Prop. I1I., that the fphe-
rical bodies, being attracted towards the centre of thefe
atmofpheres, appear to repel each other, as fhewn in fig. 33 ;
fo that when the bodies are electrified pofitively, in which
cafe, according to the hypothefis, they have acquired an ad-
dicional quantity of electric fluid, negative atmofpheres will
be formed round them, and the additional or fuperfluous
ele&tric fluid of the bodies will attra@t, and be attracted by,
thofe negative atmofpheres. And when the bodies are elec-
trified negatively, in which cafe, according to the hypothefis,
they have loft part of their ufual quantity of eleétric fluid,
pofitive atmofpheres will be formed round them, which will
attraét the under-charged bodies.”

Experiment 8.—This experiment fhews the attraGion and
repulfion by means of the electric light.

Fix a pointed wire upon the prime gonduor of an elec-
trical machine, having the point outward, and fix another
pointed wire in the hike manner upon the infulated rubber
of the fame machine ; then let the machine be put in action,
and the points of both wires will appear illumined; wz.
the former with a pencil, and the latter with a ftar. In this
fituation, bring an excited glafs tube fideway of the point
which proceeds from the prime conduétor, and it will be
found that the luminous pencil iffuing from that point is
turned fideway; viz. is repelled by the atmofphere of the
tube. If the excited tube be held juft oppofite to the point,
the luminous pencil will vanifh entirely, becaufe both the
tube and the point are eleétrified pofitively. If the excited
tube be brought near the point of the wire which proceeds
from the rubber, the ftar upon it will turn itfelf towards the
tube; for this wire is electrified negatively, and the tube
pofitively, Ifinftead of the tube, a ftick of fealing wax, or
any other eleGtric pofleffed of the negative eletricity, be ufed;
then the pencil of light will be attraéted by it, and the ftar
will be repelled, or it may be entirely fuppreffed if the ftick
of fealing wax be placed direttly betore it.

Hitherto we have treated of experiments performed in the
ambient air; but it is now neceflary to add a brief account
of the manner in which eleétric attraétion and repulfion are
affeted in rarefied air,

Towards the end of the 17th century, Mr. Boyle obferved,
that excited ele&rics would attraét in the vacuum. of his
air-pump ; whence he concluded, that the prefence, or ab-
fence of air, did not interfere with ele@ric attra&ion. Not
long after, Mr, Grey repeated Boyle’s experiments with the

6 fire

ELEGTRIGAL.

air-pump, and obtained a fimilar effect; but at that time
the air-pumps were very imperfe&t; their exhauftion was
very moderate; and, of courfe, the conclufions from the
experiments that were made within their receivers could not
furnifh much ufeful inftru@ion. It feems that F. Beccaria
was the firit perfon who afferted, that in a perfe@ vacuum
there would be no eleéiric attraGtion. Lord Mahon fuf-
pended a cork-bal! eletrometer within the receiver of an
air-pump, and eleétrifed it. “I then (he fays) began to
exhauft the receiver; upon doing which, the balls foon be-
pan to divaricate gradually les and/e/s. And as foonas the
fhort barometer gauge was got down to about one quarter
of an inch (the barometer being that day at the height of
29% inches), the divarication of the balls from each other
became reduced to lefs than one quarter of an inch.

** So that by 149 parts of the natural quantity of air con-
tained in the receiver being exhaufted, the divarication of
the elecirometrical balls was diminifhed to lefs than one-
tenth part. Tor the chord of the angle of divarication was
decreafed from above 24 inches to lefs than one quarter of
aninch. That is to fay, that the verfed fine cf the angle
of divarication was decreafed confiderably more than an
hundred times; becaufe the verfed fines are always as the
fquares of the chords.

° J fhould be inclined to imagine, if this experiment were
made with great accuracy, and with a proper eleGrometer,
that the verfed fine of the angie of divarication would always
be in the fame ratio as the denfity of the air in the receiver,
provided that proper means were taken to keep the apparatus
fufiictently free from moifture during the experiments.”
Principles of Eleétricity, p. re.

Mr. Cavallo defcribes a feries ef experiments which he
made with an excellent air-pump, (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxiii.)
from which he deduced the following conclufion, “ It
feems {he fays) deducible from thofe experiments, that
electric attraGtion and repulfion take place in every degree
of rarefaction, from the loweft to about one thoufand, but
that the effet diminifhes in proportion as the air is more
rarefied ; and by following this law, we may, perhaps, con-
clude with Beccaria, that there is no ele@tric attraGtion, nor
repulfion in a perfect vacuum; though this will, perhaps,
be impoflible to be verified experimentally, becaufe, when in
an exhaufted receiver, no attration, or repulfion, is ob-
ferved between bodies to which eleétricity is communicated,
it will be only fufpeGed that thofe bodies are not fufficiently
fmall and light. But, from reafoning, it feems likely that
electric attraction and repulfion cannot take place in a per-
fe& vacuum, by which I only mean a perfeét abfence of air.
For either this vacuum is a condudtor, or a non-condutor
of ele&tricity. If a conduétor, and as much nearer to per-
feétion as it becomes more free from air, it muft be a per-
fe& condudtor at the fame time that it becomes a perfeét
vacuum; in which cafe, eleGtric attraction, or repulfion,
cannot take place among{t bodies inclofed in it; for,
according to every notion we have of electricity, thofe mo-
tions indicate, or are the confequence of the intervening
{pace, in fome meafure, obftru€ting the free paflage of the
eleGiric fluid. And if the perfeét vacuum be a perfe& non-
conduétor, then neither electric attra€tion nor repuifion can
take place in it.”

Such are the fats which have been obferved refpeGing
ele&tric attra¢tion and repulfion, either in the ambient, or in
rarefied air. The only thing which now remains to be
added, is a fhort account of the various explanations of
thefe phenomena, which have been advanced, befides the ex-
planation upen the Franklinian hypothefis, which has been
already annexed to them,

%:

When the knowledge of electricity was in its infancy,
eleGricians fuppofed that certain un@uous effuvia were emitted
by excited electrics, and that thefe effluvia would adhere to
all light bodies which happened to be in their way, and
would carry them back to the eleétric. We need not lofe
time in endeavouring to manifett the abfurdity of this hypos
thefis.

When Mr. Du Fay difcovered the two oppofite ele&ri-
cities, which he celled the vitreous and the refinous eleGricities,
the idea of two diltinct eleGiric fluids was naturaily adopted.
Each of thefe fluids was {uppofed to be elaftic, viz. repulfive,
with refpeét to its own particles, but attre€tive of the other
fluid. ‘“[hefe two fluids were fuppofed to be equally at-
tracted by all bodies, and while they continue in their union
toexhibit no mark of their exiflence. It was then imagined,
that by the excitation of an electric, thefe two fluids were
feparated from each other, and one body became furcharged
with one, whilft another body became furcherged with the
other elaftic fluid. ‘lhe two ele€iric fluids being thus fepa-
rated, would fhew their refpeGive powers, and their eager-
ne{fs to rufh into re-union with one znother. When bodies
are charged with either of thefe fluids, they are difpofed to
repel each other in confequence of the elaltic nature of the
fluid, be it the vitreous, or the refinous. But they are
attraGed by all other bodies, wx. they are attraéted by
bodies which have a lefler fhare of that particular Auid
with which they are charged, and they are much more
powerfully attragted by thofe bodies which are overcharged
with the oppofite fiuid. °

The theory of /Zpinus is a modification of the Franklician
hypothefis. For he admits a fingle elaitic ele&tric Auid ;
but he thinks th. tall the particles of matter, when diveited
of their natural fhare of that ele€tric fluid, muft repel one
another; for that otherwife (fince all fubfances have in
them a certain quantity of the electric fluid, the particles of
which repel one another, and are attra€ted by ail other
matter), it could happen that bodies, in their natural ftate,
with ref{pe@ to electricity, fhould neither retraét nor repeb
one another. According to C.:8 author, then, the repulfion
of bodies negatively electrified, is in confequence of the re-
pulfion exifting between the patticles of matter, which
manifefts itfelf when thofe particles are deprived of their
natural fhare of eleGric fluid ; for the mutual repulfive pro-
perty of the particles of the electric fiuid, and the mutual re-
pulfive property of the particles of matter, feem to neutralize
each other when combined, and to at when feparated. See
#Epini Tentamen Theorie Ele@tricitatis et Magnetifmi.

Evectricat Balance. See ELECTROMETER.

Exvectricat Balls. See ELECTROMETER.

Exvectricar Battery. See Barrery.

Evectricar Beatification. See BEatrricaTion,

Exvecrricar Bells. See Bets.

Evecrricar Brufh. See Brusu.

Evectrricar Cement. See CarMENT.

Exvecrricar Circuit. See Circuit.

Execrricar Coating. See Coatinc.

Evectaicat Condudors. See Conpuctors of Elec«
tricity. sd

Exvecrricat £el, See Gymnortus.

Evectrican Excitation. See Excitation. }

Evecrrican Experiments. The hiftory of the fctence
clearly {news that the human fpecies has obtained a much
greater fhare of knowledge re{pecting the works of nature,
within the laft two hundred years, than during the twenty
or more centuries preceding them. If it be inquired how
came this great {cientific advancement to be made in a period
fo very fhort, it will be found that this is entirely owing to

}
the

——

" ELECTRICAL.

the happy fubftitution of experiments to opinions; or of
matter of fact to the wanderings of the imagination.
When the learner was accultomed implicitly to believe,
and to repeat, the fanciful explanations of the teacher, er-
rors and abfurdities were propagated without the poflibility
of correétion or of improvement. But when the ftudent of
nature adopted the motto of * Nullius in verba,” and
liftened enly to the refults of experiments, or to the unerring
mathematical deductions from thofe refults, then the temple
of fcience was rasfed with rapidity and triumph, by the ac-
cumulation of fats upon facis, which were firmly cemented
by the ftriGeft reafoning.

The {cience of ele€tricity is a ftriking inftance of the above-
mentioned obfervation; for whatever is known of it has been
acquired by means of a laborious experimental inquiry:
and it is to be remarked, that the refults of experiments
have generally turned out different from any pre-conceived
hypothefis. The general and comprehenfive deductions
which have been pointed ext by the concurrence of many
experiments are called the Laws of Eleétricity, and in men-
tion'ng thefe laws under their various denominations, we
fhall defcribe the experiments which are neceflary for
their demonttration ; but there are feveral other experiments,
which, though not abfolutely neceffary for the demonitra-
tion of thefe laws, are, neverthelefs, either entertaining
or ufeful in fome other point of view; and thefe will be de«
{cribed in the prefent article.

Experiments relating to Eledrics and Cendudors.

The principal method of difcriminating thefe two kinds
of bodies from each ocher is defcribed under the article

Exectrican Airadion and Repulfion; but the following
experiments will fhew how to determine thefe and other ana-
logous properties in particular cafes, where the above-men-
tioned general method cannot be applied.

Experiment 1.—Mr. Henley’s method of fhewing the flight
gonduding power of Jmoke, and of the vapour of water.

Sufpend a cork ball eleGtrometer from the.ceiling of aroom,
fo as to ftand about four or five fect ebove the conductor

_ of a eleétrical machine; then put the machine in ation

very gently, fo that the bails of the cleétrometer may not
be affefied by it.- Stick.a fhort piece of wax taper, juft
blown out, upon the prime conduétor, and under the elec-
trometer, fo that the {moke may afcend to the latter. In
this fituation, if the machine be put in attion as gently as
before, the electrometer will open with the fame kind of elec-
tricity with which the prime conduéter is charged, which
fhews that the {moke is a conduétcr in a {mail degree. If,
inftead of the wax taper, a metallic veffel full of hot water be
placed upon the condu¢tor, and the machine be put in action
as before, the electrometer will alfo be caufed to diverge,
fhewing that the vapour of the water 1s a partial conductor.

Experiment 2.—To prove thai certain electrics become con-
du@ors when they are made very hot. d

Take a glafs tube of about oue-twentieth of an inch in
diameter, and above a foot in length; let it be hermetically
clofed at one end, and introduce a wire in it, fo as to be ex-
tended through its whole length. Let two or three inches
of this wire project above the open end of the tube, and there

fatten it with acork. Tie round the clofed end of the tube

another wire, which will be feparated from the wire within
the tube by the thicknefs of the glafs tube. In thefe cir-

ccumflances, if you endeavour to fend a fhock through the

two wires, (viz. the wire within the glafs tabe, and that

which is twilted on the outfide of it,) by conneéting one of

them with the outfide, and the other with the knob of a

charged Leyden pbial, you will find that the difcharge can-
Vou. XI.

not be made unlefs the tube be broken, becaufe the circuit
is interrupted by the thicknefs of the glafs at the erd of the
tube, which 1s interpofed between the two wires. But put
that end of the tube to which the external wire is faftened,
into the fire, heating it gradually until it becomes barely red
het; then endeavour to difcharge the jar again through the,
wires, and you will find that the charge is eafily tranfmitted
from wire to wire, through the fubftance of the glafs, which,
by being made red-hot, ig become a conduétor.

When the conducting power of hot refinous fubftances,
oils, &c. is to be examined, bend a glafs tube in the form of
an arch CEF D, fg. 34, and fatten a filk fring GCD to
it, which ferves to hold it by when it iz to be fet near the
fire. Fill the middle part of this tube with the fubftance
in queftion, be it rofin, fealing-wax, &c. ; then introduce
two wires AE, BF, through the apertures, fo that they.
may touch the rofin, &c. or penetrate a little way into it.
This done, let a perfon hold the tube, by the filk flring G,
over a clear fire, fo as to melt the rofin, or other fubltance,
init; and at the fame time, by conneGiing one of the wirea,
A or B, with the outfide of a charged Leyden phial, and
touching the other wire with the knob of the phial, en-
deavour to make the difcharge through the rofin, and it will
be found, that while the rofin is cold"no charge can be tranf
mitted through it. As the rofin melts, the conducting
power will begin to be manifefted, “and when the rofin ja
quite melted, the fhocks will pafs freely through it.

Experiment 3.—To try the conduéling or non-conduding
property of hot air.

‘The conduéting property of air has by no means been fully
determined, but the reader may form what judgment he
thinks proper upon the following facte.

EleCrify an infulated cork ball eletrometer, or eleGtrify
the prime conduGtor of an eleétrical machine, when the qua-
drant ele€trometer is fet upon it; then bring a red-hot iron
within lefs than an inch dillance from the eleéttometer, or”
prime conduétor, and either of them will foon Jofe its clece
tricity, which is conduéted by the hot air contiguous to the
iron; for if the experiment be repeated with the fame iron
when cold, the elericity will not be conducted away. It
has been obferved, that a battery may be difcharged by in-
troducing a red-hot iron between two knobs communicating
with the infide and outfide coating of the battery, and fland-
ing at fome diftance from each other. But if, initead of iron,
there be introduced a piece of red-hot glafs between the
two knobs, (the diftance between them remaining as at fir{t,)
then the battery cannot be difcharged ; whence we may in-
fer, that either hot air is not fo good acondu¢ior as has been
generally belicved, or that air heated by iron (perhaps in
confequence of its containing ign'tcd iron particles) is a bet-
ter conductor than when heated by red-hot glafs.

“Mr. Read endeavours to prove that hot air is not a cen-
duétor, and his experiments we ‘hall now fubjoin in his owa
words, :

“ Tt has been alfo commonly faid that bot air condu&is
eleGtricity. With a view to afcertain this matter, the fol-
lowing experiments were made: To one end of a long piece
of wood (which ferved as a handle) was fixed a glafs rod
fifteen inches long ; to the remote end of the glafs was fixed
a pith-ball eleétrometer. Having eleétrified the balls, I beld
sthem by the wooden handle, and projected them into a large
oven, immediately after the fire was drawn out of it; the,
confequence was, that when I performed the operation
flowly, tke balls loft their electricity ; but that when done
quick, with as little delay as poflidle, their ciettme charge
was not diminifhed. The elcétricity, in the firlt cale, was
found to have ¢fcaped along the glafs into the wooden han-

4K dle,

ELECTRICAL.

dle, and fo to the earth, owing to the great heat the glafs
rod had acquired, by which it became a condudtor of the
fluid, for until it had cooled a little, the balls could not be
charged again.

‘J fhall lay before the reader one circumftance more, be-
caufe it may tend to throw light on what degree of heat the
oven was in at the time the obfervations were made. The
baker having pointed out to me the hotteft part of the oven,
with a quick motion in and out, I plunged the electrified
balls into that part of it, by which one thread and bail was
burned off, but the remaining ball fhewed that it ftill retained
its ele€tric charge, becaufe it was ftrongly attraéted on the
approach of my finger.”? Read’s Summary View of Spon-
taneous Electricity, p. 8.

Experiment 4.—To fhew that metallic fubftances condu@ the
eletric power through their fubftance.

Take a wire of any kind of metal, and cover part of it
with fome electric fubftance, as rofin, fealing-wax, &c.; then
difcharge a Leyden phial through it, and it will be found
that the wire conducts as well with as without that eleCtric
coating. :

Experiment 5.—To fhew that the fluids of the human body
are better conduGors of electricity than water. ‘

Take a glafs tube, about one-fortieth of an inch in diame-
ter, and about fix inches long, or rather take two fuch tubes,
exaétly equal in length and diameter, and holding one of
them with one extremity in water, let it be filled with that
fluid. The water will foon fill the tube, in virtue of the
capillary attraction, efpecially if the tube be held inclined to
the furface of the water. After the fame manner let the
other tubebbe filled with blood, or fome other fluid of the
human body. Now let an eleGtric jar be charged, and let
the circuit through which the jar is to be difcharged be
formed by the interpofition of one of thofe tubes, (to the
extremities of which flender wires may be fitted, fo as juft
to touch the fluid contained in it,) and likewife by the in-
terpofition of a perfon who may be defirous of trying the
experiment. In this manner, if the difcharge of the jar be
made feveral times, alternately changing the glafs tube, viz.
ufing once that which is filled with water, then the other
which is filled with blood, &c., it will be found that the
fhock is felt more fenfibly when the glafs tube filled with the
animal fluid forms part of the circuit, than when the tube
filled with water is ufed.

The perfon who tries this experiment needs not be afraid
of the fhocks, becaufe their force is much weakened by
pafling through that {mall quantity of fluid which is con-
tained in the glafstube. Bvcfides, the ftrength of the fhocks
fhould not be greater than may be juit felt. It is only ne-
ceflary to charge the Leyden phial always equally high,
which is eafily done by ufing Mr. Lane’s difcharging clec-
trometer. See Discuarcer ofcledricity.

After the fame manaer the degree of condu@ting power
of various fubftances may be afcertained. Thus it may
be obferved, that fea-water condu&ts better than frefh water,
and that common frefh water conduéts better than dittilled
water. The condu€ting powers of certain powders may
alfo be tried in this manner. j

Experiment 6. To determine the different conduding powers
of metallic fubjlances.

Connect with the hook, which communicates with the
outlide coating of a battery, containing at leaft thirty {quare
feet of coated furface, a wire of about one-fiftieth part of
an inch in diameter, and about two feet long. The other
end of the wire muft be faftened to one end of the difcharg-
ing rod ; this done, charge the battery, and then, by bring-
ing the difcharging rod near its wires, fend the explofion

through the fmall wire, which by this means will be made
red-hot, and melted, fo as to fall upon the floor in diifer-
ent glowing pieces. Whena wire is melted in this man-
ner, {parks are frequently feen at a confiderable diftance
from it, which are red-hot particles of the metsl, that by
the violence of the explofion are fcattered in all dire€tions:
Tf the force of the battery be very great, the wire will be
entirely difperfed by the explofion, fo that none of it can
afterwards be found. f

By repeating this experiment with wires of different me-
tals, and uling the fame force of explofion, it will be found
that fome metals are fuled more readily than others, whilft
fome are not fenfibly aff=@ed; which fhews the difference
of their condu€ting powers. But in condvéting fuch ex-
periments, the power of the battery mult be adjufted to the
fize of the wires, which mult be of equal diameters and
lengths. It is alfo to be remarked, that when every thing
is properly adjuited, and the battery is charged always equally
high; fome wires are melted through their whole length,
whilft others are barely melted at their extremities, or are
only rendered red-hot.

No perfon feems to have fucceeded fo well as Mr. Van

Marum in the determination of the conduting powers of.

metallic fubftances ; for which purpofe he employed the fa~
mous eleétrical machine belonging to the mufenm of Tey-
Jer, and an electrical battery, which contained 225 fquare
feet of coated furface. Mr. Van Marem had wires of dif.
ferent metals drawn ef the fame diameter, which was equal
to one-thirty fecond part of an inch; and, by expofing
equal lengths of them fucceffively to the above-mentioned
battery, which was charged equally high in every experi-
ment ; he found, that of the leaden wire I20 inches were
melted, of tin wire the like quantity, ofiron wire five inches
were fufed, of gold wire three inches and a half, and of fil-
ver wire, or brafs, or copper, a quarter of an inch only was
melted, which fhews a pretty good eftimate of their fulibility
by the action of eleCtricity, whence the conduéting power
may be inferred, by confidering this to be in the inverfe
ratio of their fufibility. :

In order to compare this eleGtrical fufibility of the me= .

tallic f{ubitances with their fulibility by the common fire, we
fhall now add the latter; which, according to-the acade
micians of Dijon, is as follows.

Tin melts at 170° of Reaumur’s thermometers

Lead - +230
Silver - - 450
Gold - 563
Copper - 630
fron?) 696

According to Mr. Wedgwood’s experiments,

Brafs melts at 3807° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.

Swedifh copper 4587

Finefilver - 4717

Fine gold - 5237

Caft iron - 17,977. Phil. Tranf. vol. 72.

From the above-mentioned and other eleGtrical experi-
ments, made with the fame eleGtrical machine and battery,
Mr. Van Marum deduces the following cenclufions, viz.
that lead is the worft, and upon the whole, copper is the
moft eligible metal for the conftrnétion of a condu&or of
lightning.—That he could not poffibly determine the pro-
portion between the lengths and diameters of metallic wires,
thatcould be meltedby the powerof the Teylerian machine. —
That iron, tin, and copper, were melted into globules.;
but this was not the cafe with the other metals.—That the
metallic globules were fometimes thrown to the diftance of
thirty feet and upwards.—That the globules of tin remained

red-hot

ELEGDRIC Al.

red-hot for abont eight or ten feconds; and that when the
wires were very long, the fufion was but partial.

Mr. Van Marum had the curiofity of trying whether the
metallic wires could be fufed and calcined in water ; viz. by
fending the charge of the battery through them whilft ttand-
ing under water; and he fucceeded whenever he ufed the
eighth part of that length of wire, which would have been
calcined if the experiment had been performed in air.

The facility with which iren and fteel are fufed by means
of eleGtricity, and the violence with which {mall particles of
them burn, renders them peculiarly ufeful in entertaining ex-
periments. ‘Lhe filaments produced in turning articles of
fteel are fo very readily ignited by an eleétric fhock, that
fome of the finelt of them may be burned by the difcharge
of a fix ounce coated phial, or even a {mailer one, They
may be aifo burned by a fingle {park from a large prime-
conductor.

Experiment >. To fbew that the focus of a burning gla/s is
uot a condudor of eledricity.

Let a wire, that proceeds from the outfide of a charged
Leyden. phial, come within an inch of the knob of that
phial, or, in fhort, fo as to be very little farther from it than
the ftriking diftance. Let then the focus of the folar rays,
that are colleéted by a lens or mirror, fall midway between
the knob of the phial and the wire which proceeds from its
eutfide, and it willbe found that the charge of the phial 1s
by no means diffipated ; whereas if the flame of a candle, or
any other condudtor, be interpofed between the knob and
the wire, the difcharge will take place immediately. This
experiment feems to corroborate the fuppofition, that the
rays of the fun, or of light in general, have no heat in them-
felves, but that they only extricate the caloric from fuch
bodies as they happen to fall upon, provided thofe bodies
obitruct their courfe and are not tran{parent.

Experiments'relating to clediric Aitradion and Repulfion.

The laws of ele€tric attre€tion and repulfion are as follow.
Bodies pofleffed of the fame kind of ele€tricity (whether
pofitive or negative) repel each other; but bodies pofleffed
of different kinds of eleétricity attra&t each other. See the

article Erecrric Aitrattion and Repulfion.

Experiment 1. The dancing images.

Fig. 35. reprefents two flat circular plates, either of brafs
or copper, about fix inches in diameter. The plate A is
fufpended horizontally from the prime conductor by means
of achain, or wire. ‘The lower plate B, which is generally
made a little larger in diameter, is fituated parallel to the
former at the diftance of about three inches. This lower
plate is fixed to the ftand C, fo that it may be raifed higher
or lower, which is accomplifhed by the following fimple
conftrution. A f{mooth and ftraight wire is rivetted in the
centre of the plate B, and moves in a hole made through the
axis of the ftand C, which, by being flit along an inch or
two from the top, is rendered fpringy, fo as to hold the
above-mentioned wire pretty tight in any fituation. The
ftand C refts upon the table, &c.

Piace any kind of light bodies upon the lower plate B,

_ fuch as bran, bits of paper, pieces of gold-leaf, &c. then

work the eleétrical machine which ftands contiguous to the
other end of the prime conduétor, and the light bodies will
foon move between the two plates, leaping alternately from
the one to the other with confiderable velocity. If inftead
of bran, or irregular pieces of other matter, {mall figures of

-men and other things cut in paper, and painted, be put

upon the lower plate, thefe will generally move in an ere&
pofition, byit will fometimes leap one upon another, og will

“

exhibit different poftures, affording a pleafing entertaiament
toean obferving company. In this experiment both the
attraction and the repullion are obferved at the fame time 5
and the reafon of thefe phenomena is explained in the arti-
cle Evectric Astradion and Repulfion. ;
Experiment 2. The eleéric well—Place upon an infulat-
ing ftanda metal quart mug, or fome other conducting
body nearly of the fame form and dimenfions. Faften a
fhort cork-ball eletcometer to the extremity of a filk thread
that proceeds from the ceiling of the room, or from fome
convenient ftand, fo that the cleGtrometer may be fufpended
within the mug, and no part of it may be above the aperture
thereof. This done, ele€trify the mug, by giving it a {park
with an excited ele tric or otherwif<; and you willfind that the
eleGtrometer, whilft it remains in that infulated fituation, even
if it be made to touchthe fides of the mug, is not attraét-dby it,
nor does it acquire any elcétricity ; but if, woillt it ttands fuf-
pended within the mug, aconduétof, {tanding out of the mug,

_be made tocommunicate withthe el Qrometer, or is only pre-

fented toit, thenthe cle tromets racquiresanelectricity contrary
to thatof themug, andis of courfe immediately attracted by it.

The reafon why, in this experiment, the ele€trometer con-
tras no electricity, whiilt it remains fufpended entirely withia
the cavity of the mug, is that the eleGtricity of the mug
adits upon the ele¢trometer on all fides, hence the eleGtrometer
has no opportunity of parting with its electric fluid, when
the mug ts eleGtrified politively; nor of receiving any, when
the mugiseleétrified negatively. But as foon.as any con-
du@or communicates with it, the eleQrometer becomes im-
mediately poffefled of the ele€tricity contrary to that of the
mug, &c. If, by raifing the filk thread a little way, part
of the eleGtrometer, viz. of its linen threads, be lifted juft
above the mouth of the mug, the balls wili be immediately
attreéted ; for in this cafe the eétion of the ecleétricity of
the mug will enable the eleGtrometer to receive from, or to
impart to, the contiguous air, fome eleGtvic fluid; or elfe
the electric fluid of the balls may be crowded upon that part
of the linen threads which proje€t above the aperture of the
mug, &c. hence the balls will acquire‘an electricity contrary
to that of the mug, and will of courfe be attreéted by it.

The cleGricity which is communicated to the mug
refides entirely upon its external furface, for the air conti-
guous to it can eafily acquire the contrary elcétricity ; but
no eleétricity can be manifefted on the internal furface of the
mug, becaufe the air within that cavity, being entirely fur-
rounded by the eleCtrificd mug, cannot acquire the contrary
eleCtricity, excepting towards the aperture of the mugy
where in fe& a little ele étricity is to be obferved.

Experiment 3. The eledtrified capillary flream.—Let a
{mall metallic bucket, nearly full of water, be {ulpended to
the prime conductor, and let the water proceed from it. drop
after drop, either by means of a glafs capillary fyphon, as
reprefented in fiz. 36, or by means ofa hole in the bottom, as
reprefented in fg. 37. In this difpofition, if the elcCtrical
machine be put in action, the water, which, when not elec-
trified, only dropt from the aperture, will now run ina full
flream, which will even be fubdivided into other {maller

‘ftreams; and, if the experiment be made in the dark, it

will appear beautifully illumined. The abbé Nollet, who
made a vaft number of experiments re{pecting this electrifed
{tream, as well as on the eétion of electricity in evaporations,
obtained the following refults.

The electrified ftream, though it divides, andcarries the
liquid a great way, is neither fenfibly accelerated nor res
tarded, when the pipe through which it iffues is not lefs than
a French line in diameter.

4Re Uader

ELECTRICAL.

Under this diameter, if the tube is wide enough to let the
liquid run in a continued ftream, eleGtticity accelerates it a
little, but lefs than a perfon would imagine, if he judged by
the number of jets which are formied, and by the diftance
to which they go.

If the tube be a capillary one, from which the water only
@rops naturally, the ele€trified jet not only becomes a con-
tinned ftream, and even divided into feveral ftreams, but is
alfo confiderably accelerated; and ‘the fmaller the capillary
tube is, the greater, in proportion, is the acceleration.

So great is the effe& of the ele€tric virtue, that it drives
the water ina con‘tant ftream out of avery {mall capillary
tube, out of which it had not before been able even to
drop.

Ele&tricity augments the natural evaporation of fluids,
for, excepting mercury and oil, all the others that were
tried fuffered a diminution, which could not be afcribed to
any other caufe than electricity.

If it be communicated to infulated fruits, fluids, and, in
general, to bodies of every‘kinid, which are aétually in a
ftate of evaporation; it increafes that evaporation in a greater
er leffer dezree, according as thofe bodies are naturally more
orlefs evaporable, according as the veffels which contain
them are conductors or eleGtrics, and as they expofea greater
or lefler furface to the open air. But from fome very accurate
experiments made by M. De Sauffure with his hair hygro-
meter, itappearsthat the electricity promotes the evapo-
ration of thofe bodies which are fuperfaturated with water,
but not of thofe which do not contain a fuperabundant
quantity of it.

Experiment 4. The ele@rified bells. —A {hort defcription of
this experiment 1s contained nthe article Bevx, but inadvert-
ently, without referring to the figure ; we fhall therefore fup-
ply the defect in this place, and fhall add fome other varieties
‘of this entertaining apparatus. Fig. 33. Plate V. reprefents
the bell apparatus inits fimple and original ftate. A Bisa
piece of brafs to which the three brafs bells C, E, G, and
‘the two brafs balls, or clappers, D, F, are faltened; the two
bellsC aod G being {ufpended by brafs chains; and the middle
bell with the two clappers being fufpended by filk threads.
A chain likewife proceeds from the infide of the middle bell
E, and falls upon the table. This machinery is fufpended at
the end of the prime conduétor by paffing the knobbed wire,
‘which is ufually affixed thereto, through the hole H.

Fig. 39. is another mode of mounting the bells. The
pillar A is of glafs; the horizontal wires at the top of it
are of brafs, and are faftened to the braf ball a. The four
bells o, 0, 0,0, are fufpended to the extremities of the hori-
zontal wires by means of wires or chains; the four clappers
are fufpended by filk threads ; ard the middle bell c is fixed
to the ftand which is acondu€tor. When this apparatus is
to be ufed, it muft be placed upon a table with the knob a
in contact with the prime conduétor. In that fituation, if
the ele&trical machine be put in aGtion, the four bells 9, 0, 0, 0,
becoming ele€&trified, attraéi the clappers; thefe become
electrified and are repelled by thofe four bells, and ftrike
againit the middle bell c, upon which they depofit their
eleGtricity, and are then again attra€ted by the four bells,
&c. fo that the ringing continues as long asthe eledtrical
machine is kept in e€tion.

Fig. 46. reprefents another fet of bells, in which the bells
are differently tuned, and they are ftruck fucceflively by the
fame clapper. Thefe bells are fixed all round the bottom
board 4: £, from the middle of which a glafs pillar rifes, to
the top of which a pointed wire, is faftened, and upon this
wire the flyer dc dreits, likethe magnetic needle of a com-

pafs. (The nature of this flyer willbe fhewn in the’fequel
of this article.) From one arm of the flyer a wire g proe
ceeds, which nearly reaches the bottom board, and aclapper,
fufpended by a filk flring, is faitened to the fame arm of the
flyer between the wire g and the apexd. ‘I’o ufe this ap-
paratus, the prime conductor mutt be removed from the elec-
trical machine, and the bell apparatus 1s placed fo, that the
flyer 5c dmay come very near the cylinder of the machine.
In this fituation, if the machine be worked, the eleCtricity
of the cylinder will caufe the flyer to turn in a dire Ction
contrary to the pointed extremities of its arms, and at the
fame time the clapper wili {ucceffively flrike each of the bells
and the vertical wire g, the teafon of which may be eafily
derived from what has been faid above refpecting the other
bells.

Experiment 5. The artificial fpider Jeemingly animated by
ele@ricity.— Fiz. 41. reprelents a Leyden phial, to the out-
fide of which the brafs hoop and arma cis fixed. The
ball c of this brafs arm rifesto the fame level as the ball d,
which communicates with the infide coating of the phial ;
eis an artificial {pider made of cork, witha few thort threads
run through, to reprefent its legs. This {pider is fufpended
by a filk thread, which proceeds from the ceiling of the
room, or from any other convenient fupport, fo that the
{fpider may hang mid-way between the two balis d and c,
when the Leyden phial is not charged. Let the Place of
the phial upon the table be marked; then charge this phial
by putting its ball din contaé with the prime condeéor,
&c. and replace it in the above-mentioned fituation. The
fpider will now begin to move from one ball to the other,
and back again, and will continue this motion for a confie
derable time; {ometimes for feveral hours.

The infide of the Leyden phial being charged pofitively,
the {pider is attra€ted by the ball d, which communicates to
it afmall quaatity of ele&tricity; the fpider then becoming
poffeffed of the fame kind of eleCtricity as the ball d, is re-
pelled by it and is attraéted by the ball ¢, whereupon it de-
pofits its eleGtricity, and is afterwards attraéted again by ay
and fo on. In this manner the phial is gradually dif-
charged.

Experiment 6. To fpin fealing-wax by means of eleGricity.
Stick \a {mall piece of fealing-wax on the extremity of a
wire, and warm it fo as.to render it ready to drop; and at the
famz2 time letthe el: &-ical machine be worked; then ftop
the motion of the machine, and inftantly bring the hot
fealing-wax within four or five inches of the prime con-
ductor, moving it about ia a winding dircGtion, and you
will find that the fealing-wax throws feveral exceedingly fne
threads to the prime conductor, which appear like red wool.
This experiment an{wers beit when the conductor is covered
with varnifh.

Mr. Adams defcribes this experiment in the following
manner. ‘¢ Stick,’ he fays, “a piece of fealing-wax on
the conduétor, infuch a manner as it may be ealily fet or
fire bya taper. While it is flaming, turathe cylinder, the
wax will become pointed and fhoot out an almoft invifible

thread into theair, te the length of a yard and more. If —

the filaments that are throwa out by the wax are received
ona fheet of peper, the paper will be covered with them in
a very curious manner, and the particles of the wax will
be fo far fub-divided as to refemble fine cotton. To fatten
the piece of wax conveniently to the condu@tor, ftick it firft
on a {mall piece of paper, then twilt the end of the paper
fo as to fit one of thé holes which are made in the prime con-
ductor; when it is thus placed, it may be eafily fired bya
taper.”

Lxperiment 7.

head

ELECTRICAL,

Experiment 3. The dancing balls—Fix a pointed wire
upon the prime conductor, with the point outwards; then

take a glafs tumbler, grafp it with your hands, and prefent_

its infide furface to the point of the wire upon the prime
conduétor, while the eleétrical machine is in motion. By
this means the glafs tumbler will foon become charged ; for
its infide furface acquires the ele¢tricity from the point, and
its outfide lofes its natural quantity of eleétric fluid through
the hands, which ferve as a temporary coating. T'his done,
put a few pith-balls upon the table, and cover them with
the charged glafs tumbler. The balls will immediately be-
gin to leap up along the fides of the glafs, as reprefented in
Jig. 42 5 and will continue that motion for a confiderable
time.

In this experiment the pith-balls are attraSted and re-
pelled by the eleétrified infide furface of the glafs, the elec-
tricity of which they gradually condué to the table, or other
conduGting body, upon which the glafs is fet ; at the fame
time that the contrary eleGtricity of the external furface of
the glals is communicated to the furrounding air.

Experiment 8.. The electrified head of hair.—lf a per-
fon, having pretty long hair, not tied up, upon his head, be
placed upon an infulating ftand, and, by means of a wire,
or chain, or by touching it with his extended hand, be con-
neéted with the prime conduGtor, and the electrical machine
be put in ation, the hairs on his head, by repelling each
other, will ftretch out in a furprifing manner. Inttead of
a human being, a fmall wooden head, covered with hair, is
placed upon the prime conduétor, and, on working the
machine, the hair will be all ftretched out, like the rays
diverging froma centre. The fame thing will take place if
a downy feather, or a bundle of threads, tied up at one end,
like a taffel, be fixed to the prime conduétor.

Experiment 9. The metallic leaf fufpended in the air.—
Cut a piece of gold, or filver, or brats leaf, in the form of a
fquare, or of a lozenge, hke A, fiz. 43; place it upon a
broad metallic plate B, and hold the plate under the ball of
the wire, which is ufually fixed to the end of the prime
conductor. On working the machine, the metallic leaf will
rife from the plate B, and will remain fufpended between
that plate and the ball C, with one point, or angle, towards
the one, and the oppolite towards the other, without touch-
ing either. ‘This effe&t is owing to the action of the points
of the leaf; for the point enables the leaf to abforb the
eleGric fluid from the pre conduétr, without actually
touching it, and the oppofite point dilcharges that fluid
upon the plate B alfo without aétual contact. If the plate
B be moved round the ball C, as reprefented at D, the leaf
will alfo move round without touching either ball or plate.

Experiments relating to cledric Light.

The two eleétricities produce peculiar luminous appear-
ances, which are particularly defcribed under the article
Exvectric Licur; but it is neceflary in this place barely
_ to. mention, that a pointed condutor, proceeding from a
body pofitively eleGtrified, is, in the dark, illuminated with
a pencil of light; but, if the body be eleétrified negatively,
the point will be illumined with a ftar, or globule of light,
provided the eleGtrified body is ele&trified powerfully enough.
If a pointed conductor be prefented to an electrified body,
the above luminous appearances are reverfed; viz. a pencil
of light will appear upon the point when the body is elec-
trified negatively, and a ftar when the body is cleétrified
pofitively.

Experiment 1. The fpiral tube.—Fig. 44. reprefents an
inflrument compofed of two glafs tubes C, D, one within
the other, and clofed with two knobbed brafs cafes A and

B. The innermoft of thefe tubes has a {piral row of {mall
round pieces of tin-foil, fluck upon its outfide furface, and
lying at about one-thirtieth of an inch from each other.
If this inftrument be held by one of its extremities, and its
other extremity be prefented to the prime conductor, every
{park that it receives from the prime conduétor will caufe
{mall {parks to appear between all the round pieces of tin-
foil that are ftuck upon the inner tube, which, in a dark
room, affords a pleafing fpetacle ; the inftrument appearing
encompaffed by a fpiral line of fire.

The fmall pieces of tin-foil are alfo fluck upon a flat plate
of glafs, fo as to reprefent curve lines, flowers, letters, &c.
and they are illumined after the fame manner as the fpiral
tube. But the beft way of exh:biting a luminous word is
to flick 2 long flip of tin-foil, in a zig-zag manner, upon a
flat plate of glafs, one end of this flip communicating with
a brafs knob on one of the giafs plates, and the other extre-
mity communicating with a hook, or another brafs ball on
the oppolite fide of the glaf. The letters are formed by
cutting {mall interftices in the parallel flips of tin-foil. A
plate of this fort is reprefented in Ag. 45, where 4 is the hook
to which a chain is fufpended, and G is the brafs ball
which, being prefeated to the prime conductor, receives the
fparks, &c.

If the furface of the glafs plate, oppofite to that upom
which the tin foil is ftruck, is potnted with diflcrent tran-
{parent colours, the {parks will appear tinged of the colours
through which they are fen.

pe Nena 2. The artificial Bolonian flone, and other
phojphorefcent fubflances, illumined by the eleGrtc light.

‘The penetrability of the ele€tric ligtit is fhewn in a very
{triking manner, either with the real, or with the artificial
Boloaian ftone, which was invented by Mr. Canton, and is
prepared in the following manner. ‘* Calcine fome common
oytter-fhells, (if they be old, and half calcined by time, as
are commonly found upon the fea-fhore, they are much better
for this purpofe,) by keeping them in a good coal-fire for
half an hour. Let the pureft part of the calx be pulverized
and fifted ; mix three parts of this powder with one part of
flowers of fulphur; let this mixture be rammed into a
crucible of about an inch anda haifin depth, till it be almoft
full ; and let it be placed in the middle of the fire, where it
mutt be kept red-hot for ove hour, at leatt, and then fet it by
to cool: when cold, turn it out of the crucible, and cutting,
or brezking it to picces, {crape off, upon trial, the brightet

arts, which, if good phofphorus, wiil be a white powder,
and may be preferved by keeping it in a dry plial well
ftopped.”’

If this phofphorus, whether in or out of the phial, be kept
in the dark, it wil! not give any light ; but if ic be expofed to
the light either of the day, or of any luminous objeti, and be
afterwards brought into a dark place, it will chen appear lucid
for aconfiderable time. When good, about a quarter of an
ounce of this phofphorus, in a two-ounce phial, will, after
having been expofed to the light, and then brought into a
dark place, afford light fufficient for reading the hour upon
awatch. For farther particulars refpeéting this phofphorus,
fee the 58th vol. of the Phil, Tranf. See Bononian
Stone and Puosruorus.

If the phial containing fome of the above defcribed pho!-
phorus be held near the prime conductor, when a few
{trong {parks are drawn from it, within three or four inche@ »
of the phial, in a dark room; the phofphorus will be illu-
mined by them, and will afterwards continue to fhine for
about three or four minutes, the light, however, gradually
decreafing. This is the fimpleft way of exhibiting this
phofphorus; but, with very little trouble, various curious

preparations

ELECTRICAL.

preparations may be made with it, which we fhall now pro-
ceed to defcribe, obferving, once for all, that though ftrong
{parks will illuminate this phofphorus fufficiently well,

when taken near it ; yet the light which is afforded by the.

difcharge of a Leyden phial will produce the effect in a
fuperior manner.

This pholebans powder may be ftuck upon a board. by
means of the white of an egg, fo as to reprefent figures of
the planets, letters, or‘any thing elfe at pleafure ; and thefe
reprefentations may be illumined in the above-mentioned
manner.

A beautiful method of exprefling geometrical firures with
the above-mentioned phofphorus is as follows. Bend {mall
glafs tubes, of about the tenth part of an inch in diameter, in
the fhape of the intended figures, and then fill them with the
phofphoric powder. Thefe tubes, fo filled, may be illumined
in the manner already defcribed, and they are not nearly fo
dubje& to be fpoiled as the figures reprefented upon a
board.

When this phofphorus is ftuck uniformly upon a card,
place a fmall key uponit, ard difcharge a Leyden jar very
near it, ina dark room. This done, lay hold of the card
by one corner, and throw off the key. The phofphorus
will appear illumined all over the card, excepting where the
-key ftood, and the reprefentation of the key will be fo exa&,
that a {pectator will hardly believe that the key has been
removed.

When oyfter-fhells are thrown carelefsly into the fire, and
are kept therein different lengths of time, they acquire dif-
ferent degrees of pho{phoric power, and fome of them, when
afterwards illumined by the cleGtric light, will exhibit the
pri{matic colours in a beautiful manner. But béfides the
oytter-fhells, almoft all calcareous fubftances, when dry and
hot, and efpecially when burned to lime, have the property
of being 1lumined by the difcharge of a Leyden phial paflcd
over their furfaces ; and of continuing to fhine for about a
few feconds, or a minute, or even longer. Paper, or a
card, made very dry and hot, has the fame property. When
a jaris difcharged through a piece of loaf-fugar, the fugar 1s
generally broken, and every piece is beautifully illuminated.

Experiment 3. The aurora borealis, and Leyden vacuum —
Take a phiai nearly of the fhape aed fize of a Florence
flaf ; fix a tlop-cock to its neck, and exhauft the air out
of it by means of the air-pump. If this phial be-rubbed
in the common manner, fuch as is ufed for exciting eleétrics,
it will appear luminous within, being full of a flafhing
light, which much refembJes the aurora borealis, or northern
lights. This phial may alfo be rendered luminous, by hold-
ing it by either end, and bringing the other end to the prime
conduétor, when the electrical machine isin aGidn. In this
cafe, all the cavity of the phial will inftantly appear full of a
flafhing hght, which remains in it for a confiderable time
after it has been removed from the prime condu€tor. And
it is to be remarked, that if the phial, after it has been re-
moved from the prime condu@or, (and even feveral hours
after ite flafhing light has ceafed to appear,) be grafped with
the hand, ftrong flafhes of light will immediately appear
within it, which often reach from one of. its extremities to
the other.

There are two caufes upon which this experiment de-
pends. The firlt is the condudting nature of the vacuum,
vand the fecond is the charging and difcharging of the glafs ;
for when the outtide of the glafs phial is put in contaét with
the prime conductor, the eleétric fluid, which is communi-
cated to the outfide of that part of the phial, caufes the
natural fluid belonging to the infide furface to depart from
its place, and to go to the oppolite fide of the phial; and

this fluid, by paffing through the partial vacuum, caufes
the light within the phial, which light is more or lefs
fubdivided, according as the vacuum is more or lefs perfect.
Now, that part of the phial which has touched the prime con-
duGor is aétually charged ; for its outfide furface has ac-
quired an additional quantity of eleG&ric fluid, and the in-
fide furface has loft part of its own ; but fince the outfide
of the phial has no coating, therefore, when it is removed
from the prime condudior, and is not grafped with the hand,’
or other conductor, the charged part of the glafs can only
be difcharged gradually; that is, whilft its outfide furface
is Communicating its fuperfluous fluid to the contiguous air,
the infide furface acquires that fluid from the other end of
the phial, and the paflege of this fluid through the vacuum
caufes the flafhhing. When the phial is grafped with the
hand then its difcharge is accelerated.

When aphial of this fort is coated with tin-foil on its
outfide for about three or four inches, it is then called the
Leyden vacuum, it being, in feét, an exheuted Leyden
phial. The figs. 46. ard 47. reprefent this phial in its bett
conftru€tion. A brafs ferrule, having a hole witha valve, is
cemented to the neck of this phial, and around brafs cap is
{crewed over it. A wire, terminating in a point, though not
avery fharp one, proceeds from thie ferrule a fhort way with-
in the phial. The infide cf this phial requires no coating, on
account of the conducting nature of the vacuum.

This phial clearly exhibjts the dircGtion of the elk Gric
fluid, both in charging and difcharging; for if it be held by
its coated lower parr, and its brafs knob be prefented to the
prime cond: tor pofitively el @ ified, a pencil of light will
be feen to proceed from the point of the wire, as in fig. 46 5
and when it is difcharged, a ftar or globule of light will
appear inthe place of the pencil, as in fig. 47. If the phial
be held by its brafs cap, and its coated part be prefented to
the prime conductor; then the point of the wire in its infide
will appear illumined with a ftar when charging, and with a
peacii when difcharging. If it be prefented to a conductor
negatively electrified, thefe appearances will be reverfed.

Experiment 4. The luminous conduétor.—Fig. 48. repre-
fents a prime conduétor invented by the late Mr. Henly,
for the purpofe of fhewing the dire tion of the eleGtric fluid
by the appearancesof its light. [he middle part E F. of
this conduéter confiftsof a glafs tube about eighteen inches
long, and three or four inches in diameter. To both ends
of this tube brafs pieces F D, BE, are cemented air-tight,
one of which has a pointed wire C, which ferves asa colleGtor
to receive the electric fluid from the machine, when the in-
ftrument is fet near it, ard the other has a knobbed wire G,
from which a ftrong {park may be drawn ; and from each of
the pieces FD, BE, a knobbed wire proceeds within the
cavity of the glafs tube. One of the brafs pieces, viz.
either F D or BE, is compofed of two parts; that is,a cap
F, which is cemented to the clafs tube, and has a hole with
a valve by which the cavity of the glafs tube may be ex-
hautted of air; and the ball D, which is {crewed_upon the
cap I’. ‘The fupporters of this inftrument are two glafs
pillars fixed into the bottom board H, and ferewed to the
brafs caps, or having at their upper extremities two femi-
circular hollows, upon which the conduéter is barely laid.
When the glafs tube of this conduétor has been exhautted
by means of an dir-pump, andthe brafs ball is f{erewed on,
as reprefented in the figure, then it is fit for ufe, and may
ferve for a prime conduétortoan eltrical machine.

If the point C of this conduétor is fet before the excited
glafs cylinder of the machine, it will appear illuminated with
a ftar; at the fame time the glafs tube will appear through.
out illumined with a weak light; but from the knobbed

wire,

ee

ELECTRICAL.

wire, that proceeds from the piece FD, within the giafs
tube, a brighter lucid pencil iffues, and the oppofite knob
appears illumined with a flar or round body of light, which,
as well as the pencil of rays, is very clear, and difcernible
amidft the other light, which occupies almoft the whole ca-
vity of the gigfs tube. If the point C, inttead of being
prefented to the excited cylinder, be conneGted with the rub-
ber of the machine, the appearances of the light within the
tube E Fwill be reverfed; the knob which communicates
with the brafs piece F D appearing iluminated with a {tar,
and the oppofite one with a pencil of rays; becaufe in this
cafe the direction of the ele€tric fluid is jult the contrary of
what it was before, it then going from DtoB, and now
coming from B and going to D. If the wires within the
tube EF, inftead of being furnifhed with balls, (which,
however, need not be large,) be pomted, the appearances
of thelight wiil bethefame, but not quite fo ftrong in this
as in the former cafe.

Experiment 5. The vifible eleGric atmofphere—The fol-
lowing curious experiment is deferibed by the celebrated
Beccaria; but it feems that few perfons have been able to
repeat it with fuccefs; probably owing to the great delicacy
and caution with which it mutt be conducted.

GI, in fz. 49, reprefents the receiver with the brafs plate
of anair-pump. In the middle of the plate FI a ‘hort
metallic rod is fixed, bearing a metallic ball B, nicely po-
lifhed, and about two inchesin diameter. From the top of
the receiver another rod A D proceeds, which is furnifhed
witha like ball A, and is cemented air-tight into the neck C
of the glafs receiver. The diflance between the two balis

_Aand Bis about four inches, or rather more. When the
receiver is exhaufted of air, if the ball A be eletrificd po-
fitively, by touching the top D of the rod A D with the
prime conduétor, or with an excited glafs tube, ‘a lucid at-
mofphere will appear about it, which, though it conlilts of
afeeblelight, is, however, very confpicuous, and very weil
defined; at the fame time that the ball B bas not the leaft
light about its furface. The atmofphere does not exift all
round the ball A; but it reaches from about the middle of
the ball, to a {mall diftance beyond that fide of its furface
which faces the oppolite ball. If the rod with the bail A
be eleCtrified negatively, then a lucid atmofphere, like that
which has been defcribed above, will appear upon the ball
B, reaching from its middle toa {mall diftance beyond that
fide of it which faces the ball A; and at the fame time the
ball A, which is electrified negatively, remains deftitute of
light.

a this experiment the operator muft take care not to
eleGtrify the ball A too much, for in that cafe the elec-
tricity will pafsin the form of a {park from one ball to the
other, and the experiment wil! not have the defired effect.

Experiments to be performed with the Leyden Phial and the
eledrical Battery.

-The properties of the Leyden phial are enumerated and
explained under the article of that name, which fee:
Experiment i. To pierce a card, and other fSubflances. by
_ the difcharge of a Leyden’ phial, or charged jar.—Take a
card, a quire of paper, or the cover ofa book, hold it
clofe to the outfide coating of acharged jar; put one knob
of the difcharging rod upon the card, or quire of paper,
&c. fo that between the knob and the coating of the jar
the thicknefs of that card, or quire of paper only, may be
_ interpofed; then by bringing the other knob of the difcharg-
ing rod near the knob of the jar, make the difcharge; and
the eleGtric matter rufhing through the circuit, from the
pofitive to the negative furface of the jar, will pierce a hole,

and often more than one hole, quite through the card er
quire of paper. This hole, or holes, are larger or {maller,
according asthe card, &c. is more damp or more dry. Itis
to be remarked, that if the noftrils be prefented immediately
to it, they will be affeéted with a fmell fomewhat like ful-
phur or phofphorus, and like that which is produced, though
not fo ftrongly, by an excited eieGtric. This hole has a bur
raifed on each fide, excepting when the card has been
prefled too hard between the difcharging rod and the jar,
which fhews, that the hole is made not in the dire€tion of the
elceétric fluid, but in every direétion from the centre of the
refiltiny body.

If this experiment be performed with two cards inftead
of one, which two cards, however, mutt be kept very little
Cciftant from each other, (which may be eafily effe&ed by
bending a little one of the cards;) each of the cards, after
the difcharge, will be found pierced with one or more holes,
and each hole will be found to have burs oa both furfaces
of each card.

If intlead of paper, a very thin plate of glafs, rofin,
fealing-wax, or the hke, be interpofed between the knob of
the difcharging rod, and the outfide coating of the jar; on
making the dilcharge, this will be broken in pieces. Small
infects may be killed in this manner. They may be held
between the outfide coating of the jar and the knob of the
difcharging rod, like the above-mentioned card ; and a fhock
from a common Leyden phial, fent through one of them,
will inftantly deprive it of life, if the infeét be very fmall;
but if larger, it wil be ftunred for a time, but it will after-
wards revive. This, however, depends on the quantity of
the charge and fize of the jar, as weil as the fize of the infe&.-
In thisexperiment_if the infect, difcharzging rod, &c. be
not managed properly, the charge of the jar will pafs not
through, but over the infe&t, inwhich cafe it will not pro-
duce the defired effe&.

Experiment 2. To ie paper; or mark glafs by the dif~
charge of the Leyden phial—lLay a chain, that forms part
of the circuit between the two coated frdes of a charged jar.
upon a fheet of white paper, and after having made the
difcharge, the paper will be found tinged with a blackifh
tinge at the places which correfponded to the junétures of
the links. If thecharge be very great, the paper, initead
of being ftained with fpots, will be found burned quite
through. If the chain be laid upona pane of glafs, this-
will, after the difcharge, be found marked withindelible{pots,.
but not fo ftrongly as the paper.

When this experiment 1s performed in the dark, a fpark
is feen at every juncture of the links of the chain, and each
fpark is attended with a kind of radiation, asif particles of
the metal in anignited ftate were throwo off. When the
links are fmall, and the charge of the jar is pretty high, the —
chain, on making the difcharge, appears like a continued.
luminous line; which evidently fhews that the cleétric fluid
meets with fome refiftance, or obitruction, in pafling from
one link of the chain to another.

Experiment 3. To burf? fmall glafs tubes by means of a
Leyden phial—TYake a narrow glafs tube, viz. lefs than a
tenth of an inch in diameter, fill it with water, and infert a
wire at each opening of the tube, fo that part of the wire
may projet out of the tube at each end, and the other exe
tremities may come within a {mall diftance of each other
within the tube. If this preparation be made part of the
circuit between the infide and outfide coating of the charged
Leyden phial, on making the difcharge, the glafs tube will
be broken with violence. But in this experiment the fize
of the phial, height of the charge, &c. mult be proportioned
to the lize of the glafs tube; otherwife the tube re be

rokens.

ELEC TRIGA'TL,

“broken. Tu fhort, if the difcharge forme a vifible {park in
the water wuhin the tube, the latter will be broken; but if
the wires are too far apart, and no {park takes place, chen
the tube will not be broken. This experiment evidently
fhews that water is a very bad conduétor of eledtricity,

Experiment 4. To fire gunpowder —Make a {mall car-
tridge of paper, and fill it with gunpowder, or elfe fill the
tube of a quill with it; infert two wires, one at each extre-
mity, fo tlat their ends within the quill, or cartridge, may
be about one-fifth of an inch from one avother. This done,
fend the charge of a phial through the wires, and the {park
which takes place between the extremities of the wires
within the cartridge or quill, will fet fireto the powder. If
the gunpowder be mixed with fteel filings, it will take fire
more readily, and by a very fmall fhock.

Experiment 5. To light a candle by the diftharge of a jar.—
Take a wire of the fize of acommon knitting needle, and,
by means of a flender flexible wire or chain, let one end of it
communicate with the outfide coating of a Leyden jar, that
contains about ten inches of coated furface. Twif, but
very loofely, fome cotton round the other extremity of the
above mentioned thick wire, and fo as entirely to conceal
that extremity of the wire. This head of cotton muft be
rolled in powder of lycopodium, or in powder of rofin, which,
indeed, anfwers better than the lycopodizm, though it is
not fo clean. By this means, a good deal of the powder
will adhere to the cotton, This done, the jar is charged,
and then the head of corton is brought hafily towards the
knob of the jar. fo as to caufe the charge to pafs through
the head of cotton; oa doing which the cotton will inltanily
be fet.gn fire, and will conticue to burn long enough to lizht
2 candle with it. This experiment was contrived by Dr.
Ingenhouz.

Experiment 6. To frike metals into glafs.—Take two flips
of common window glafs, about three inches in length, and
half an inch broad; puta {mall-{lip of gold, filver, or brafs
leaf between them, and tie them together, or prefs them
between the boards of the prefs which belongs to the uni-
verfal difcharger (fee DiscHarcer), leaving alittle of the
- Tetallic leaf out at the two oppofite ends of the glailes; then
fend a fhock through the metallic leaf, and the force of the
explofion wiil drive part-of the metal into fo clofe a contaé&
with the glafs, that it cannet be wiped off, or even be af-
fe&ted by the ufual menftrua which would otherwife diffolve
it. Inthis experiment the glafles are cenerally fhattered to
pieces ; but whether they are broken or not, the iadelible
metallic tinge will always be found in feveral places, and
fometimes all along the {urface of the glaffes.

Experiment 7. To melt wires.—We have,,in a preceding
part of this article, deferibed the melting of wires by means
of an electrical battery, for the purpofe of determining their
various condu@ting powers. We fhall now. however, de-
{cribe fome other peculiar phenomena with which the melt-
ing of wires is attended. In melting wires of a confiderable
length, it is often te be obferved, that when the force of the
battery is juft fufficient to render the wire red-hot, the red-
nefs begins at one end of it; namely, at that which commu-
nicates with the pofitive fide of the battery, and from thence
it gradually proceeds to the other end; which affords an
ocular demonttration of the theory of a fingle electric fnid.
Indeed the wire is not rendered red-hot in one place before
the other, in confequence of the ele@iric fluid - paffing firft
through the former, and then though the latter; for that
difference of time is by no means appreciable; but becaufe
the eleétric fluid lofes fome of its impetus, or of its velocity,
in going through the wire, in confequence of which, that
part of the wire which the eleCtric fluid enters fuffers the

greatelt effect of the fhoek, and therefore becomes red
fooner, and in a greater degree,

If a wire be ftretched by appending weights to it, and
fuch a battery be then difcharged through it, as will render
it barely red hot, the wire will be found to be coniiderably
lengthened by it. But if the wire be left loofe, then, after
a fimilar explofion, it will be found fhortened. (See Nairne’s
paper in the 7oth vol. of the Phil. Tranf.)

If a wire be thus melted upon a piece of glafs, the glafs,
after the explofion, will be found marked with all the prif-
matic colours. But the moft beautiful impreffions are made
upon paper. For this purpofe, a battery muft be ufed of
fuch a fize as entirely to difperfe the wire, which mutt be
laid upon a piece of white paper. The explofion will ge-
nerally fix part of the metal in its metallic ftate into the .
paper, and will mark the paper on both fides of this me-
taltic track with a fmoky broad band of colour, which differs
according to the metal that has been exploded; the gold,
for inftance, makes a purplifh ftain; the filver, a grey, or
inclining to yellow, and fo on. .

Experiment 8.. To feew that the eleitric fluid prefers a fhort
paffage through the air to a long one through the beft conduGors.—
‘Take a wire of about five feét in lingth, or more, and bend
it in the form reprefented in jig. 50, viz. fo that the parts
A, B, may come within half an inch of each other; then con-
ne& the extremities of it with the hook of a battery, and
with the difcharging rod; that is, one with the former, and
the other with the latter, fo as to fend the charge through
the wire. On making the difcharge, a fpark will be feen
between A and B, which fhews that the eleGtric fluid pre-
fers a fhort peflage through the air between A and B, toa
long one through the wire. The charge, however, does
not pfs entirely through the air at AB; but part of
it alfo goes through the wire A D B, which may be
proved by interpofing a fhort and very fine wire between
A and B; for, on making the difcharge, this fine wire will
hardly be made red hot; whereas, if the large wire A DB
be cut at D, fo as to interrupt the circuit ADB, the
fmail wire will be melted, and diffipated by a difcharge
firilar to the former,

Experiment 9. To produce globules of metal.—Take a flene
der wire, aud infert it in a glafs tube of about a quarter of
an inch in diameter; then fend the charge of a battery
through it, and the wire will be melted and reduced into
giobules of different fizes, which will be found adhering to
the infide furface of the glais tube, and may be eafily fepa-
rated from it. Thefe globules, on examination with a mi-
crofcope, will be feund to be moitly follow, and, in truth,
they are little more than a mere fcoria of the metal.

Experiment 10. The Fairy circles.—¥ix wpon each of
the knobs of the univerfal difcharger (fee DiscHarGER
of Eleéiricity), or wpon the wires which fupport thofe
knobs, a flattifh and {mooth piece of metal, (watch cafes
are very proper for this purpofe,)fo that the furfaces of thofe
pieces of metal may be nearto each other fufficiently for the
charge of a battery to pafs from one to the cther; then con-
neCtone wire of the diichargerwith theoutfide coating of the
battery, and the other wire, by the help of the difchargings
rod, with the infide coating of it, foasto make the dif-
charge. his difcharge will mark a beautiful pot upon the
furfaces of the metal. It confifts of one central fpot and
fome concentric circles, which are more or lefs numerous,
and more or lefs diftinét, according as the metal upon which
they are marked is more or lefs fufible, and according like-
wife to the power of the battery. The central {pot as well —
as the circles lie at a little diftance from one another, and
they confit of dots and ae indicating a true fufion.

The

ELECTRICAL.

The moft beautiful of thefe rings are produced by a number
of difcharges repeatedly taken from a large battery, every
part of the apparatus remaining exactly in the fame fituation.
If the pieces of metal receive the explofion in vacuo, the
Spots which are formed upon them are very irregular and
confufed. This is an experiment of Dr. Prieftley.

Thefe {pots have been called Fairy circles, on account of
their bearing fome refemblance tothe {pots fo called, which
are often obferved upon the grafs in the fields. Thefe,
which may be cailed natural Fairy circles in the fields, have
been attributed to the 2¢tion of lightning; on account of
their bearing fome refemblance to the above-mentioned
effcéts of eleCtricity; the fuppofition, however, is not well
founded; for the Fairy circles in the fields have no central
fpot, no concentric circles, nor,in general, are they of a
circular form. ‘The prefent prevailing idea refpeGting the
orgin of thofe {pots in the fields is, that they are formed
by beds of mufhrooms. See the article.

Experiment 11. To mark coloured rings upon metals. —Fix
a plain piece of metal of any kind upon one of the wires of
the univerfal difcharger, (fee DiscHarcer of Eledricity,)
end upon the other wire fix a fharp-pointed needle,
with the point juft oppofite to the furface of the metal; then
connr& one wire of the difcharger with the outfide of a
battery, and the other wire with the difcharging rod, &c.
In this manner, if the difcharges be repeatedly fent either
from the point of the needle to the piece of metal, or from
the latter to the former, thefe difcharges will gradually
mark the furface of the piece of metal oppofite to the
point, with circles confifting of all the prifmatic colours;
which are evidently occafioned by very thin lamine of the
metal, raifed by the force of the explofions. Thefe colours

‘appear fooner, and the rings are clofer to each other, when

the point is fituated nearer to the furface of the metal.
The number of rings is greater or lefs according as the point
of the needle is more or lefs fharp; and they are reprefented
equally well upon any of the metals. The point of the
needle is alfo coloured to. a confiderable diftance ; the colours
upon it returning in circles, though not very diitinly. See
Prieftley’s paper in the 58th vol. of the Phil. Tranf.

Experiment 12. To fhew the effects of the difcharge of the
Leyden phial upon colours.—If cards or pieces of wood be
painted with different colours, and a Leyden phial be dif-
charged fucceffively over each coloured furface, black. marks,
more or lefs denfe and more or lefs broad, will be found
marked uponthem. Thefe experiments are commodioully
performed with the univerfal difcharger. The painted card
1s laid horizontally upon its tablet, and the points of its two
wires (for the knobs mult beremoved) are laid in contact
with the painted furface of the card, and at about two
inches diftance from each other, The other extremities of
the wires are connected with the Leyden phial, and thus the
charge is paffed over the painted furface of the card. A
Leyden phial, containing about a foot and a half of coated
furface, is fufficient for thefe experiments,

Mr. Cavallo, who originally made thefe experiments in a
great variety of ways, fays, ‘* Vermilion was marked with
a {trong black track, about one-tenth of an inch broad.
The track was generally fingle, but fometimes it was di-
vided in two towards the middle, and at other times, efpe-

~ cially when the wires were fet at a confiderable diltance from
‘each other, the track was interrupted inthe middle. It

often happened, but not always, that the impreffion was

‘ ftronger at the extremity of that wire which was conneéted

with the pofitive fide of the phial; whereas, the {pot conti-
guous to the other wire was neither fo ftrongly marked, nor
Vou. XII.

did it furround the point of that wire fo much as the
former.

**Carmine received a faint and flender impreffion of a
purple colour. Verdigris was fhaken off from the furface
of the card, except when it had been mixed with ftrong gum-
water, in which cafe it reteived a very faint impreffion.
White lead was marked with a ftrong black track, not fo
broad as that on vermilion. Red lead was marked with a
faint track, much like carmine. The other colours I tried
were orpiment, gambodge, fap-green, redink, ultramarine,
Pruffian blue, and afew others, which were compounds of
the above; but they received no impreffion.”

It has been often obferved, that when the lightning has
ftruck the mafts of fhips, it has pafled over fuch parts as
were covered with lamp-black and tar, or lamp-black and
oil, without the leaft injury; at the fame time that it has
fhivered the uncoated parts. (See the 48th and 67th vols.
of the Phil. Tranf.) In order toexamine this property of
black paint, Mr, Cavallo inftituted a feries of experiments.
** I procured,” he fays, “ fome pieces of paper painted on
both fides with oil colours, and fending the charge of two
feet of coated glafs over each of them, by making the in-
terruption of the circuit upon their furfaces, I obferved that
the pieces of paper painted with lamp-black, Pruffian blue,
vernilion, and purple brown, were torn by the explofion ;
but white lead, Naples yellow, Englith ochre, and verdi-
gris, remained unhurt. The fame fhock, fent over a piece
of paper painted very thick with lamp-blackand oil, left °
not the leaft impreflion.- Taifofent the fhock over a piece
of paper unequally painted with purple brown, and the
paper was torn where the paint lay very thin, but it re-
mained unhurt where the paint was evidently thicker. Thefe
experiments I repeated feveral times, and with fome little
variation, which naturally produced different effeéts ; how-
ever, they all feem to point out the following propofition.

* 1. A coat of oil paint, over any fubftance, defends it
from the effeéts of fuch an eleétric fhock, as would other-
wife injure it; but does by no means defend it from any
electric fhock whatever. 2. No one colour feems preferable
to the others, if they are equal in fubftance, and equally
well mixed with oil; but a thick coating does certainly afford
a better defence than a thinner one.

“ By rubbing the above-mentioned pieces of paper, I
found that the paper painted with lamp-black and oil was
more eafily ate and acquired a flronger eleétricity, than
the papers painted with the other colours; and perhaps on
this account it may be, that lamp-black and oil might refift
the fhock fomewhat better than the other paints.

‘© Tt isremarkable, that vermilion receives the black im-
preffion when painted with liv-feed oil, nearly as well as
when painted with water. The paper painted with white-
lead and oil receives a black mark ; but its mature is very
fingular. Thetrack, when firft made, is almoft as dark as
that marked on white lead painted with water, but it gra-
duaily lofes its blacknefs, and in about one hour’s time (or
longer, if the paint is not frefh) it appears without any
darknefs; and when the painted paper is !aid in a proper
light, appears only marked with a colovrlefs track, as if
made bya finger nail. Talfo fent the fhock over a piece of
board which had been painted with white lead and oil
about four years before, and the explofion marked the black
track upon thisalfo; this track, however, wasnot fo trong,
nor vanifhed fo foon, as that marked upon the painted
paper; but in about two days’ time it alfo vanifhed en-
tirely.””

4S Experiment

ELECTRICAL,

Experiment 13. To magnetize ficel by means of eletricity —~
Take acommon fewing needle, which upon trialis found
not to be magnetic, place it in the circuit between thein-
fide and outfide of a battery, containing about eight orten
feet of coated furface ; and fend the charge of it through
the needle. The efle€tswill be as follow: IF the needle
be ftruck, lying eaft and weft, that end of it which is en-
tered by the charge, viz. that end which communicates with
the pofitive fide of the battery, or jar, will afterwards point
north; butif the needle be ftruck, lying north and fouth,
that end of it which lay towards the vorth will in any cafe
point north; and the needle will acquire a ftronger virtue in
this than in the formercafe. Liattly, if the needle is ft
perpendicular to the horizon, and the eleétric fhock is given
to either point of it, afterwards the lower extremity of the
needle will point north. Franklin’s letters, &c. p. go; and
Beccaria’s Artif. Eleétr. § 731. to 734.

Mr. Van Marum, ufiog the very large battery of the
Teylerian mufeum, which contained 130fquare feet of coated
furface, tried to magnetize needles mace out of watch-
fprings, which meafured 3 and even 6 inches in length;
and hkewife fteel bars of g inches in length, from a
quarter to half an inch broad, and about a 12th of an inch
thick. It was obferved, that, 1{t, when the baror needle
was placed horizontally in the magnetic meridian, whichever
way the fhock entered, the end of the bar that ftood to-
wardsthe north acquired the north polarity, or the power
of turning towards the north, when treely fufpended, and
the oppofite end acquired the fouth polarity. If the bar,
before it received the fhock, had fome polarity, and was
placed with its poles contrary to the ufual dire€tion, then its
natural polarity wasalways diminifhed, and often reverfed,
fothat the extremity of it, which, in receiving the fhock,
looked towards the north, became the north pole, &c.

2. When the bar or needle was ftruck ftanding perpendi-
cularly, its loweft end became the north pole in any cale,
even when the bar wae previoufly poffcff-d of fome magnetic
virtue, and was placed with the fouth pole downwards ; all
other circumttances being alike, the ba:s feemed to acquire
an equal degree of magnetic power, whether they were
ftruck whilft ftanding horizontally in the magnetic meridian,
or perpendicular to the horizon.

3. Whena bar or needle was placed in the magnetic equa-
tor, whichever way it entered, the fhock never gave it any
magnetifm ; but if the fhock was paffed through its width,
then the needle acquired a confiderable degree of magneti{m,
and that end of it which lay towards the weft became the
north pole, and the other end the fovth pole.

4. If a needle or bar, already magnetic, or a real magnet,
was {truck in any direétion, its power was always diminifhed :
and this took place with bars of confiderable fize; one
being 7.08 inches long, 0.26 broad, and 0.05 thick.

5. Laftly, when the fhock was fo ftrong in proportion to
the fize of the needle, as to render it hot, then the needle
either acquired a very flight magnetic power, or none at all.

Experiment t4. To oxydate and to deoxydate metallic fub-
flances by means of eleéricity —If the charge of a battery be
pafled through a metallic oxyd, a partial deoxydation gene-
rally enfues ; and it has already been obferved in various
parts of this article, that a {trong fhock calcines or oxydates
a metallic fubftance. Mr.Van Marum, ufing the fame power-
ful machine which has been mentioned in the preceding ex-
periment, and the pureft metallic oxyds, which were con-
fined between glaffes whilft the fhock was paffed over them ;

obferved, that the oxyds were rendered metallic fo far as to-

exhibit feveral grains of the metal, large enough to be dif

cerned by the naked eye, and to’be eafily fepatated From
the reft. With refpect to the oxydation, whenever a fhock
was employed much greater than that which was barely ne-
ceffary to fufe the metal, part of the latter was oxvdatd,
and even difperfed into {moke. It is to be remarked, that
this oxydation or f{moke generally produced feveral fila-
ments of yarious length? and thicknefs, whigh f{wam in the
air. It was farther obferved, that if a conductor was pree
fented to thefe flying filaments of metallic oxyd, they were
foon attracted by it; but after the firft conta& they were
inftantly repelled, and were generally broke into fragments.

Experiments producing fevera! curious configurations by means
of electricity.

Some years ago, profeffor Lichtenberg of Gottingen pro-
duced feveral curious configurations by fifting or puffing
certain powders upon an excited cleétrophorus; and fipce
that time, feveral ways of producing fimilar effects have been
difcovered by various perfons. The principal method of pro-
ducing thefe impreffions in general, is to cle@rify a perfect
or an imperfe& ele¢tric, and then to throw certain powders
upon it, which will difpofe their particles into various re-
markable forms. Thefe powders may be fifted over the
electrified body from a common fieve ; they may be tied up
in linen rags, and fhook out of them; they may be pro-
jeéted by means of a brufh; (azz. by taking a little of the
powder between a finger and thumb, and drawing it over
the brufh, or by rubbing a lump of chalk, whiting, &c.
over the brufh) alfo by means of a pair of bellows. But a
more. commodious method is as follows: Fix a tube of
glafs, or wood, or metal, to the neck of a {mall bottle of

, elattic gum, commonly called India rubber; put the pow-

ders, which you want to projet, into this bottle, and then
tie a double piece of flannel over the aperture of the tube.
If this bottle, fo prepared, be held in the hand, and be
f{queezed, by alternately opening and fhutting the hand,
the powders will be projeéted in a fine diffufed manner,
As for the nature of the powders, almoft every fubftance
that can be pulverized fufficiently fine wi!l produce fome
configurations when projected upon an eleGrified fubftance,
Thus chalk, fulphur, cinnabar, rofin, dragon’s blood, gum
arabic, evaporated deco€tions of colouring woods, and many
others, may be employed for this purpofe either fingle or
mixed.

Experiment 1.—Take a pane of glafs, clean and dry, hold
it fufpended by one corner, or lay it flat upon a table, and
draw over the furface of it the knob of a Leyden phial,
moderately charged with pofitive eleCtricity in its infide.
Thes lift up the glafs, if laid upon a table, and, holding it
fufpended, proje€t upon it, by means of the elaftic gum
bottle, a mixed powder, confifting of dragon’s blood and gum
arabic in equal parts. The two powders will be feparated
upon the glafs; the red powder of dragon’s blood falling
on certain places, fo as altogether to form an oblong ra-
diated track, confifting of two colours intermixed in a thou-
fand odd ways. The reafon of this feparation of the pow-
ders is, that in the a& of projeéting them, the powders he-
come a¢tually electrified, and as fome of them thereby ac-
quire the pofitive, whilft others acquire the negative eleétri-
city ; therefore the former ave attracted by thofe parts of
the ylafs, or other eleGtric, which are eleftrifed negatively,
and the latter are attraGted by thofe parts of the ele&tric
which are poffeffed of the pofitive eletricity-

If, inflead of drawing the knob of the jar over the furface
of the glafs, you only touch the furface of it here and
there with the knob of the jar, and then proje& the mixed

powders.

BUFIGTR YC AL,

powders as before; feparate ftar-like frures will be formed
about thofe points, The ftars, however, are more de-
fined when a fingle powder is projeéted. Their rays or ra-
mifications fomztimes are few and ftrong; at other times
they are numerous and flender ; ard frequently they do not
go quite round the points which had been touched with the
knob of the jar.

Experiment 2:—Repeat the preceding experiment with
this variation only ; viz. that now the Leyden phial be
charged negatively in the infide, and the appearance of the
configurations will be much different from the above de-
{cribed, which was produced by pofitive eletricity. In the
prefent, very few rays or branches willbe obferved: the
powders mottly difpofing themfelves in roundifh fpots, and
generally it will be found, that a central {pot of one powder
is furrounded by another powder of a different colour.

Inftead of dragon’s blood and gum arabic, powders of
other colours may be projected upon the pane of glafs,
fuch as powdered Pruffian blue, fulphur, vermilion, rofia,
&c. and thus the colours of the configurations may be varied.

Thefe powders adhere to the glafs rather flizhtly ; wiz.
fo as not to bear being touched ; yet, if a piece of paper be
gently laid on the painted fide of the glafs, without rubbing
it, and the edge of the paper be patted all round the edge of
the glafs, the figures may be preferved without injury.
But a better method is, to lay another pane of glafs of the
fame fize upon the former, and to faften them by palling a
flip of paper all round their edges. If powders of fuch
colours as are ufed by enamellers be projected upon glafs or
porcelain, and thefe be afterwards expofed to a proper de-
gree of heat in an enameller’s furnace, the configurations
will thereby be rendered indelible.

Experiment 3.—Take a piece of common writing paper,
hold it very near the fire, fo as to render it quite @&y and
very hot; lay it flat upon a dry marble flab, or a very dry
table, and in that fituation draw over it the knob of a
charged Leyden phial, then lift up the piece of paper by
one corner, and holding it fufpended, projeét upon it the
mixed powder of dragon’s blood and gum arabic by means
of the elaltic gum bottle. The configurations in this cafe
are very beautiful, and may be made in various fhapes, fuch
as letters, ftars, ftripes, &c. by moving the knob of the
Leyden phial in the defired dire&ion ; but they are of one
colour; viz. red; for the gum arabic being nearly of the
colour of the paper, cannot be diftinguifhed upon it. If the
paper thus painted be held very near to the fire during a few
feconde, the powder of dragon’s blood being a refinous fub-
ftance, will be melted, and will be faftened on the paper;
after which the powder of gum arabic may be wiped off
with a handkerchief.

Powders of other colours may be projeéted upon the paper
after the fame manner; but unlefs they are of a refinous
nature, fo as to be eafily melted by heat, it is very difficult
to faften them to the paper. In thefe experiments the
Leyden phial muft not be charged too hizh nor too low ;
for, in the former cate, the figure will be too confufed and
irregular, and in the lacter it wil, be too faint. In order to form
a neat and determinate figure, and to leave the relt of the
paper clean, the powders muft not be proje&ted perpendicu-
harly to the paper, but the ftream mult be thrown in a di-
reGtion parallel to the furface of the paper. It is alfo ne-
eeflary to perform thefe experiments in as expeditions a
manner as poffible; for, if the paper be fuffered to cool too
much, or the electricity to diflipate, the defired effeét cannot
be obtained.

Experiment 4.—IJnttead of the paper, the impreffions may
be made upon marble, by drawing the knob of the charged

phial over it; the marble being very dry and hot. After
‘he fame, manner, thefe configurati ns may be made
upon all forts of eleéiric, or femi-eleGric fubftances, and
they may be preferved by covering them with a g' «fs plate,
or elfe by partially melting the fubflance, &c. when this ts
of the proper nature. It is alfo practicable to tranfpofe
thefe impreffions from the electric plate to a piece of white
paper; but the method is rather tedious. See Bennet’s me-
thod of performing it, in his work on ele@tricity ; or in Ca-
vallo’s EleG. ath edit. vol. ii. p. 148.

Experiment §.—A very reguiar figure may be formed on
the furface of a refinows plate in the following manner.
Lay the refinous plate upon a table, infulate one or more
pointed wires over the plate, with their points directed to-
wards tts furface, and diflant about an inch and an half, or
two inches. Then, by touching thefe wires alternaicly with
a pofitive and a negative Leyden phial, throw the alternate
{parks upon the refinous furface, and afterwards, by pro-
jecting powders of different colours, you will obtain very
regular figures, confitting of concentric zones of different
colours, which aflume the forms of circles, of eilipfes, or of
other curves, according as one or more pointed wires are
ufed, and according ae thofe wires are fituated nearer to, of
further from, each other.

Experiment 6.—Cut a figure of any fort out of the middle
of acard, as, for inttance, a profile, a flower, &c. Placea
piece of white filk (white fatin anfwers very well) upon a
table; lay the card upon it, and a gold leaf over the card 5
in which cafe it is evident, that the gold leaf will touch the
filk only within the limits of the figure that has been cut out
ofthe card. This done, lay another card over the gold leaf,
and puta book, or fomething e!fe, heavy upon it to keep it
down. Care, however, mutt be had to leave two projetions
of the gold leaf ovt of the cards at oppofite ends. Lattly,
if you fend the charge of a battery through the gold leaf,
by conneéting one of its proje€tions with the infide, and the
other with the outfide of the battery, the gold leaf will be
melted, and will be forced into the fubftance of the filk, fo
as to ftain it with a purple fpot of the fhape and fize of the
figure cut in the card. The battery for this experiment
muft have force fufficient to melt the gold leaf completely.
Bye ufing different metallic leaves, and different figures,
various beautiful ornaments may be marked upon filk.

Experiment 7,—Hoid a piece of writing paper near the
fire to render it dry and warm, then lay it upona table, and
rub it witha dry hand, which operation wiil excite it. Now
let a piece of fealing-wax be lighted, and after having fuf-
fered it to burn for about five or fix feconds, lift up the ex-
cited paper from the table, and hold it up by one corner;
blow out the flame of the fealing-wax, and prefent the melted
end of it to the paper at the diftance of about an inch,
moving it quickly in various direétions. In doing this, the
ele@tricity of the paper will attraét the fealing wax in the
form of exceedingly fine filaments, which may afterwards be
melted and faftened to the paper, by holdirg the paper very
near the fire for a fhort time. A: {mall piece of fealing-wax,
{tuck upon a wire ora pin, anfwers better than a common
ftick of fealing-wax.

Some of the configurations defcribed in the preceding ex-
periments are exhibited in Plate VI.

Experiments relating to Knobs and Points.

Sharp or pointed bodies have the property of throwing off
or of imbibing eleGricity incomparably better than flat or
‘blunt bodies; and it is for this reafon, that, in the coa-
ftru€tion of ele&trical machines and ele&trical apparatus in
_general, points and fharp corners, edges, &c. are avoided

F 482 aa

BEE CT RICAL,

as much a3 pofiible, excepting where a point or points are
particularly required ; as, for the example, is the cate at that
end of the prime conductor which faces the excited electric,
where the pointed wires of the collector are required for the
purpofe of inbibing the electricity. The princip'e upon
which this property of points depends, is explained under
the article Pont.

Experiment 1. To draw the eleéric fluid filently from the
prime condudor.—Let a perion hold the knob of a brafs rod
at fuch a diltance from the prime conductor that fparks may
eafily fly from the latterto the former, when the machine is
in aGtion; while thefe {parks are going off, let the fharp
point of a needle be prefented to the prime conductor, at
about twice the diftance from it that the knobbed rod is
held, and you will find that no more {parks will go to the
rod; remove the needle, or cover its point with a needle,
and the {parks will be feen as before: prefent the needle,
and the {parks difappear, which evidently fhews, that the
point of the needle draws off /ilent/y alinott all the fluid that
the cylinder of the machine throws upon the prime con-
duGor. 1f, whilft the pointed needle ftands prefented to the
prime condu@or, you form the finger and thumb of your
hand like a ring, aud furround the point of the needle, the
ation of this point will be fuppreffed, as is manifefted by
the fparks, that, in this cafe, will go to the rod; which
thews, that a point will aét as a point only whilft it remains
free and difencumbered; but not when furrounded by other
bodies.

If the needle be fixed upon the prime condu@tor with the

point outward, then, on working the machine, no {parks
can be drawn from the prime condudtor, or, perhaps, an
exceedingly {mall one when a knobbed conduétor is brought
nearly in contact with it; the pointed needle diffipating the
eleftricity in the furrounding air; and indeed this 1s an effec-
tual method of electnfying the air of a room.
- This experiment anfwers equally well with negative or
with pofitive electricity. A pointed wire, fixed on the end
of a f{piral tube, fuch as has been defcribed in the preceding
part of this article, will draw {parks on account of che in-
terruptions.

Experiment 2. To difcharge a Leyden plaal filently —
When a large jar is fully charged, which would give a
violent fhock, put one of your hands in conta@ with its
outfide coating ; with the other hand hold a fharp pointed
needle, and keeping the point direled towards the knob of
the jar, proceed gradually towards it, until the point of the
needie touches the knob. This operation difcharges the
jar completely, and the operator will either receive no fhock
at all, or fo {mall a one as can hardly be perceived. The
point of the needle, therefore, has filently and gradualiy
drawn all the charge from the infide of the Leyden phial.

If this experiment be performed in the dark, the point of
the needle will appear illumined in its way towards the knob
of the phial, which is another proof of its drawing off the
charge.

Experiment 3. To obferve the wind which proceeds from
an elecrified point.—-When a pointed wire (the fharper the
better) is fixed at the end of the prime condutor, or indeed
in any part of it, with the point outward, let the electri-
cal machine be put in aGtion, and prefent the face, or the
palm of the hand, to the above-mentioned poiat, at the dif-
tance of about three inches, and a wind will be perceived to
proceed from it.

Faften five or fix pieces of paper to a cork, like the
leaves of a water-wheel in hydraulics; pafs a needle, by way
of an axis, through the cork, and fufpend it by applying the
end of the needle to a magnet. Let a pointed wire be fixed

at the end of the prime candu@tor, and prefent the paper
vanes of the cork fufpended, &c. to the current of air
which proceeds from that point, when the machine is ia
aGtion; and the force of that wind will caufe the cork to
turn round,

This current of air always proceeds from the point, whee
ther the point be ele€trified pofitively or negatively ; theres
fore it is not the influx or the efflux of the ele¢tric fluid that
occafions the wind; but it is owing to the particles of air
which, acquiring the fame eleétricity as the pointed wire,
are repelled from it in virtue of the repulfion which takes
place between bodies pr ffcffed of the fame kind of electricity,
be it pofitive or negative. Other partieles of air fuceeed
thofe which are repelled firft, and thefe being eletrified are
alfo repelled, and fo on,

When the wire, inftead of a pointed termination, is furs
nifhed with a ball of about an inch and a quarter in diameter,
a curious phenomenon may be. obferved, by prefenting the
flame of a candle to it, viz. fo that the middle of the flame
may be even with the middle of the ball. The machine
being put in aétion, it will be found that the flame is blowa
from the ball, when the latter is electrified pofitively, viz,
when conneéted with the pofitive conductor; and it will be
blown towards it when the ball is eleGtrified negatively, viz,
when it is connected with the rubber of the machine, or-with
a negative prime conduétor; which feems to fhew the real
influx and efflux of the ele&ric fluid, according to the
Franklinian theorv.

Experiment 4. The eledric fly, or flyer.—Fig. 51. PiateV11,
reprefents a pointed wire fixed upon the prime conductor, and
fupporting the brafs flyer, which confifts of flender brafs
wires fixed to a brafs cap, which is hollow in its under fide,
and refts in egui/ibrio upon the point of the wire W, like
the magnetic needle of a compafs. The outer terminations
of the wires are pointed, and are bent all the fame way.
When the eleGrical machine is put in ation, the fly will
immediately begin to move round in an horizontal plane, and
in the direGtion of the letters a, 5, c, d, viz. contrary to
the direGtion of the points of the wires. If the experiment
be repeated with a prime conduétor negatively electrified,
the fly will turn the fame way as before, viz. in the direc-
tion of the letters a, 5, c, d. The reafon of this eff-& de-
pends upon the repulfion exifting between bodies pofleffed
of the fame kind of eletricity ; for whether the fly is elec-
trified pofitively or negatively, the air oppofite to the points
of the wires (on account of the points eafily tran{mitting
ele@ricity) acquires a {trong electricity analogous to that of
the points, andtherefore the air and the points muft repel
each other. This explanation is confirmed, by obferving
that the above-mentioned fly not only does not move in
vacuo, but even if placed under a clofe receiver it will tura
for a little while only, and will then ftop; for the quantity
of air within the receiver will foon acquire its maximum of
electricity. *

Fig. 52. reprefents an improved flyer, which was invented
by Edward King, efq. and isdefcribed by Mr. Fergufon in
his Select Mechanical Exercifes. We fhall tranferibe Mr.
Fergufon’s words.

«© The fun and earth go round the common centre of gra-
vity between them ina folar year, and the earth and moon
go round the common centre of gravity between them in
alunarmonth. Thefe motions are reprefented by an elec-
trical experiment, as follows: The ball S reprefents the fun,
E the earth, and M the moon, conne&ted by bended wires
ac, and bd: ais the centre of gravity between the fun
and earth, and 4 is the centre of gravity between the earth
and moon, Thefe three balls, and their connecting wires,

are

—

i

ELECTRICAL.

are hung and fepported on the fharp point of a wire A,
which is ftuck upright in the prime conductor B of the
eletrical machine ; the earth and moon hanging upon the
fharp point of the wire ¢ ae,in which wire is a pointed fhort
pin, fticking out horizontally at c, and there is jult fuch
another pin at d, fticking out in the fame manner, in the
wire that connects the earth and moon.

© When the cylinder of the eleGrical machine is turned,
the above-mentioned balls and wires are ele¢trified; and the
eleétrical fire flying off horizontally from the peiats cand d,
caufes Sand E to move round their common centre of
gravity a; ane Eand M to move round their common centre
of gravity 8. Andas E and Mare light when compared
with S and E, there is much lefs fri€tion on the point 4
than upon the point a; fothat E and M.will make many
more revolutions about the point 4 than S and E make
about the point a. I have adjufted the weights of the balls
fo, that E and M go twelve times round 4 in the fame time
that Sand E go only once round a. It makes a good
amufing experiment in eleétricity; but it isfo far from prov-
ing that the motions of the planets in the heavens are owing
to alike caufe, that it plainly proves they are not. For
the real fun and planets are not coaneéted by wires or bars
of metal, &c.

Experiment 5. The electrified cotton—Take a {mall lock
of cotton, extend itin every dire€tion as much as may be
practicable, and by means of a linen thread, about five or fix
inches long, or by a thread drawn out of the fame cotton,
tie it to the end of the prime condu€tor; then let the elec-
trical machine be put in 2ction, and the lock of cotton, on
being ele&trified, will immediately fwell out, by repelling its
filaments from each other, and will ftretch itfelf towards the
neareft conductor. Inthisfituation, the machine continu-
ing in action, prefent the end ofa finger, or the knob ofa
wire, towards the lock of cotton, and this will then imme-
diately move towards the finger, endeavouring to touch it.
But take a fharp pointed needle in the other hand, and pre-
fent its point towards the cotton, alittle above the end of
the above-mentioned finger, and you will find that the
cotton immediately fhrinks upwards, and moves towards the
prime conduétor. Remove the needle, and the cotton will
come again towards the finger. Prefent the needle, and the
cotton will fhrink again; which clearly fhews that the needle,
being fharp pointed, draws off the electric fluid from the
cotton, and puts itin a ftate of being attracted by the prime
condu€tor; which effeét cannot be produced by a wire
having a blunted énd, or around ball for its termination.

Promifcuous Experiments.

Experiment 1. To cryftallize a folution of pot-afb.—Take
a gla(s tube, about four inches loug, and about one quarter
of an inch in diameter, open at both ends. Moiften the
infide of it with a ftrong foletion of pot-afh; adapt two
corks to the extremities of the tube, and introduce a wire
through each cork. ‘The extremities of thofe wires within
the tube fhould be about three quarters of an inch diftant
from eachother. This done, conneét one of the wires with
the outfide coating of a pretty large ele€tric jar, and con-
ne& the other wire with the difcharging ele&trometer (fee
Discuarcer of Eleéricity) ; then let the difcharge be re-
peatedly pafled through the tube, and after a certain num-
ber of difcharges, the alkaline folution within the tube will
give mavifeft tokens of cryftallization.

This experiment, at an early period of the {cience, was fup-
poled to prove, that the electric fluid is an acid, which,
combining with the alkali, neutralized it, and difpofed it to
cryftallize. The fact, however, is, that the explofions,

which take place within the tube, by acting on the com-
mon air, produce a certain quantity of carbonic acid, which
combines with the alkali, and difpofes it to cryftallize.

Experiment 2. Fhe inflammable-air pi/lol.—This experi-
ment fhews that a very {mall ele@ric {park is fufficient to in-
flame hydrogen gas, or, as it was formerlycalled, inflammable
air. The figs. 53.and 54. reprefent a piftol for this purpofe,
which is made of brafs; but icis here reprefented as tranf-
parent, in order to fhew its internal parts. It confifts of a
cavity A BC, to the aperture, A, of which a cork is fitted.
To the lower part of it a perforated brafs piece is fcrewed,
into which a glafs tube D E iscemented, and within this
tube a wire GF is likewife cemented. This wire is fur-
nifhed with a {mall ball at its external termination, and is
bent at its other extremity, fo 28 to come within about a
tenth of aninch of the brafs piece. Fig. 54. fhews this
brafs piece with the glafs tube, &c. feparate trom the reft,
and it likewife fhews the brafs cap I, which, when the piftol
is not ufed, is {crewed at H, as is fhewn by the dotted line in
Jig: 53 and it ferves to defend the glafs tube E. It will be
eafily comprchended, that if a perfon holds this piftol in one
hand, and brings the ball F near the prime conduétor of an
ele&trical machine, in aGion, or prefents an excited glafs
tube or {tick of fealing-wax to it, fo as to give a {park to
the faid ball F, a fimilar {park will take place between the end
of the bent wire within the tube, and the brafs piece con-
tiguous to it. When the piftol is properly charged with
the inflammable gas, and the cork is adapted to the aperture
of it, if a perfon holding it by its middle, communieates a
{park in the above defcribed manner to the ball F; the
{park which takes place within the piftol will inflame the
gas, which produces a loud report, and drives out the cerk
with great violence.

The inflammable gas for this purpofe muft be keptin a
common bottle well corked, and when the piltol is to be
charged, the corks are removed both from the piftol and
from the bottle, the piltol is inverted over the bottle, adapt.
ing the aperture of the one to that of the other, and after
remaining in that fituation during about 10 or 15 feconds,
the piftol is feparated fromthe bottle, and the corks are in-
{tantly replaced in both their apertures. By this operation
the common air, which is in the piftol, mixes with the in-
flammable gas, for this being much lighter will afcend into
the piftol, whilft part of the common air of the piftol will
defcend into the bottle. The piftol is then ready to be fired
off. The form of thefe piftols has been often diverfified.
They have been rendered capable of being filled with certain
determinate quantities of elaftic fluids, and that for the pur-
pofe of producing the greateft poffible effe&. They have, in .
taét, rendered them capable of driving a leaden bullet with con-
fiderabie force. For the preparation of the inflammable gas,
fee the article Hyprogen Gas.

Experiment 3. Mr. Volta’s inflammable air lamp.— Fig. 55.
reprefents this initrument, which wag invented by Mr,
Volta. Aisa glafs globe to contain the hydrogen gas; B
is a glafs bafon or relervoir to hold water; D is a ftop-cock
which is to form occafionally a communication between the
water in the refervoir Band the cavity of the veflel A. The
water pafles into the latter through the metal pipe gg, which
is fixed to the upper part of the refervoirA. At S is a
{mall cock, to cut off, or open,-a communication with the
air in the ball and the jet K. Nis a fmall pipe to holda.
piece of wax-taper; Lis a brafs pillar, onthe top of which
1s a brafs ball; ais a pillar of ylafs furnifhed attop witha.
focket, through which a wire 4 flides, and a ball is {crewed .
to the end of this wire. Fis a ftop-cock, by which the ball

A is filled with the inflammable gas, and.which afterwards
6 ferves

ELECTRICAL

ferves to confine the gas and the water that falls from the
bafon Birto the ball A.

To vie this inftrument, after having filled the refervoir A
with pure hydrogen gas, and the bafon B with water, turn
the cocks D and S, and the water which falls from B wil
force fomeof the gas out of the jet Kintotheair. Ifthen
én eleGtric fpark is made to pafs from the brafs ball m, tothe
hrafs bali 2, the jet of gas out of the pipe K wil be tn-
flamed. And when it 13 required to put it out, the cock S
firft, and then the cock D mutt be ftopped, viz. mult be
tarned fo as to cut offthe communication.

To fill the veffel A with inflammable gas; having previ-
ouvfly filled A with water, place the foot R under water, on
a board or ftoo! in a large tub of water, then the gas is con-
veyed by a bent glafs tube from the veffel in which that gas
is generated, to the aperture underthe foot R; whence the
gas afcends into the veffel A, and the water comes ont of
it atthe fame time. When A is full of the gas, the cock F is
fhut up, and the veffel igtaken out of the water, &c.~ (See
Pweumaric iub,and HyprocenGas.) This inftrument is
ufeful for lighting a eandle, and of late it has been much im-
proved, fo that it is now foldin London exprefsly for that
perpofe. Thefe improved inftruments contain aifo an elec-
trophorus, and the whole is difpofed fo, that by turning a
fingle cock, the ftream of gas is forced out of the pipe, and
is lighted at the fametime. A more particular dcfcription
of thefe improved inftruments belongs to other fubjeéis

Experiment 4. To inflame fpirits of wine by means of elec
tricity —The power of the electric {park is {uflicient to in-
flame inflammable {pirits when it is paffed through them, and
efpecially when the {pirits are a little warm.

Sufpend to the prime condutor a fhort rod, having a {mail
knob at itsend; pour fome {pirit of wine, a little warmed,
into'a metal fpoon. (Tne bett way of warming the fpirits
13 tg hold the fpoon overthe flame of a candle during a
minute at moft.) Hold the fpoon by the handle, and piace
it fo that the above mentioned fmall knob may ftand at
about the diftance of one inch above the furface of the
fpirit. In this difpofition, if the eleétrical machine be put
in action, by turnicg the winch, a foark will come from the
Nittle knob to the fpoon, which, by paffing chrough the fpirit
of wine, will fet in on fire. Care, however, mult be had,
that the foark does not fly from the knob to the edge of the
fpoon ; for in thiscafe the fpirit will notbe inflamed. On
this account it is proper to ufe a large {poon.

This experiment fucceeds equally well whether the con-
ductor be eleGtrified pofitively or negatively; it betag not
the dire&tion, but the rapid motion of the cle¢tric fluid, that
fets the {pirit on fire. ‘

This experiment may be varied different ways, and may
be rendered very amufing toa company of {peGtators. -A per-
fon, for inftance, ftanding upon an infulating ftoo!, and com-
municating with the prime conductor, may held the fpoon
with the fpirits in his hand, and another perfon, ftanding
upon the floor, may fet the fpirits on fire, by bringing his
finger within a {mall diltance of its furface. Initead of ufing
his finger, he may inflame the {pirits by prefenting a piece
of ice, which will render the effet more furprifing. If the
fpoon is held by the perfon who ftands upon the floor, and
the infulated perfon brings fome conduéting fubftance over
the furface of the {pirits, the experiment will fucceed
equally well.

Mr, Winkler fays that oil, pitch, and fealing-wax, might
be lighted by ele&tric {parks, provided thofe fubftances were
firft heated to a degree next tokindling. Prieltley’s Hitt. of
EleB. period vii. :

Lixperiment 5. To caufe the mercury to rife in a thermometer

by means of eleFricity —Fix a wooden ball to the wire that
procesds trom the extremity of the prime conduGor, and
place another like wocden ball on a wire, or other conduGor,
that communicates with the earth, at about half an inch dif-
tance ,from the other ball; in which fituation it is clear,
that when the’machine is in a@tion, a ream of eleGiric fluid
will pafs from one ball tothe other. Now if you place the
bulb of a mercurial thermom<eter in that ftream, viz. between
the two wooden balls, the mercury will be gradually raifed
in it by the aGion of the e’eGric flream. By continuing to
work the machine, the mercury may be raifed feveral degrees
above its former ftation.

For this experiment the bulb of the thermemeter muft be
quite detached from the fcale, fo that the fcale may begin at
leaft three inches above the bulb. This experiment, upon
the whole. feems to asf{wer befk when the balls are of foft
wood. Mr. Adams fays, “ with a cyl:nder of about feven
inches and a half in diameter, the fluid peffing from a ball of
lignum vite to a ball of beech, and thence to the ground,
elevated the quickfilver in the thermometer from 68° to 110°,
repeatedly to 105°, - The thermometer was raifed from 68°
to 85°, by the fitid peffing from a point of box to a point
of hgnum vite; from 67° to 100°, from a paint of box to
a bail of box ; from 66° to 100°, from a bail of box to a braf
point; from 69° to 100°, from ball to ball; the bulb of the
thermometer covered with flannel.” Adams’s Eff. on Elect.
P- 58 ;

Experiment 6. The atmofpkere of Jmoke.—Teke a brafs
ball, or any picee of metal that is tree from points or edges,
of about three or four inches in diameter, and infulate it
upon a narrow infulating iland ; then give it a fpark with
the knob of a charged phial, and immediately after prefent
it to a wax taper jult blown out and {moking. The fmoke,
in this cafe, will be attra€ted by the ele@trified body, and,
by encompaffing that bedy, will form a kind of atmofphere
about it. This atmofphere wiil remain fora few feconds,
and afterwards, beginning from the bottom, will gradually
vanifh, until at la&, entirely departing from the eleCtrified
body, it goes off in a flender column, that foon rarefies and
diffufes itfelf into a confiderable fpace.

This experiment will not fucceed unlefs it be performed in
very dry weather, and in a room where the air is not agi-
tated. Care muft alfo be taken, that in blowing out the
taper, and in prefenting it to the eleGrified body, the air be
difturbed as little as poffible.

The eff-@ which is produced in this experiment is far from
proving the exiftence of any eleG&trical atmofphere, as fome
perfons have been induced to fuppofe. The {moke is at=
tracted by the eleCtrified body in the fame manner, and for
the fame reafon, that other bodies are attrafed byit. The
fmoke remains fufpended about that body, and cannot all
come into contaé with its furface, on account of its elafticity.
Tt remains fo long fufpended about the ele€trified body, and
is not immediately repelled, becaufe it is a bad condu@or,
and acquires the eletricity very flowly; but when it has
acquired a {ufficient quantity of that power, it begins to quit
the eleGtrified body, and afcending in the air, expands itfelf
into a large fpace, in coufequence of the repulfion which
takes place amongft its own electrified particles.

Lixperiment 7. The eleGrified cup and chain. —Infulate a
metallic cup, or any other concave piece of metal, and with-
in it place a pretty long metallic chain, having a filk thread
tied to one of its extremities, To the handle of the cup, or
to a wire proceeding from it, fufpend a cork bail eleétrome-
ter; then eleétrify the cup by giving it a fpark with the
knob of a charged phial, in confequence of which the balls
of the electrometer will immediately diverge. If in thie

fituation

ELECTRICAL,

fituation one end of the chain, held by the filk thread, be
gradually raifed above the cup, the other end remaining in
it, the balls of the eleArometer will converge a little, and
more or lefs in proportion to the elevation of the chain above
the cup. Lower the chain again, and the divergency of
' the electrometer will be increafed, and fo on; which proves
that the eletricity of the cup and chain together is more
denfe when thefe bodies are in a compaét, than when they
are in a more extended form; or that the denfity of the
electric power is nearly, if not exaéily, in the inverfe pro-
portion of the furface; fo that if equal quantities of elec-
tricity be communicated to two bodics differing in the ex-
tenfion of their furfaces, the ele@ric virtue wil! be dev fer
upon the {mall than upon the large furface. And two bodies
of equal and fimilar furfaces, but one of them hollow and
the other folid, will acquire an equal fhare of eleGricity if
they are both, at the fame time, brought in conta@ with
the prime conduétor, or with any other eleétrified body.

The fame property was fhewn by T. Ronayne, efq. in
the following different manner: He excited along flip of
white flannel, ora filk ribbon, by rubbing it with his fingers;
then, by applying his hand to it, took off as many fparks as
the excited eleétric would give; but when the flannel, or
filk, had lof the power of giving {parks in this manner, he
doubled or rolicd it up, in confequence of which the con-
tracted flannel, &c. appeared fo ftrongly eleCrical as to give
{parks even {pontaneonfly.

Experiment 8. To pierce heles through glafs by means of elec-
tric fparks.—Take a common phial, or let a glals tube of any
diameter, and about four or five inches long, be clofed either
“hermetically, or by means of fealing-wax, at one end, and fill
about the half of it with olive oil; then ftop the aperture with
acork, through which a wire mult be pafled. This wire muft
come fo far within the tube, as to have its extremity below
the furface of the oil, and mutt be bent fo as to touch the
furface of the glafs, Things being thus prepared, bend the
external part of the wire in the form of a ring, and fufpend it
together with the phial, or tube, to the wire at the extre-
mity of the prime conduétor. Now put the eleétrical ma-
chine in a¢tion, and bring the knuckle of a finger, or the
knob of a wire, near the outfide of the tube, juit oppofite
to the extremity of the wire within; the covfequence will
be, that a {park paffes from the wire to the knuckle, which
makes a hole, and fometimes more than one hole through the
glafs. By turning the wire about, or by raifing and lower-
ing it, many holes may be fucceflively made in the fame
phial or tube, after the above-mentioned manner.

It is very remarkable, that fo {mall a force as a fimple {park
from an ordinary electrical machine fhould perforate a fub-
ftance fo hardas glafs. It has fometimes madea hole through
glafs that was nearly a quarter of an inch thick. It feems
that the oil, beiny an electric, prevents the electricity of the
{park to {pread beyond the very narrow ptace on the furface
of the glafs which touches the point of the wire, and that
the fpark becomes fo powerful in confequence of its being
fo confined or concentrated,

Experiment 9. To fbew the diredtion of the elecric fluid in
the difcharge of a Leyden phial by the flame of a wax taper.—
Remove the circular tablet from the middie of the wniverfal
difcharger. (See Discnarcer.) Fix the two wires of
that inftrument in the fame horizontal dire€&tion, and fo that
their knobs may be about two inches diftant from each other.
Fix a piece of wax-taper, lighted, fo that ita flame may ftand
midway between the two knobs. Having difpofed the ap-

paratus in this manner, if you conneét, by means of a chain -

or otberwife, the outfide of acharged jar with one of the ho-
sizontal wires of the univerfal difebarger, and. bring the

knob of the jar to the other wire, you will obferve, that on
meking the cifcharge, (which muft pafs from one knob to
the other, through the flame of the wax taper,) the flame is
always driven in the dire@ion of the ele&tric fluid, that is, it
will be blown upon the knob of that wire which communi-
cates with the negative fide of the jar.

In this experiment the jar muft have an exceedingly {mall
charge, viz. ju{t fufficient to pafs from one knob to the
other, which experience will prefently determine, otherwife
the experiment will either not fucceed, or it may be rendered
equivocal. The reafon why this experiment does not fuc-
ceed with a high charge feems to be, that the high charge,
in confequence of its extended fphere of ation, difturbs
the flame of the wax taper before the aGtual difcharge takes
plece.

Lxperiment 10. To render the diredion of the cleric fluid
con/picucus, by the motion of a pith ball —Bend a card length-
ways over around ruler, fo as to forma channel or femi-
circular groove ; or cut a piece of baked wood in the fhape of
an oblong channel; for this piece of wood, being painted over
with lamp-black and oil, will anfwer better than the card,
Lay this channel upon the tablet of the univerfal difcharger;
place a pith-ball, of about half an inch in diameter, in the
middle of the channel; then at equal diftances, about half
or three-quarters of an inch from the pith-ball, lay the brafs
knobs of the wires of the univerlal difcharger, viz. one on one
fide, and the other on the oppofite fide of the pith-ball. The
card or piece of wood being dry and rather warm, if you
connect, by means of a chain or otherwife, the outlide of a
charged jar with one of the wires of the univerfal difcharger,
and bring the knob of the jar in contaét with the other wire,
you will obferve that on making the difcharge, which mu
pafs from one knob to the other, and through the pith-ball,
the latter is always driven in the diretion of the eleétric fluid,
viz. it is pufhed towards that knob which communicates
with the negative fide of the jar.

This experiment demands great care and attention, and
with refpeét to the charge of the jar the fame precautions
mult be uled in this as in the preeeding experim: nt.

Experiment 11. To render the direction of the electric fluid
evident by the difcharge of a Leyden phial over a card.—Lay
a wire upon a table, and place a card over the end of it.
Alfo lay another fimilar wire upon the card, fo that the two
wires may be in one direétion, and their extremitics at about
one inch diftance from each other. If one of thofe wires
be made to commusicate with the outfide coating of a
charged jar, and the other wire be made to communicate
with the knob of the jar, the difcharge muft evidently pafs
over the furface of the card from the extremity of one wire
to that of the other; but fince the extremities of the wires
lie on oppofite fides of the card, it is alfo evident, that on
making the difcharge, a hole muft be made by the eleétric
charge in fome part ofthe card. Now it will be found, that
the ele&tric fluid runs over that furface of the card which
touches the wire that is connected with the pofitive fide of
the jar; and in order to pafs to the other wire, it breaks a
hole exaé&tly over the extremity of that wire which commu-
nicates with the negative fide of the jar.

This curious experiment, which was invented by Mr. Lullia
of Geneva, requires a jar of a moderate fize, and moderately
charged; for the difcharge of a large Leyden phial is apt to
pierce feveral holes, which renders the effect equivocal.

Experiment 12. To fhew the penetrability of the ekelric
fight. —Let the extremities of two wires, one of which pro-
ceeds from the outlide of a charged jar, and the other ig
conneéted with one branch of the difcharging rod, be laid
upon a table at about one-tenth of an inch diftance ino

eac)

ELECTRICAL

each other; then place the thumb exa@ly over that inter-
ruption of the circuit, preffing it fat down. Now bring the
difcharging rod in conta& with the knob of the jar, and on
making the dilcharge, the fpark which neceflarily takes place
under the thumb will illuminate it in fuch a manner as to fhew
the bone and the principal blood-veffels. In this experi-
ment the operator needs not be afraid of receiving a fhock,
for the difcharge of the jar paffes from wire to wire, and,
at molt, it only affects the thumb with a fort of tremor,
which is far from being painful.

Experiment 13. . To illuminate water.—Let every thisg be
eifpoled exe@ly as in the preceding experiment, exceping
that inftead of the thumb, a large clear giafs decanter full of
water be laid over the interruption of the circuit. On
making the difcharge, the water will appear illumined
throughout.

After the fame manner, wiz. by paffing the charge of a
“Leyden phial over the furface of a variety of bodies, or under
them, or laftly through; thefe bodies will moflly appear
illuminated at the time of the difcharge, and fometimes for
a few feconds after it. Eggs are beautifully illumined by
the paffaze of a charge through their fubftance. It needs
hardly be obferved that thefe experiments mult be made in
the dark.

Experiment 14. To fhew that the ele@ric fluid drives /mall
conduéling bodies in its way. —Lay fome brafs duit, or brafs
filings, upon a metallic plate that communicates with the
infide coating of a battery ; connect the outlide of the bat-
tery with the difcharging rod by means of a wire ; charge
the battery, then bring the knob of the difcharging rod over
the above-mentioned brafs duft, and the difcharge will be
made at a much greater diftance (more than double or treble,)
than when no brafs duft is ufed, which fhews that the elec-
tric fluid drives the conduGing duft from the plate towards
the knob of the difcharging rod, and the particles of this
duft then ferve as fteps to facilitate the paflage of the fluid.
Beccaria was the firft who advanced the propolition, that
«< when the electric fluid is ob!ged to pafs through air, or

-through any other fubftance which obftructs its free paflage,
it throws forward all hght conducting fubftances which hap-

en to be at hand, in crder to facilitate its own paflage,”
Dr. Prieftley made a varity of experiments with a view of
afcertaining and of elucidating this property of the eleCtric
fluid. He formed the circuit between the two fides of the
Leyden phial by trains of brafs filings, leaving a {mall inter-
‘ruption in them ; he formed heaps of duft at a diftance from
one another, &c.; but after the account of all thofe trials
he fays, ** All thefe experiments fhew that light bodies,
poffeffed of a coniiderable fhare of elect:icity, difperfe in all
dire€tions, carrying the ele€tric matter to places not abound.
jng with it; and that they fometimes promote a fudden dif-
charge of great quantities of that matter from places where
it was lodged, to places where there was a defect of it.”

Experiment 15. To take a long fpark through an exhaufled
#ube.—This experiment is extraéted froma valuable paper of
Mr. Morgan, who made numerous ele€trical experiments in
vacuo. “ It is,’’ he fays, “ furprifing to obferve, how readily
an exhaufted tube is charged with clectricity. By placing it
at ten or twelve inches from the conduétor, the light may be
feen pervading its infide, and as {trong a charge may fome-
times be procured as if it were in contact with the conduétor;
nor does it fignify how narrow the bore of the glafs may be;
forevena thermometer tube, having the minuteft perfora-

tion poffible, will charge with the utmoft facility ; and ia this
experiment the phenomena are peculiarly beautiful.

«* Let one end of a thermometer tube be {ealed hermeti-

-cally ; let the other end be cemented into a brafs cap with

a valve, or into a brafs cock, fo that it may be fitted to the
plate of an air pump. When it is exhaufted, let the fealed
end be applied to the conduGor of an eleGrical machine,
while the otherend is either held in the hand or conne@ed
with the floor. Uponthe flighteft excitation, the elcétric
fluid will accurrulate at the fealed end, and be difcharged
through the infide in the form of a fpark, and this accumu-
lation and difcharge may be inceflantly repeated till the tube
is broken. By this means I have had a fpark 42 inches long,
and had I been provided with a proper tube, I do not
doubt but that I might have had a {park of four times that
length. If inftead of the fealed end, a bulb be blownat
that extremity of the tube, the ele&tric light will fill the
whole of that bulb, and then pafs through the tube in the
form of abrilliant fpark, asin the foregoing experiment ;
but in this cafe T have feldom been able to repeat the trials
above three or four times before the charge has made a {mall
perforation in the bulb.

“Tf, again, a thermometer filled with mercury, be inverted
intoa ciftern, and the air exhaufted fo as to forma Torri-
cellian vacuum,. the electric light in the bulb, as well as the
{park in the tube, will be of a vivid green; but the bulb will
not bear a frequent repetition of charges before it is perto-
rated in like manner as when it has been exhaufted by an air-
pump. It can hardly be neceflary to obferve, that in thefe
cafes the ele€tric fluid aflumes the appearance of a fpark
from the narrownefs of the paffage through which it forces
its way. If atube 4o inches long be fixed into a globe 8 or
g inches in diameter, and the whole be exhaufted, the elec-
tric fluid, after pafling in the form of a brilliant {park through-
out the length of thetube. will, when it gets into the infide
of the globe, expand itfeif in all dire€tions, entirely filling
it with a violet and purple light, and exhibiting a ftriking
inftance of the vatt elafticity of theele€ine fluid.”

Exvecraicar Fijpes. All the phenomena of ele&ricity
which were known in the 15th century amounted only to
the attradtion of light bodies by the tourmalin when heated,
and by amber, and a few other bodies, after fri¢lion. The
light was difcovered foon after, but the greateft difcoveries,
which indeed excited the wonder and the aftonifhment of the
human f{pecies, {uch as the prodigious force of the Leyden
phial, the identity of eleCtricity, and the lightning, &c.
belong entirely to the laft century. Amongft thefe wonders
we mutt undoubtedly reckon the ele€tricity of fifhes, which
has been difcovered within the la{t 40 years; for though the
power of benumbing, or of giving a fhock, was long known
in one of thofe animals, namely, the torpedo, from which in-
deed it derived its name, yet that power was not known to be
an effc& of electricity before Mr. Walth proved it within the
above-mentioned period,

Four different inhabitantscf the fea have hitherto been
found to poffcfs the peculiar property of gi+ing fhocks ftrong
enough to ftun, or actually to kill, fmall animals, and the
mott probable conjeéture is, that nature gave them that pro-
perty forthe purpofe of procuring their food, and perhaps,
too, for deterring larger animals from approaching and an-
noyingthem. Threeof thefe fithes are called the sorpedo,
the gymnotus eledricus, and the filurus eleGricus. Ot the
fourth fifh, which has not yet obtained a name, we have
only a fhort and imperfeét account, which we fhall fubjoin
prefently.

Whenever a communication is made by means of fub-
ftances that arecondutors of electricity, between one part and
another of the body of any of thefe fifhes, and a man, or
other animal, is interpofed, viz. forms part of the circuits
the man or other animal feels a fhock analogous to that

which is occafioned by the difcharge of the Leyden a

Tre!

ene THE: a J xc.

'

Tae pre eo Rg: eee rer

peer

ELECTRICAL,

VF the circuit be formed of eleftrics, no fhock will be felt;
and ifaman teuch any of thefe animals with one hand only,
without completing the circuit, he will, at moft, only feel
aflight tremor in the hand that touches the animal, The
gymnotus alone affords a luminous {park, which becomes
evident by making an exceedingly fmall interruption in the
circuit of communication, It mult be obferved, however,
that once, and once only, the torpedo afforded a {park
which was feen by a diftinguifhed Italien philofopher and his
attendant, and he even heard the crackling noife of it. (Jo-
fephi Gardinii De Ele&rici lgnis natura Difertatio, p. 100.)

* Excepting the above-mentioned properties, it 1s not known

that thefe fifhes have any other property in common with
artificial electricity. -

Agreeably to the plan of our work, we fhall particularly
deferibe the three principal eleétrical fifhes, together with
their anatomy, electrical properties,’ force, &c. under the
articles Torpepo, Gymnorus Execrricus, and Situ-
rus Evectraicus. ‘The fhort account of the fourth elec-
trical fifh isias follows,

This animal was found on the coaft of Johanna, one of
the Comorro iflands, in lat. 12°13! fouth, by licutenant Wm.
Paterfon, and he thus fpeaks of it in the Phil. Tranf. vol. 76,
& The fith is defcribed to be feven inches long, two anda
half inches broad, has a long projecting mouth, and feems of
the genus tetrodon. The back of the fifh is a dark brown
colour, the belly-part of fea-green, the fides yellow, and the
fins and tail of a fandy green. ‘The body is interfperfed
with red,-green, and white {pots, the white ones particu-
larly bright; the cycs large, the iris red, its outer edge
tinged with yellow.”

Whilft the fith is living, ftrong fhocks, like ele@trical fhocks,
are felt by a perfon who attempts to hold it between his
hands. Three »perfons are mentioned in the account,
as having experienced this property of one of thofe fifhes,
but the want of opportunity prevented the trial of farther
experiments.

We need hardly add, with refpe@ to all thefe fithes, that
every electrical property vanifhes with the entire death of the
animal.

Exvecraicau Fluid. The phenomena of cleftricity, fo
fingular, {fo various, fo extenfive, and fo powerful, as they
are defcribed in divers parts of this Cyclopedia; are the
effets of an unknown caufe, which philofophers have called
the eledric, or the eledrical fluid. That itis a fluid, and that
itis elaftic, there can hardly be a doubt ; for if it be commu-
nicated from one body to another, it inftantly expands itlelf
all over the two bodies, and if again other bodies (always
meaning {uch bodies as are capable of receiving and tranf-
Mitting it; wiz. conduéors) be placed in contac with the
above, the electric fluid will expand itfelf over thefe alfo,
and fo on; nor do we know any limits to its expanfibility.
But befides this fluidity, and this elafticity, whatever elfe
has been advanced refpecting the nature of this fluid, is mere
hypothefis or conjeGiure, and Of the principal of thefe hy-
pothefes we fhall now endeavour to give a fuccinét account.

When the attraétion.and the repulfion were the only

-eleétrical phenomena known to philofophers, they fuppofed

that thefe were occafioned by a kind of unétuous effluvia,
proceeding immediately from the eleétrified body ; but when
the light, the burning quality, and the peculiar {mell of
eleiricity were difcovered ; then the idea of their being
produced by fome modification of fire was naturally fug-
gefted, and accordingly the eleétrical fluid was commonl

cailed the eledrical fire, which name even at prefent is ofed
by feveral writers on the fubject of eleétricity. But not-
withftanding the various efleéts, fimilur to thofe of common

Vou. X11. ‘

fire, which are produced by eleciricity, an attentive exami-
nation of the concurring circumftances will eafily fhew that
electricity, and fire, or caloric, are thiegs quite diftin& from
each other. In the firft place it fhould be confidgred, thar
frition, or the fudden attrition of bodies, prodaces not
only heat in a moderate degree, but in a great many cafes,
actual combuftion, accompanicd with light, &c. therefore
it fhould not be wondered that the eleétric fluid, which pafics
with aftonifning rapidity through bodies, fhould produce
the above-mentioned effeéts ; and it is to be remarked, that
it is im its paflage, or motion, alone, that the eleftric Auid
produces ¢ffcéts analogous to thofe of fire. Secondly, if heat
or fire, and eleGtricity, were the fame thing, they wovid be
always together; or, more properly {peaking, the effeGts of
the one ought to be always accompanied with the eff-&s of
the other; but we find that a body fimply eleéirified, ora
Leyden phial containing a high charge, is not fenfibly heated
by it; nor does a body acquire any eleétricity by being
heated; excepting that eleétticity which feems to be pro-
duced in conf:quence of an enlargement or contra@tion of
parts, and which is obfervable in afew bodies only.

Some writers of eminence have lid great ftrefs upon an
experiment of Mr. Wiifon, made fome years ago at the Pan-
theon, where an immenfe apparatus was erected principally
for the purpofe of determining whether a point or a knob
was the beft termivation for the condudtors of lightning,
The apparatus confifted of an eleétrical machine, which,
though pretty large, was not, however, of any extraordinary
fize: but to this machine there was annexed an immenfe
prime condu&or, which confifted of a great number. of
military drums, covered with tinfoil, which formed a cy-
linder of above 155 feet in-length, and more'than 16 inches
in diameter; and to this vait conduétor were occafionally
added 4800 yards of wire. The eleétric fluid drawn from
this condu@or, after it had been fully eleétrified by the
machine, fired gun-powder; when ‘it was drawn off by a
fhatp point. The particular conftruGion was as follows :
Upon a ftaff of baked wood a ftem of brafs was fixed,
which terminated in an iron point at the top. This point
was put into the end of a {mail tube of Indian paper, made
fomewhat like a cartridge, about an inch and a quarter long,
and two tenths of an inch in diameter. When the cartridge
was filled with common gun-powder, unbruifed, a wire,
communicating with the earth, was faltened to the bottom of
the brafs ftem. Whilft the charge in the great p:ime con-
duGtor was kept up by the continued action of the machine,
the top of the cartridge was brought very near the cylinder
of drums, fo that it frequently even touched the tinfoil
with which it was covered. In this fituation a {mall faint
luminous ftream was frequently obferved between the top of
the cartridge and the metal. Sometimes this ftream would
fet fire to the gun-powder the moment it was applied ; at
other times it would require half a minute or more before
it took effet. But this difference in time was fuppofed to
be owing to fome {mall degree of moifturein the powder or
in the paper. ‘Linder was fired in the fame manner, but
much more readily. Vhis experiment has, fince that time,
been imitated by Mr. Nairne with a Leyden phial.

Now the refult of this experiment was fuppofed to cor-
roborate the idea of the identity of eleiricity and fire ; but
there requires no great ingenuity to remark that the great
quantity of eleétric fluid, which in this experiment muft
have pafled through the metallic point, heated that poiat
fufficiently to fire the gan-powder.. It has been alleged,
that in this cafe the paflage of the eleCtricity could not have
power to heat that point, becavfe, when that fluid is drawn
off by a fharp point, it has lefs force than in any other cafe;

-4T but

ELECTRICAL,

but it fhould be obferved, that when furtounded by other
bodies, asin the prefent cafe, a pointed body ceafes to a&t as
a point, and that more or lefs according to the nature of the
bodies which furround it,

If we examine the propagation of heat and of ele@ricity,
their diffimilarity becomes more apparent : for though heat
pailes through certain conduétors of eleétricity ({fuch as
the metals) eafier than through other bodies; yet fooner or
Jater it penetrates every known fubftance, and an exceedingly
imall quantity of it diffufes itfelf alike throuzhout bodies
of every kind; and that diffufion is performed very flowly ;
but the ele&tric fluid pervades condv@ors only, ard its pro-
pagation through them is performed in an immeafurable
{mall portionof time. Mr. Henly, an ingenious electrician,
whofe labours confiderably promoted that f{cience, made
the following obfervations. We conftantly, he faid, obferve,
1. That if two bodies containing the inflammable principle in
equal quantities (which is the cafe with bodies of the fame
kind, as glafs and glafs, metal and metal, &c.) be rubbed
together, they acquire either very little el. Gricity, or none
at all. 2. That as one of the bodies contains a greater
quantity of the inflammable principle than the other, {fo they
acquire a grearer quantity of ele@ricity, and fuch is the
café when glafs is rubbed with a metal. 3. That a cer-
tain degree of friction produces eleGtricity, and that a more
violent friction produces fire, but no ele&ricity; and,
4. That, in general, bodies which are poffefled of a
greater quantity of the inflammable principle, give the
electric fluid to bodies that have lefs of it, when they are
rubbed together.

From thefe obfervations Mr. Henly concluded, that the
eleGtric fluid and five are produced by fimilar operations,
and are both extraéted from bodies abounding with the in-
flammable principle ; and therefore he was led to fuppofe
that the inflammable principle, (at that time called phlogi/fon, )
the elefiric fluid and fire, are only different modifications
of the very fame element; the firft being its quiefcent ftate
of exiftence, the fecond its firft aGtive ftate, and the laft its
more violent ftate of agitation.

But to fay that the eleétric fluid is a modification of the
inflammable principle, without pointing out what that modi-
fication confits of, is the fame thing as to fay that one does
not know what the eleCtric fluid really is,

Certain philofophers have fuppofed the eleétric fluid to be
nothing more than the ether mentioned by fir Ifaac Newton ;
but according to Newton’s fuppofition, the ether is an
exceedingly Iubtile and elaftic fluid, which is difperfed
throughout the univerfe, and the particles of which repel
the particles of all other matter. But upon this fuppofition,
as Dr. Prieftley juftly obferves, the electric fluid is quite
different from the ether, becaufe it is not repulfive like the
ether, but attractive, of all other matter.

Dr. Prieftlcy, obferving that the ele&tric explofion taken in
different kinds of air a€ted like other phlogittic proceffes,
according to the language of that time, fuppofed that the
eleGric matter either is, or contains, phlogifton; (Obferva-
tions on different kinds of Air, vol. ii, fe@. 13.) He
might, however, have, with more probability, fuppofed,
that in his experiments the phlogifton was extricated from
t'e bodies which were immediately a&ted upon by the
ele@tric force; but fince modern philofophers have utterly
cov fizred the fuppofed phlogifton to oblivion, we need not
fay any thing more about it.

The eleéiric fluid bas alfo been fuppofed to be of an acid
nature, and the faéts which have given origin to this fuppo-
fition are, that electricity occafions the cryftallization of an
alkali in certain cafes (fee the article Exzctricau Experi-

4

ments,) and it flightly reddens certain blue vegetable colours:
But it is more likely that the fmall quantity-of acid which
is thus manifefted, is produced by the violent aétion of the
eleGtric fluid upon the air, or other contiguous bodies; for
it is only in cafes of its quick traufition that thefe effets are
produced.

An ingenious philofopher has endeavoured to eftablifh a
propofition, which (as he thinks) is warranted by the prin«
cipal phenomena of eletricity; namely, that the electric
fluid confifts of two principles; viz. of the pureft and nim-
bleft hydrogen, alittle rarefied, and of the elementary heat.
All the experiments, he fays, tend to prove, ‘intimant
ignis ele€trici naturam minime contineri in acido quodam, ut
ex aliquibus experimentis male digeftis putarunt aliqui cates
roquin fapientes; fed hance exurgere, et componi a duobus
principiis, nempe a phlogiflo, aut ut vocant Galli, hydros
gene, puriori, mobiliori, et admodum rarefacto, atque ex igne
elementari five calore latente, (calorico,) ubique per corpora
univerfa diffufo, atque pro ipforum capacitate in illis hofpi«
tante.”” Deeledr, ignis nat. Differt. ab Jofepho Gardinio,
Mantuz, 1792.

According to the moft rational hypothefis, the ele&tric
fluid feems to be a fluid fii generis ; viz. a fluid quite dif-
tinét from all other known fluids. It is imponderable, and
invifible whilft in a quiefcent ftate ; and even the light which
we fee in its tranfition from one body to_another is not, in
all probability, the eleCtric fluid itfelf ; but the light which
is elicited from other bodies or from the air: for ina perfect
Torricellian vacuum no eleétric light is to be feen.

So far we have related the different hypothefes that have
been advanced, with refpeét to the nature of the eleGric
fluid, upon the fuppofition that the phenomena of electricity
are produced by a jingle fluid; but there are feveral phi-
lofophers, who are of opinion that thefe phenomena are
produced by two electric fluids, viz. the vitreous and the
refinous. The peculiar merits of thefe two hypothefes, viz.
ot the hypothefis of a fingle eleGtric fluid, and of that of two
ele&tric fluids, will be properly examined under the article
Theory of EvectTRicitTY.

The nature of thefe two fuppofed ele@ric fluids has like-
wife been fought after with great attention by various Ja-
bourers in the ample field of fcientific inquiry ; but no precife
difcovery has as yetdeterminedany thing about them. It has
been fuppofed that thefe two electrical fluids are fluids difs
tin@ from ail others; but they have alfo been thought to be
ofan acid, and of an alkaline nature, viz. that the vitreous
is of an acid, and the refinous of au alkaline nature. And
indeed there are fome experiments which feem to counte-
nance this fuppofition ; but we muft refer the reader to the
article Gacvanism for farther information concerning this
particular; it being impraéticable to convey’a clear idea of
the nature of the above mentioned experiments, without a
previous ftatement of that new branch of ¢le@tricity, which

“is at prefent fuccefsfully cultivated under the name of Gaf-
vanifm.

Evectrricay Far. See Liypen Purav,

Evectricar Aile. See Kire,

Exvectrican Machine ; a mechanifm in whieh an electric:
body, fuch as glafs, fulphur, rofin, &c. is fubj-cted to frice
tion, in order to-excite in it that power which is commonly
known under the name of ele¢ticity.

When the attra@tion and the repultion were the only phe-
nomena of eleétricity known, and when thofe phenomena
had been obferved in {mall bodies only, fuch as natural
pieces of amber, a tourmalin, a diamond, and the like ; a
fimple friction againft the hand or the garment of the experi«
menter was fufliciento excite the electric virtue 5 but sebep

the

ELECTRICAL.

the fame property was difcovered in fulphur, in refin, and in
other bodies, which might be formed into pretty large maffes,
fo as to produce effecis more ftriking and decilive; then
fimple fri€tion in the manner already mentioned was found
inadequate tothe purpofe, and philofophers contrived to’pere
form the excitation in a more commodious manner by me-
chanical means; and fuch mechanifms are what we now
‘eal. eleZtrical machines.

In the hiflory of the original conftru@ion, and of the fub-
fequent improvements of thofe machines, a contemplative
mind is naturally led toadmire the ingenuity of philofophere,
as well as the alternate advancements of the fcience of eec-
tricity, avd of the improvements of the machines ; for if a
new difcovery pointed out a defe&, or a ufeful improv-ment,
inthe machine; the improvement of the latter hardly ever
failed to produce new difeoveries, and fo on.

The firlt mechanifm which deferves the name of eleGtrical
“machine, was contrived by Otto Guericke, burgomatter of
Magd-bourg, av: the celebrated inventor of the air-pump;
a contemporary 0° Boyle.

Fig. 1. Plate ViL. reprefents this firt {mall and imperfeét
machine; but while we call it {mall and imperfect, we muft
not forget to acknowledge, that to the ufe, which its inventor
made of this machine, we are indebted for the d:fcovery of
the light, the fmell, and the cracking noife of eleétricity.

Previous to the delcription of this and the other elec-
trical machines up to the prefent time, it will be neceffary
to premifea general idea of the parts of thefe machines, in
order that the reader may be enabled to comprehend the
objeéts for the attainment of which the different con{truGtions
‘were adopted, and may likewife be enabled to appreciate
their peculiar advantages or defe&ts.

An ele&trical machine being a mechanifm capable of ex-
citing an eleétric, fo a3 to produce ele&rical phenomena,
naturally confifts of the following principal parts; viz. of
the eleGtricy the moving engine, the rubber, and the prime
conductor; that is, an infulated condu@tor, which receives
the ele&tricity immediately from the excited eleétric body.

Formerly the eleétric was ufed of different fubftances, fuch
as glafs, rofin, fulphur, fealing-wax, &c. which variety was
adopted on two accounts, firft, becaufe philofophers had not
quite determined to which of thefe bodies the preference
might be given, and fecondly, on account of producing a ne-
gative or pofitive electricity at the pleafure of the eleétri-
cian ; for before the eleétricity of the infu'ated rubber was
difcovered, fulphur, rough glafe, fealing-wax, or otber refin-
ous body, was ufed for producing the negative electricity ;
whilft {mooth glafs ferved for the production of the pefitive
or vitreous power. At prefent {mooth glafs feems to be the
only fubftance univerfally ufed, and that on account of its
power, of its durability, of its cheapnefs, and of its being
eafily formed into any fhape which may beft anfwer the
views of the eleGtrician. And when the machine has an
infulated rubber, the operator may obtain either pofitive or
negative electricity at pleafure without. changing the
eleGtric.

The form of the glafs has been much varied, but thofe
which are at prefent generally ufed, and have been found
preferable to all others, are cylinders, and circular plates.
Globes are likewife ufed, but Jefs frequently.

The cylinders are made with two necks; they are moftly
ufed without an axis ; for this is only an obitruétion, and has
no real ufe ; and their more ufual fizeis from four inches
in diameter, and eight in length, to twelve meches in diame-
ter and two feetin length; but fome very powerful electri-
cal machines have been made in London. with cylinders of
-two feet in diameter and upwards, The globes are always

made with one neck, and the circular plates have been ufed
from the {mall fize of fix inches ia diameter to the larger
fize poflible to be made.

With refpe& to the engine. which is to give motion to
the electric, multiplying wheels have been generally ufed for
machines containing a globe or a cylinder, and thefe com-
municate to the electric a quick motion, while they are con-
venicutly turned by a wiech. The vfval method is to fix
a wheel on one fide of the freme of the machine, which is
turned by a winch or handle, and has a groove on its circum«
fercnces Upon the brafscap which is cemented te the neck
of the glafs plobe, or to one of the necks ef the-eylinder, a
pulley is fixed, the diam-ter of which is about the third or
fourth part of the dizmet-r of the wheel; th-n a fring, or
ftrap, is put over the wheel and the pulley ; and by this
means, when the winch is turned, the g'obe or cylinder makes
three or four revolutions for each revolution of the wheel.
There is an inconvesience generally attending this con{truc-
tion, which is, that the flring becomes fometimes fo very
flack, that the ele&ric will not turn round whee the winch is
moved. To remeily this inconventence. the wheel thovld be
made moveable with refpeSt to the electric, fo that it may
be fixed at the proper diftance; or elfe the pulley fhould
have feveral grooves of different diameters on its circumfer-
ence; in which cafe the ftrme may be paffed from a groove
of {maller diamcter to that of a larger, in proportion as it
becomes flack, or extended. The motion of the eleGtric,
which has been found moft produétive of eke Aricity, is about
five revolutions in a Gaecind which cannot conveniently be
prrformed by means of a fimp!e winch applied immediately
to the cap at the neck of the globe or cylinder, and there-
fore multip\ying wheels have been ufed, Yet when the cy«
linders are not very large, and the m-chanifm is nicely con-
ftruGted with the beft rubber, rendered a&ive by the zinc
amalgam, a fimple winch has been found fuily fufficient, and
accordingly feveral machines have been conftruéted upon
that fimple plan, and are at prefent frequently ufed. In
thefe machines the cylinder may be conveniently caufed to
make about three revolutions in a fecornd, he circular
glafs plate machines are always moved by a fimple winch,
which is fixed to the axis of the glafs plate or plates; (for
fome of thefe machines contain two plates fixed on the fame
axis, parallelto each other.) The axis paffes through a hole
in the centre of the plate or plates, and is fixed thereto, in
a fituation perpendicular to the plate, by means of certain
fockcts on either fide of the plate.

In fome of the machines furnifhed with a globe or acylinder,
a metal wheel and pinion, or a wheel and an endlefs ferew,
have been ufed, inltead of the above-mentioned pulley and
ftring. And when this conftrudtion is new, and is properly
executed, it anfwers very well; but it is apt to make a difa-
greeable rattling noife, and unlefs it be frequently oiled
foon wears away in confequence of the great tii@tion of its
parts.

The rubber, as it is at prefent more commonly conftru&ed,
confifts of a leather cufhion (the leather moflly ufed is bafil
fkin, or flannel, ttuffed with hair) and having a piece of filk
(either varnifhed or unvarnifhed) thrown. over, which being
faftened to the lower part of the cufhion, pafles between this
and the giafs, and projects a confiderable way beyond the
cufhion, and over the glafs. Another conftruction, which
was recommended by Dr. Nooth, is likewife not untrequent-
ly ufed. It confifts of a fik cufhion ftuffed with hair, and
having a piece of leather thrown over, fo that the leather is
what immediately touches the furface of the glafs, and to
the upper edge of this leather, a piece of filk is generally

472 added,

ELECTRICAL.

added, which refts upon the glafs, and covers about one-
third part of its furface.

In thefe or fimilar conftru@tions, the amalgam is always
to be ufed, and this fhould be confined to that part of the
rubber which the glafs globe or cylinder enters as it revolves:
In fhort, that fide of the rubber which the glafs enters in
whirling muft be made as perfe& a conduor as poflible,
in order to furnifh the glafs with a plentiful fupoly of elec-
tricity; and theoppofite part muft beas much a non-conductor
as poflible, in order that little or none of the fluid which is
accumulated upon the glafs may return to the rubber. In
the conftrudtion of the rubber care muft.alfo be taken that
it be free from points or fharp edges; and it fhould be fup-
ported by a fpring, by which means it may adapt itfelf to
the inequalities of the glafs. It fhould alfo be infulated
for the purpofe of obtaining a negative eletricity.

The prime condu@or, or fir condu€tor which is applied
to the excited eleCtric, isnothing more than an infulated con-
duGing fubftance furnifhed with one or more points at one
end, for the purpofe of colleGing the ele&tricity immediately
from the excited eleGric. (See Correcror of EleGricity.)
When the condu@tor is of a moderate fize, it is ufual to
make it of hollow brafs, or of tin plates; but when very
large, it is more commouily made of wood, -or tin plates, or
paite board, covered. with tiefoil, or even with gilt paper.
The conduGior is generally made of a cylindrical fhape ; but
be the form of it what it may, it fhould always be made free
from points, or fharp edges, and if holes are to be madein
it, which on many accounts are very ufeful, thefe fhould be
well rounded, and made perfeGily {mooth. If any part of
the prime conductor is to be made larger than the reft, this
ought to be that which ftands fartheft from the excited elec-
tric; for at that end the eleétricity endtavours moitly to
ef{cape.

It has been conftantly obferved, that the larger the prime
conduétor is, the denfer or ftronger {park may be drawn
from it; for the quantity of eleétricity difcharged in the
form of a {park is nearly proportional to the fize of the
cofdudtor ; and for this reafon the prime conduGors have
been made much larger of late years than they were made
formerly. ts fize, however, may be rendered too large,
fo-that the diffipation of cleGtricity from its {urface may be

little fhort of the fupply from the eleétric, in which cafe fo '

large a conduétor would only
incumbrance.
chine muft have a ftrong frame to fupport the eleGric, the rub-
ber, andthe wheel. The prime conduétor fhould be fup-
ported by pillars of glafs, or of other folid non-conductors,
and not by filk flrings, which admit of continual moticu.
In fitort, the machine and the prime conduGtor fhouid ke
made to ftand as fleady as poffible, otherwife the experiments
cannot be conveniently and fatisfa€torily performed. We
fhall now. proceed to defcribe the particular electrical
machines.

Fig. 1. Plate VII. reprefents Otto Guericke’s original ma-
chine. It confifts of an horizontal frame, the peculiar con-
ftruGion of which is not mentioned in his work ** De Yacuo
Spatio ;”? for it is in that book that the electrical machine is
deferibed : 2 ¢ and b dare two uprights, which fupport the
2xis,of the globular cleGiric, and fuch are all the parts of this
machine with re{peé& to the formation of the eleGtric, which
is of fulphur; he gives the following direGtions: ‘Take, fays
he, a {pherical glafs phial of the fize of the headof an infant ;
fill it with fulphur, which has been previoufly powdered'in a
mortar, and thus filled, expofeit to the’ fire to liquify the
fulphur, and when afterwards cooled, break the glats phial,
in order. to obtain the globe of fulphur. So little did he

be an unwieldy and ufelels

Befide the above-mentioned parts, the ma- °

imagine, as Dr. Prieftley juftly obferves, that the glafe globe
itfelf with or withoutthe fulphur would have anlwered his
purpofe as weil. This globe, he adds, may be perforated
with a hole quite through, and aniron axis may be fixed to
it, and thus the globe is ready for ufe.

To.fhew the virtue (which he calls virtutem confervativam)
of this globe, place the axis of it upon the two fupports as
&, of the little machine a dc d, about a foot high from the
bafe, and place fmall bodies of any kind under it, fuch as
leaves of gold, filver: paper, &c. then prafp the globe or rub
it with the hand fufficiently dry, and the fulphur will thea
attra& the {mall bodies, &c. ;

Fig. 2. Plate VIX. reprefents Mr Haukfbce’s eleGrieal ma=
chine, the various parts of which will be eaftly comprehended
by infpe@ting the figure. This machine has no rubber, no
prime conduétor, or ficld for making experiments; for ne
fuch things were wanted at his time; but it may be eafily
accommodated with them all. A conductor, for inftancey
may hang from the ceiling, a rubber may be fupported by
a {pring fixed under the globe, and a table placed near the
machine may receive the apparatus neceflary for making
experiments. The inconveniences’ of this conftru@ion are,
that the operator cannot well turn the wheel himfelf. Ava
affiftant is neceffary for it, who mut fit to his work. “This
machine admits one globe only, but a confiderable variety of
globes, and cylinders, or {pheroids, may be fucceflively ap-
plied to it. e

Fig. 3. Plate VII. reprefents the abbé Nollet’s ele&trical
machine, a conftru@tion much in ufe about the time that the
peculiar phenomena of the Leyden phial were firft difcovered.
In thofe early times eleGricians had no idea, that at was
poffible to make the elettric revolve too faft. “They, there-
fore, made the wheels of their machines very large,-which
of courfe required a large and {ubftantial frame ; the cleGric
was rubbed by the hand, the prime conductor was a bar of
iron, or a gun barrel, and fometimes a chain, fufpended in
filken lines from the top of the room, and the apparatus was
placed upon an adjoining table. ;

The phenomena which were produced by the above-mene
tioned machines naturally excited a defire of exciting a much

greater power of eledtricity ; and with this view Dr. Wat.

fon contrived the machine reprefented by fg. 4. Plate VIL:,

in which four large globes might be whirled at once, and -
“their power might be united.

N. B.—It is only for the purpofe of not enlarging the

plate, that the fame prime conduétor has’ becn repreiented as
belonging to two machines, viz. to fig. 3, and-jige 4.9»
This machine was furnifhed with proper rubbers’ for all the
four globes, and thefe rubbers were adjuftable by means ofa
{crew for each rubber. D
Fiz. 5. Phite VII. reprefents 2 machine contrived by Mr.
Wilton. Its conftruction is fuck that*the fame perfon may
turn the wheel at the fame time that he performs-the experi-
ments. But the rubber is not infulated, and both the rub-
ber and the cylinder are not fufficiently diitant from other
bodies. The prime conduGor fiands upen the fame frame,
which was undoubtedly an advantage over the other ma-
chines of that time; but being fupported by filk ftrings, it
was liable toa conftant fhake, which rendered it unfit for
a great many experiments. s et.
Fig. 6. Plate V111. reprefents an elegant fort of ele€trical
machine, of a very compaGt form, and capable of confider-
able power. The machinery is contained in the brafs box a,
and it confitts ofa brafs wheel, whofe tecth move an endlefs
fcrew, at the lower part of the axis, which comes out of the
box, and fupports the glafs globe d} there being’ a brafs
focket on the upper part of the axis; in which the neck of the

ws globe —

ee i a

lial

ELECTRICAL

globe-is cemented. The brafs box:a is ferewed to the table
by means ofa clamp, which is always fixed to it; and it
will be eafily conceived that by turning the winch 4, the
globe d will be caufed to turn horizontally: eis the rubber
which is fupported by a brafs {pring, and may be made to
prefs more or lefs upon’the glafs globe, by means of an ad-
juitment atc. The prime conduétor f ie fupported by a
feparate ftand upona glafs pillar, and 1s to be placed upon
the tabie adjoining to the machine. The rubber of this
machine is not infulated, yet this defe& was obviated by re-
moving therubber e, and fixing another rubber upon an in-
fulating itand, which was clamped to the table clofe to the
machine. Upon the whole it muft beacknowledged that this
machine is both very portable and yery ufeful, nor can any
thing work more pleafantly, as long as the work within the
box a remains in proper order ;, but we have already obferved
that this conftru€tion is apt to wear out pretty faft, and is
generally attended with an unpleafant rattling. This ma-
chine is alfo attended with anotherinconvenience, which is the
upright pofition of the globe and the rubber, in confes
quence of which whatever is put upon the latter, as the
amalgam, &c. is apt to drop out.

Fig. 7. Plate VIII. reprefents a machine contrived by Mr.
Read, a philofophical inftrument maker. This machine may
be eafily diftinguifhed from’the others which are reprefented
upon the fame table in the plate, by obferving its bottom
board, which is fattened to the table by means of the two
clamps 0,0. ‘The cylinder d of this machine ftands perpen-
dicular to the horizon, and is fupported by a brafs arm e,
which receives the upper end of the axis; and motion is
given toit by means of a pulley at the lower end ofthe
axis, anda wheel g which lies parallel to the table; a ftring

“going round both the wheel and the pulley. The prime
conduétor a is furnifhed with teeth or points by way of col-
Ye&tor, and is {crewed to the wire of the coated jar 4, {tand-
ing in a focket, between the cylinder and the wheel; fo that
the coated jar 5 ferves as a Leyden phial, and as a ftand for
the conduétor. The rubber r is fupported by a brafs fpring,
which may be adjufted by a {crew that pafles through the
arme. But this rubber cannot be infulateds This machine
was, fome years ago, much ufed for medical purpofes ; for
when Mr. Lane’s difcharging electrometer c was annexed to
it, the operator might adminifter as many fhocks as he
pleafed, precifely of the fame ftrength.

When this machine was ufed for fimple ele&rization, or
for other purpofes where no fhocks were required, then the
coated jar 4 was removed, and another jar, not coated, was
placed inftead of it, which then ferved as a mere infulating
ftand to the condydtor 2.

Fig. 8. Plate VIII. exhibits Dr. Prieftley’s eleGtrical
machine, of which he gives the following defcription in his
Hiltory of Elce@tricity. ‘ The machine,” he fays, “ which I
would advife a philofopher to conftru& for his own ufe, is
the refult of my bef attention to'this fubje&t. I have ufed
it above fix months (how much [ leave the reader to imagine)
without feeing the leaft reafon to make any alteration of
confequence in it; and believe it to have almolt all the ad-
vantages which an electrical machine defigned for the clofet
can have,

« The frame corfilts of two ftrong boards of mahogany
a, a, of the fame length, parallel to one another, about four
inches afunder, and the lower an inch on each fide broader
than the upper. In the upper board is a groove, reaching
almoft its whole-length. One of the pillars 4, which are
of baked wood, is immoveable, being let through the upper
board, and firmly fixed in the lower, while the other pillar
fides in the groove above-mentioned, in order to receive

‘

globes or cylinders of different fizes; but it is only wanted
when anaxis is ufed. Both the pillars are perforated with
holes, at equal diftances, from the top to the bottom; by
means of which, globes may be mounted higher or lower,
according to their fize ; and they are tall, to admit the ufe
of twoor more globes ata time, one above the other. Four
of a moderate fize may be ufed, if two be fixed on one axis:
and the wheel has feveral grooves for that purpofe.

“¢Tf a globe with only one neck be ufed, asin the plate, a
brafs arm with an open focket ¢ is neceflary to fupport the
axis beyond the pulley ; and this part is alfo contrived to be
put higher or lower, together with the brafs focket in which
the axis turns. The axis dis made to come quite through
the pillar, thatit may be turned by another handle, without
the wheel, if the operator choofés, The frame being {crewed
to thagtable, may be placed nearer to, or farther from, the
wheel, as the length of the ftring requires, in different ftates
of the weather. The wheel is fixed ina frame by itfelf e,
by which it may have any fituation with refpe& to the pulley,
and be turned to one fide, fo as to prevent the ftring from
cutting itfelf. The hinder part of this frame is fupported
by a foot of its own.

“The rubber f confifts of a hollow piece of copper,
filled with horfe hair, and covered with a bafil fin. It is
fupported by a focket, which receives the cylindrical axis of
a round plate of glafs¢, the oppofite part of which is in-
ferted into the focket of a bent tteel {pring 4. Thefe parts
are eafily feparated, fo that the rubber, or the plate of glafa
that ferves to infulate it, may be changed ’at pleafure. Phe
{pring admits of a twofold alteration of pofition. It may
be either flipped along the groove, or moved in the contrary
dirc ion, fo as to give it every defirable pofition with refpc&
to the globe or cylinder; and it is, befides, furnifhed with
a fcrew 7, which makes it prefs harder or lighter; as the
operator choofes,

‘The prime conduétor & is a hollow veffel of polifhed
copper, in the form of a pear, fupported by a pillar, and a
firm bafis of baked wood, and it receives its fire by means
of a long arched wire, or rod of very {oft brafs, 4, eafily
bent into any fhape, and railed higher or lower, as the globe
requires ; and it is terminated by an open ring, in which are
hung fome fharp pointed wires m, playing lightly on the
globe when it isin motion. The body of the condu@tor is
furnifhed with holes, for the infertion of metallic rode, to
convey the fire wherever it is wanted, and for many other
purpofes convenient. in a courfe of ele€trical experiments.
The condutor is, by this means, fleady, and yet may be
eafily put into any fituation,

«When pofitive eletricity is wanted, a wire, orchain, as
is reprefented in the plete x, conneéts the rubber with the
table or the floor. When negative eleétricity is wanted,
that wire is connected with anotlrer conduGtor, which muft
be placed upon a feparate infulating ftand near to the machine,
while the conduétor & is conne&ted by another wire or chain
with the table. If the rubber be made tolerably free from
points, the negative power will be as flrong asthe pofitive.

“Tn fhort, the capital advantages of this machine are,
that glafs veffels, or any other ele&tric body, of any fize or
form, may be ufed, with one neck, or two necks, at plea-
fare ; and even feveral of them at the fame time, if required,
All the effential parts of the machine, the globe, the frame,
the wheel, the rubber, and condu€or, are quite feparate; .
and the pofition of them to one another may be varied in
every manner poffible.””

The progrets of the fctence of eleRticity fince Dr. Prieftley
contrived the above-deferibed machine, has fhewn the imper-
feGtion of feveral of its parts, and the ufelefs complication .

of,

ELECTRICAL,

of the whole, The fhape, and efpecially the long neck of
the prime conductor, would not at prefent be ufed by any
eleGtrictan ; it being ill fuited to the performance of experi=
ments, and very apt to diffipate the electricity, when a
great deal of that power is furnifhed by the ele@tric, which
is the cale with moit of the modern machines furnifhed with
the zinc amalgam. The neceflity of an intricate frame,
capable of admitting more than one globe or cylinder, is
alfo fuperfeded by the obfervation, that one well formed large
cylinder produces a much greater quantity of eletricity,
than four or more {mall ones, and the fri€tion is much more
confiderable in the latter thanin the former cafe.

Fig.9. Plate VIII. reprefents a compa machine, fome-
what fimilar to the laft, but much more commoadious. It
confifts of a pillar of mahogany a, flanding upright upon
three feet. This pillar divides in two plates to receive a
wheel J in the lower part of it, and in the upper part a
pulley e, which is turned bya leathern flrap d tightened by
means of afmall buckle. In the centre of the pulley isa
ftrong iron fpindie, turning in two firm brafs fockets, faften-
ed to each fide of the pillar. In one of thefe fockets the
extremity of the {pindle turns upon a centre, by means of a
piece of iron ¢ {crewed into it, while the other is held tight
by a brafs clafp, which may be made to hold it clofer, or
more loofely, at pleafure, by means of a fcrew f. The
iron fpindle terminates in a male [crew, anfwering to a female
{crew in the brafs cap of the globe g; and by this means any
globe may be taken out, and another put into the machine
with very little trouble, if thefe parts be always made to the
fame pattern. The rubber 4 is feparated from the {prinz i
by a plate of glafs 7, which effeCtualiy infulates it; but the
chain £ conne€ts them together when pofitive eleétricity is
wanted, asin the ufual method of ele&trifying. The {pring
may be made to prefs more or lefs, by means of a {crew /;
and it may be raifed higher or lower, to fuit globes of’ differ-
ent fizes, by means of a contrivance which is not reprefented
in the plate. The prime condutor m v0 is like that of the
preceding machine, and it muft be placed upona table ad-
joining to the machine. When negative cledtricity is
wanted, the chain 4 mult be removed fromthe rubber, and
hung upon the prime conductor, fo as to conneé it with the
table; anda fhort brafsrod, witha knob atits end, mult be
ferewed into a {mall focket, which will be found in the rubber
above the glafs plate. This brafs rod will then ferve for a
negative prime conduétor. As this machine is apt to fhake
when in adtion, its three feet may be {crewed to a large
board, upon which the perfon who turns the wheel may
alio reft bis feet.

It will be obvioufly remarked that the prime condutor of
this machine has the fame imperfeGtions that have been men-
tioned in the defcription of. the preceding machine.

Fig. 10. Plate 1X. exhibits the elerical machine
contrived and ufed by F. Beccaria of Turin, a diftinguifhed
eleGrician. This machine comprchends ail the improve-
ments, and is con{tru€ted with all the precautions, which
the ftate of the fcience at that time could fuggett. But no
regard whatever was paid either to fize or portability. TS
is the plafs cylinder, to the extremities of which two wooden
caps were adapted, and the whole turned round the points of
the fcrews V, V, which entered a little way the centres of the
caps. One of thfe caps was f:rmed | ke a pulley, to re-
eeive the flring which went round the wheel R. The form
of the frame will be eafily comprehended by infpeéting the
figure ; and as for its ftrength and fize, they may be eafily de-
rived by obferving, that belides the wheel and cy|inder it had
a place between the handle of the wheel and the front, large
enough to contain twomen, viz. one whe turned the wheel,

and another who rubbed the cylinder TS. And the twa
men with the whole machire were infulated ; for the legs
E, F, G, Hy were of glafs. The circular bexes, which are
feen on the floor round the tegs, are femicircular boxes of tin,
two of which being placed round each leg formed a whole
circle. When the machine was in afe thefe tin boxes were
filled with warm athes for the purpote of keeping the glafs legs
dry. The axis of the whe.l R worked ina particular frame,
which might be {crewed into the large frame at any required
diftance from the cylinder, in order to render the firing fuf-
ficiently tight.

The prime conductor, which is not drawn in the plate,
confifted of a cylinder of tin 12 feet long and one foot in
diameter ; it prefented a conical termination to the middle
zone of thecylinder TS, and had its-oppofite extremity of
afemiglobular fhape. This prime conductor was fufpended
upon filk ftrings.

The great difparity between the fize of the cylinder and
that of the whole frame, is what will eafily firike the atten-
tive obferver; yet it muft be acknowledged, that to a real

philofopher who had nothing elfe in view, bur the improve- -

ment of the fubjeCt, this machine must, at that early period,

have afforded ample fatisfa¢tion; and, in fa&, whoever will -

perule Beccaria’s inftru@ive work, entitled <* Elettricifmo
artificiale,” will readily perceive how ufeful it proved to its
inventor. It afforded either pofitive or negative ele&tricity
with equal facility ; for as the whole machine was infulated,
when pofitive electricity was required, a chain was appended
to the machine which formed the communication between it
and the ground; and when negative ele€tricity was wanted,
the chain was placed from the prime condu@or to the ground,
and then the whole machine became a negative conduGor.
We need not point out how mary parcs of this machine
have been rendered ufelefs, or defeGtive, by fubfequent ime
provements.

The form of eleGrical machines moftly ufed of late, is ree
prefented in fig. 11, Plate IX. ABC is the bottom
board, which, when the machice is to be ufed, is faltened to
the table Y Z, by means of the ciamp at C: D, E, aretwo
upright pieces of wood, firmly faltered to the bottom board
A BC, and fupporting the plafs cylinder F G, and the
wheel H. Thetwo necks of the cylinder are furnifhed with
caps, one of which has an axis, which pafles through a hole
in the upright fupport E, and hasa pulley firmly fixed to its
outer extremity. The axis of the other cap runs in a {mall
hole towards the upper part of the fupport D: O is the
pillar which fupports th= rubber or cufhion P; and is fixed
with a joint to the bottom board, The middle part of this
pillar 1s of glafs, which renders the rubber infulated: Q is
a brafs ferew, which, poffing through the lower part of the
pillar O, fcrews into a piece of wood which 1s firmly fixed in
the bottom board. This ferves to regulate the preflure of the
cufhion upon the cylinder, The rubber confifts of acufhion
of leather ftuffed with hair, and fixed to a backboard, which
is {crewed to the upper part of the pillar O. A piece of tilk S
comes from the lowcre@ge of the rubber, and paffing between
it and the cylinder, extends it{clt over the cylinder, until it
nearly meets the points of the co. tor. The prime conductor
W is feparate from the machine ; it is of a cylindrical form,
with globular terminations, and is fupported by a glafs pillar
upon a circular wooden foot. ‘That end of the prime
corduétor. which ftands fartheft from the cylinder is ge=
nerally furmfhed with a thick wire, about four or five
inches Jong, and terminating in a brais ball.

It is evident that with this machine pofitive or negative
eleGtricity may be had at pleafure; for when pofitive elece
tricity is wanted, the rubber is connected with the Brena

an

~ bars.

ELECTRICAL,

and when negative eleéiricity is wanted, then the prime
conductor is connected with the ground, and the negative
ele&tricity is obtained from the rubber. Sometimes another
condudtor is connected with the rubber.

When the glafs cylinder is very large, fuch as of 18
inches, or two feet, in diameter, then the frame of the ma-
chine is made to ftand upon the ground, with this difference
from the above, that inttead of the bottom board ABC,
the two upright fupports reach down to the ground, where
they fpread out into a double foot, and are, at about mid-
way between the cylinder and the ground, faftened to each
other by two ftrong horizontal bars. The pillar of the
rubber is faftened to a proj-tion in the upper one of thofe
The ftand of the prime condutor is likewife high
cnough to reft upon the ground.

Fig. 12. PlateYX. reprefents Nairne’s ele&trical ma-
chine, a moft compact, fimple, and, at the fame time, power-
ful machine, ufeful for eletrical experiments in general,
but particularly adapted to the purpofes of medical ele&tri-
city. A is the glafs cylinder: B, B, two glafs pillars which
fupport the cylinder A: C is the handle by which the cy-
linder is turned: G, and R, are two metallic conduStors
for the pofitive and the negative eleCtricities. Thefe con-
ductors are fupported by the glafs pillars D, D: E is the
bottom board into which the pillars B, B, that fupport
the cylinder, ere firmly fixed. Underneath this board are
faftened pieces of wood forming four groaves: F, F, are
two pieces of board, part of which are inferted into two of
the four grooves under the board E. In thefe pieces the
pillars D, D, that fupport the conductors, are fixed: H is
a brafs knob, one of which is foldered on the outfide of

~ each condutor.

The cufhion or rubber is attached to the fide of the con-
duétor R, next to the cylinder: Ki is a piece of filk, one
end of which is glued to the under part of the cufhion, and
it is turned over, fo that part of the filk ftands between the
cufhion and the cylinder, and projeéts over the latter, as at
K, uncil it nearly reaches the colle&ting pointed wires
which are fixed to the fide of the other conductor.

L, L, are the heads of two wooden fcrews which pala
through the board E, and are to be {crewed until their
lower ends prefs again{t the upper part of the flidirg pieces
F, F, when chefe are flipped into the grooves under the {aid
board. One of thefe ferews ferves to keep the rubber in
contaét with the cylinder; for when the fliding piece F of
that conductor, which carries the rubber, is pufhed into tie
groove, fo that the rubber may be preffed againft the cy-
linder, the ferew L wili confine it in that fituation. The
other fcrew, L, ferves to keep the conduétor G fteady.

The erds N, N, of the conductors may be removed, and
then the opening of a coated eleétric jar, fattened within
each conduGor, is difcovered, aa is reprefented in figs 14.
Plate X. where one conduGor only of this machine is to
be feen. In the infide of each jar a piece of cork is fitted,
and in the cork a {mall glafs tube coatcd, and likewifle a
brafs wire with a ball, as fhewn in fiz. 14. J

The machine is faftened to the table by means of a flrong
iron clamp; and is worked, as the figure indicates, by a
fimple winch, without any multiplying whcele. There is a
remarkable nice apparatus accompanied with this machine,

‘which may be adapted to all cates of medical clericity.

The principal parts of this apparatus are repmiented in
Jige. 13 and 14. Plate X.

In fig. 13. part of the ele&trical machine is hewn, in order
to exhibit the flexible prolongations, which are fixed to the
conduGtors for the purpofe of giving fparks to any part of
the human body: 4, d, are two compound joiuts, each of

which has not only a vertical, but alfoan horizontal motion,
when applied to the condu€tor: f,f, f, are three metallic
tubes, connected by means of four pieces of wood, and two
pliable joints. One of thofe tubes is {crewed to the joint
d, and to the laft a large ball 4 is ferewed, which communis
cates the fpark. ‘To the fame tube a piece of wood g is
faftened, having a hole at right angles to the tube, and K is
a glafs handle, the upper part of which fits that hole; fo
that by applying the hand to the lower part of the glafs
handle, the {park may be given to any part of the body. In
the figure a perfon is reprefented, who dire&s the communi-
cations with the condudiors, to his fhoulders, by means of
the glafs handles 4, /.

Fig. 14. reprefents a perfon paffing fhocks through his
leg. [n this cafe the end cover from one of the condu@ors
is removed ; the chain d is fufpended to the knob of the jar,
and is made to communicate with the chain Q, which 3s
furnifhed with a wire at the other end f, and to this wire
a piece of wood with a hole is attached, which fits the
top of the glafs handle £: n is the difcharging elec-
trometer, fixed for the purpofe, upon the conduétor, and
another wire O, with another glafs hzncle &, is fixed to it
then the two wires p, p, being applied to any part of
the body through which the electric fhock is to be paffed,
and the machine being worked, the fhocks will, without any
alteration of the apparacus, be repeatedly fent through that
part, &c. for fuppofe that the conduGor, which is reprefented
in the figure, is the pofitive conductor, the external furface
of the jar will be charged pofitively, whilfl the fluid of the in-
fide will pafs through the chain 4, to the table, &c. and when
the jar is charged enough for the difcharge to pafs from the
conduGior to the knob of the difcharging ele€trometer n,
the difcharge wiil take place, and the fhock will pafs through
the part which is interpofed between the two wires f, p.

The two additional grooves under the bettom board of
the machine are ufed only for the conveniency of packing
the machine into as {mall a box as poffible; and for this pure
pofe the fliding pieces F, F, which fupport the pillars of the
conduétors, are flipped into the two grooves which are fituate
nearer to the handle fide of the machine.

‘The figs. 15, 10, Plate X. and 17, Plate IX. exhibit an ex-
tremely portable ele€trical machine and its parts, invented by
the Rev. W. Pearfon, of Lincoln. ‘This machine is intended
for medical purpofes, and efpecially for the adminiftration of
ele Gricity in cafes of fufpended animation, Upon repeated
trisis it has proved fufficiently ufeful, and its peculiar advan-
tages are, great portability, anda fufficient power; itis guarded
fo as not to be readily affc ted by moilture ; it is capable of
being ufed without a table or fland, in cafes of neceflity ;
itis rendered fit for ufe upon the thorteft notice, and it is
not very liable to be broken. In fg. 15. the machine is re-
prefented as viewed by an eye fituated direGly over it.
ABCD is a [mall box of by 74 inches within, and 6
inches deep, made of half inch board: upon the bottom of
the box lies a plate of glafs alfo 9} by 74 inches, cemented
to the wood at the four corners by common ele€rical ce-
ment; this plate is coated on both furfaces with tin-foil
feven inches by five, as reprefented at Q, fig. 16. (except
that the flips of tin-feil at H and I are paited or gummed
upon the under fide only,) and is ufed as a fubftitute for a
jar of 35 inches of coated furface, it being of no confe quence
what the fhape of the glafs be, provided it have a proper
quantity of coating. MEN is a cylinder of glafs of four
inches diameter, the body of which is 73 incheslong; at
Mand N are brafs or boxen caps, cemented as in other
machines, upon the {mall cylindrical ends of which the cy-
linder revolves, by means of the fimple winch C, which may

s

be taken off or put on at pleafure, ether by forewing, or
by being inferted upon y fquare fhoulder. .'The central
points of revolution of N and M are at about 24 inches
from the top of the box, the firft inferted into a circular
hole in one end of the box, and the other /et down in an
open place made down through the other, which has a de=
tached piece of fimilar wood to fit it, and to keep the cy-
linder in its place: LL is the cufhion, and E the filk placed
in the ufual way; D isa ferew with a milled head, which,
by the affiftance of a tapped nut, placed faft in the infide of
tke box at four inches from the bottom, preffes again{t the
claftic part of the /upport of the cvfhion which is hid from
the eye; this fupport, which may be of clailic wood, coated
above D with tin-foil, or of any elaltic metal, is {crewed
fat to the back~of the box near the bottom in the infide.
The chain at D is hung on the ferew at pleafure, as the
wood is found to be in a good or bad conduiing ftate.

‘°F is a piece of light wood turned very {mooth, and neatly
_ covered with tin-foil, its ends being rounded. This piece,
which I fhall call the colleétor, is furnifhed with about a
dozen fixed pins of brafs,” projeCting againft the fide of the
cylinder, as reprefented in the figure, as near as may be
without touching it. The colieétor is fix inches long, and
fomewhat more than an inch in diameter, and is fupported
by two folid giafs pieces C, C, of an inch and three-quar-
ters in length, and nearly half an inch in diameter, cemented
into the fide of the box at 44 inches frem the bottom, and
each at an inch from the end of the collector: by this
means the colleétor becomes infulated, and has a chain to
be hooked on an eye of wire, fixed on any part thereof, fo
as to fail occafionally upon the upper infulated coating of
the plate of glafs in the bottom of the-box ; the chair, how-
ever, muft not be fo long as to extend beyond the coating
by any motion of the box. :

« B is a glafs tube of about one-eighth of an inch bore,
and about 3 or 34inches long, witha ring of brafs or horn,
-that has a male {crew cenrented upon the middle of it, to
ferew into another ring that has a female ferew, and 1s,ce-
mented into the front fide of the box at 44 inches from the
bottom. Through this tube paffes a brafs wire, as thick as
will eafily move in it, about 45 inches long, tepped about
an inch at each end, anda little fmoothed ; on each end of
this wire is a tapped nut, which {crews back or forwards to
or from the ends of the tube, fo as to hold the wire in any
fituation that may be required, with regard to the diftance
of its ends from thofe of the tube. The wire has alfo two
brafs balls, one of which has its diameter lefs than that
of the tube, that it may move through the circular hole
into the box, to prevent its falling on the glafs plate, which
it might do if {crewed off and on within the box. O,0O,
are the direétors, with handles of giafls, each fx inches
long, befides the balls and wires.

«* There is yet one part of the apparatus which it was not
neceflary to exhibit in the plate; viz. the infulating ftool ;
this is made exaétly of afize to cover the box, and has four
feet of glafs, almott fix inchee long. Underneath that part of
the ftool which covers the colleétor, flides a little drawer,
which contains the tube, with its appendages, milled nut,
chains, handles of the direGtors, and amalgam, and mutt be
taken from the {tool when ufed. When packed, the four feet
of the ftool go exaétly into each corner, and the edge of the

“drawer jult within the fide of the box, by which means the
ftool is kept in its place as a cover; and lattly, the wires
of the directors pafs through the ftool, which is of inch
plank, at the middie near the two ends, and, by {crewing
into the fixed nuts in the edges of the box’s ends at K and K,
until the balls touch the wood of the ftool, fix the whole fo

ELECTRDCAL,

firm that a handle, fuch as is ufed in a cheft -of-drawers,
fixed on the centre of the ftool, ferves for carrying the
whole apparatus: by.

« With refpe& to the ufe, the machine being freed from
moifture and duft, and amalgam applied to the cylinder, the
fhock is adminiftered in the following manner; wiz. let the
fmali chain fall from the colleétor upon the upper coating of
the glafs plate, and place the inner ball at the required
firiking diftance, fuppofe a quatter of an inch, 2s the cafe
may require, and fix it there by means of the adjufting nuts,
and the quantity of the charge will be limited in the fame
manner as by Lane’s eleftrometer ; then conne& one chain
with the conducting wire which pafles through the tube,
and the other with a brafs ring connected with the flip of
the under coating at H, or at I, as is molt convenient, and
hock the oppofite ends upon the wires of the dire&ors,
whereby a fhock may be fent through any particular part of
the body. When the fpark only is required, the fmall chain
is removed from the colle€tor, and alfo the Jong chain con<
neéted with the hook at H, is taken away; the inner ball
is then’ fixed fo as to touch the colle€tor by means of the
adjufting*nuts; in which cafe the coil: tor,’ the wire in the
tube, and the iecond long chain connected therewith, form
together one conduGor. After the exterior end of this
chain is attached to the wire of one of the d:regtors, the
{park may be directed into any particular part; when the
eye is the part affc€ted, a pointed wire mult be ufed inttead
of the wire carrying the bail, which mutt be made to ferew
into the focket of the direGtor. When a fpark is taken out
of the body, the patient mutt ftand on \the ftool, and hold
the chain, conneéied as before, in his hand; and then the
operator or affiitant may take fparks from him, as in other
machines.”

The lat {pecies of ele&trical machines are thofe which,
inftead of a globe or cylinder, contain one or more flat cir=
cular plates, ficed to an axis and turned by a fimple winch,

The honour of having invented the plate eleGrical ma-
chines has been claimed by two diitinguifhed pérfons, viz.
by Dr. Ingenhoufz, phytician to the emperor of Germany,
and by Mr. Ramfden, an exceedingly ingenious mathema-
tical inftrument maker, in London. Dr. Prieitley was of
opinion, that each of thefe gentlemen, independent of the
other, con{truéted a machine, in which a circular glafs plate
was the eleGtric. It, has been, however, alfo confidently
afferted, that Dr. Ingenhoufz conceived the original idea,
and Mr. Ramfden executed it. The glafs plate of thofe ~
machiues which Mr. Ramfden firft conftru&ted was about
nine inches in diameter. ‘The plate turned vertically, and
rubbed againft four cufhions, each an inch and a half long,
placed in the oppofite ends of the vertical diameter. The
prime condutor was a brafs tube, having two horizontal
branches; which came within about half an ioch of the cir-
cumference of the glafs plate, fo that each branch took off
the eleétricity excited by two of the cufhions. This origi-
nal machine could not afford the negative eleGricity, as the
rubbers could not be eafily infulated. To remedy this de-
fect, the table upon which the machine ftood, and likewife
the perfon who worked it, were placed upon a large infulating
ftool, and the prime conductor was connected with the
ground; then the table, the operator, and whatever -elfe
ftood upon ‘the infulating ftool, were in a negative ftate;
but this zegative power being communicated to a furface
confiderably large in proportion to the fize of the machine,
was of courfe very*weak, and altogether the contrivance
was but a clumfy one. ; +

Since the firit years of its invention, this plate machine’
has been frequently varied, and has received feveral effential ©

improves

.

ELECTRICAL,

jmprovements. ‘Its fize, as well as its power, has been greatly
increafed; and, in fad, one of the moft powerful elefrical
machines extant, is of this kind, and belongs to the Teylerian
mufeum at Haer'em. It was conftruéted under the direc-
tion of Dr. Van Marum, who performed a vaft number of
very interefting experiments with it.

This machine confifts of two circular glafs plates, each
65 inches in diameter, which being fixed parallel to each
other, and 74 inches afunder, on a common axis, are
turned by means of a winch, without any accelerated mo-
tion, and are rubbed by eight rubbers, all being fixed ina
proper frame, the conftru€ion of which is clearly fhewn in
Plate 1*. and Plate %. of EleGricity ; fot the ele&rical ma-
chines, which are delineated in thofe plates, differ in no
effential part from that which is at prefent under confidera-
tion. Each plate is rubbed on both furfaces; two rubbers
being on one fide, and two on the oppofite fide of each
plate. The prime conduétor is divided into two branches,
which enter between the plates, and by means of points,
eolle& the electric fluid from their inner furfaces only.
Two men are in generel employed to work this machine;
but wien it is to be kept in aétion for a long time, then four
men are put to it.

Since its firtt conftrn@ion this machine has undergone
feveral alterations, and has been confiderably improved.

The power of this Teylerian machine is very extraordi-
nary, in all probability exceeding that of any other ele&ri-
cal machine that was ever conftru@ed. And the following
particulars will convey fome idea of that power.

A very fharp fteel point prefented to the prime condutor

_ @f this machine, drew a Juminous ttream of eleGtricity about
half an inch long. When a {harp fteel point was fixed to
the conduor, {fo as to proje& three inches from its furface,
on working the machine that point threw out ftreams of
light about fix inches in length, when a ball of three inches
in diameter was prefented to it; and the luminous ftreams
were only two inches long when another.point was prefented
inftead of the ball.

The fenfation, commonly called the {pider’s web, on the
face of the by-ftanders, when this machine is in a€tion, is
frequently felt at the diftance of eight feet from the prime
eonduétor, A thread fix feet long, fufpended perpendicu-
Jarly, was fenfibly attraéted by the prime conduétor at the
diftance of 38 feet. A pointed wire, prefented to the prime
sondudtor, appeared luminous even at the diftance of 28
feet. When another condudor was prefented to the prime
conductor of this machine, after the manner fhewn in Plate X.
of £ledricity, and a communication was made between the
former and the ground, by means ofa long brafs wire 3ths of
an inch in diameter; it was found that whilft a ftream of
eleGric fluid pafled from the latter condufor to the former,
the brafs wire gave {mall {parks to condu@ing bodies that
were placed near it. The [parks between the two con-
duétors were generally 21, but fometimes even 24 inches
Jong. This {park was crooked, and darted many lateral
brufhes, as is fhewn in the above-mentioned Plate X. A
fingle {park from the prime conduGtor melted a confiderable
Jength of gold leaf, A Leyden phial, containing about one
‘fquare foot of coated furfece, was fully charged by about
half.a turn of the winch, fo as to difcharge itfelf; and by
repeated trials it was found, that in one minute’s time this
phial difcharged itfelf 76, 78, and often even 80 times.

The difficulty of obtaining a negative power of cletricity
in the common plate electrical machines, and the neceffity
of having a fmaller machine at hand than the above defcribed
one, induced Dr, Van Marum to contrive a {mall machine
veh mi i. eafily and expeditioufly afford either a negative

OL, .

or a pofitive power; and after fome confideration and a few
trials, he contrived a machine which anfwered that obje&
remarkably well. It is only an improvement upon the plate
machine. See fg. 18. Plate XJ. which fhews a per-
{pe€tive view of it. The axis of the glafs plate of this ma-
chine is fupported by a firgle ftrong column A, which for
that purpofe is provided at top with a bearing-piece K, on
which two brafs collar-pieces D, D, are fixed, and carry the
axis. O is a counterpoife of lead fixed to the end of the
axis clof2 to the winch, to prevent too great fri€tion im the
collar next to it. The other extremity of the axis carries
the circular glafs plate, which is 31 Englifh inches in
diameter.

The large ball H is fupported by a glafs pillar, and per-
forms the office of prime condu@tor; it has a femi-circular
branch, the extremities of which are furnifhed with" two
crofs brafs pieces, fomewhat like the letter T, which, by
means of points, receive the eleGricity from the excited
plate. This femi-circular branch has an axis which pafles
through the ball H, and turns in it; fo that the arch E E
may be placed either in a vertical dire¢lion, which is ‘the
pofition reprefented in the figure, or it may be fituated ho-
rizontally. P is a copper tube terminating in a ball; and it
moves like a radius upon the ftem of the ball S. ITI is
another arch of brafs wire, half an inch in diameter, fixed
to the extremity of the bearing-piece K, upon which it
turns, fo that it may be placed in any fituation. The
rubbers Y, Y, are feparately infulated upon the glafs pillars
W, W, and are applied to the glsfs plate nearly in the
direGtion of the horizontal diameter of the plate.

The fuperiority of this machine over other plate machines
of the ufual conftrution, principally confifts in the con-
trivance of altering the pofition of the femi-circular branch
E E; for by this means, the coile@ing terminations of E, E,
may be placed in contaét with the rubbers, and thus the
prime conduétor will inftantly exhibit negative ele€tricity ;
whereas in the pofition reprefented in the figure, the prime
condu€tor H will exhibit pofitive el¢Gtricity. But in this
cafe, when the conduétor ts pofitively ele G@trified, the rubé
bers muft be made to communicate with the ground, therc-
fore the femi-circular arch II has been added, which
muft be turned fo as to touch the rubbers, and form that
communication. And when the negative power is wanted,
then the arch E E is turned fo as to touch the rubbers, and
the arch II is turned againft the naked furface of the plate
to receive and carry off the pofitive eleGricity. Mr. Ni-
cholfon, fome years ago, difcovered a mcthod of ren-
dering the prime conduétor of a cylinder machine etther
pofitive or negative, at pleafure. Phil. Tranf. for 1759.
See Excitation.

After the defcription of thofe various machines, it may
be naturally afked, which of them might be recommended
in préference to the others, The anfwer to which is, that
not every machine is adapted to all purpofes; therefore, an
eleGtrical machine mutt be chofen according to the object in
view, viz. whether it be wanted forall kinds of experiments
in the large way, or for delicate experiments in a private
ftudy, or for medical purpofes, &c. We may neverthclefs
point out certain peculiarities and certain obfervations, which
may help to dirc & the choice of an ele€trical machine.

Upon the whole it appears, that the cylinder, or the cir-
cular plate, is the beft fhape for the el €tric of a machine ;
for they are eafily procured, efpecially the cylinders, and
admit of a vaft variety of fizes; but it muft be obferved,
that there is a confiderable difference between the mounting
and the working of a cylinder machine and a glafs plate
machine, With equal powers, the mounting of a plate

4U machine

ELECTRICAL.

machine is confiderably move expenfive, and requires a much
greater accuracy of workmaofhip than the mounting of a
cylinder machine. With refpe& to the ufe, the plate ma-
chine is not fo eafily managed as the cylinder machine. It
has, irc the firft place, more rubbers than ane to take care
of, or to keep in order, and on account of the great frition,
itis rather hard to work. On the other hand, the~plate
machine furnifhes a more abundant quantity of eleGiric fluid
then that with a cylinder; and it is to be remarked, that if
the two machines furnifh fparks of the fame length, the
{park from the condudior of the plate machine is much
=Guve and more pungent than the {park from the
cylinser machine; hence the former will charge a battery
quicker than the latter. This fuperior denfity of the {park
from a plate machine, feems to be owing to this; namely,
thatethe plate is rubbed on both furfaces, and the ele@ricity
is taken away by the colle€tor from one only of thofe fur-
faces; whereas in the other kind of machines the outer fur-
face only of the cylinder is rubbed, and the electricity is
received immediately by thecolle€tor; but the farther con-
‘ideratioa of this phenomenon belongs to another part of
this work. See the article Excitation.

In the preceding account of the various eleGtrical ma-
chines, we have omitted to notice one fpecies of thefe
machines, wz. thofe whofe ele€tric confifts of filk ftuff,
fuch as 1s called fatin, or luteftring, or the like; and our
reafons for this omiffion are, that all thofe which have been
occagonaily defcribed in journals, and other works, are very
cumberfome and defeétive; belides which, they have little
power in comparifon to the glafs machines, and foon wear
out, or are put out of order. Were we not furnifhed with
more fubftantial ele&trics, {uch’as glafs, fulphur, fheil-lac, &c.

more

we might then turn our thoughts towards conftructing a°

machine with filk; but being furnifhed as we are with the
above-mentioned elcétrics, the fk machines are far from
deferving our attention,

We fhall now conclude this article with a few directions
neceflary for the prefervatioa and for the proper management
of an electrical machine.

It is hardly neceffary to obferve, that every fpecies of
electrical machine will naturally require fome particular pre
caution; but the following directions are more or lefs appli-
cable to all kinds of machines furnifhed with a glafs eleCinic.

Moifiure, and duft ; but particularly the former, being
detrimental to the power of an eleGrical machine, it becomes
neceflary to guard from both as much as may be pra€ticable ;
hence when not a¢tually in ufe, the ele€trical machine fhould
be kept in a dry and clean place, and at leaft the glafs part
of it fhould not be fuffered to remain dirty and foiled. If
the machine has been long negle€ted, the operator, in order
to render it ready for ufe, muft in the firft place remove the
rubber; he muft then place the machine at a moderate
diftance from the fire; fo as to render every part of it very
dry, but not too warm. This done, and the duft removed,
the glafs part of the machine muft be repeatedly rubbed with
a clean and warm handkerchief or towel; the rubber like-
wife muft be cleaned, removing all the old amalgam that
may have adhered toit. The glafs cylinder, or plate, in its
rotation, frequently contra€ts fome dark {pote or concretions
upon its furface, which tend to diminifh its power. Thefe
fpots, which adhere pretty faft to the glafs, may be removed
by applying a finger’s nail to each fpot, or by rubbing them
oif with a piece of coarfe canvas. Previoufly to the
replacing of the rubber, the following operation generally
contributes to increafe the excitation. It confifts in touch-
ing the cylinder with the bottom of a tallow candle in ftreaks

parallel to the axis of the cylinder, then rub the cylinder

again with a dry and warm linencloth 5 taking care that this
cloth be not very old, for in that cafe it is apt to leave fila-
ments about the glafs, and about the reft of the machine.
This done the rubber is fixed in its place, and its fupport is
adjufted, fo that the rubber may bear upon the glafs with a
proper degree of preffure. Formerly the amalgam, which
greatly increafes the power of excitation, was fpread upon
the rubber, before the rubber was put in its place; but ex-
pericnce has fhewn, that it is much better to fix the rubber
clean in its place, and then to apply the amalgam upon a
piece of leather to the furface of the cylinder whilft this is
revolving in its ufual dire@ions ; for by this mears the revo-
lution of the cylinder, or plate, will carry away from the
leather a fufficient quantity of amalgam, 2ad will depofit it
upon the rubber. The leather with the amalgam needs not
be kept in contaé&t with the glafs longer than while the

: : 3 < ;
cylinder makes eight or ten revolutions ; moving, at the fame

time, the piece of leather with the amalgam from one end of
thecylindertotheother. Now if the cylinder be turned, and
a hand or the ends of the fingers be prefented to it, a crack-
ling noife, which is accompanied with luminous brufhes in 2
dark room, indicates that the cylinder is in goed ation ;
then the prime conduétor being fituated in its proper place,
you may proceed to perform the expetiments. During the
performance, the eleGrified part of the machine is apt to
attract duft from all quarters, to obviate which the room
ought to be previonfly {wept and dufted, and likewife the
operator ought to have a clean cloth at hand to wipe off all
particles of duft and filaments, which in fpite of all his pres
cautions will frequently run to the cylinder, to the conduc»
tor, &c.

The amalgam remains to be defcribed. Mr. Canton, as
far as we are informed, firft applied the amalgam of tin and
mercury to the rubber of an ele€trical machine, which was
undoubtedly a capital improvement ; for by this means an
eleCtrical machine will have its power more than quadru-
pled. The tin amalgam is eafily made, for if you triturate
tin-foil and mercury, (in the proportion of one of tin to two

parts of mercury,) in a mortar, or even in the palm of your

hand, the amalgam will be formed in a minute or two.

The amalgam of mercury and any metallic fubftance that
may be amalgamed by it, contributes to increafe the eleétric
power of glafs, but fome are more efficacious than others.
fMofaic gold has alfo been found efficacious for the purpofe of
excitation. The zinc amalgam, however, which was firit
recommended by Dr. Higgins, has upon the whole been
found the moft efficacious. This amalgam, which confifts
of one part of zinc with four or five parts of mercury, is,
according to Mr. Cavallo, prepared in the following man-
ner. ‘* Let the quickfiiver,”’ he fays, ‘‘ be heated to about the
degree of boiling water, and let the zinc be melted in a cruz
cible or iron ladle. Pour the heated quickfilver into a
wooden box, and immediately after pour the melted zinc in
it. Then fhut up the box, and fhake it for about half a
mioute.. After this you muft wait until the amalgam is
quite cold, or nearly fo, and then you may mix fome greafe
with it by trituration. If the melted zinc be poured into the
quickfilver when cold, a very fmall portion of the former will
be amalgamed, the reft remaining in lumps of different fizes.”

ir, Cuthbertfon gives the following preparation of the
amalgam in his PraGtical EleGtricity. “‘ Take,’* he fays, * one

“ part of tin and zinc, melt them in a crucible, and pour them

on two parts of mercury, which is put into a wooden box
made for the purpofe ; fhake the box till the metal#are cold.
The amalgam is then to be pulverized in a metal mortar to
a very fine powder, and afterwards mixed with a fuflicient
quantity of hog’s lard, to make into a pafte.””

6 ELECTRICAL

St

ELE

Muectaicar Phial. See Leypen Purr. f
Exectricar Repuljion. See Evecraicar Attragion.
Exvectaicar Rubber, See Rusper.

Evectricar Shock. See Leypen Puan, and Suock.

Ecvecrricar Starand Pencil. See Star, and Point,

Exvectricar Varnifo. See Coatine of Llearics.

Execraicar Well. See We vt.

ELECTRICITY, (from the Greek »:xzgov, amber,) is
the name of an unknown natural power, which produces a
great variety of peculiar and {urprifing phenomena, the firit
of which are fuppofed to have been obferved in a mineral
fabftance, called amber, whence they have been denominated
elecrical phenomena. "‘Thefe phenomena have been particularly
examined, and are claffed under diftin&t and comprehentive
deneminations, fuch as the attraction, the repulfion, the
light, the fhock, &c. of ele&ricity: and feveral rules, or
natural laws, have been derived froma the concurring refults
of a great many experiments. Thefe phenomena, thefe
laws, the hypothefes that have been offered in explanation of
their caufe, and, in fhort, whatever belongs to them, is
collectively called the /ubje@, or the fcience of electricity.
The minute and peculiar defcriptions of all thefe particulars
belong to diverfe parts of this Cyclopedia; but a concife
view of the whole fubject will be found in the prefent ar-
‘ticle, whence a comprehenfive idea of it may be derived,
which may afterwards be enlarged by recurring to the fepa-
rate articles, under their peculiar denominations.

If a clean and dry piece of glafs, or of amber, be rubbed,
by ftroking it four or five times with a clean and dry hand,
and be afterwards prefented to {mall and light bodies of any
kind; thefe will be alternately attracted and repelled, and
attra€ted and repelled again, and fo on, by the glafs or the
amber, until the power entirely ceafes. If this experiment
be performed in a dark room, various luminous {parks will
be perceived between the fmall bodies and the glafs or the
zmber. Now in this experiment the glafs or the amber is
fatd to be the eleric, viz. a body capable of acquiring the
above-mentioned power of attraGting, &c. and when actually
poflefled of that power, is faid to be excited ; friction in
this cafe being the caufe of that excitation. The attraction
and the repulfion, which are of a peculiar nature, (that is,
different from all other known kinds of attraction and repul-
fion,) together with the light, &c. are called eledrical pheno-
mena; the hand, which has excited the electric by its fric-
tion, is called the rudder ; and when a machine 1s formed,
which contains the electric and the rubber, fo difpofed, that,
by an eafy motion, the former may he commodioufly excited
by the fri€tion of the latter, this is called the e/e@rical ma-
chine.

If to the amber, or to the glafs, a piece of metallic wire
be affixed, having a metallic ball at its end, and after having
excited the amber or the glafs, this be fo fufpended as-that
the above-mentioned metallic bali be prefented to the light
bodies, an alternate attraGtion and repulfion will take place
between the light bodies and the ball, exactly as in the
former experiment it took place between the light bodies and
the amber, or the glafs, itfelf; therefore the electric virtue
will pafs through the metallic wire ; hence the metallic wire
is called a.condudor of elecricity.

It the laft experiment be repeated with this difference,
wiz. that, inftead of the wire, a filk ftring be interpofed
between the bail and the eletric; the light bodies will not
be attracted and repelled by the ball, which (hews that the
ele&tric virtue will not go through filk ; hence filk is faid to
be a nan-condudior of eletiricity.

All the bodies we are acquainted with are either con-
duétors or non-conductors of elegtricity ; but in various

ELE

degrees. And it has been obferved that al! thofe bodies,
which are non-conduétors, may be excited like the above-
mentioned glafs, or amber, alfo that all thofe bodies, which
are condutors, cannot be excited : in confequence of which
ele@rics, and non-condudors, mean the famie kind of bodies;
and likewife non-elefrics and condufors denote the fame
bodies, but of the other clafs. A body, furrounded entirely
by non-conduGors, is {aid to be in/ulated ; thus a piece of
metal, fufpended in the air by means of a filk {tring, is ins
fulated, becaufe the only bodies that touchit, viz. the filk
and the air, are non-condu@ors.

Rubbing or fri€tion is one of the means of exciting an
electric ; but there are feveral other fources of that power
independent of fri€tion.

Some bodies are rendered electrical by heating and cooling,
like the tourmalin; others are rendered ele@rical by coagu-
lation and cooling after fufion, or by pouring them when
melted into another eleétric, like fulphur. Certain effervef-
cences, and evaporation, or the converfion of water into
fteam, and vice ver/é the converfion of {team into water, do
alfo produce electricity. The ambientair, the clouds, with
the rain, {now, and hail, which fall from them, and fogs,
are generally, or always, eleGtrified in various degrees. The
thunder and the lightning are ele@trical phenomena arifing
from the eletricity of the clouds; and this cleétricity of
the clouds feems principally to arife from the evaporation
and condenfation of vapour.

A remarkable electrical power is likewife poff:ffed by four
aquatic animals, all inhabitants of the fea ; and thefe are, the
torpedo, the gymnotus eleGricus, the JSilurus elefricus, and an-
other fifth, which has not as yet been fufficiently examined,
nor has it received a name.

Laftly, electricity is likewife produced by the difpofition
of certain metallic fubftances in a particular order, and efpe-
cially when other fubitances are interpofed among thefe me-
tallic ones ; and it is to be remarked, that the power of this
fource of electricity may (by increafing the number of the
above-mentioned orderly difpofitions) be augmented to an
unlimited degree. This mode of producing elcétricity is of
modern difcovery, and is commonly known under the name
of Galvanifin, which fee.

We have hitherto fpoken of ele&ricity as if it were a
fingle power. It is now neceffary to fhew, that there are
two electrical powers analogous, yet contrary, to each other,
and they are, (in all cafes of the production of electricity,
as well as in the effe&s,) to be found clofely connected with
each other. In order to fhew the nature and the difference
of thefe two powers, we mutt recur to the above-defcribed
experiment, with the glafs or with the amber; for though
either of thefe bodies, when excited by the fri@ion of the
human hand, will produce fimilar elerical appearances ;
yet their powers are different and oppofite to each other.
Their difference confitts in the following particulars.

x. If any light pendulous bodies, fuch as bits of cork
fulpended by threads, and infulated, be electrified by touch-
ing them with the excited piece of glafs; then, on removing
the glafs, thofe light bodies will ftand at fome diftance from
each other, fhewing a mutual repulfion. The fame effect
will take place, if another parcel of fuch pendulous light
bodies be eleCtrified by touching them with the excited piece
of amber, or with anexcited piece of rofin, which produces
the fame effeét. Now if the above.mentigned two parcel¢
of pendulous and electrified bodies be brought fufliciently
near to each other, they will inftantly attra each other,
and after this attraction, thefe bodies will no longer exhibit
any fign of being electrified. It follows, from this, that the
electricity of the excited glafs is different from that of the

4U2 excited

ELECT RECITY.

excited rofin oramber; and accordingly the former has been
called the vitreous, and the latter the refinous eleéricity,
The fir& particular then in which the two electricities differ
from each other is,. that bodies ele&trified with either kind of
electricity repel each other, but bodics eleétrified with the
vitreous electricity, will attra& bodies eleGtriied with the re-
finous electricity.

The peculiar circumftance, which takes place in the laft-
mentioned cafe; (wvix. that. when bodies poffeffed of one
kind of eleG@tricity, attra&t bodies that are in an equal degree
pofleffed of the other kind of eleétricity, all figns‘tf elec-
@ricity are thereby annihilated,) fuggelted a fuppofiticn, that
probably one of thefe powers is an exccfs, and the other a
defe& of fomething which bodies naturally poffefss and
upon the probability of this fuppofition, the vitreous
cleGiricity was alfo called the plus or the pofitive eleGricity,
and the refinous was alfo called the minus or the negative
eleGricity. This fuppofition or hypothefis explains the
above-mentioned circumftance of the attra€tion; for an
excefs on one fide is compenfated by a defect on the other,
and the bodies are eft in a natural ftate.

2. If a pointed conduéting body, fuch as a needle, be
prefented to the excited glais in a dark room, that point
will appear illuminated with a bright globule, or ftar-like
2ppearance; but if the pointed body be prefented to an
excited piece of amber or of rofin, that point will be illu-
minated with a pencil, or brufh-like appearance of rays of
light.

i And laftly, in various cafes, in which the vitreoug elec-
tricity paffes from a body overcharged with it, to another
body overcharged with refinous electricity; an evident cur-
rent is obferved from the former to the latter; but not
vice verfa ; which tends to corroborate the above-mentioned
hypothelis of pofitive and negative electricity, and likewife
indicates that the vitreous is the poiitive, whilft the refiaous
is the negative electricity. ;

The method of afcertaining whether a given eletrified
body is pofleffed of the vitreous or of the refinous electricity,
is eafily derived from the above-mentioned diftin@tions. For
inftance, let A be the given electrified body. Take any
other infulated and eafily moveable body B, fuch a light
piece of cork fufpend by a thread, and eleétrify it by
touching it with an excited piece of glafs, which of courfe
communicates to it the vitreous eleétricity. Let now the
body B be brought clofe to the body A,. and if a repulfion
takes place, the two bodies muft be poffefled of the fame
kind of eleGricity, and fince B is eleCtrified with the
vitreous eleiricity, A mut likewife be poffeffed of the
vitreous eleGtricity. If when B is brought clofe to A, an
attraction tekes place, then A mutt be poileffed of the re+
finous eleGtricity. The inftruments properly conftruéed for
afcertaining the particular kind of ele€tricity in an elcGtrified
body, are called eledromeiers. ,

That the two kinds of eleGricity do always accompany
each other is proved by a variety of faéts, the principal of
which are as tollows. ;

1. Lf the perfon who rnbsa piece of glafs, or amber, &c.
be infulated, after the excitation of the glafs, the perfon as
well as the glais or other electric will be found ele@rified ;
but with this difference, that if the eleétric acquires the vi-
treous eleftricity, the, perfon will be found electrified with
the refinous eleétricity, and vice verf@. In fhort, whenever
two bodies are rubbed again{t cach other, and any eleCtricity
is thereby excited, both bodies, are neceflarily electrified,
but with coatrary ele@ricities.

2, Whenever a body is electrified, the contiguous air, or
any other body fituated within a certain difance of the
*

former, will alfo appear eleétrified, but with the contrary
ele&tricity. Thus, {uppofe that a piece of glafs G be ex-
cited by fri€tion with the human hand, Jet two {mall pen-
dulous bodies be brought pretty near it, and thefe, by their
mutual repulfion, or divergency, will thew that they are
eleCtrified, and if their flate of ele€tricity be examined in the
manner already mentioned, they will be found poifefled of
the refinous ele&tricity ; viz. contrary to that of the excited
glafs. This contrary eleCtricity is ftronger or weaker, ac-
cording as a body is placed nearer to, or farther from, an
ek Gtrifed body ; and the limit, within which this contrary
ele&tricity may be perceived, is called the (phere of adion of
the ele&trified body.

3- The fame individual body will not. when rubbed, ac-
quire always the fame kind of ekCtricity; for certain
rubbers will excite in it the refinous, and others will excite
in it the vitreous electricity. Thus, if a ftick of fealing«
wax be rubbed with leather, the fealing-wax will acquire the
refinous, and the leather willacquire the vitreous electricity;

“but if it be rubbed with a piece of tin-foil, then the fealing-

wax will acquire the vitreous, and the tin-foil will acquire
the refinous cleétricity.

Flere it is neceflary to obferve, that whenever the rubber
is faid to acquire eletricity, (as the leather, or the tin-foil,
or any other conduéting body,) it is always underitood, that
this rubber is infulated; otherwife the eleétricity which it
acquires will be carried away as foon.as It is gencrated.

We muft now ftate the principal_laws of communicated
ele€tricity ; and here it muft be obferved, that meft of the
phenomena of electricity, and its grandeit effets, belong to
its tranfition, or to its being communicated from one body
to another ; thus the tranfition of ele¢tricity from one body
to another occafions the light, the hiffing, the crackling

-noife, and even the tremendous atmofpherical thunder ;. by

its quick paffage it melts metallic bodies, fets fire to in-
flammables, de{troys animal and vegetable life, and fo forth.

Whenever a body is ele€trified, either by excitation or by
the conta& of another electrified body, that power is con-_
fined upon it only by elefirics, and it remains upon that
body a longer or a fhorter time, according as the eleétrics
which confine it are more or lefs perfeé&t. If a finger, or
any cther conduétor, be prefented to an excited electrie
body, it will receive a fpark from that body, which {park
confifts of a certain portion of the eleGtricity of that elcGric,
In this cafe, the electricity of the latter will not all be con.
veyed to the finger or other conductor, becaufe as that body
is a non-conduétor, it cannot convey the electricity of all
its furface to that fide to which the condu€tor has been pre-
fented. Hence, if a conduGing fubftance be fucceifively
prefented to different parts of an excited el: tric, it will
receive a {park at every approach, and that without repeat-
ing the excitation, until all the power of that elcétrie is exe
hanfted, and then a new excitation is neceflary for the purs
pole of reviving it.

If a conduéting body, not mfulated, be expofed to an
excited eleCtric at a moderate diftance, it acquires on that
fide the electricity contrary to that of the ele@rie. This
eleGtricity becomes ftronger the nearer that body is brought
to the electric, and at laft the conductor receives a fpark
from the ele€tric (on account of the attraction exilting
between the two eleétricittes);. and thus the balance is re-
ftored. If the condu€tor, which is prefented to the elecs
tric, be. infulated, it will appear eleGtriiied at both extremi-
ties; but with this difference, that the fide contiguous to
the electric will appear poffeffed of the ek tricity contrary
to that of the ele@tric, and the oppofite fide will appear pof-
felled of the fame kind of eleétricity. There is a point not

quite

-

PLUPCTRIC TI Y.

quite in the middle of that body, which does not appear to
be ele&trified at all. Thefe two different ele&tricities of the
conduétor become ftronger the nearer that bedy is brought
to the eleGric, and at laft the former receives a {park from
the latter, and becomes entirely poffefled of the fame kind
of ele@tricity with the ele&tric. All thefe effeGis will take
place alfo when fome other non-condu@ing fub(tance, be-
fides air, is interpofed between the excited ele€tric and the
condudting body; fuch as a thin plate of glafs, of rofin, of
fealing-wax, of fulphur, &c. but in this cafe no {park can
pafs from the excited eleétric to the condudtor, unlefs it
forces its. way by burlling the interpofed non-condu€tor. In
fe&, the noife of a fpark arifes from its buriting or dif-
placing the air which is interpofed between the excited
eleGtric and the condu@tor which is prefented to it.

Now, fince in the laft mentioned cafe the {park cannot
pafs from the excited ele@ric to the other body, unlefs it
burits the interpofed ele&tric or non-conduétor, it follows,
that if the interpofed ele&tric be pretty ftrong, fo as to refitt
the effort of the two eleétricities, a great quantity of elec-
tricity may be accumulated on both fides of it; and this
is what conftitutes a charged ele&tric; or, as it is more com-
monly called, from the place of its difcovery, a Leyden phial.
The following illuflration will render this fubj<& of charged
ele&trics more intelligible. Let a large pane of glafs be
covered on both fides with fome metallic body or other con-
duGor, for inftance, with tin-foi!, but fo that the tin-foil
may on either fide be about two inches fhort of the edge of
the glafs. Let one of thefe coverings or coatings be made
to communicate with an ele€tric powerfully excited, and
a quantity of eleGricity will be communicated to that coat-
ing, at the fame time that the action of that eleétricity will
induce the contrary eleGricity on the oppolite coating, pro-
vided that this communicates with the ground. Now it is
evident, that a fpark cannot pafs from one coating to the
other, fo as to compenfate or to annihilate the two contrary
electricities, unlefs it breaks a hole throwgh the pane of
glafs, or paffes over its uncoated edge; which indeed will
actually take place if the electricities be accumulated upon
the coatings beyond the refilting power of the glafs. But
before this burfting takes place, let the pane of glafs be re-
moved from the vicinity of the eleGric, and it will remain
charged; that is, a great quantity of vitreous or pofitive
eleGtricity will remain adhering to one fide of it, and an
equal quantity of the refinous or negative eleGricity will
remain adhering to the other fide. Thefe two electricities
feem to be kept clofe to the glafs by their mutual attra&ion,
and yet cannot come together becaufe that attration is not
powerful enough to break the glafs. And it is in confe-
quence of that attration that if one coating of the giafs
he touched whilft the other remains infulated, the eleGtricity
cannot be removed; but if a conducting communication be
made from one coating to the other, an expicfion, attended
with a vivid fpark, will take place between that communica-
tion or circuit, and ‘that coating which has been touched
Taft, which arifes from the paflage of the eletricity from
one fide of the pane of glafs to the other, in confequence of
which the two contrary cleGtricities are annihilated, and the
giafs is faid to be difcharged. It will be eafily comprehended,
that whether the coated ylafs for this experiment be in the
form of a flat plate, or of a bottle, or of a jar, or of any
other kind, the effet mutt be always the fame, provided the
coatings of the two fides, or of the infide and outfide of a
bottle, do not come too near the edge or opening of the
bottle; for in that cafe the cle€tricity would go from one
coating to the other by pafling over the furface of the glafs,
in which cafe the glafs is faid to have difcharged itfelf. It is

not known where the charge docs atually refide. It cere
tainly does not refide in the coating, for the coating may
be removed and replaced again without difcharging the
glafs; the coating only ferving to form a communication
between the various points of the furface of the glafs.
Nor do we know by what mechanifm the eleCtricity which
1s communicated to one fide induees the contrary eleétricity
on the other fide of the glafs, or of any other eletric; for
any other fubftantial ele&ric may be coated and charged
like glafs. We are oaly acquainted with the effe@s, and
with thefe we muft for the prefent remain fatisfied.

The thioner a plate of glafs or of other eleStric is, the
higher charge it may acquire; but it is at the fame time
more liable to be broken by a {pontaneous difcharge ; there-
fore, for this experiment of charging, &c. the glafs mult
be chofen of a moderate thicknefs. By increafing the quan
tity of coated eleStric furface, an immenfe force of eleGri-
city may be accumulated, which, when it is afterwards dif-
charged, produces aftonifhing effets. For this purpofe
feveral coated jars are conneéted together, fo as to be
charged and difcharged like a fingle jar, and this combina-
tion is called an ele@rical battery.

If the above-mentioned circuit of communication between
the two coatings of a charged phial or jar, or plate, &c.
be formed by the parts of a human being, a fhock attended
with a difagreeable fenfation will be felt through the inter-
pofed parts; as for inftance, if he touches one coating with
one hand, and then touches the oppofite coating with the
other hand, he will feel an unpleafant fhock, which is more
or lefs painful according as the charge is higher or lower.

If various perfons join hands, and while the perfon at one
end of the file touches one coating of the charged jar, the
perfon at the other end touches the oppofite coating, all
the fle of perfons will feel the fhock at the very fame per-
ceivable inftant of time. The charge of a Leyden phial-has
been found to pafs through a circuit of feveral miles in an
unappreciable {mall portion of time; but a fmall quantity of
electricity has been cbferved to employ a very fhort portion
of time in paffiag through a pretty long conductor, but not
of the beft kind.

From the above-mentioned fenfationwhich an animal body
receives from the difcharge of a charged eleGric, that dif-
charge is often called fieply the fhock ; thus it is faid that
the hock is pafled through a wire, or through any thing
elfe. The cffe&ts of this fhock or difcharge are various ac-
cording to the height of the charge; and when it is pro-
portionate to the obje& in view, furprifing effets are pro-
duced by it. Metallic bodies are fufed, eleGtric febftances
arebroken with violence, animals are killed, inflammable fub-
flances are fet on fire; and, in fhort, all the effets ufually
produced by the lightning may be imitated by it. If the
circuit of communication be formed by means of a wire and
a feparate conductor, or the hand of a human being be fitu-
ated very near the wire which forms the circuit, but fo as
itfelf to form no part of the circuit; on making the dif-
charge through the wire, a {mall {park will be feen between
the wire which forms the circuit and the conduétor or hand
that ftands clofe to it; fo that the condu@or, or hand, &e.
thovgh aétually ont of the circuit, will feel fome effet of
the difcharge. This effe& is called the /ateral /hock, or /ateral
explofion. A coated glafs is capable of receiving and of holds
ing a greater charge in condenfed, than in rarefied, air, or
even than when ftanding under the ufual atmofpherical pref+
fure. Ifthe communication between the two fides of a
charged phial be made by the interpolition of imperfe& cons
ductors, asa flender piece of wood, a wet packthread, Kc,
the difcharge will be made filently, or without sccm

2 as

£ LE

and its force is thereby weakened. confiderably. The force
of the difcharge is alfo weakened by the length of the cir-
cuit, though that circuit may confilt of the very belt conduc-
tors ; which fhews that, the electricity finds fome obftructicn
in pafling even through the beft conductors koown. We
mu now return to the phenomena of the electricity which
is communicated to conduiors.

An iafulated conduétor, having received fome eleétricity
from an excited electric, or from another electrified conduc-
tor, (in which cafe it is faid to be eleGrified by communication.)
will a@ in every refpect like an excited electric ; excepting
that whea it is touched by another condu€tor communicat-
ing with the earth, the former gives one {park to the latter,
and by that means all its eletricity is diicharged, becaufe
the eleftricity belonging to all its parts is eafily condudted
through its own fubilance to that fide of it, to which the
other condutor has been prefented. Hence it appears that,
in general, the eleétricity, which is difcharged from an clec-
trified and infulated conduétor, is much more powerful than
when difcharged from an excited electric 5 for the condudtor,
efpecially when very extenfive, may acquire a valt quantity
of ele&tricity, by receiving {park after {park from an excited
eleGtric, and may afterwards, when touched, difcharge it all
gt once. When an infulated condudtor is touched by an-
other infulated and eleétrified condu@or, the electricity will
be divided between the two condudiors, but not equally ;
excepting when the two conduétors are equal, fimilar, and
fimilarly fituated.

Tf their furfaces are -qnal and diffimilar, that which is more
extended will acquire a greater fhare of eleGricity than the
other. Whether the condu@tors are hollow or folid, it
giakes no difference.

If the two conduétors are equal and fimilar; but one of
them is fituated very near another conduétor, but without
touching it, then that conductor which is fo fituated will
acquire a greater fhare of electricity than the other, which is
fuppofed to remain only expofed to the ambient air.

When ele&tricity is communicated to a capillary ftream of
water or other fluid, iffuing out of a veffel, the ftream is ac-
celerated by it, but if, inftcad of being capillary, this ftream
be of aconfiderable fize; then eleétrization will not accele-
rate It.

EleGtrization promotes the evaporation of bodies which are
actually evaporating ; but notin a great degree. If the
face or any other part of the body be expofed, within a
fmall diftance, to an excited electric, or to aconduor ftrong-
dy detrified, it will feel a peculiar fenfation, as if a fpider’s
web were drawn over it. The noftrils thus prefented will
' perceive a peculiar fmell, much refembling that of phofpho-
rus, and if a body be kept fome time within thofe efluvia,
it will afterwards retain that {mell during fome minutes. If
the tongue be expofed to a flream of ele&tricity iffuing out
of an eleétrified body, it will be affe&ted with a flight but
peculiar kind of fubacid tafte.

It was fora long time believed that eletricity communi-
cated to animal and vegetable bodies, accelerated the pul-
fation of the former, and promoted the growth of the latter;
but it is at prefent much donbted whether it really pro-
duces any of thefe effets. Neverthelefs ele€trization, in
medical cafes, has been found ufeful at leaft as a fafe and
aGive ftimulant.

An cleric fpark, (that is, a feparate quantity of elec-
tricity,) will goa greater or lefler diftance through the air,
in order to reach a condu@or, according as its quantity is
more or lefs confiderable, as the parts from which it flies,
and thofe upon which it ftrikes, are more orlefs acute, and
as the conduGtor is more or lefs perfect. The noife, and

| he OG

the light with which the {park is attended, is greater or lefs,
according to the quantity of cle€tricity ; according as the
parts from which it flies, and thofe upon which it ftrikes,
are more blunt or more fharp ; and according as the conduc-
tors are more or lefs perfe&t. Thus, for inftance, a tharp point-
ed body will throw off ele@ricity to, and will receive it from,
a greater diftance, than a body of any other fhape; but that
paflage then occafions no noife, and is attended with very
little light; becaufe, in this cafe, the eleCtricity does not
come ina feparate large body, but in a continued itream.
If a pointed wire be concealed in a glafs tube, which projeis
a fhort way beyond it, or if it be covered with tallow, bees’-
wax, fulphur, &c. then it will take a ftrong fpark from an’
eleGtrified conduGor. When a point, proceeding from an
electrified body, proje&ts into the ambient air, a remarkable
current of air, or wind, proceeds always from it, whether the
point and the condutor be eleGrified with the vitreous or
with the refinous electricity, which arifes from the particles
of air being repelled by the point as foon as they become pol-
fefled of the fame kind of eleétricity.

With refpe& to the eleCiricity of the atmofphere, the par-
ticulars which have been afcertained are, that the air, at a
{mall diftance from the ground, from houfes, trees, &c. is
always eleftrified generally with pofitive electricity, but not
always in an equal degree. The thunder and the lightning
have alfo been afcertained to be eleétrical phenomena; but
other meteors, fuch as the northern lights, water fpouts,
fhooting flars, &c. have only been conjectured to be pro-
duced by ele@ricity.

Thus we have drawn a general and comprehenfive fketch
of the fubje& of eleGricity. But fora minute and extended
defcription of all the particulars which belong to it, the
reader is referred to the articles of each peculiar denomina-
tion; fuch as Conpuctors, Evectrics, Excitation,
Leypen puiar, Licutnine, &c.

Evectricity, Medical. See Mevicat LEleéricity.

ELECTROMETER, (from the Greek words wAcxzpoy,
amber, and pxspov, meafure,) an inftrument ufeful for meaiure

‘ing the quantity, and determining the quality, of electricity

in an eleétrified body ; viz. the quantity and quality of that
natural power, the effeéts of which were firft obferved ina
mineral fubftance, called amber. The invention of eleftro-
meters isnot much older than about the middle of the laft,
(viz. the 18th) century ; but the greateft variety of them,
adapted to different purpofes, has been invented within the
laft 40 years ; and according to the various purpofes, as alfo
on account of their fhapes, thefe inftruments have obtained
a variety of names, fuch as pith, or cork-ball elerometers, qua-
drant ele@rometers, bottle elecirometers, atmofpherical elereme=
ters, eleGro-micrometers, eledirical balances, difcharging eleGro-
meters, &c. A defcription of ali thefe electrometers, to-
gether with their gradual improvements, and their ufes, is as
follows :

A fimple thread held by one extremity, and prefented to
an electrified body, feems to have been the firlt inflrument
of the kind. It only fhewed the prefence of the eleGtricity,
by its being attraéted by the eleftrified body. Dr. Defa-
guliers called it the ¢hread of trial. The Abbé Nollet ufed
two threads, which fhewed the intenfity of the ele&tricity by
the angle of their divergency, formed by their fhadows upon
a board placed behind them.

Mr. Canton added a cork ball, or a ball of pith of elder, to
the extremity of each thread, which formed a confiderable im-
provement ; the threads acquiring thereby a greater degree
of fteadinefs, and becoming lefs apt to lofe their electricity,
by having their extremities covered with the aboyementioned
balls, Zig. 1. Plate X11. reprefents this, Mr. Canton’s, elec

trometer,

*
«
-

.

ELECTROMETER,

trometer, in its ntof ufval fate. A B reprefents the fide ofan
oblong bex about fix inches long, but lefs than an inch broad.
Tt is formed out of a fingle piece of wood, and has a fliding
dove-tail cov-r over its whole length. When the cover is
removed, and the box is inverted, the cork or pith-balls C, D,
with their threads, come out of it, and remain fufpended, as in
the figure. The balls are nicely turned ina lathe, and fhould
not be larger than an eighth of an inch in diameter. The
linen threads are faftened to the balls by pafling them through
with a needle, and making a knot at the end of each. Thefe
threads are little fhort of the length of the box A B, and
are faftened to a little ring at the extremity of the box, fo
that when not in ufe, they, with their balls, are placed in the
cavity of the box, and the cover is flipped over them, Previous
to their being paffed through the balls, the threads have
been fometimes wetted in a weak folution of common falt,
in order to render them better condudtors.

A cork, or pith-ball elerometer, is alfo frequently ufed
without the bex AB. In that cafe, it being nothing more
than a thread with a ball at each end, it may be fulpended
by its middle to a wire at the end of the prime condudtor of
an elcGtrical machine, or elfewhere. 1f this inftrument be
held by the end A of the box, and be thus prefented to an
electrified body, the balls C, D, will recede from each other,
the threads forming an angle larger or {maller according to
the intenfity of the eleGtricity. If, while the electrometer
is thus diverging, an excited ftick of fealing-wax or of glals
be brought fideways of the balls, thefe will come clofe to
the wax or to the glafs, when they are poffefled of the op-
polite kind of electricity ; but will recede from the glafs, or
fealing-wax, or other eleétrifed body, when they are pof-
feffed of the fame kind of eleétricity.

If the operator, holding the box by the end A, and ex-
tending his arm as high as he can, expofes the ele trometer
to the ambient air in an open place, or on the top of a houfe,
he may eafily afcertain the prefence and the quality of the
eleGtricity of the air, or of a fog, by the above defcribed me-
thod.

When, for the conveniency of certain experiments, this
ele&trometer mult be infulated, then the box A B is placed
upon an infulating ftand, as in fig. 2.

This ufeful inftrument was rendered much more commo-
dious, and. was adapted to the purpofes of atmofpherical
eleCtricity in a manner more certain and more efficacious
by Mr. Cavallo, who firft defcribed it in the Phil. Tranf.
Thefe improvements, under the denominations of a pocket
elefrometer, the atmofpherical electrometer, and the elefrometer
for rain; areas follow :

Figs. 4. and 5. reprefent the * pocket ele&trometer.””
The handle or cafe of this inftrument confilts of a glafs tube,
about three inches long, and three or four tenths of an inch
in diameter. Half of this tube is covered with fealing-wax,
as is eafily perceived in the figure. From that extremity of
this tube, which is not covered with fealing-wax, a {mall
loop of fill proceeda, which ferves occafionally to hang the
ele€trometer ona pin, or nail. A cork is adapted to the
other extremity of this tube, which being cut tapering at
both extremities, can fit the opening of the tube with either
extremity. Two linen threads proceed from one end of this
cork, which are a little fhorter than the length of the tube,
and two little cones of cork or of the pith of elder are
faftened to their extremities. When this electrometer is to
be ufed, that end of the cork which is oppofite to the threads
is pufhed into the mouth of the tube; then the tube forms
the infulating handle of the cork or pith-ball elerometer, as
reprefented in fg. 5. But when the electrometer is to be
carried in the pocket, then the threads are put into the tube,

and the cork ftops the aperture of the tube with its other
extremity, as reprefented in fig. 4.— Vig: 3. reprefeuts a cafe
to contain the aboveedefcribed eleCtrometer. It is: like a
common tooth-pick cafe, excepting that it has a piece of
amber fixed on one end A, which may occafionally ferve to
electrify the cle&rometer negatively : and on the other ex-
tremity it has a piece of ivory fixed upon a piece of amber
BC. This amber B C ferves only to infulate the ivory, whick
being thus infulated, if it be rubbed againft woollen cloths,
will acquire the pofitive eleétricity ; and is of courfe ufeful
for electrifying the eleftrometer pofitively.

Fig. 6. reprefents an inflrument peculiarly adapted to the
purpofes of exploring the eleétricity of the atmofphere. AB
reprefents a common jointed fifhing-rod, without the laft or
{malleft joint. From the extremity of this rod proceeds a
flender glafs tube, or folid glafs ftick C, which is covered
with fealing-wax, and carries a cork, D, at its extremity,
to which cork a pith-ball ele@trometer E is fufpended.
H G Lisa piece of twine faftened to the other extremity
A of the rod, and fupported at G, by a short {tring F G.
At the end J of the twine, a pin is faftcned, which, when
es into the cork D, renders the eletrometer E uninfu-
ated.

‘© When I would obferve,”? Mr, Cavallo fays, ‘* the élec-
tricity of the atmofphere with this inftrument, I thruft the
pin I into the cork D, and holding the rod by its lower end
A, proje& it out of a window on the upper part of a houfe,
into the air; raifing the end of the rod with the ek étrome-
ter, fo as to make an angle of about 50 or 60 degrees with
the horizon. In this fituation I keep the inftrument for a
few feconds, and pulling the twine at H, I difengage the
pin from the cork D, which operation caufes the ftring to
drop in the dotted fituation KL, and leaves the eleétro-
meter infulated, and ele&trified with the ele&ricity contrary
to that of the atmofphere. This done, I draw the inftrument
into the room, and examine the quality of the eleGricity, with-
out obftruétion, either from wind or darknefs.

“ With this inftrument I have made obfervations on the
eleGtricity of the atmofphere, feveral times in the courfe of
each day during feveral months, and from them I have de-
duced the following general obfervations, which feem to co~
incide with thofe which I have made with the eletrical
kites.

“x, That there is in the atmofphere, at all times, a quan-
tity of eleétricity ; for whenever I ufe the above-defcribed
inftrument, it always acquires fome eleétricity.

“¢2. That the cleétricity of the atmofphere, or fogs, is
always of the fame kind, namely, pofitive; for the eletrometer
is always negative, except when it is evidently influenced by
heavy clouds near the zenith.

«3, That ia general the ftrongeft eleQricity is obfervable
in thick fogs, and alfo in frofty weather; and the weakeft,
when it is cloudy, warm, and very near raining ; but it does
not feem to be lefs by night than in the day time.

“4, Phat in a more elevated place, the eletricity is
ftronger than in a lower one; for, having tried the atmos
{pherical eleftrometer, both in the ftone and in the iron gallery
on the cupola of St. Paul’s cathedral, I found that the balls
diverged much more in the latter, than in the former lefs
elevated place; hence it appears, that if this rule takes place
at any diftance from the earth, the eletricity in the upper
segions of the atmo{phere mult be exceedingly ftrong.”’

Fig. 7. reprefents the electrometer for the rain. ABCT
is a {trong glafs tube about two feet and a half long, oa
atin funnel, D E, cemented to its extremity, which funne
defends part of the tube from the rain. The outfide furface

of the tube from A to B is covered with fealing-wax;
alfo

ELECTROMETER.

alfo is that part of it which is fheltered by the funnel. FD
is a piece of cane, round which feveral brafs wires are twilted
in} different direétions, fo as to catch the rain eafi!y, and at
the fame time to offer little or no refiftance to the wind.
This piece of cane is fixed into the tube, and a flender wire,
proceeding from it, goes through the bore of the tube, and
communicates with the ftrong wire A G, which is thruft
into a piece of cork faftened into the end A of the tube.
The extremity G of the wire A G, is formed into a ring,
from which is fufpended a more or lefs fenfible pith-ball
ele&trometer, as occafion requires, “This inftrument is faf-
tened to the fide of the window-frame, where it is fupported
by firong brafs hooks, at C, B; and this part of the tube is
covered with feveral folds of filk ftuff, in order to adapt it
more fafely and commodioufly to the hooks. The part
F G projeéts out of the window, with the end F elevated a
little above the horizon. The remaining part of the inftru-
ment comes through a hole in one of the lights of the fath,
within the room, and no more of it touches the fide of the
window than the part C B. This inftroment fhonld be
placéd fo as to be eafily taken off, and replaced; for it will
be neceflary to clean it now andthen ; particularly on the
approach of a fhower of rain.

«¢ When it rains,’ fays Mr. Cavallo, ‘ efpscially in paf-
fing fhowers, this inftrument, fanding in the fituation above
defcribed, is frequently ele@trified ; and, by the divergency
of the ele&trometer, the quantity and quality of the electri-
city of the rain may be obferved. With this inftrument I
have obferved, that the rain is generally, though not always,
eleGrified negatively, and fometimes fo ftrongly, that I have
been able to charge a {mall coated phial at the wire A G.”

A commodious way of ufirg ele€trometers in a variety of de-
licate experiments, fuch asin examining tourmalins, precious
Stones, &c. is to have a ttand made on purpofe, and holding
both fingle and double-thread eleGrometers, as in fig. 8.
B is the bafe, made of. common wood: A is a pillar of
fealing-wax, or of glafs, to the top of which a wooden
head is fixed. From this circular piece of wood, or head,
four glafs arms proceed, fulpending four ele&trometers, two
of which, D, D, are nothing more than filk threads, about
four or five iaches long, each of which carries a very {mall
downy feather at its extremity. The other two eleétro-
meters, C, C, aré cork or pith-ball ele€trometers, the con-
ftru@ion of which is a variety of thofe which have been
already defcribed: a4 reprefents a ftick of glafs, about
four inches Jong, covered with fealing-wax, and fhaped at
top in the form of a ring. To the lower extremity of
this glafs flick two fine linen threads are fattened, with pith
or cork bails at their lower extremities. In the figure thefe
electrometers are reprefented as being atually electrified,
The glafs flick a ferves as an infulating handle, by which
the eleCtrometer may be fupported, when it is ufed without
the fland. Thofe with the downy feather DD, when

eleGtrified, one with the pofitive, and the other with the

negative eleGricity, will continue in that ftate for a very
confiderable time, during which, if a {mall body. flightly
eletrified be gently approached to one or the other of the
feathers, the fine filaments of the latter will be attracted or
repelled, according as that body is poffeffed of the fame, or
of the contrary electricity.

Fig. g. reprefents Mr. H-nly’s quadrant el: &rometer
upon a little ftand ; and fig. ro, reprefents it vpon the prime
conduétor of an eleétrical machine. It confifts of a perpen-
dicular {tem or pllar A B, formed at top like a ball, and
furnifhed at its lower end with a brafs ferrule, by which it
may be fixed in one of the holes of the prime conduttor, or
upon a perpendicular wire, fixed oa purpofe to the infide

coating of an eletrical battery, or upon the knob of a Ley.
den phial, or Jaftly, upon its own ftand, when it is not
aGually in ufe. 'To-the upper part of the ftem a graduated
ivory femi-circle FE is fixed, and about the middle of this
femi-circle there is a brafsarm, which contains apin, or the
fmall axis of the index. The index C confilts of a very
flendet ftick, which reaches from the centre of the femi-
circle E to the brafs ferrule, and a cork ball D. nicely
turned ina lathe is glued falt to its lower extremity. The
wood proper for this electrometer is box wood, and beth
the pillar and the index fhould be well rounded and po.
lifhed. When the eleétrometer is not ele&trilied, the index
hangs parallel to the ftem A B, and the ball D touches the
brafs ferrule, as in fig. g. But when eleéirified, the index
recedes more or lefs from the fem according to the intenfity
of the eleétricity, as in fg. 10. This inflrument is pecu-
liarly ufeful for obferving the progreis of the charge of a
Leyden phial, or of a battery.

. Beccaria recommended to inclofe the upper part of the
index of this ele@rometer between two femi-circles; other
ele&tricians have alfo made other alterations, which we fhall
now defcribe; though, upon the whole, Mr, Henly’s ori-
ginal conftruétion feema to anfwer as well as any other.

Mr. Cuthbertfon’s conftruétion is reprefented in Ag. 11.5
ais a [mall cork-ball fixed to the extremity of a very flender
{tick of ivory bcd, which, when eleétrified, is repelled by
the brafs tube ee, and as this fick of ivory, bcd, moves
upon an axis at c, the angle of divergency is indicated by
its extremity d, upon the graduated arch fg. —This elec-
trometer being very fenfible, is peculiarly ufeful for indi-
cating the {mall charge of a Leyden phial, or the charge of
a battery in its commencement.

Fig. 12. reprefents Mr. Brook’s ele&rometer (Phil. Tranf.
for the year 1782.) It isa complicated and expenfive in-
ftrument. ** Bis the foot or bafe, confifting of a {quare
board 92 each way, having three {crews for the purpofe of
fetting the inftrument upright: D is a folid piece of glafs,
which-{upports and infulates the inftrument. The arms
Gi, and g, with the ball F, turn round on. the wire H,
(which is of folid brafs, as may be alfo the arm g,) and
when in ufe are put nearly at right angles with G2 and H,
being turned to the off fide fo as to be as much as poffible
out of each others’ atmofpkeres, or the atmofphere of a
jar, battery, prime conduétor, &c. The arms Gir and
G 2 are hollow tubes of copper, not fo heavy as wires.
The balls I 1, I2, are made of copper, and hollow, fo as
to be as light as pofible: K reprefents a kind of face or
dial-plate to the inftrument with its index, which (by
means of multiplying motion under the dial-plate) is care
ried once round, whilft the arm G2, with its ball I2,
moves through a quarter of a cirele, or go degrees. This
motion is given to 1t by the repulfive power of the charge,
&c. of electricity between the two balls 12 and L. The
ends of the index from its centre are of different lengths,
The longeft end reaches toa graduated circle divided into
go equal parts, anfwering to go°, which the arm G2
moves throuzh. The fhorteft end reaches to a fmaller
circle, divided into “60 «qual parts, anfwering to 60 grains
weight, or 60 divifions on the arm Gr, with its fliding
weight m, each of which is equal to one grain, and the
whole face is covered with a watch glafs, to prevent the
ele€tricity from flying off at the points.

‘© The top of the-glafs ftick Dis cemented into a brafs cap
M. This cap enters the ball L at the lower part, and {crews
into the upper part of the ball L at a2. The top part of
this cap M istapered off to a cone about an inch and a half
long or high. The lower end of the wire H has a Pale

made

ELECTROMETER.

made conically into it, fo as to receive the upper part or
conical end of the cap M, which permits all the upper part
of the electrometer to turn round any way that may be ne-
ceflary. The kind of ferrule O, with its bafe, is perforated
for the lower end of the wire H to go through. The
bent arm 4, which fupports the cup N, is fcrewed into the
bafe of the ferrule O, and turns freely round upon the
wire H. ‘Phe cup N is to receive the ball P of the arm H.
This arm fhortens or lengthens, as may be wanted, by a
wire fliding into atube. The end of the wire is flit, form-
ing afpring in the tube to be fteady. In this arm is a kind
of rule joint at d, that the arm may give way entirely if
wanted, ‘The femi-circul:r end of the arm is a {pring, and
flips on to a ball from the prime conduGor, jar, or battery ;
and ferves to connect that prime conduétor, or jar, or bat-
tery, with the electrometer.

* The arm G ferews not tothe ball F, but to a folid
piece within the faid ball, and the whole, like the arms of
an unequal balance, move round an axis clofe to the furface
of the ball F, fothat the arm ee moves angularly round
that axis, and the ball I 1 rifes above the ball +, in virtue
of the electrical repuifion.

‘In order to make the divifions of Gr exaétly a grain
each, firft flide the weight m toward the ball F, till it is an
exact counter balance to the weight in F. At one end of
the weight m let the divifions begin; then fufpend any to-
lerable pair of fcales, fo that the bottom of one of them
may re{t on the top of the ball r; then lay the ball Li into
the feale, and flide the weight m near to I1, and put as
many grains into the other {cale as will juft raife the ball I 1
in the feale; then mark the arm G1 at the fame end of the
weight m, and divide the {pace between the two marks into
as many parts as there are grains in the feale, which may be
divided and fub-divided into halves and quarters.

« The arm G 2 being repelled, fhews when the charge is
increafing, &c. and 11 tells what fuch a repulfive power is
between two balls of the fize of thefe in grains, according
to the number the weight m refts at when lifted up by the
repulfive power of acharge. The longeft end of the index
K thews how many degrees of a circle G2 is repelled, and
by many trials, according to the number of grains, the arm
G1 fhews, when it is lifted up, and the weight m put at
different places, fuch refpeétive number of grains may be
marked on the leaft circle on the dial-plate where the fhorteft
end of the index points; fothat when all the grains are thus
marked on the dial-plate, thus afcertained by the arm G1,

‘all thefe parts of the inftrument, thar is, the ball F with
the arms Gi and g, may be taken off, and the inftrument
is then graduated to be ufed without them; ‘but 1 do
not know,’? Mr. Brook fays, ‘* how the grains can be fo
exa@tly marked and afcertained as by thefe parts being on
the inftrument: nor do I mean to confine the number of
grains or divifions on G1 ; but, I think, my experience feems
to tell me, that no glafs to: be charged, as we call it, with
eleGricity, will bear a greater charge than that whofe re-
puifive force between two balls of this fize equals 60 grains
weight, before it will be perforated or ftruck through. Nay,
E have not found many inflances where it would {land 50
grains; and 1 think it is very hazardous to go more than
45 grains.’?

“Thus, by knowing the quantity of coated furface, and
the diameters of the balls, as I1and r, I would fay, fo
much or fo much coated furface charged to fo many or fo
many grains repulfion between two balls of fuch or fuch a
fize would melt a wire of this or that fize, or do fucha
thing, kill fuch an animal, &c. and if balls, wires, or arms

Vou, XIL.

of this fize are found too fmall, larger may be made on the
fame plan.”

By this means eleGtrometers may be made to fpeak a coms
mon and an intelligible language.

The lower part of Mr. Brook’s eletrometers may likes
wife be called an eleGrical balance.

Notwithfandiog the intricacy of the conftru@ion of Mri
Brook’s eleGtrometer, it muft be acknowledged, that if not
exa@tly upon that, at leaft upon fome fuch plan, thefe inftru-
ments fhou'd be conftruéted ; for an equal divifion of the
arc, or femi-circle, into equal parts will not indicate equal
increments of the repulfive force: to eltimate which truly,
Mr. Achard fays, that the arc of the electrometer fhould be
divided according to a fcale of arcs, the tangents of which
are in arithmetical progreffion.

The pith or cork-ball ele&trometers, above defcribed,
though very ufeful within doors, are, when ufed for atmo-
fpherical eleGtricity, much’ diturbed, and even rendered
perfe&tly ufelefs by wind, rain, and the moifture of fogs.
To avoid thefe defects, Mr. Cavallo, in the year 1777,
made a moft ufeful contrivance ; which, in fa&t, opened the
way to farther improvements, and rendered this kind of in-
ftruments both fenfible and ufeful far beyond that of any
former conftruétion. The contrivance confilted in enclofiag
the electrometer in a glafs veffel, and furnifhing it with other
parts; which rendered it capable of being expofed to the
wind and to the rain, without the leaft obftru@tion. The
conftruétion of this inftrument (a defcription of which Mr.
Cavallo prefented to the Royal Society, and is publithed in
the Philofophical Tranfa¢tions) is reprefented by the figs.
13, 14, and 15, Plate XIII. in its real fize.

The principal part of this inftrument is a glafs tube,
CDMN, cemented at the bottom into the wooden piece,
AB, by which part the inftrument is to be held, when
ufed for the atmofphere ; and it alfo ferves to {crew the in-
ftrument into the wooden cafe, ABO, fiz. 1, when it is
not actually in ufe. Both the foot, A B, and the cafe may
alfo be made of brafs or other metal.” The upper part of the
tube, CD MN, is fhaped tapering to a fmaller extremity,

‘which is entirely covered with fealing-wax, melted by heat,

and not diffolved in fpirit of wine. Into this tapering part
a {mall tube is cemented, the lower extremity, G, of which
(being alfo covered with fealing-wax) projects a fhort way
within the tube, CD MN. Into this fmaller tube a wire
is cemented, which, with its lower extremity, touches the
flat piece of ivory, H, which is faftened to the tube by
means of cork, and with its upper extremity, which projects
about a quarter of an inch above the tube, {crews into the
brafs cap, EF; which cap is open at the bottom, and
ferves to detend the waxed part of the inftrument from the
rain, &c. ig. 3. reprefents a fection of this brafs cap,
fhewing its internal form; together with the manner in
which it is fcrewed to the wire that proje&ts above the {mall
tube, L. The fmall tube, L, and the upper extremity of
the large tube,.C D MN, appear like one continuate piece,
on account of the fealing-wax, which covers them both.
The conical corks, P, of this ele&trometer, which by their
repulfion fhew the ele€tricity, &c. are as {mall as can con-
veniently be made; and they are fufpended by exceedingly
fine filver wires. Thefe wires are fhaped in a ring at the
top, by which they hang very loofely on the flat piece of
ivory, H, which has two holes for that purpofe. By this
method of fufpenfion, which is applicable to other eleétro-
meters, the friGion is diminifhed greatly, whence the inilru-
ment is rendered extremely fenfible. IM and KN are two
narrow flips of tin-foil, ftuck to the infide of the glafey

‘ 4X CDMN,

ELECTROMETER,

CDMN, and communicating with the wooden bottom,
AB. .Thefe ferve to carry away the ele&tricity, which,
when the corks, P, touch.the glafs, is communicated to it,
and which, being accumulated, would difturb the free motion
of the corks.

With refpe& to practical utility, this inftrument may be
ufed for obferving the artificial as well as the atmofpherical
eleGiricity. When it is to be ufed for artificial. electricity,
this ele&rometer is fet upon a table, or other convenient
fapport : then it is eleCtrified, by touching the brafs cap,
EF, with an ele&trified body; and this eleétricity will
fometimes remain upon the eleCtrometer longer than an
hour. In this ftate, if any eleCtrified fubftance be brought
near the cap, EF, the corks, P, of the eleftrometer, by
their converging or by increafing their divergency, will fhew
the fpecies of that body’s eleGiricity.

* Tt is neceflary to obferve,” Mr. Cavallo fays, «* that to
communicate any electricity to this electrometer, by means
of an excited electric; e.g. a piece of fealing-wax (which
we fuppofe as being always electrified negatively) is not
very readily done in the ufual manner, on account of the
cap, EF, being well rounded, and free from points or fharp
edges. By the approach of the wax, the electrometer will
be caufed to diverge ; but as foon as the wax is removed, the
wires immediately collapfe. The beft method to eleétrify it
is to bring the excited wax fo near the cap, that one or
both the corks may touch the fide of the bottle CD MN;
after which, they will foon collapfe and appear uneledirified.
If now the wax be removed, they will again diverge, and
will remain eleCtrified pofitively.

¢ In this operation, the wax does not impart any of its
ele&tricity to the cle€trometer, but only aéts by means of its
atmofphere; viz. when the excited was is firft brought near the
brafs cap, EF, (agreeable to the well-known law of eleGtri-
city, and according to Dr. Franklin’s hypothefis,) it deter-
mines the eleétric fluid naturally belonging to the corks to-
wards the cap: hence the corks repel each other. Now, if
. in this ftate they touch the tin-foil on the fides of the glafs,
CDMN, they acquire from it a quantity of ele@ric fluid,
equal to that which, by the action of the excited wax, was
driven towards the cap: confequently they collapfe, and ap-
pear unelectrified. Notwithftanding this appearance, the
cap is aciually overcharged; fo that when the wax is re-
moved, the overplus of ‘ele€trie fluid which the corks had
acquired from the glafs and tin-foil, avd which was crowded
upon the cap, on account of the negative atmofphere of the
wax, now diffufes itfelf equally through the cap, the wires,
the corks, &c.; and therefore the corks repel each. other
with pofitive electricity.

«Tf, inflead of the fealing-wax. excited negatively, an
eleGric poffeffed of pofitive cletricity be ufed, the eleAro-
meter acquires the negative eleCtricity, and the explanation,
mutatis mutandis, ts the fame as above. \

‘s By confidering this remark, it will appear that when this
electrometer is eleCirified either pofitively or negatively, and
an eleGtrified- body is brought towards the brafs cap, the
eleCtricity of that body will be of the fame kind with that of
the ele@rometer, if the corks increafe their divergency ;) but
it will-be of the contrary kind, if the corks come nearer to
each other.”

When this inftrument is to be ufed for obferving the elec-
tricity of the fogs, the air, the clouds, &c. the obferver
muft unferew it from its cafe, and holding it by the bottom,
AB, mutt prefent it to the air in an open, free, and, if
poffible, an elevated, place; raifing it a little above his head,
io that he may conveniently obferve the corks, P, which

ri

will immediately. diverge, if there be any fufficient quantity
of eleGtricity ; and it may be eafily afcertained whether this
ele&tricity. is pofitive or negative, by bringing an excited
picce of fealing-wax, or other excited ele&tric, towards the
brafs cap, EF. Upon the'whole, the peculiar advantages
of this tlerometer, as enumerated by its inventor, are
ift, The {mallnefs of its fize; 2d, Its being always ready
for experiments, without the fear of entangling the threads, or |
of having an equivocal refult by the gifhnefs of its moe
tion; 3d, Its being not difturbed by wind or rain; 4th, Its
fuperior fenfibility’; and, 5th, Its retaining its electricity
longer than any other eleClrometer.

Mr. Sauffure took great pains to point out fome fuppofed
imperfeGtions of the above-defcribed ele&rometer, and to
improve it by making feveral {pecious alterations and addi-
tions, which, if not a€tually detrimental, evidently are of no
real advantage. In the firlt place, he fays, that the fine
wires, by which the balls are fufpended, fhould not be fo
long as to reach the tin-foil which is pafted on the infide
of the glafs; yet he dire&ts to put four pieces of tin-foil
within the glafs. Secondly, Mr, Sauffure has altered the
fhape of the glafs, making it broader, and with a neck very
fhort, which prevents the ele¢trometer’s retaining the eleGiri-
city for any confiderable time. ‘Thirdly, he has made the
bottom of the eleftrometer of brafs, for the purpofe of ufing
it like a condenfer.- For example, he fays, if it be placed
on an imperfe& conduor, as,dry wood or marble, and if
the inftrument be eleGrified Rrongly, and afterwards the top
is touched, the ele¢tricity will appear to be deftroyed; but
on lifting up the inflrument by the top, the balls will again
open, becaufe the imperfe& condu€tor formed with the bafe
a kind of eleCtrophorus, by which the,eleGric fluid was eons
denfed and loft its tenfion, till the perfe& conduGor was
feparated from the imperfe@ one; whereas, if the condu€tor
had been more perfe&t, it would have been deprived of its
eleGricity immediately, on the application of the ‘hand.
We cannot fee of what praGical ufe this equivocal and un-
certain operation can be. Fourthly, Mr. Sauffure has
added a very long pointed wire to the top of its electrometer, -
for the purpofe of imbibing the ele¢tricity of the atmo-
{phere. This may in fome cafes be of advantage, but in
others it mult be very difadvantageous; for, as it appears
from the above-mentioned obfervations of Mr. Cavallo, this
eleGtrometer is ele€trified with the electricity contrary to that
of the atmofphere, whereas, when the eleGricity of the
atmofphere is very ftrong, the pointed wire, by imbibing
fome of it, may render the action of the eleGirometer equi-
vocal, Laftiy, Mr. Sauflure bas placed a divided feale
within the electrometer, for the purpofe of meafuring the
angle of divergency ; but to any perfon who is in the leait
converfant with the ufe of fuch initruments, it will eafily ap-
pear that, by the eye, the angle of divergency may be efti-
mated fufficiently for the purpofe; whereas, with a {cale,
a confiderable time is required to fteady the eleGtrometer;
and to place the eye in a proper point of view; and durin
this time, the ele€tricity of the corks, &c. will be confider-
ably diminifhed.

A capital improvement to the bottle eleftrometer was
made by the Rev. Abraham Bennet, and is defcribed in the
Pnilofophical TranfaGions for the year 1757, p. 26. Ine
ftead of the wires with the corks, Mr. Bennet ufed two flips
of gold-leaf, which are fenfible to an altonifhing degree,
manifefting the ele@ricity in a ready and unequivocal manner,
free from an inconvenience which trequently takes place with
the cork or pith-ball elerometers. The inconvenience is,
that in thefe ele&txrometers, when they are lea

Is -

L

be

'

ELECTROMETER,

balls fometimes adbere to each other for a confiderable time
before they will feparate, and then they feparate with a kind
of jerk afl at once.

The figures 16, 17, and 18, reprefent Mr. Bennet’s gold-
leaf electrometer 5 the 16th and 17th being feClions of the
infrument. The r8th reprefents the inftrument joined to-
gether, and ready for ufe. ** It eonfiits,” fays Mr. Ben-
net, ‘* of two flips of gold-leaf, a, a, fufpended in a glafs, 3.
The foot, c, may he made of wood or metal; the cap, d,
of metal. The cap is made flat on the top, that plates,
books, evaporating water, or other things to be eleétrified,
may be conveniently placed upon it. The cap is about an

_inch wider in diameter than the glafs, and its rim about
three quarters of an inch broad, which hangs parallel to the
glafs, to turn off the rain, and keep it fufficiently infulated.
Within this is another circular rim, about half 2s broad as
the other, which is lined with filk or velvet, and fits clofe
upon the outfide of the glafs: thus the cap fits well, and
may be ealily taken off, to repair any accident happening to
the gold-leaf. Within this rim is a tin tube, e, hanging
from the centre of the cap, fomewhat longer than the depth
of the inner rim. In the tubea {mall peg, f, is placed, and
may be occafionally taken out. ‘To the peg, which is made
round at one end and flat at the other, two flips of leaf gold
are faftened with pafte, gum-water, or varnifh. Thefe flips
fufpended by the peg, and that in the tube faft to the centre
of the cap, hang in the middle of the glafs, about three
inches long, and a quarter of aninch broad. In one fide of
the cap there.is a {mall tube, g, to place wires in. It is
evident, that without the glafs the leaf-gold would be fo

agitated by the leaft motion of the air, that it would be

ufelefs ; and if the eletricity fhould be communicated to the
furface of the glafs, it would interfere with the repulfion of
the leaf-gold ; therefore two long pieces, 4, 4, of tin-foil are
faftened with varnifh on oppofite fides of the internal furface
of the glafs, where the leaf-gold may be expected to ttrike,
and in conneCtion with the foot. The upper end of the
glafs is covered and lined with fealing-wax as low as the
outermoft rim, to make its infulation more perfe&.””

Mr. Cavallo, in defcribing this ele&trometer of Mr. Ben-
net, in his Treatife on EleCtricity, 4th edition, fays, “ As
it is rather difficult to faften the flips of gold-leaf to this
electrometer, and to caufe them to hang parallel, I have
contrived a method which remedies that defeét. When the
flips are cut and are lying upon paper, or on the leather
cufhion upon which they are cut, I make them equal in
length, by meafuring with a pair of compaffes, and cutting
off a fuitable portion from the longeft. I then cut two bits
of very fine gilt paper, each about half an inch long, and a
quarter of an inch broad; and by means of a little wax, ftick
one of them to one extremity of each flip of gold-leaf, fo as
to form a kind of letter T. This done, I hold up in the
fingers of one hand one of thofe pieces of paper with the
gold-leaf fufpended to it, and hold the other with the fingers
of the other hand; then bringing them near to each other,
and having adjufted them properly, viz. fo as to let them
hang parallel and fmooth, I force the pieces of paper, which
now touch each other, between the two fides of a fort of
pincers made of brafs wire, or of very thin and hammered
brafs plate; which pincers are faftened to the under-part of
that piece which forms*the top or cover of the glafs

bari a

- Mr. Bennet, immediately after the defcription of his ex-
ceZent eleGtrometer, fays, ‘* The following experiments will
fhew the fenfibility of this inftrument: rit, Powdered chalk
was put into a pair of bellows, and blown upon the cap,
which electrified it pofitively when the cap was about the

7

diftance of fix inches from the nozzle of the bellows; but
the fame ftream of powdered chalk electriGed it negatively at
the diftance of three feet. In this experiment there is a
change of eleGtricity from pofitive to-nepative, by the difs
perfion or wider diffufion of the powderin the air. It is alfo
changed by placing a bunch of fine wire, ‘filk, or feathers,
in the nozzle of the bellows; and is wholly negative, when
blown from a pair of bellows without their iron pipe, fo as
to come out in a larger ftream. This laft experiment did
not anfwer in dry weather fo well as in wet. ‘The pcfitive
eletricity of the chalk, thus blown, is communicated, be-
caufe part of the powder fticks to the cap; but the negative
is not communicated, the leaf-gold collapfing as foon as the
cloud of chalk is difperfed.

“ adly, A piece of chalk drawn over a brufh, or pow-
dered chalk put into the brufh, and proje€ted upon the cap,
eleGirifies it negatively ; but its ele€incity is not commeni-
cated,

“¢ 3dly, Powdered chalk blown with the mouth or bel-
lows, from a metal plate placed upon the cap, eleétrifies it
permanently pofitive; or if the chalk is blow from the
plate, either infulated or not, fo that the powder may pafs

‘over the cap, if not too far off, it is alfo pofitive; or ifa

brufh is placed upon the cap, and a piece of chalk drawn
over it, when the hand is withdrawn, the leaf-gold gradually
opens with pofitive eleGtricity, as the cloud of chalk dif-
perfes.

“ athly, Powdered chalk, falling from one plate to
another placed upon the inftrument, cleCtrifies it nega-
tively.”?

Several other experiments were alfo made with Mr. Ben-
net’s eleftrometer, out of which we fhall colle& the prin-
cipal. ‘ The inftrument being placed in a dufly road, and
the duft-ftruck up with a ftick near it, ele&trified it pofi-
tively. Wheat flour and red lead are ftrongly negative in
all cafes where the chalk is pofitive. The following pow-
ders were like chalk: red ochre and yellow, rofin, coal
afhes, powdered crocus metallorum, aurum mofaicum,
black-lead, lamp-black, (which was only fenfible in the two
firft methods,) powdered quick-lime, umber, lepis cala-
minaris, Spanifh brown, powdered fulphur, flowers of fol-
phur, iron filings, ruft of iron, and fand. Rofin and chalk,
feparately alike, were changed by mixture: this was often
tried in dry weather, but did not fucceed in damp. White
lead alfo fometimes produced pofitive, and fometimes nega-
tive eleGricity, when blown from a plate.

“If a metal cup be placed upon the cap, with a red-hot
coal in it, a fpoonful of water thrown in eleGrifies the cup
negatively ; and if a bent wire be placed in the cap, with a
piece of paper faftened to it, to increafe its furface, the
pofitive ele€tricity of the afcending vapour may be tried by
introducing the paper into it.””

The fenfibility of this eleftrometer may be corfiderably
increafed by placing a candle upon the cap. By this
means, the eletricity of an ele&rical machine in one room
may be perceived in the next room. Powders, in this cafe,
will alfo eleGtrify it at a much greater diftance, Ke.

When this eleGtrometer was placed at the diftance of fix
feet from the ftring of a kite, having a wire through the
{tring, and raifed in cloudy weather, the gold-leaf continued
to {trike the fides of the electrometer, for more than an hour
together, with a.velocity increafing and decreafing with the
denfity or diftance of the unequal clouds which pafled
over.

¢ No fenfible ele&tricity is produced by blowing pure air,
projecting water, by fmoke, flame, or explofions of gun-

powder,’”?
; 4X2 The

ELEGTROMETER.

- The only defe& of the above-defcribed moft ufeful gotd-leaf
eleGtrometer is its not being portable, unlefs it be carried al-
ways upright; and with this imperfection the initrument has
remained for about 20 years; until very lately, when Mr.
Cavallo contrived to render it perfeGly portable: and this
contrivance he has permitted to be publifhed, for the fir
time, in the prefent article.

The figures 19 and 20 are two {eGtions of this inftrument,
Fig. 21 reprefents it in perfpeGtive. The letters of re-
ference indicate the fame parts in all the three fizures.
AB isa glafs tube, cemented into the perforated brafs bot-
tom, or ferrule, G. DC is a fhort and narrower glafs
tube, which fits the upper part of the tube A B, by means
of a piece of leather, which is cemented to that part of it
which is intended to enter into AB. A third {maller glafs
tube, F E, is cemented into DC, and projects a little way
above and below DC. The furfaces of thefe three tubes,
from F to H, are all covered with fealing-wax. A brafs
wire, I, is cemented into the {malleft tube, F E, and com-
municates with an oblong flip ef brafs plate, Ea, which is
a little thicker than common writing paper, and about a
quarter of an inch broad, weil polifhed and rounded off at
the edges. Inthe figures 19 and 20, this flip of brafs is
feen edge-ways: oc isa flip of gold-leaf, ftuck at o to the
brafs plate Ea; and when ele€tnfied, making an angle coa
with it, which is larger or fmaller according to the intenfity
of the eleGricity. Ea remains always ftiff and immoveable :
be is a piece of cork, fitted tight to the lower aperture of
the glafs tube, AB. There isa flit in this cork, through
which the lever, or brafs arm, fig, moves round the axis
or pin, r, which paffes through the cork at right angles to
4g. From/tos this brafs arm is as broad as Ea; but
from s to g it fpreads the other way, viz. fromitog. Now
it is eafy to comprehend, that if a finger’s nail be applied at
g, through the aperture of the brafs foot, G, and be prefled
againft that end of the arm, this arm, Ag, may be placed In
fhe fituation reprefented in fg. 20; in which cafe, the goid-
eaf will be enclofed between the arm, 4s, and the flip, Ea,
and in that ftate the inftrument may be turned in any direc-

~ tion; for the elafticity of the cork, dc, is fully fufficient to
retain 4g in that pofition. The inftrument then is flipped
into a paper, or brafs tube, which covers the whole, and
fits the outfide of the brafs foot at G. When the inftrument
is to be ufed, the nail of a finger applied to the brafs arm at
i, and pufhed againft it, will place it in the fituation of figs.
1g and 20; and then the flip of gold-leaf, being difengaged,
is ready to at; moving, as already mentioned, between Ea
and és. Tothe wire, I, which, projets above the. {mall
tube, FE, a ball, or another longer and poimted wire, may
be affixed; or, in fhort, this wire, I, may be made to com-
municate with any thing, like any other bottle ele&ro-
meter.

If by any accident the gold-leaf, oc, happens to be da-
maged, the tube, DC, is taken out of the tube, A B, and
a new flip of gold-leaf is fattened ato, upon the brafs plate,
Ea. But on replacing DC into A B, the former muft be
turned, fo as to place the furface of the brafs flip, Ea,
quite parallel to the furface of the arm, 4s. Thus the
gold-leaf ele&rometer is rendered perfeéily portable ; and the
experience of fome months has fhewn that the gold-leaf, oc,
fuffers not the leaft derangement by being enclofed between
the'two brafs furfaces of Ea and As.

Fig. 22. reprefents an inftrument, invented by Mr. Cou-
lomb, for meafuring the force of ele€tric repulfion by the
torfion of a wire. Its inventor calls it an ele@rical balance.
The inftrument is of g'afs, and its fhape is {ufficiently fhewn
in the fizure; excepting the upper past of E, which is a

brafs flat plate, and a ferrule, which is cemented to the upper
part of the glafs tube. LD is a piece of thick wire, laid upon
the horizontal plate E, and hoiding a very fine wire which
paffes through a hole in E, and proceeds all the way down
through the middle of the long tube, and until it reaches
about the middle of the lower or larger tube, where it holds,
{ufpended in an horizontal fituation, the needle A B, which
is made of fiilk covered with fealing-wax, and carries at its
extremity, B, a bail of the pith otelder. A graduated circle
is fixed in the infide of the large glafs tube in the fame plane
with the needle A B, and within this circle another pith ball
C is fixed, fimilar to the ball B, When thefe balls are clec-
trified they repel each other ; and this repulfion, which occas
fions the torfion of the wire that fupports the needle A B,
is meafured by the divifions of the graduated circle,

Mr. Cuthbertfon’s ele&trometer, or combination of eleétro-
meters, is reprefented in jig. 23. ‘A Bis a long fquare
piece ef wood about 18 inches by 6, in which are fixed two
glafs fupports D, E, mounted with brafs balls. Under the
brafs ball E is a long brafs hook; the ball 4 is made of two
hemifpheres, the lower one being fixed to the brafs mounting,
and the upper turned with a groove to fhut upon it, fo that
it may be taken off at pleafure ; it is {crewed to a brafs tube
about 4 inches long, fitted on the top of D; from its lower
end proceeds an arm carrying the piece F C, confiiting of two
hollow balls and a tube, which together make nearly the
fame length as that fitted on D.: G H isa ftraight brafs wire,
with a knife-edge centre in the middle, placed a little below
the centre of gravity, and equally balanced with a hollow
brafs ball at each end, the centre or axis refting upon a pros
per fhaped piece of brafs fixed in the infide of the ball 4; that
part of the hemifphere towards H is cut open, to permit
that end of the balance to defcend till it touches E; and the
upper hemifphere 4 is alfo cut open. To the under fide of
ais hooked a brafs wire about 4 inches long, hanging freely
in a hole at the top of F. he arm G is divided into fixty
grains, and is furnifhed with a flider to be fet at the number
of grains the experiment requires : 4 is a common Henly’s
eleGtrometer, {crewed upon the top of 4.

Tt is evident from the conftrudtion, that if the foot ftand
horizontaily, and the ball G be made to touch F, and the
flider fet at 0, it will remain in that pofition, but if it fhould
by any means receive a very low charge of electric fluid, the
two balls F, G, will repel each other; G will begin to af-
cend, and on account of its centre of gravity being above the
centre of motion, and the flider fo loofe as to flide forward
towards 4, as foon as G H is ont of its horizontal fituation,
the afcending will continue with an accelerated motion till
H firikes upon F. If the balance be fet again horizontal,
and the flider fet at ro grains, it will caufe G to reft upon
F with a preffure equal to that weight, fo that more eleGtric
fluid muit be communicated than the above low charge, be-
fore the balls will feparate ; and as the weight towards G is
increafed or diminifhed, a greater or lefs quantity of eleGtric
fluid wiil be required to efie& a feparation.

“ When this inftrument is to be applied to a jar or battery,
for which purpofe it was invented, one end of a wire muit
be inferted into a hole in the ball F, and the other into a hole
of any ball proceeding from the infide of a battery or jar; &
muft be fcrewed upon 4, with its index pointing towards H ;
the reafon of this inftrument being added, is to fhew, while
the index continues to rife, that the charge of the battery is

-inereafing, becaufe the other part. of the inftrument does not

act till the battery has received its required charge.

‘* If this inftrument be examined with attention, it will be
found to confilt of three eleGtrometers, and anfwers three dif-
ferent purpofes; namely, a Henly’s electrometer, Lane’s difs

charging

%.
AAD yee

charging ele&rometer, and Brook’s fteelyard ele&trometer;
the firft is not improved, but the two laft, which were very
defeétive when firit invented, 1 flatter myfelf, are here brought
to perfeétion : asthe only ufe of Henly’s ele&rometer to this
inftrument is, as I have faid before, to fhew that the bat.
tery continues to receive a ftill ftronger charge, it required
no improvement; but Lane’s eleGtrometer, in its primitive
ftate, could by no means anfwer the required purpofe for
batteries, becaufe the ball intended to cifcharge the battery
was neceflarily placed fo near to the ball of the battery, that
duft, and many conduéting particles, always floating in the
air, were attracted, and repelled between the two balls, fo
as to render a regular intended high charge impoffible;
whereas inthis, they are placed at four inches diftance, and
when the defired height of charge is obtained, and not be-
fore, the bail of the electrometer moves of itfelf nearer to the
ball, which is conneéted with the outfide of the battery, and
caufes adifcharge. The defects in Brook’s fteelyard electro-
meter were, rit, that it could not caufe a difcharge; and,
2dly, the difficulty of obferving the firft feparation of the
balls caufed great error ; if it were not placed in an advan-
tageous light (which the nature of the experiments does not
always permit) it could not be feen without the attention of
an affiltant, which cannot always be commanded. But this
inftrument, which I have defcribed, requires no-attention or
affittance ; for, as foon as the feparation takes place between
G and F, the ball H defcends, and difcharges the battery
of itfelf.

«¢ By this combination and improvement, we poffefs, in
the prefent inftrument, all that can ever be required of an
eletrometer ; namely, by 4 we fee the progrefs of the charge ;
"by the feparation of G F we have the repulfive power in
weight ; and, by the ball H, the difcharge is caufed when
the charge has acquired the {trength propofed.”” . Cuthbert-
fon’s Pra&t. Elect.

We might now add to this article the defcriptions of fe-
veral other eleétrometers ; but as their ufe is inferior to
thofe which have been already deferibed, we think it ufelefs
to detain the reader with any fuch accounts, many of which
are only imperfect varieties of the above defcribed inftruments ;
fhould, however, the reader wifh to examine thofe cleftro-
meters fuch as they are, we refer him to the following
works.
~ Darcy’s cletrometer. AG. Par. for 1749. Richman’s
eleGrometer. N. A. Petr. vol. iv. p. gor. Comus’s eleGtric
platometer. Roz. Journ. vol. vii. p. 520. Townfend’s elec-
trometer. Adams’s Effay on Ele&tr. Terry’s ele€trometer.
Roz. Journ. xxiv. p. 315. Boyer Brun’s eleCtrofcope for a
condu¢tor. Roz. Journ. xxviii, p. 183. De Luc’s funda-
mental eletrometer. Idees fur la met. Chappe’s electro-
meter@Roz. Journ. xxxiv. p. 370. Cadet’s electrometer.
Annales de Chim. xxxvii. and Nich. Jour. v. p. 31. Mare-
chaux’s delicate eleGtrometer. Gilb. xv. p. 98.

The ufe of the ele&rometers, which we have defcribed, is
undoubtedly very extentive ; fome of them being capable of
meafuring the higheit charges of eleCtricity known, and they
may be extended farther ftill, fhould future experimenters
endeavour to adapt them to the prodigious force of lightning
or to fome-other natural or artificial power of electricity ;
whilft others are capable of indicating very [mall quantities
of eletricity; yet there are feveral cafes where the eleétri-
city is fo very feeble, as to be incapable of affeCting any elec-
trometer whatever: neverthelefs eleétricians have devifed
- means of difcovering even this. feeble electricity, which may
be confidered as diftinguifhable into two ftates; viz. either
the quantity of cle&tricity is really very {mall, and in that
cafe Mr. Cavallo’s multiplier will render it fenfible ;, or the

ELE

ele€tricity is diffufed over a large {pace, fo as to have its in.
tenfity too weak to affe& an cleGtrometer, and in that cafe
the condenfer will colle&t it into a narrower compafs, &c.
See Murtiprier, and ConpEnsER.

ELECTROPHORUS, (from the Greek words ercx-
spor, amber, and Qzpw, J bear,) is a machine confifting of two
plates, one of which is a relinous eleétric, and the other a
metallic plate. When the former is once excited, by a pe-
culiar application of the latter, (which will be defcribed pre-
fently.) this machine will furmifh eleGricity fora very confider-
able time; fo much fo, that many perfons, imagining that
it would never lofe its power, called it the machine for ex-
hibiting perpetual ele@ricity. It was invented by a-much dif-
tinguifhed Italian philofopher, (Mr. Volta of Como,) about
the year 1774, orratherearlier. ig. 1. Plate X1V. repre-
fents this machine, whofe two plates are A, and B. The
lower one, B, is a circular glafs plate, covered on the upper
fide with fulphur, or fhell-lac, or other refinous eleétric,
The upper plate, A, is of brafs, or of wood covered with tin-
foil, and hasa glafs handle, which {crews (by means of a brafs
or wooden ferrule) perpendicularly into the centre of it.
This metallic plate muft have a pretty thick edge, well
rounded off.

In the firft place, the plate B is excited by rubbing its
coated fide with a piece of new white flannel, or with a dry
hand, and when powerfully excited is fet upona table with its
coated fide uppermoft. Secondly, the metal plate is laid upon
the excited eleCtric, as reprefented in the figure. Thirdly,
the metal plate is touched with the finger, or with any other
condudtor, and this contaét is attended with a f{park.
Laftly, the metal plate A being held by the extremity of
its glafs handle I, is feparated from the eleétric plate; and
being elevated above that plate, will be found ftrongly clec-
trified with an eletricity contrary to that of the ele&ric
plate ; and it will give a flrong {park to any condvétor that
is brought nearit. By fetting the metal plate upon the
ele&tric one, touching it with the finger, and feparating it
fuccefflively, a great number of {parks may be obtained ap-
parently-of the fame ftrength, and that without exciting the
eletric plate anew. _If thefe {parks be repeatedly given to
the knob of a Leyden phial, this will prefently become
charged. Having thus given a general idea of the con-
ftruction, the management, and the effects of this machine,
we mutt now examine all thefe particulars, and whatever be-
longs to them, feparately, and in a more extenfive manner.

It can hardly be doubted, that an excited plate of glafs
will form an electrophorus plate capable of producing the
ufual phenomena; but the reafon why refinous eleétrics are
generally ufed for this purpofe in preference to glafs, is, that
the glals plate, owing to its readily attra€ting moitture,
and partly to the {moothnefs of its furface, lofes its elecs
tricity much fooner‘than an excited piece of fealing-wax, or
fulphur, or of many other refinous ele&trics. Various ex-
periments have been inftituted for the purpofe of deter-
mining the fubftance which would an{wer beit for an elec-
trophorus. A compofition of rofin and fulphur, or fulphur
alone, anfwers very well; but the firft is attended with an
unpleafant fmell in melting and making it, and both, if Jong
ufed, impart an unpleafant efluvium to the hand that rubs,
or ules it. Sulphur alone is aifo apt to crack, fo as fre-
quently to require renovation.

Mr. Adams ufed a compofition confilting of two parts of
fhell-lac and one of Venice turpentine. The cake of thefe
two ingredients had no glafs plate. Rofin, with bees’-wax,
in the proportion of four or five parts of the former to one of
the latter, is the cheapeft compofition, and anfwers tolerably
well; but is inferior to Mr.. Adams’s compofition. Mr.

Cavallo

ELECTROPHORUS.

Cavallo fays, in his treatife on EleMricity, ** I tried feveral
fubftances either fimple or mixed, and at laft I obferved that
the trongeft in power, as well as the eafieft 1 could conftrud,
were thofe made with the fecond fort of fealing-wax, f{pread
upon a thick plate of glafs. A plate that I made after this
manner, and not more than fix inches in diameter, when
once excited, could charge a coated phial feveral times fuc-
ceflively, fo ftrong as to pierce a hole through a card with
the difcharge. Sometimes the metal plate, when feparated
from it, was fo ftrongly eleétrified, that it darted ftrong
flafhes to the table upon which the eleétric plate was laid,
and even into the air, befides caufing the fenfation of the
fpider’s web upon the face when brought neat to it, like an
ele&tric ftrongly exeited. "The power of fome of my plates
is fo ftrong, that fometimes the eleéric plate adheres to
the metal, when this is lifted up; nor will they feparate,
even when the metal plate is touched witha finger, or other
condudtor.

«Tt is to be remarked, thefe plates fometimes will not
a& well at firft; but they may be rendered very aétive by
fcraping with the edge of a knife the fhining or glofly fur-
face of the wax. This feems analogous toa well known
property of glafs, namely, that new cylinders, or globes,
made for ele&trical purpofes, are often very bad electrics at
firft, but that they improve by being worked, i.e. by hav-
ing their furface a little worn. Paper alfo has nearly the
fame property.”

The fecond fort of fealing-wax mentioned by Mr. Cavallo,
isa harder fort than the beft, which, perhaps, owing to
its greater foftnefs and pliability, cannot be excited fo
powerfully, nor does it retain the ele@ricity fo long as
the harder fort. .

The refinous coat was at firft generally {pread upon a glafs
plate, but foon began to be laid upon a metal plate ; and as
this was found more ufeful on various accounts, the glafs
plate has for feveral years been laid afide. When the electro-
phorus is of a moderate fize, véz. lefs than nine or ten inches
in diameter, the refinous cake may be made to adhere to a
brafs plate; but when larger (and fome of thefe eletropho-
rus cakes have been made as large as a yard in diameter)

then they are made without any ftiff metallic plate in Mr.

Adams’s manner, or have only a piece of tin-foil ftuck to
their lower furface.

The excitation of an eleGrophorus plate may be per-
formed various ways. The {mall plates may be excited by
fri&tion with a dry hand, or by rubbing againit the woollen
garments of the operator. When large, they may be ex-
cited by rubbing with a picce of clean and dry flannel, or
with a hair-fkin, or cat fkin; meaning the fkin with the
hair on. Even a cleay and hard hair brufh will anfwer that
purpofe, But when the excitation has once commenced, or
when the eleétricity of an ele&trophorus is decreafing, its
force may be augmented in the following manner, and with-
out friGion. Place the metallic plate upon the refinous
cake, touch it in the ufual manner; then take up the metal-
lic plate, and difcharge it on the knob of a Leyden phial:
repeat the operation feveral times, which will charge the
phial. Now lay the bottle upon the refinous cake ; hold the
bottle by the knob, and move it fo as to touch the various
parts of the furface of the cake with its outfide coating,
which operation will augment the force of the eleGtrophorus.
This done, the whole operation may be repeated ; that is,
the metal plate is again laid upon the refinous plate, the
phial ts charged, &c., by which means the refinous cake may
be rendered as powerfully eleGrical as poflible. The ra-
tionale of this operation is fo obvious, as to require no par-
ticular explanation.

The activity of thefe plates, though not continuing for
ever, as {ome perfons were at firft inclined to believe, does,
however, laft a very great length of time, but always ina
decreafing ftate. Sometimes thefe plates have been found
capable of charging a phial, and of giving {parks a week
after they had been excited, and even longer; but they have
been obferved to affeét an ele&trometer full a twelvemonth
after excitation, provided they are properly preferved.

The experiments which fhew how both the furfaces of the
refinous plate are affe€ted by the fuper-impofition of the metal
plate, &c. as made by Mr. Cavallo, are as follow : * If,’? he
fays, “ after having excited the fealing-wax, I lay the plate
with the wax upon the table, and the glafs uppermoft, i.e. con-
trary to the common method, then, on making the ufual expe=
riment of putting the metal plate on it, and taking the fpark,
&c. I obferve it to be attended with the contrary eleCtricity;
that is, if I lay the metal plate upon the eleGric one, and
while in.that fituation, tonch it with an infulated body,
that body acquires‘the pofitive eleGtricity, and the metallic;
removed from the electric plate, appears to be negative ;
whereas it would become pofitive if laid upon the excited
wax. ‘This experiment, I find, anfwers in the fame manner,
when an eleétric plate is ufed which has the fealing-wax
coating on both fides, or one of Mrs Adams’s, which has ne
glafs plate.

“‘ If the brafs plate, after being feparated from the waxy
be prefented with the edge towards it, lightly touching its
and thus be drawn over its furface, I find that the eleGtricity
of the metal is abforbed by the fealing-wax, and thus the
electric plate lofes part of its power; and if this operation
be repeated five or fix times, the electric plate lofes its
power entirely, fo that a new excitation is neceflary in order
to revive it.

‘“* Tf inftead of ldying the eleGtric plate upon the table, it
be placed upon an eleétric ftand, fo as to be accurately infu-
lated, then the metal plate fet on it acquires fo little elec-
tricity, that it can only be difcovered with an eleétrometer,
which fhews that the eleGtricity of this plate will not be con-
{picuous on one fide of it, if the oppofite fide is not at liberty
either to part with, or acquire more of the eletric fluid,
In confequence of this experiment, and in order to afcertain
how the oppofite fides of the ele€tric plate would be af-
feéted in different cireumftances, I made the following ex-
periments.

“ Upon an eleétric ftand E, fig. 2, I placed a circular
tin plate, nearly fix inches in diameter, which, by a flender
wire H, communicated with an electrometer of pith-balls_
G, which was alfo infulated upon the eleCtric ftand F. Ithen
placed the excited electric plate D, of fix inches,and a
quarter in diameter, upon the tin plate, with the wax upper-
moft; and on removing my hand from it, the eletrometer G,
which communicated with the tin plate; ¢. e. with the under
fide of the cle@iric plate, immediately opened with negative
eleGtricity. If, by touching the electrometer, I took off
that electricity, the eleQrometer did not afterwards diverge.
But if now, or when the ele@rometer diverged, I prefented
my hand open, or any other uninfulated conduétor, at the
diftance of about one or two inches over the eleétric plate,
without touching it, then the pith-balls diverged; or if they.
diverged before, came together, and immediately diverged
again with pofitive eleGtricity :—I removed the hand, and the
balls came together ;—approached the hand, and they di-
verged ; and fo on.

“Tf, while the pith-balls diverged with negative eleftricity,
I laid the metal plate (holding it by the extremity K of its
glafs handle) upon the wax, the balls came, for a fhort time,

towards

ELECTROPHORUS.

towards one another, but foon opened again with the fame;
i.e. negative eleCtricity.

«If, while the metallic refted upon the electric plate, I
touched the former, the ele&trometer immediately diverged
with pofitive ele&tricity, which if, by touching it I took off,
the electrometer continued without divergence, I touched
the metal plate again, and the eleétrometer opened again;
and fo on for a confiderable number of times, until the metal
plate had acquired its fullcharge. On taking now the metal
plate up, the eleétrometer G inftantly diverged with ftrong
negative eleétricity.

‘© T repeated the above-defcribed experiments with this only
difference in the difpofition of the apparatus; 7. e. I laid the
ele&tric plate D, with the excited fealing-wax, upon the circu-
lar tin plate, and the glafs uppermoft ; and the difference in
their refult was, that where the eleétricity had been pofitive
in the former difpofition of the apparatus, it now became
negative, and vice verfa ; except that when I firft laid the
eleGtric plate upon the tin, the eletrometer G diverged with
negative electricity, as well in this as in the other difpofition
of the apparatus.

s¢T repeated all the above-mentioned experiments with an
eleGtric plate, which, befides the fealing-wax coating on one
fide, had a trong coat of varnifh on the other fide; and their.
refult was fimilar to that of thofe made with the above-de-
{cribed plate. s

« As to the explanation of thefe experiments, they feem to
depend upon thefe two well-known principles ; viz. that a
body brought within the {phere of ation of an eleétrified
body, does actually acquire the contrary eleGtricity ; and

’ that the exiltence of one kind of ele&tricity upon the furface
of any fubftance whatever, caufes the exiltence of the con-

trary electricity upon fome other fubflance near it.’

The writers of the Encyclopzdia Britannica, in noticing the
above-mentioned experiments of Mr. Cavallo, fay, ** He tells
us, that, ifinflead of laying the electric plate upon the table, it is
Jet upon an elecric fland, fo as to be acsurately infulated, then
the metal plate fet on it acquires fo little eleétricity, that it can
only be difcovered by an eleGrometer.. In what manner thefe
gentlemen came to miflake a plain fa& fo egregioufly, is not
eafy to determine.”

’ Finding fuch a formal contradiction made to a matter of
fa& which may be ealily tried, we had the curiofity to try
the experiment, and found, from the refult of it, that Mr.
€avallo’s account was perfe&tly corre€t, and the above-
mentioned writers were perfectly miftaken.

What we have already mentioned with refpe& to the ation
of the electrophorus plate may be eafily applied to each par-
ticular phenomenon feparately confidered. Should the reader
wifh to examine farther obfervations and conje€tures con-
eerning them, he may confult the Phil. Tranf. vol. 66.
Pp» 513. vol. 67. p. 116. and p. 389. and vol. 68. p. 1027,
and 1049. See Vinvicarine Llefricity.

About the year 1777 an account was received in London
of certain experiments made by profeflor Lichtenberg of
Gottingen, with the eleGtrophorus. The experiments are
performed in the following manner. The refinous plate of
an ele&trophorus is firlt excited; then a piece of metal of any
fhape, (as a pair of fciflars, a piece of brafs tube, &c.) 13
aid upon the eleGtrophorus plate ; and to this piece of metal
a {park is communicated of the ele&tricity contrary to that
of the plate ; this done, the piece of metal is removed by
means of a ftick of glafs, or fealing.-wax, or other electric >
and the powder of rofin, kept ina linen bag, is fhaken over
the eleG@rophorus, ‘his powder will be found to fali about
thofe points upon the plate which were touched by the
above-mentioned picce of metal, and to form feveral beautiful

radiated configurations about thofe points. The reft of the
plate remains almolt entirely free from the powdered rofin.
‘This is the cafe when theplateis excited negatively,and a {park
of the pofitive eleétricity is communicated to the piece of
mctal laid upon it. But if the plate be excited pofitively,
and a {park of negative electricity is given to the piece
of metal; then the powdered rofin will fall upon thofe parts
of the plate which in the preceding cafe were left uncovered
by it, and will leave a radiated configuration round each of
the points which were touched by the piece of metal. In
fhort, the ele&tricity of the fpark which is communicated to
the piece of metal feems to f{pread itfelf in a ramified manner
over the plate, and round the poinis of conta€t, &c.; and
the powdered rofin which is fhaken over it is attra&ted only
by thofe parts of the furface of the ele&trophorus which
are electrified pofitively. Prof. Lichtenberg in his work,
** De nova methodo naturam ac motum fluidi eleGtrici in-
veftigandi commentatio prior,” wherein thefe experiments
were firft defcribed, did not attempt to give any explanation
of the phenomena; in confequence of which, Mr. Cavallo
inftituted a feries of experiments with a’ view of invef-
tigating the caufe of the above defcribed phenomena; and
he difcovered that powdered rofin, by its being fthaken
out of the linen bag, was aétually excited, and acquired the
negative electricity ; therefore, in the expzriments with the
eleGtrophorus, it was not wonderful that the rofin thus
excited negatively, fhould be attracted by thofe parts of the
plate which were eleétrified pofitively. Mr. Cavallo likewile
tried various other powders in a fimilar manner, as well as
otherwife; and found that fome of them acquired the pofitive,
whilit others acquired the negative eleGtricity. See his Treat.
on Elect. p. iv. ch. vii. Alfo Excitation.

Mr. Bennet repeated and diverfified Prof. Lichtenberg’s
experiments. He took a glafs plate, 15 inches fquare, co-
vered on one fide with a thin refinous black coating, with
tinfoil pafted on the other fide ; and fufpended it by a loop
againft the wall, that the groffer particles of the powder
that was fhaken near it might fall to the ground, and no
more of it might adhere to the plate than was attraéted by
the ele&tricity diffufed thereon. A {mall Leyden phial was
weakly charged, and after its knob had been drawn over
the plate, a cloud of chalk was projected by rubbing the
lump upon a brufh near the eletrified furface of the plate.
This produced a plain white line without any ramifications.
When the experiment was performed with the Leyden phial
charged a little higher, ramifications appeared about the
plate at a confiderable diftance from ea¢h other. When the
phial was charged as highly as it could bear, the ramifica-
tions were clofe and broad, refembling white feathers with a
very broad fhade.

A circular brafe plate, with an infulating handle, was placed
upon the refinous plate which ttood upon the table, and a
{park from the charged phial was communicated to the brai¢
plate, which was then removed by its infulating handle ; and
chalk was proje&ted, which produced a very regular circle of
ramifications, proceeding: frem the circumfer-nce of the
{pace covered by the bra{s plate, and within the circle there
were various irregular figures, fomewhat like ftars- Arfhock
made to pafs through the above-mentioned plate generally
produced more diftin@ ramifications, and fometimes without
any ftare within the circle,

By varying the powders 2s well as the bodies, which are-
laid upon the: plate, the configurations ‘may be varied with-
out limit. If powders of different colours are mixed!
and projeGted as-above, or out of a pair of bellows, fome of:
the colours will prevail in fome places, and other colours in
other places; and.efpecially if two figures-of contrary elec

triciticss

BLE

tricities are made upon the fame plate; and moft of all when
both the eleGtrical fates of the figures and of the powders
are contrary to each other. For example, if minium, whofe
eleétricity is flrongly pofitive, and fulphur, whichis ftrongly
negative, be powdered together, and the mixed powder
be projefted out of a pair of bellows upon the figures
contrarily ele@trified; the powders will be feparated, and
the fulphur will fall upon the pofitive fizures, whilft the
minivm falls upon the negative figures; producing feveral
curious configurations, agreeably to the well known ele€rical
law, viz. that bodies, pofl-fled of different eleGtricities, attract
each other, whilf& bodies poffcffed of the fame kind of elec-
tricity repel each other. See Evectraicau Experiments,

ELECTRUM, ’Hazxzpoy.- This term has been applied
by the Greek and Roman writers to various fubftances; from
which circumitance much confufion has arifen, and the
knowledge of the ancient naturalifts has been on feveral oc-
cafions very unjuftly called in queition: at the fame time,
however, many of the claffical writers, efpecially among the
Romans, bave fallen into miftakes on the fubje&t, for the
purpofe of explaining which, it is worth while to “enter
fomewhat minutely into an inveltigation of the quettion,
«© What is the eleGtrum of the ancients ?””

The anfwer given by Pliny to this queftion is, that the
word electrum denotes two fubltances, the one the foffil,
now Called amber, and the other a certain metallic alloy, at
prefent nolonger in ufe, compofed of four parts of gold and
one part filver. _Bearing-this general explanation in mind,
we fhall proceed to confider the principal paffages among
the ancient writers in which it occurs.

The word itfelf is probably derived from Hazxzw), a name
applied by Homer and other early Greek writers to the fun.
Thus Achilles prepared for battle is reprefented as,

Trvyecs TauDocryay ws Haiextwe vaipswy.
Radiant in arms as the fun Hyperion.

Homer, the moft ancient Greek writer, whofe works are
extant, is alfo the firft who mentions eleétrum: the word is
not to be found in the Lliad, but occurs thrice in the Odyfley.
A Pheenician merchant is de{cribed as poflefling xpuczov opuor,
pura 3 nAcareosow cxpro, a golden necklace fet with beads of am-
ber. Erymachus prefents Penelope with opu0v zorvdusderov,
maAexrporoty cepucvov, @ curioufly-wrought necklace, fet with beads
of amber. Lialtly, Telemachus, on vifiting the palace of
Meneisus, admires the {plendour of the echoing halls, radiant

Xevoe 7° ndextpe Te, xo apyues nd’ ersQovros.
With gold and amber, with filver and ivory.

Pliny indeed quotes this paflage as a proof that Homer
was acquainted with the metallic eleétrum ; but, in my opi-
nion injudicioufly, for net to mention that the former paflages
clearly relate to amber, it is not evident that the eleftrum
and ivory here bear the fame relation to each other as the
gold and filver do: the cae is yellow, and therefore mentioned
with the gold, as the other is white, and therefore mentioned
with the filver, but it does not by any means follow that
either is metallic.

The next writer, in chronological order, is Hefiod; in
whofe poem, called the Shield of Hercules, the word xacxrpov
eccurs. In the paflage alluded to it is immediately aflociated
with ivory, and, therefore, probably, as in Homer, means
amber.

It may, perhaps, be objected, that as amber is not to be
procured in quantity any where except on the coaft of Du-
cal Proffia, it is very unlikely that in fuch early times it
fhould have been fo well known among the Grecks, and fo
¢ommon an article of ornament. But this objeétion will va-

1 gs es 0

nifh, wher we recolle& that at the period now referred to, the
commerce of the Phcenicians was in full a&tivity ; and that
enterprifing people, who, after eltablifhing colonies in Spain,
opened a trade with Britain for the tin of Cornwall, might
very poflibly extend their refearches even into the Baltic.
What ferves as a ftriking confirmation of this is, that the
oldeft Greck writers who mention the country of amber,
are much nearer the truth in this vefpeét, than thofe who
wrote after the decline of Phoenicia, and acquired their knows
ledge of the Weltern countries of Europe only from. the
tind coafting voyages of their countrymen, to whom the
pillars of Hercules were the extremity of the world in. that
direftion. On this {ubje& the teftimony of Herodotus is.of
great importance ; and the more fo, as the account which he
gives is not to ferve any theory of bis own, fince he exprefsly
fays, that he himfelf does not believe it, After deferibing
the Scythians and other Northern tr bes, he proceeds thus:
(Lib. iti. § 115.) ‘ OF the weltern extremities of Europes
I can report nothing with certainty, for, that a river flowing
into the North fea, and from which, as I am informed, am-
ber is procured, fhould be called by the Barbarians Eridas
nos, I can by no’means allow ; nor am I acquainted with
the iflands called Caffiterides, from which tin is procureds
Indeed the very name of the river fhews that there is fome
miftake, for Eridanos is not a Barbarous but a Greek word,
and invented by fome poet. It is certain, however, that
both tin and ainber come from that extremity of the world.”

From this important document we learn, that inthe tims
of this hiftorian both tin and amber were procured from the
north-weftern part of Europe (with refpec& to Greece) ;
that the latter was faid to be obtained from a river called
Eridanos, flowing into the North fea, and that the only, or at
Jeaft the principal, reafon why Herodotus doubted the truth
of this, was becaufe the name Eridanos was Greek and not
Barbarian. Unqueltionably the word, in its prefent form, ia
Greek ; but the root of it is as certainly (to ufe the phrafe-
ology of Herodotus) Barbarian, being the fame as the
Englih river Rodon, and the French river Rhone, Rhodanus 3
and, in fa@t, there isa river at chis very day called Rhodaun,
which flows into the Viftula, near Dantzic, traverfing the
country in which the prefent amber mines of Pruffia are fitus
ated; which ftriking concidence will furely juttify us in conti-
dering this as the true Eridanus of the earlielt Greeks.

Carthage appears about this time to have fucceeded to
the eltablifhments in the Welt, formerly poflefled by the mo-
ther-country Pheenicia; and, induced by commercial jealouly,
{uppreffed as much as poffible all information refpeGting the
countries lying weft of Italy ; hence thefle regions again
became the feat of Greek fiction and fable, almoft as much
as in thetime of Homer. The true Eridanus of the Baltic
was brought within the pillars of Hercules, and reprefented.
by Ai{chylus as a river of Iberia, and the fame asthe Rho-
danus; on its banks were itationed by the fame poet the
fifters of Phaethon, who, lamenting his death, were turned
into poplar trees, from which exuded tears of amber. The
romance was adopted by Euripides, but the feene was trans-
ferred from the Rhone to the Po, as being probably the re-
moteft great river-of the Weft with which he was acquainted,
The later poets, both of Greece and Rome, acquiefced in the
authority of Euripides, and Eridanus continued ever after to
be the poetical name of the Padus, while Strabo and the
geographers denied its very exiltence ; rey Hpldavoy, so» pndocpeas
yns ovr being the very words of the above-mentioned
writer,

The obfcurity which thus involved, and by degrees entirely
concealed, the knowledge that had been poflefled by the an-
cient Greeks of the native country of amber, was not fatif-

2 factorily

ELE

factorily removed till the Romans extended their conquefts
to Britain andthe north of Germany. In the reign of
Tiberius, a regular commerce in Roman fhips appears to have
been carried on between the northern ports of Gaul and the
diftri&t lying between the Elbe and Viltula; and Nero pro-
cured thence fuch an abundance of amber, that it was largely
employed in ornamenting the amphitheatre.

But during the period in which this ignorance of the real
country of amber prevailed, the fubftance itfelf appears to
have been very common, fo that it was ufed asa frequent
term of comparifon, jult as glafs is with us. We fay water
as clear as glafs. Callimachus fays, 70 0”, ws odrxrpiov, vdwp,
water as clear as if it were made of amber ; and Virgil, * pu-
rior eletro, amnis,”’ a river purer than amber ; and Lucian,
WALKTER, 1 Diduvics vere DecePeyryesepav, more tranfparent than amber
or Sidonian glafs. :

{t appears, that both the Greeks and Romans were perfuaded
that amber was a concrete vegetable juice, (whence indeed
the latter people called this very fubftance fuccinum, a fucca,),
and this circumftance would induce them to receive with
lefs fufpicion any of the harder refins of India, fuch as copal
and lac, as real varieties of amber: and in this way is pro-
bably to be explained che affertion of Pliny, that amber was
procured from Africa, India, and Egypt, which countries
yield little,if any,of the real amber, but abundance of the hard
-refins. At prefent we poflefs a very f{atisfaétory method of
diftinguifhing amber from the refins, by its infolubility in
alcohol ; but prior to the difcovery of this fluid, the diftinc-
tion between thefe two fubitances was not very likely to be

erceived. The Egyptian name of amber, according to

liny, was facal; but fachol is an Arabian word ftill in ufe,
and is rendered in the Lexicon Copto-Arab, by the words
gummi vel refina, which is no {mall confirmation of the above
hypothefis. It would be foreign to the purpofe of the
prefent article, to pafs from the confideration of the term
ele&trum to that of amber, which being originally appro-
priated to the fubltance now called ambergris, came through
ignorance to be confounded in procefs of time with the amber
ofthe Baltic. I shall therefore proceed to ftate fome of the
principal paffages in which electrum is confidered as a metal
‘or metallic alloy.

In the Antigone of Sophocles, v. 1049, occurs the fol-
lowing paflage: ;

Kepdeiver?, eurrodovte tov mpo Loepdswv
Harxrpoy, ss Borer, xos tov Tydsxoy
Xpucoy' raQw d'exsivoy ouxs xpulere.

Difpofe of my Sardian eledrum and Indian gold as yon
pleafe, but on no account commit his body (of Polynices) ta the
tom.—Euttathius and all the fcholialts confider ele&rum as
here meaning gold, efpecially as it is faid to‘come from
Sardis, inthe vicinity of which was the river Pactolus, fo
celebrated for its golden fands; but if this interpretation be
admitted, it is firely a itrange tautology in the poet to
make mention afterwards of Indian gold. Is it not pof-
fible that Sophocles may have mittaken Sardis for Sardinia?
Apollonius, in his Argonautics, reprefents the Eridanus as
flowing into the Lxgdouey wmrxyos, the Sardinian fea.

OF lefs dubious import, is a paflage occurring in Strabo’s
defcription of the gold-mines of Spain, ex ds va xpuew Pour
© 2) xoeDorrpopuers sumrnpiwdes Tuy nN, TO xebocpince NAEKT pov ELV by &e.
Moreover the ghd being cemented and purged by a certain alumi-
nous earth, that which remains is called ele@rum, and this
being a mixture of gold and filver, the later'is Jeparated by
«ementation, and the gold is left.

A ftill more particular account is given by Pliny, (Hitt.
Nat. xxxiii. § 23.) of the metallic clectrum, All gold, fays

Vor, XI, ,

ELE

he, is naturally alloyed by filver in various proportions; fome
containing a tenth, fome a nioth, and fome an eighth part.
Wherever the filver amounts to a fifth of the mals, the com-
pound is called eletrum; this alloy may alfo be prepared ar
tificially, by adding to gold the requifite proportion of filver.
But if this latter exceeds a fifth of the whole, the mafs
ceafesto be malleable. The nature of ele&trum is to reAc&
a richer luftre by lamp light than pure filver does. That
which is native hasalfo the additional property of detecting
poifons, iridefcent rings pafling rapidly over the furface of
the cup, accompanied by a noife like that of hot metal
plunged in water.

Eleétrum was not only ufed for ornamental plate, but was
occafionally.employed for coin, at leaft for medals. ‘Thus
Lampridius, in his life of Alexander Severus, fays, that that
prince caufed medals to be ftruck in honour of Alexander
the Great, both of ele&trum and gold. (Elc€treos aliquantos,
fed plurimos tamen aurcos.)

From what has been faid, it appears to be at leaft very
dubious, whether the alloy of gold and filver, known to the
Romans by the name electrum, was at allin ufe among the
Greeks. The Romans themfelves appear to have preferred
the white luftre of filver to the yellow radiance of gold, &c.
probably this talte, together with the imperfe€tion of the
art of affaying, as prattifed by them, aided alfo by an idle
fuperftitious notion of the efficacy of ele@trum in detecting
poifon, contributed to give to this alloy a temporary vele~
brity. Modern tafte, however, prefers the native luftre of
the noble metals in all their purity to any alloy of them with
each other, nor isit probable, that the Roman eleétrum will
ever again be met with at the mint or on the fideboard.

ELECTUARY, or Exvecrary, Evecruarium, in
Pharmacy. Voffius obferves, that all the remedies pre-
{cribed for the fick, as well as the confetions taken by way
of regale, were called by the Greeks txrsyyore, and exrcxraty
of the verb Auxw, Jick; whence, fays he, was formed the
Latin ele€tarium, and afterwards electuarium. This con-
jeCture he fupports from the laws of Sicily, where it is or-
daiced, that’ ele€tuaries, fyrups, and other remedies, be
prepared after the legal manner. The Bollanditts, who re-
late this etymology, feem to confirm it. A&. Sané&. Mart.
tom. ll. p. 131.

Eleétariea are medicines chiefly compofed of powders of
various kinds, mixed up with fyrup or honey into fuch a
confiftence, that the powders may not feparate by keeping,
and that a dofe may be taken upon the end of a knife, and
prove not too {tiff to fwallow.

The ingredients of electaries are chiefly the milder drugs,
thofe which may be taken a good deal ad /ibitum, fuch as
the milder aperients, or aromatics and alteratives, in which
a certain latitude may be allowed in the doling without ma-
terial rifk.

The ancient phyficians beftowed prodigious pains on the
compofition of particular eleCtaries, and multiplied the in-
gredients to a moft prepofterous degree ; heaping together
gums, refins, aromatics, animal fubftancee, inert mucilagin~
ous vegetables, falts, &c, &cl with the molt indifcriminating
profufion. ‘They alfo made the diftingtion between eleu-
aries and opiates, meaning by the latter term eleGtariés, of
which opium formeda part. This diftingtion has long been
dropped, and indeed a very great reform has been made ix
all the more modern pharmacopceias, by fupprefling a great
part of the eleCtaries, and rendering the reit much more
fimple, and of courfe their modus operandi more intelligible.

‘Lhe great defect of all electaries ts their liability to moukd
by keeprng, and thus to acquire both unpleafant fenfible
properties, and alfo to have the virtues of fome of their in-

4¥ gredients

E 18 E

gredients much impaired. This difpofition to mould is par.
ticularly found in thofe eleGtaries which are compofed of
fucculent vegetables, pulps of fruits, and the like; and though
the moulding is fomewhat checked by the quantity of fugar
added, it cannot always be done effectually unlefs thefe pre-
parations are kept very dry, whereby they harden and lofe
that kind of confiftence which is effential to their ufe.

The eleGaries that are the bett for keeping, are thofe
which are compofed principally of aromatic powders, or
yum-refins; and thefe, if properly prepared, may be pre-
ferved for years unaltered.

Though ele&aries, in the prefent mode of praGtice, are
generally made from extemporaneous pre(cription, a few are
retained in the Pharmacopceia, together with fome confec-
Hons, which differ from the ele&taries only by name.

Execruary of Cafia, is compofed of the frefh extra@ted
pulp of caflia, half a pound; manna, two ounces by weight,
tamarind, one ounce by weight, and rofe-fyrup, half a
pound. It is prepared by beating the manna, and dif-
folvine it, in a water-bath faturated with fea-falt, in the
rofe-fyrup ; then adding the pulps, and, with the fame de-
gree of heat, evaporating the whole to an eleétuary of pro-
per confiftence. The dofe for an adult is from 3 j to 3 ifs.

Evectuary of Scammony confilts of feammony, in pow-
der, 15 ounce by weight, cloves and ginger, of each fix
drams by weight, oil of caraway, half adram by weight,
and rofe-fyrup, as much as is fuflictent. The fpices, being
powdered together, are mixed with the fyrup; and then
the feammony 13 added, and laftly the oil of caraway. The
dofe for an adult is from 9 j to 3 j.

Exvectuary of Senna is compoied of fenna, eight ounces
by weight, figs, rib. tamarind, caffia, and prunes, of each
£lb.. coriander four ounces by weight, liquorice three ounces
by weight, and double-refined fugar, 24 lbs. The fenna is
powdered with the coriander peds, and 10 ounces of the
powder is fifted out. The remainder is boiled with the
figs and the liquorice, in four pints of diftilled water, to
one-half; then the liquor is preffed out and ftrained. It is
then evaporated to the weight of about 131b., and the
fugar added to make a fyrup: then this is added by degrees
to the pulps, and laftly the powder is mixed in it. The
dofe for anadult is from 3 fs. to 3 fs.

ELEEMOSYNA Carucarum, or pro Arairis, or Ara-
tri, in our Ancient Cufloms, a penny which king Ethelred
ordered to be paid for every plough in England, towards the
fupport of the poor. Sometimes it is alfo called eleemofyna
regis, becaufe firft appointed by the king.

Exveemosyn is alfo ufed for the pofleffions belonging to
churches. See Aums, and Franx dimoign.

ELEEMOSYNARIA. See Amsry.

ELEEMOSYNARIUS, inour O/d Writers, is ufed for
the almoner, or peculiar officer who received the eleemofy-
nary rents and gifts, and diftributed them to pious and
charitable ufes. -There was fuch an officer in all religious
houfee. ‘The bifhops alfo ufed_to have their almoners, as
now the king has. Linn. Province. lib. i. tit. 12. See alfo
Du-Cange, Gloff. Lat.

ELEEMOSYNARY Corporations.
TIONS.

ELEGANCE, Evecancy, from eligo, I chufe, de-
notes a manner of doing, or faying things politely, agree-
ably, and with choice.

With choice, fo as to rife above the common manners ;
politely, fo as to ttrike people of delicate tafte; and agree-
ably, fo as to diffufe a relifh which gratifies every body.

Exvecance, in Painting, is a quality which embellithes
and heightens the beauty of objects in a picture, of what-

See CorPora-

ELE

ever nature they may be, and that either in form, in colours
or both, without deftroying the general air of truth. It is
a diminutive of grace which may unite with the grand,
whilft elegance feems to militate again{t it. Many attempts
have been made to difcover and define wherein elegance
confifts, but none are fatisfa€tory ; and what particular com-
binations of lines or colours will belt produce its effect, ree
main hitherto undefcribed.

Sir Jofhua Reynolds, who poffeffed more of it, and has
more exemplified it in his works than any artift that ever lived
before him, or fince, has obferved, in his Difcourfes, that
correctnefs is its bafis. In faying this, he muft not be un-
derftood to mean literally a correGnefs of imitation of par-
ticular forms in nature; but that general character of form
in man and other objeéts, round which all of the fame
fpecies vary. He obferves allo, ‘‘ that to fuppofe it to pro-
ceed from incorre€inefs or deformity is poifon to the mind of
a young artift, and may lead him to negleé effential fudies
to purfve a phantom that has no exiftence but in the vain
imagination of atfeéted {peculators.””

This argument, however jult it may appear, will be
found extremely difficult to reconcile with the fa&, that
elegance in defign does exift without correétnefs ; indeed,
in works where extreme incorrectnefs is evident to the
commonelt obferver, and even in better works, in too many
of this great man’s own productions, this union is too vifible;
and elegance is rarely to be found in the works of thofe who
have made correétnefs their principal ftudy. It feems,
therefore, that it may moft juftly be faid to proceed from a
refinement upon the general form, and therefore a variation
from it; but which ought not to have been termed a de-
formity, fince we fee it in nature conftantly exemplified ;
and no one is inclined to regard an elegant woman asa piece
of deformity. Sir Jofhua in this appears to have followed
too clofely the accultomed inclination of a fyftematizer, and
having laid down a rule that nature, in a general fenfe, is
the only guide, attaches particular circumftances to it that
have no relation, in faét, not willing to give up, for a mo-
ment, his general principle.

It is to be lamented, in contradiétion to his fentiment, that
the produtions of his elegant mind and pencil are too often
convincing proofs, that elegance may exiit with certain devia-
tions from corre& imitation of general Nature; nay, almoft,
that it fcarce can exift without fome encroachment on that
form, and fubftituting fomething ideal for fomething real,
which, neverthelefs, has fufficient truth not to deftroy the
fabric, and to give more pleafure than a reprefentation of
the abfolute forms ever can to a cultivated mind.

We therefore are no nearer the definition of its nature
than before he wrote; and if he who poffefled fo much
larger a portion of this agreeable quality than any one elfe,
and was fo well able to define and illu{trate his conceptions
by language; if he has failed in an attempt to explain, in
fome degree, the nature of elegance, it becomes almoft a
hopelefs cafe that we may ever fee it performed with fuccefs,

We are better able to inform our readers what does not,
rather than what does, affift in producing its effet ; though,
indeed, we may alfo {peak of fome of thofe characteriftics
of it which are apparent in the works of thofe who have moft
excelled in their attempts to obtain it, without pretending
clearly to guide the judgment of others who may feek to
embellith their works with fo pleafing an ornament.

Heavinefs of line’ or form, groffnefs and violence of co-
lours, are each a ftrong antipathy to elegance, it cannot
refide with them. On the contrary, lightnefs of form and
execution, a gentle flow of line, not too violent or too tame
in its varieties, aré ufeful in obtaining its charaGer ‘ the

gure

ELE

figure that afpires to it fhould not be over-cloathed; parts
of the figure fhould appear, in fome meafure, aéting under
the drapery. Too violent an oppofition of colours militates
againft it; though brilliancy of hue may well accompany it,
pofitive colours are not admiffible; where it is required, a
broken hue of a fofter fhade better correfponds with its na-
trre. Altogether it depends upon, or rather it is, a pleafing
arrangement of forms and colours; but what particular
unions of lines will beft give thofe forms, or what ordering
of colours it requires, we will not attempt to define.

That there is fuch a quality we are all fenfible, and are
fenfibly affefted by it. Yet as in nature fo we believe it to
bein art. If not felt inherently and uninftru€tedly, we fear
it will never be acquired to any fuflicient degree to make it
valuable.

How few in number are the young perfons with whom fo
long centinued and fuch zealous pains are taken to render
them in their manners elegant and graceful, out of the im-
menfe mafs who are daily coming forward in the fafhionable
world, who poffefs it? And how foon do the affected airs,
which education has unhappily taught many (miftaking them
for elegant) to affume, become apparent and difgufting,
where what we are accuftomed to term natural elegance 1s
not inherent !

Sir Jofhua Reynolds poffeffed it by nature; his earlieft
works participate of it. Not finding any difficulty himfelf
in entering into its principles, he naturally enough fuppofed
that thofe who took the fame pains to inform themfelves that
he did, would alfo acquire it, (for he has faid it may be ac-
quired,) yet numberlefs are the artifts who acknowledge and
feel the full value of it in the work of others, and who,
Jabouring with all their might to obtain it, never prefent a
glimpfe of it in their own works, That late excellent artilt,
Opie, has often, in converfation with the writer of this article,
dwelt with rapture on the elegance of works from Reynolds’
pencil, and ardently expreffed his wifh to obtain poffeffion
of the faculty himfelf. All who are acquainted with his
works, know how far he was from blending elegance with
the other great qualities they contain. It feems, therefore,
that though thofe whe have a fhare of it by nature may
improve their fteck ; thofe who are not fo fortunate, will
rarely, perhaps never acquire it.

The ancient works poffefs it largely, as ftatues, bas
reliefs, and paintings, particularly the ornamental. Among
the moderns, Reynolds, Gorreggio, Parmigiano, and Guido
Rheni, beft exemplify it: Raphael is fometimes elegant, but
expreffion was his objeét, and be who aims at that principally
mutt not too often facrifice to elegance.

ELEGANCY, in Oratory, is one of the three parts of
general Erocution, and refpeéts the purity and perfpi-
euity of the language. By the former a difcourfe 1s ren-
dered corre&t, and by the latter intelligible ; and both ex-
tend to the feletion of fingle words, as weil as to their con-
ftruGtionin fentences, See Purity, and Persricuiry.

Poetical elegancies, elegantie poctice, are of fervice to
{cholars in making their verfes ; by being too regular in the
grammatical conftruction, we lofe certain licences, wherein
the elegance of language confilts. Elegance, though irregu-
lar, is better than regularity without elegance.

ELEGARDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Armenia Major. Ptolemy.

ELEGIA, in Botany, trom eeyos, lamentation, perhaps
in allufionto the {ad or mourning colour of the whole plant.
Linn. Mant. 2. 162. Thunb. Reftio 4. Prod. 14. Schreb,
675. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 2. Clafs and order, Dioecia Tri-
andria. Nat. Ord. Calamarie, Lion. Funci, -Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Spathes within fpathes, remote,

ELE

fingle-valved, coriaceous, lanceolate, deciduous; fpadix
thread-fhaped, jointed, with a catkin at each joint ; catkia
lax, with one ftalked floret to each feale; fcales fetaceous,
membranous, flat, longer than the florets; proper perianth
of fix fetaceous, chaify, unequal, lax leaves. Cor. none,
Stam. Filaments three, very fhort ; anthers incumbent, oval,
larger than the perianth.—Female in a feparate plant, Cal.
Spathes as in the male, but fhorter ; fpadix as in the male ;
catkin racemofe, compound ; proper perianth of fix leaves,
the three outermoft lanceolate, channelled, petal-like, equal.
Cor. none. Pifl. Germen. fuperior, rather oblong; ityles
three, thread-fhaped, the length of the perianth; ftigmas fim-
ple. Peric., according to Thunberg, a capfule of three cells,
Seeds feveral, oblong.

Eff. Ch. Male, Catkin compound ; florets ftalked ; pe-
rianth of fix unequal leaves. Corolla none. Female, Catkin
compound ; perianth of fix leaves. Capfuale of three cells.

E. juncea. Linn. Mant. 2. 297. ‘Thunb. Prod. ¥4.
(Reftio Elegia; Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 882. R. thyrfi-
fer; Rottb. Defer. 8. t. 3. f..4.) the only fpecies, a native
of the Cape of Good Hope. A hard rufhy plant, with
exaéily the habit of a Refi, to which genus Linnzus finally
referred it, but Thunberg infifts on its remaining dilting.
The rosts are perennial. Stems {everal, four feet high, fimple
or branched, rigid, a little waved, round, {mooth, not fo
thick as a goofe-quill, browmih green, with feveral remiote
joints. Leaves none, except a tew fmooth, brown, imbri-
cated, pointed feales towards the root, and a fimilar one at
each joint of the ftem; thefe laft fall off, and leave their
black annular bafe at the joint. Cat&ins in a terminal ovate
head, with broad, tumid, ovate, brawn {pathes, enveloping
the catkins. The anthers are large and confpicuous, brown
bordered: with white. emale catkins of a darker brown
hue, efpecially when in fruit.

Execra, in Ancient Geography, Ilija, a place of Afia; in
Melitené, feated on the left bank of the Euphrates, at the
entrance of this river in mount Taurus.

ELEGIAG, in the Latin Poetry, fomething that belongs
to elegy, which fee.

Elegiac verfes, EAeys, are alternately hexameter, and pen-
tameter.

Quintilian efteems Tibullus the chief of the elegiac poets ;
but the younger Pliny gives the preference to Propertius.
They have each of them reafon on their fide ; and one might
make a third choice, as juft as either of them. See EveGy.

ELEGIT, in Law, a judicial writ given by the ftatute
Weitm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 18, either upon a judgment for
a debt, or damages; or upon the forfeiture of a recogni-
gance taken in the king’s court. By the common law a
man could only have fatisfa&tion of goods, chattels, and the
prefent profits of lands, by the two writs of * fieri facias’””
or * levari facias ;? but not the pofleffion of the lands them-
felyes; which was a natural confequence of the feodal prin-
ciples, that prohibited the alienation, and of courfe the in-
cumbering of the fief with the debts of the owner. And
when the reftriction of aliecation began to wear away, the
confequence ftill continued ; and no creditor could take the
pofleffion of lands, but only levy the growing prolits, fo that
if the defendant aliened his lands, the plaintiff was outted of
his remedy. The ftatute therefore granted this writ (called
an elegit, becaule it is in the choice or eleétion of the plain-
tiff whether he will fue out this writ or one of the former)
by which the defendant’s goods and chattels are not fold, but
only appraifed, and all of them (except oxen and bealts of
the plongh) are delivered to the plaintiff, at fuch reafonable
appraifement and price in part of fatisfaction of his debt.
If the goods are not fufficient, then the moiety, or

4X2 one

ELE

one half of his freehold lands, which he had at the
time of the judgment given (2 Inft. 395.), whether
held in his own name, or by any other truft for him
(ftat. 29 Car. 11. c. 3.), are alfo to be delivered to the
plaintiff; to hold, till out of the rents and profits thereof
the debt be levied, or till the defendant’s intereft be expired ;
as, till the death of the defendant, if he be tenant for life,
erin tail. During this period, the plaintiff is called tenant
by clegit (fee Tenant). This is evidently a mere condi-
tional eftate, defeafible as foon as the debt is levied. Till
the ftatute above-mentioned, lands were not, by the ancient
common law, liable to be charged with, or feifed for, debts ;
becaufe by thcfe means the connection between lord and te-
nant might be deftroyed, fraudulent altenations might be
made, aud the fervices be transferred to be performed by a
ftranger ; provided the tenant incurred a large debt, fuffi-
cient to cover the land. And therefore, even by this ftatute,
anly one half was, and now is, fubject to execution; that
out of the remainder fufficient might be left for the lord to
diftrain upon for his fervices. And upon the fame feodal
principle, copyhold lands are at this day not liable to be
taken in execution upon a judgment. (1 Roll. Abr. 888.)
But in cafe of adebt tothe king, it appears by magna carta,
ec. 8, that it was allowed by the common law for him to take
pofleffion of the lands till the debt was paid. Moreover,
by the ftatute ‘‘de Mercatoribus,”’ pafled in the fame year
with the former, the whole of a man’s lands were liable to be
pledged ina ftatute merchant, for a debt contraéted in trade ;
though only half of them was liable to be taken in execution
for any other debt of the owner.

This execution, or feifing of lands by e/egit, is of fo high
a nature, that after it the body of the tenant cannot be
taken; but if execution can only be had of the goods, becaufe
there are no lands, and fuch goods are not fufficient to pay
the debt, a ‘‘capias ad fatisfaciendum’”? may then be
had, after the clegit; for fuch e/egit is in this cafe no more
in effe& than a ** fieri facias.”” (Hob. 55.) So that body
and goods may be taken in execution, or land and goods:
but not body and land too, upon any judgment between fub-
je@ and fubje@ in the courfe of the common law. Blackit.
Comm. book iii. ;

ELEGY, Enryex, a mournful, and plaintive kind of
poem. Voffius, after Didymus, derives the term from 2,
&y Arye, to fay alas !

The firk inventor of the elegy isnot known : fome fay it
was one Theocles of Naxus, or according to others, of Ere-
tria, who, in the heat of his phrenfy, firlt produced this
kind of compofition. But there is no wonder that we are
at this time in the dark asto the matter. Horace aflures us
it was a point not fettled among the grammarians even in
his time, who the author was.

¢ Quis tamen exiguos elegos emiferit autor,
Grammatici certant, & adhuc fub judice lis eft.”

The chief writers of elegy among the Greeks are, Calli-
machus, Parthenizs, and Euphorion ; and among the La-
tins, Ovid, Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius.

The Flemifh have diftinguifhed themfelves among the
moderns for this kind of Latinverfe. The elegies of Bider-
mann, Grotius, and efpecially Sedronius and Vallius, feem
worthy of the pureft antiquity. The countefs de la Suze
has diltinguifhed herfelf for elegies in the French tongue.

In the Englifh, we have nothing confiderable of the ele-
giac kind, but what we have of Milton, except Hammond’s
love elegies, and Grey’s elegy, written in a country church-
yard. ‘The elegtes of Hammond have had admirers among

FAL

men of great eminence in literature and criticifm; and pere
haps if we did not make an exception in favour of Grey,
we fhould offend two-thirds of the lovers of poetry in this
Kingdom. The Englifh and French elegies are chiefly in
Alexandrine verfes. i

In procefs of time, elegy degenerated from its original in-
tention ; and not only matters of grief, but allo joy, wifhes,
prayers, expoftulations, reproaches, and almott every fubjett,
were admitted into elegy.

The office of elegy is well delivered by M. Boileau:

«* La plaintive elegie en long habits de deuil,
Sgait, les cheveux epars, gemir fur un cercueil =
Elle peint des aimans la joye, & la tritteffe ;
Flate, menacc, irrite, appaife une maitrefle.”

© In mourning weeds fad elegy appears,
Her hair difhevell’d, and her eyes in tears:
Her theme, the lover’s joys, but more his pains $
By turns the fings, fooths, threatens, and complains.”*

The dition of elegy ought to be clean, eafy, perfpicuous,
expreflive of the manners, tender, and pathetic; not oppref=
fed with fentences, points, &c. No apoftrophes are allowed ;
and the fenfe ought to be generally clofed in every diftich,
or two lines ; at leaft, in Latin compofitions.

Execy, a kind of nome, or air, for flutes, in high favour
with the ancients, invented by Sacadasthe Argian. Rouf-
feau.

ELEMENTARY, fomething that relates to the princi-
ples or elements of bodies.

The elements of a body are alfo called the elementary prin-
ciples thereof. See Princieve.

The whole f{pace, included within the concave, or orbit
of the moon, is called the elementary regioa, as being the-
feat, or fphere, of the four vulgar elements, and the bo=
dies compounded thereof.

Evemenrary ir, Fire, Geometry, Mufic.
ftantives.

ELEMENTS of the Planets, in Aflrenomy, certain quan-
tities which are neceflary to be known, for the purpofe of
determining the theory of their elliptic motion. (See Ex-
Liptic Motion.) Aftronomers reckon feven of thefe quanti-
ties. The five which relate to the motion of the ellipfe are,
firft, the duration of the fidereal revolution ; fecond, half the
greater axis of the orbit; third, the excentricity, from which
is derived the greateft equation of the centre; fourth, the mean
longitude of the planet at any given epoch; and, fifth, the
longitude of the perihelion at the fame epoch. The two
other elements relate to the pofition of the orbit; and are, firlt,
the longitude (at a given epoch) of the nodes of the orbit
with the ecliptic; fecond, the inclination of the orbit to this
plane. There are thus forty-nine elements to determine for
the entire fyftem, as will be feen by the table at the end of
this article.

To determine the elements of the orbit of a planet by three
obfervations.

The time of the revolution of the planet muft in the firft
place be fuppofed known, fo that the mean motion of the
planet may de given in the intervals of the obfervations. If
thefe intervals are confiderable, the motion of the aphelion
fhould likewife be known, ‘as the ebfervations are fuppofed
to relate to an ellipfe fixed and immoveable ; but as in gene-
ral the intervals employed are not very long, the error ari«
fing from the motion of the aphelion is inconfiderable.

' The three obfervations fhould be diftant from each other

about a quarter of a revolution, that is, two near the apfides,
and

See the fube

ae

ELEMENTS.

and the otlier nearly jn the mean diftance, or two in the
mean diftances, and the other in the apfides. The aphelion
is determined with the greateft accuracy when two longi-
tudes are taken ia the apfides, but the equation of the cen-
tre’is obtained with moft advantage by taking two obferva-
tions in the mean diltances, for then it is determined by the
double of its value. Thefe obfervations may be taken after
feveral entire revolutions of the planet, provided its motion,
and that of its aphelion, are pretty well known. We fup-
pofe likewife that the excentricity is nearly known, and the
place of theaphelion. (For the method of finding the for-
mer when entirely unknown, fee Excenrricity.)

The three obfervations fhould be reduced to the plane of
the orbit and not to the ecliptic: it fhould be remarked that
aftronomers always publifh their obferved longitudes reduced
to the ecliptic; in this cafe, therefore, a reduétion is neceflary,
to have the place of the planet in its own orbit.

Thefe three longitudes, which are deftined to determine
the three principal elements of the orbit, fhould be conneéted
by all the known inequalities arifing from the attractions of
the other planets, and likewife for aberration, which always
augments the longitudes of the planets in their oppofi-
tions.

This method may be divided into three parts. In the firft
we will {uppofe the excentricity known, and that we wilh to
find the place.of the aphelion ; in the fecond, we change the
excentricity, and deduce a new place of the aphelion; and in
the third we inveftigate, by means of a third obfervation,
which of the two exceniricities ought to be preferred.

The time of the revolution of the planet being fuppofed
known, we have exaétly the number of degrees of mean ano-
maly between the obfervations, for the mean anomaly is
always exaét'y proportionate to the time.

But though we may always know the fum or the differ.
ence of two mean anomalies, or two mean diftances from the
apfide, one taken on one fide and the other on the other, it
is not fo with thefe anomalies taken feparately, for to
determine thefe two, we fhould know both the place of
the aphelion, which is the point from which they are
reckoned, and the mean place of the planet: but the obferva-
tion gives only the true place; the excentricity muft there-
fore be known, which ferves to find the mean anomaly, the
true anomaly being given.

This confideration affords a method of difcovering by two
obfervations if the place of the aphelion of a planet, as found
in the tables, is exact, fuppofing the excentricity known, for
having two obferved longitudes, we have (by fubtracting the
place of the aphelion) two fuppofed true anomalies, and mutt
‘then compute the mean anomaly with the excentricity fup-
pefed known, by the two following proportions. ¢

1. The fquare root of the diftance from the perihelion is
to the fquare root of the diftance from the aphelion, as the
tangent of half the true anomaly to the tangent of half the
excentric anomaly.

2.. The difference between the excentric anomaly and the
mean anomaly is equal to the produét of the excentricity by
the fine of the excentric anomaly.

If thefe two mean anomalies differ from each other as
much as the interval requires, they are exaét, and confequent-
ly the f{uppofed place of the aphelion corre&.

If the two fuppofed true anomalies do not give the fame
mean anomaly as they ought to do, that is, it they do not
give the fame interval of time whichis: derived from obferva-
tion, it is a proof that they are not correét, and this trial will
indicate that the place of the aphelion, taken from the tables,
or by conjecture, is not exact. La this cafe we mult make

another fuppofition, giving to the place of the aphelion a few
minutes more or leis, and recommencing the fame calcula-
tion, and we fhall find by the refult of the fecond fuppofition
what quantity fhould really be adopted, and what the place of
the aphelion is, which mult be adopted to reprefent the inter-
val of the two firft obfervations (with the known excentricity
or that employed in the firlt hypothefiy. )

By firft hypothefis we mean, a fuppofed excentricity, with
fuch a correfponding place of the aphelion as accords with
the interval between the two obfervations. To arrive at this
hypothefis it was neceflary to take feveral fuppofitions for the
place of the aphelion.

If the place of the aphelion, found by the firft hypothefis,
was exactly determined, it isa proof that the excentricity
was rightly aflumed ; for to convert true anomaly into mean
anomaly the excentricity is employed asin the rules given
above.

If we fuppofe another excentricity, and repeat the fame
computation, we fhall have for the fecond hypothefis a differ-
ent refult for the place of the aphelion, employing always
the fame obfervations; in this manner we may make a table
of different excentricities, and on the fide of every one write
the place of the aphelion, which correfponds to each hypothe«
fis of excentricity,

To determine now, which is the true excentricity that
fhould be chofen, we employ the third obfervation, which is
diftant about go° from the other two ; on which the follow-
ing remark fhould previoufly be made. The interval of time
between the aphelion obfervation, and that go° on either fide
being known, the difference between the two mean anoma-
lies is known; but ifa miftake has beer committed in the
excentricity, or what is the fame thing, in tke equation ofthe
centre, all the error will fall upon the anomaly, which is go°
from the aphelion, becaufe the equationthere is the greateft ;
and this error will be nothing in the aphelion obfervation,
where the equation of the centre is nothing, or at leat very
{mall. Thus, the difference between the mean anomaly near
the aphelion and the mean:anomaly at go° diftance, will be
affeéted by the whole of the error committed in the equation
of the centre. It may be feen, therefore, by this difference
of anomaly, what equation fhould be employed to make the
difference of anomaly equa! to that computed from the elap-
fed time between the twoobfervations, and thus the equation
will be determined.

We are to take, then, the excentricity of the firft hypothe-
fis with the known place of the aphelion, as determined for
this firft excentricity ; we then form two true anomalies, and
two true longitudes of which, one is fufficiently diftant
from the other for the equation to be as different as poffible.
Thefe are to be converted into mean anomalies, and if the
difference of thefe mean anomalies is exa@tly that which it
fhould be, the hypothefisis exa&, and no farther calculation
is required ; but it is hardly poffible to fucceed the firit time
in afluming the true excentricity. We choofe then another
excentricity, with the place of the aphelion anfwering to it,
that is to fay, the fecond hypothefis ; we then examine which
agrees belt with the given interval, and by the rule of pro-
portion, we finda third, which will exa&ly anf{wer to the in-
terval, or to the known difference of mean anomaly between
the two obfervations. By another proportion we find, what is
the longitude of the correfponding aphelion. ‘This excen-
tricity and aphelion will correfpond to the three obferva~
tions, and thus the problem will be folved.

Lxample.—Suppofe three oppofitions of Mars obferved in
1743, 1751, and 1753, which give the longitudes of Mara-
upon his orbit as feen from the fun, for mean time as follows,

5c applying,

ELEMENTS,

applying to the three longitudes on the ecliptic the reduc-
tions — 17!', — 50", + 13",
Diff. of mean

Mean time of obfervation. Anom
'

Long. in orbit.

4° 2:79.16! 5
II 21 34 10 6°21°30'44".4
I 24 47 37.126. 6.50.6

1743, 15th Feb. 19" 17’ 40!
1751, 14th Sep. 8 28.0
1753, 16th Nov. 10 28 33

The places of theaphelion, taken from Halley’s tables, are
5°19 23/39", 5°4939/34", 58 1° 36! Q"; from which are derived
three true anomalies, 11" 25° 52'38", 6° 20° o! 33", 8112.3?
rr 28", Convert the two firftinto mean anomalies, affum-
ing the two following hypothefes for the excentricity, fup-
pofing it firft 7417 parts, and next 1427, the mean diftance
of the fun from the earth being always fappofed equal to
10,000 parts.

Firfk Hypothefis.—~Take the excentricity 1417 according
to the tables of Halley; the mean diftance of Mars to the
fun being 15236.9 reduced tothat, which it would be if the
mean diftance of Mars was unity, and take likewife the
aphelion fuch as it isin the tables; this forms the firft fup-
poiition, the two true anomalies give thefe two mean ano-
malies, 11°25°3/15".1, 6' 16° 35’ 21.6, the difference is
too great by 2! 22!.2, for, according to the time elapfed be-
tween the two obfervations, it fhould only be 6° 21° 30! 44".4
according to the tables of Halley.

In continuing the fame hypothefis of excentricity, make
another fuppofition for the aphelion, by increafing by 10!
the place of the aphelion employed in the firft fuppofition.
‘This gives two true anomalies le{s by 1o’than the former ones.
"Thefe converted into mean anomalies, are11°24°51'15".5,and
6° 16°27! of. 8, the difference is 6° 21° 35'4.5!'.4, that is, too
great by 5’ 1”.

Thus by changing the aphelion ro’, the error, which was
i/22".2, becomes 5/1", that is, has augmented 3! 38'S.
Make this proportion,
saga! anstgl agi

To render therefore this error nothing, we muft diminifh
the place of the aphelion 3! 45", inftead of augmenting
St rol

By this calculation, we are affured that the excentricity,
taken from the tables and employed in this firt hypothefis
with the aphelion diminifhed 3! 45", will {atisfy the interval
of the two obfervations.

We have now to repeat the fame operation with another
excentricity.

Second Hypothefis—Take the excentricity 1427 greater
than that of Halley by 10 parts, fuppofing the greater axis
to remain the fame, and the aphelon as itis found in the
fame tables. Convert the two true anomalies into mean ano-
malies, which give 11° 25° 2! 52/6, and 6* 16° 34/0!.2;
whole difference, 6° 21° 31! 7!.6, isgreater by 23.2 than
thetruth. Make afecond fuppofition, by augmenting the
place of the aphelion ro!, and there will refult two other true
anomalies, 11° 24° 50’ 52".2, and 6° 16°25! 40".1, whofe
difference is too great by 4/3''.5.

Thus by augmenting the place of the aphelion ro! in this
fecond hypothelis of excentricity,the error, which was 23'.2,
becomes 4! 3".5, thatis, has increafed 3'40".3. Todiminith
it, therefore, 23'!.2,or to reduce it to nothing, make this pro-
portion 3! 40.3: rol: : 23.2 : 1’ 3".2, which quantity,
taken from the place of the aphelion of the tables, will re-
concile this fecond hypothefis with the interval between the
two obfervations.

The aphelion, therefore, of the tables diminifhed by 3/ 45”
4

31 a 8'S sta! i:

for 1417 excentricity, ar diminifhed by 1’ 3.2 with 1427
fatisfies the two firlt obfervations. It remains now, by means
of the third obfervation, to determine which of thefe two
hypothefes is nearef{ the truth, and to determine fuch an ex-
centricity and place of aphelion as fhall reprefent the three
obfervations.

The interval of time between the fecond and third obfer-
vation gives for the difference of mean anomaly 56° 6'50".6
according to the tables. Convert the true anomalies into mean
anomalies inthe fecond and third obfervation, with 1417
excentricity, the aphelion of the tables being diminifhed
3°45", and next with 1427 of excentricity, the aphelion
being diminithed 1! 3!.2. The mean anomaly for the third
obfervation will be, in the firlt hypothefis, 8° 12° 46! 17'.8,
and in the fecond 8°12° 39/17".8. Thus between the
mean anomalies of the fecond and third obfervations in the
firft hypothefis, the difference is greater by 57.7 than
56° 6’ 50".6; and in the fecond hypothefis the difference is
too little by 2'25".8. Adding together thefe two differences,
which are in contrary direCtions, it will appear that a change
of 10! in the excentricity produces 3!23”.5 of variation in
the motion of the mean anomaly for this interval of time,
and by the fame proportion it will be found, that 57.7,
which is the error of the firft hypothefis, gives 2”.54. We
mult, therefore, add 2! 84” to 1417, the excentricity of the
firft hypothefis, which will give 1419.84 for the excentri-
city, which will reprefent equally the third obfervation, pro-
vided it is combined witha fuitable aphelion.

To corre& the place of the aphelion,

griaigh Ge ava 8 Siete usi Als oie

Fer fince the firft hypothefis of excentricity 1417, with
the place of theaphelion, diminifhed by 3! 45”, gave 57”.7
too much, and the fecond hypothefis of 1427, with the place
of the aphelion, diminifhed by 1! 3.2 (that is, by 2! 41.8 lefs
than in the firft cafe,) gave 2’ 25”.8 too {mall, fo as to
change the error 3! 23”.5, it follows, that to correct the
57”.7 of the firft hypothefis, it will be requifite to diminifh
the aphelion’ by a quantity lefs by 45”.5 than in the firft
hypothefis, in which the corretion was taken 3/ 45”, the
difference is 2! 59”.5, and it is this quantity which muft be
taken from the aphelion of the tables.

It may now be fhewn, in the firlt place, that this ex-
centricity, 1419.84, with the place of the aphelion dimi-
nifhed by 2! 59".5, will reprefent the firft interval. For we
have found that 1417 of excentricity with 3! 45” of dimi-
nution in the place of the aphelion, or 1427 of excentricity,
with 1/ 3” of diminution in the aphelion, reprefented equally
the given interval or the difference of mean anomaly of the
two firft obfervations. Hence any‘other excentricity with a
proportionate diminution of the aphelion, will reprefent this
given interval, therefore 1419.84 of excentricity, with
2' 59"'.5 of diminution of the place of the aphelion, will
agree with the two firft obfervations.

In the fecond place, it may be proved, that this fuppo-
fition will fatisfy the fecond interval, or the mean anomaly .
between the fecond and third obfervations; for in the firlt
hypothefis, 1417, we found 57”.7 too much for this differ-
ence, and in the fecond 2! 25”.8 too little, according to
which proportion, 1419.84 fhould give the true difference,
which an{wers to the greareft equation of 10° 41/19”. It
is not neceflary in praétice to carry the calculation to tenths -
of feconds; as the obferved longitudes cannot be obtained
nearer than 5".

The excentricity and place of the aphelion being found,
nothing remains but to determine one mean longitude of the

ji planet 5

ee

ELEMENTS.

planet; ta have the three elements required, for this purpofe,
one of the three mean anomalies may be taken as found above,
for example, 11° 25° 6! 43".6, and add the place of the
aphelion of the tables, diminifhed by 2'59”.5, according to

the laft refult, and the mean heliocenttic longitude of Mars

in his orbit will be 4° 26° 27’ 21" for the moment of the firft

’ ,obfervation, which exceeds the tables of Halley 9”.

The following table of the elements of the planets is
taken from the laft edition of La Place’s ** Syfteme du
Monde.”

Table of the Elements of the planetary Orbits from La Place.

Duration of their feveral revolutions.

Mercury 871.969255 87423" 15! gall
Venus 224.700817 224.10 49 1k

The Earth 305.256384] 17 0 6 9g 8

Mars 686.979579 | 1321 23 30 35.6
Jupiter 4332.602208 | If 317 14 27 10.7
Saturn 10759-077213 | 29174 I 5k 11.2
Uranus 30089.000000 | 84 29 09 GB GO

Semi-major axes of their orbits,. or their mean diftances.

Mercury 0.387100
Venus 0.723332
The Earth 1.000000
Mars 1.523093
Jupiter 5.202792
Saturn 9.540724
Uranus 19.183620

Proportion of the excentricity of the femi-major axes, for
the beginning of the year 1750.

Mercury 0.205513
Venus 0.00688 5
The Earth ~e.0168 14
Mars: 0.093088
Jupiter 0.048077
- Saturn 0.056223
Uranus 0046653

The fecular variations of this proportion, (the figa — indi-
cates a diminution.)

Mercury 0.000003369
Venus —0.900062905
The Earth —0.000045572
Mars 0.00009068 5
Jupiter 0.000134245
Saturn —0.000261553
Uranus —9.000026228

The mean longitudes at the commencement of 1750.
Thefe longitudes are reckoned from the mean vernal equinox
at the epoch of the 31{t of December, 1749, at noon, mean
time at Paris:

Mercury 281°.3194 2Eg° TX! 14.8
Venus . 31.4903” |). 46 20 48.0
The Earth 311.1218 280 0 34.5
Mars 24.4219 21 58 46.9
Jupiter 4.1201 3.42 20.0 ~
Saturn 257.0438 231 20 21.9
Uranus 353-9010 228 33 53.6

Longitudes of the perihelion at the beginning of 1750.

Mercury 81°.7401 73° .33' 57".9
Venus 141.9759 127 40 41.9
The Earth 309.5799 278 37 15-4

Mars 368°. 3005 331° 28! 13'°6
Jupiter 11.5012 10 21 3.8
Saturn 97-9406 88.9 6.9
Uranus 185.1262 166 36 48.8

The fidereal and fecular motion of the perihelion. (The
fign — indicates a retrograde motion. )

Mercury 1735"-50 9! 22".3
Venus — 699.07 3 46.4
The Earth 3671.63 19 49 6
Mars 4534.57 26 6.4
Jupiter 2030.25 Io 57.5
Saturn 4967.64 26 49.5
Uranus 759-85 4 6.1

; The inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic at the begin»
niog of 1750.

Mercury 7°.7778 7” 00! colt
Venus 3.7701 23 35
The Earth @:60co a 3g
Mars 2.0556 I 51 co
Jupiter 1.4636 rig 22
Saturna 2.7702 2 29 54
Uranus 0.8599 o 46 26

The fecular variation of the inclination to the true
ecliptic,

Mercury 55".09 17.50
Venus 13.80 4:47
The Earth 0.00 0.00
Mars 4.45 14
Jupiter —67.40 —21.3
Saturn —47.87 —15.5
Uranus 9.38 . 3.0

The fidereal and fecular motion of the node upon the true
ecliptic. .

Mercury —2332."90 12! 35.8
Venus —5673.6a 30 38.2
The Earth 0000.00 © 00.0
Mars —7027-41 37 58.0
Jupiter — 4509.50 24 21.0
Saturn —5781.54 $Y 132
Uranus —10608.00 57 16.9

Longitude of the afcending node upon the ecliptic at the
beginning of 4750.

Mercury 50°.3836 45° 20! 42".3
Venus 82.7093 74 2618.0
The Earth 0.0000 co 00 090
Mars 52.0377 47 38 38.0
Jupiter 108.8062 97 55 32.0
Saturn 123-9327 IIL 32 21.9
Uranus 80.7015 72 37 52.8

In the hiftory of aftronomy, publifhed in the Connoiffance
des Temps for 1809, we find the following fhort abftra@a
relating to the elements of the planet Vefta.

On the 25th of April, 1807, M. Burckhardt read in the
clafs of {ciences a note, in which he gave the firlt {ketch of
the orbit of Vetta. According to the firft calculations the
femi-major axis, or the mean diftance, would be 2.6, that ie
to fay, rather more than twice and a half the diftance of the
earth from the fun; the excentricity 0.16; the place of the
perihelion 248°; that of the node 107°; finally, the incli-

nation 7°,
More

ELEMENTS.

More recent inveltigations gave him 2.36 for the femi-
major axis ; 250° 20! for the place of the perihelion; 103°
19/ 40" for the place of the node; 7° 7}! for the inclination ;
and finally, 0.093 for P:> excentricity.

While M. Burckhardt was calculating the elements, which
we have jut given at Paris, and to bring them to perfe&tion,
was occupied in determining the perturbations, without
which only approximation for a fhort interval can be
obtained, M. Gaufs loft no time in fketching the orbit of
a planet to which be had given a name, and which appears
to be univerfaliy adopted.

He then found for the mean longitude on the 2gth of
March, at midnight, mean time on the meridian of Bremen
193° 8’ 5"; the perihelion 249° 7/41"; the node 103° 8! 36";
the inclination 7° 5' 50!; the excentricity 0.097505 ; and
finally, the mean diftance 2.359604.

A fecond trial gave him 192° 9! 54"3 249° 57!' 524;
103° 18! 54!'3 7° 8! 7"; 6.037223; and the mean diurnal
tropical motion 9$0”.707.

Thefe elements, compared with fixty-eight obfervations,
have only fhewn very flight errors. We find, from the jour-
nal of M. de Zach, September 1807, that according to the
new inveftigations of M. Gaufs, thefe elements have under-
gone fome flight modifications, as follow :

192°.23' 30"; 249° so! galls 103° 18! 38s 95 Birr! ;
0.085505; and 2.355135, with a diurnal motion of

981".8459.

At the end of thefe elements we find, in the fame work,
a comparifon made by M. Gaufs of its fecond orbit, with
twenty-two obfervations by M. Bouvard ; the errors do not
amount to 17! in right afcenfion; they are generally
fmaller in declination, except on the 21{t of April, where it
is evident that an error of 1! has crept into the Paris obfer-
vations.

The following are the elements of the other new planets,
Ceres, Pallas, and Juno, for the 1ft of January, 1505.

—
. 2 - oR
o 2 m»fe°o o ro}
a S = |S a. >a
< 3 3 3 13 8 = § oS
2 = = 's0 [s.9 ti 2 <a S
35 ay u =. SS os c=
Sy ee) | 9g ONG Jerre ee roaes
= o 2 Diec =a pap
o = Can) | jam a
Ceres {10° 38/125 22° 7 2767012170] 263 | 10°20° 2\18 09 127
Pallas [94 38/5 22 81) 27650}6800] 263 |10 1 3 jO 18 13
Iuno [13 als 21 4/2664016770I 253 93) 21's f2 38

Exvements, in Chemifry. It neceffarily happens in every
department of human fcience that the fpirit of philofovhizing
or generalizing outruns the careful inveftigation of facts». A
few prominent circumttances are firlt noticed, the imagination
is {truck with their refemblance to each other; their cha-
racteriltic differences are negle€ted, and, as it is natural to at-
tribute fimilar effeéts to the fame operating caufe, a general
‘principle-or theory is invented, and thus originates the firlt
germ of ‘cience. ‘The advantage of thus claffifying a num-
ber of otherwife independent fa&s is great; the memory is
affitted, the imagination is engaged, and in the attack or de-
fence of a brilliant hypothefis the mind is more interefted,
and more eafily induced to perfevere than it would be by the
gradual and laborious inveftigation of fimple truth.

The fcience of chemiftry, on account of its vaft extent,
and the number of ftriking analogies and refemblances that
it prefents, has been peculiarly fruitful in hypothefes, fome
of which have been partial and others general. Of the lat-
ter kind are thofe {peculations concerning the elementary
principles of fubftances, which occupied fo much of the at-
tention of the ancient chemifts. The univerfe itfelf (and

therefore all chemical fubfances) was fuppefed to be formed
of the four elements ; but, without carrying the hypothetical
analylis of bodies to their utmoft extent, there appeared
to be a number of intermediate principles to which all
chemical phcnomena were referred by the early inveitigators
of this {cience. Thus, all inflammable febftances were fup-
pofed to be compounded of a common inflammable element,
called at firft fulphur, and afterwards phlogiiton, to which
their generic characters were owing, united in different bodies
to different fubfances, from which were derived their f{pecific
diftinGtions. Thus alfo, all falts were fuppofed to contain a
common faline principle; and all metals a mercurial or me-
talline principle. Modern chemiitry, however, does not ac-
knowledge any particular number of elements, but freely
admits into this clafs all fubftances that have not hitherto
been decompofed. An element, therefore, in the prefent
meaning of the term, is merely one of the laft refults of
chemical analyfis, and hence the number of eiements muft
be continually flu€tuating, according to the prog-effive ad-
vance of experimental fcience.

Exvemenr, in the fcience of L£locution, is the general
name of any fimple enunciated found, (fee ExuncraTian,)
of which a letter may be fet down as the arbitrary or vifible
fign. Elements differ both from the letters that reprefent
theny, and from the names of thofe letrers, in the fame re-
{pect (though not in both cafes, from the fame necefflity). as
a free, or a man, differs both from the found of the words,
man and tree, and the forms of the letters, of which the words
are re{pectively compofed.

Part of this diftinGtion is fufficiently obvious. No one is
in any danger of fuppofing any refemblance between the
found prefented to the ear and the p'€ture prefented to the
eye. It would be well if the other not lefs important dif-
tin&ion were as ftrongly impreffed, ard a confequent prac-
tice were adopted, of affociating, in the firft inftance, with
the form of the letter, not the name of that letter, but ita
elemental found: for what conneétion, for example, can
there poffibly be between the names double you and tee-aitch,
and the actual founds ufually affigned to the letters W and
Th? [And the fame might evidently be faid of the Eup.
filon Y, Theta ©, Sigma 2, &c. of the Greek, and of many
of the letters of every known alphabet, of ancient and mo-
dern times.] And what inconvenience muit not inevitably
refult from the awkward and impertinent intervention of the
complicated names of thefe letters, between the arbitrary
fign and a@tual found, which ought to be immediately affo-
ciated in the infant mind. Some judicious private teachers
have of late ventured to reform, in fome degree, this abufe,
by keeping their pupils unacquainted with the cuftomary
names of the letters, till the affociation between the forms
and the elementary founds became familiar; and a laudable
(though perhaps imperfe@) attempt has been made by Mifs
Edgeworth, in her ‘* Rational Primmer,’’ to generalize a
practice fo commendable. Still, however, as in all the in-
ftances that have fallen within the obfervation of the writer
of this article, the praétice of thefe commendeble innovators
has not gone fo far as to give to their pupils the naked found
of the confonants, (which in every one of them but the three
abfolute mutes, it is contended, is clearly praéticable,)
without fome portion, initial or terminative, of vowel found.
All that in reality has been effeéted is to give to the gene-
rality of the letters names more fimple, and more approxi-
mate to the elementary fonnd, than thofe that are ufually
given to the alphabetie characters. It will be fhewn here-
after, that fomething more is neceffary, in order to fecure all
the advantages that might be derived from this isnovation in
the fyftem of elementary inftrudtion.

. Elements,

ie

ELEMENTS.

Elementa, like lettere, (though not to the fame extent,)
differ in their number, in different languages; fearcely any
(if any) language availing itfelf of all the modifications of
elementary found, which the organs of enunciation, by the
nice diverfities of a€tion and pofition, are capable of pro-
ducing. The Engl:th elements reprefented by V and Th,
for example, being deficient in fome languages, while cers
tain guttural fourds, familiar enough, not only in fome parts
of the continent, but even to the Highlander and the native
of North Wales, are perfeGtly unknown in the fouthern parts
of England; though their figns are ftill preferved in our
written language. See Consonanr.

For anatomical definitions of the refpe&ive elements, fee
the refpeCiive titles, Vower, Liguip, Semi-Liguip, Si-

“BILANT, SEMI-SIBILANT, Aspirats, and Mure; alfo,

Lincuat, Lasiat, Gurrurar, and Nasar. The
learned reader may confult, among others, upon this fub-
je&, Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis (“ De Comp. Verb.”’) and
Dr. john Wallis (‘‘Grammatica Lingue Anglicanz’’) ;
aad the Englifh reader will do well to read with attention
the Grammar of old Ben Jonfon, and, with caution, the
«¢ Analyfis of Articulate Sounds,’ among the additional
notes to Dr. Darwin’s ‘'Temple of Nature.”? Thofe who
are particularly interefted in the fubje€&t may alfo con-
fult Dr. Holder’s ‘* Elements of Speech,’? Lond. 1669,
e fcarce, but valuable traét; and a neglected book, bearing
the fame title, 1773, by the late John Herries. Among
thefe, and fome other writers upon the formation or ana-
tomy of the elements, fome differences and contradi@ions
will be found; partly, perhaps, accountable from provincial
or other peculiarities in the pronunciation of the writers
themfelves; but, ftill more, from non-obfervance of the va-
rieties exifting in the conformation of the mouths and organs
ef different fpeakers, and the confequent neceffity of cor-
refponding differences of aétion and pofition for the forma-
tion of the fameelement. In the theory of the formation of
feveral of the more difficult elements of fpeech, as in many
other refpe€ts, he who, from an individual inftance, hattily

‘proceeds to draw geweral conclufions, or lay down general

rules, will frequently be found to be only politive in error,
while he thinks himfelf moft luminous in the demonftration
of pratical truth. Mr. Thelwall who, for feveral years,
has been praétically employed both in the inveftigation of
thefe topics, and in the application of his principles to the
removal of every {pecies of imperfeétion in human utterance,
has, in his unpublifhed leGures, introduced a claflification
and feries of definitions, differing in many particulars, as to

_ the pofitions and ations of the organs, from thofe of Dr.

Darwin ; and afcribing to fome miltakes in the theory of
that celebrated phyfiologift a part, at lealt, of the impedi-
ment by which his utterance was notorioufly obftruGed,
Thefe definitions, not being elfewhere extant in any printed
form, will be inferted in this work under the titles of their
refpeGtive clafles above referred to. According to the doc-
trines of this profeffor, (fee a fpecies of Elementary Horn
Book prefixed to a volume of Sele&tions, &c.) of all the
letters of our alphabet, three only, -t,k, and p, are to be
regarded as pure confonants, (according to vulgar definition, )
or mute flops. “ All the others are elements of quantity, and
capable of duration and tune (except s= ¢ /afi, ch, fh, th’,
and fh, which, though they have quantity, have no tune),
They may, therefore, be partially founded without the ad-
dition of any vowel; and the ftudent is recommended to
habituate himfelf fo to found them, in the firft inftance; and
then to write them out, in cadences, in Ccombmation with
all the refpeCtive vowels with which they eau enter into com.
Vou. XIT.

pofition, both as initials and as terminatives, and to exercife
himfelf in thofe combinations in the fame way.”

_ To the uninitiated there may be fome difficulty in realiz-
ing this theory, wich refpect to fome of the elements here
maintained to be fufceptible of independent found: but,
under proper dire€tions, the difficulty is furmountable, end
the experiment will be found praétically important, not only
in the removal of impediments, but in the improvement of
the grace, force, and harmony of utterance.

Evements, in the Higher Geometry, are the infinitely
{mall parts, or differentials, of a right line, curve, furface,
orfolid. Thus, (Plate 11. Analyfis, fig. 27.) the {mall fpace
PM~mp, formed by the two ordinates, PM, pm, tofinitely
near each other, and the arc Mm of the curve, is the eles
ment of the fpace A PM, Pp is the element of the abfciffe
AP, Mmthat of the curve AM, &c. See Dirreren-
TIAL, Frivxion, &c.

Evements, in Phyfcs, the firft principles or ingredients
of which all bodies are compofed.

The natural operations which commonly occur within the
cognizance of our fenles, and ina more particular manner
the analytical proceffes of the chemifts, thew that certain ins
gredients, precifely of the fame kind, ate yielded by com-
pound bodies of different kinds. Thus water is obtained
from vegetables, from animal bodies, and from certain mi-
nerals; an earthy or unevaporable fubitance is obtained from
the fame bodies, and fo forth. This naturally fuggefted
the idea, that all bodies confifted of certain primitive and
homogeneous fubftances, to which philofophers and che-
mifts gave the name of elements, or elementary bodies. There-
fore the elements are fuppofed to be the fimpleft bodies of
the univerfe; which, whilft they themfelves are not re-
ducible into more fimple components, form, by their com-
bination in different number and various proportion, all
the compound bodies that belong to the globe we inhabit.

So far the idea is natural and generally received ; but the
determination of the number, as well as of the nature, of
thefe elements, has always been, and will probably long
continue to be attended with great difficulty. Various opi-
nions have been entertained, and various hypothefes have
been advanced, concerning the elements; fome of which
have been fuggefted by reafoning entirely upon fuppofitions,
whilft others have, in great meafure, refted upon a firmer
bafe; namely, the refult of experiments. Of thefe opinions,
and of thefe refults of experimental inquiries, we fhall now
fele& the belt.

Epicurus thought that all bodies were modilications of
one homogeneous primary fubltance, whofe particles were
of a particular figure, folid, and in their nature unalterable ;
and that they oniy required to be arranged in this or that
other manner, in order to compofe the various hodies of the
univerfe. But the conftant and unalterable properties of a
great number of bodies, peculiar to each and diflimilar from
others, render this hypothelis highly improbable; tor we
find that gold, iron, mercury, &c. though diffolved, re-
duced, hammered, mixed, feparated, and fo forth, cen
never be converted into other bodies, but each of them may
always be reduced to its original oature; that is, the irons
into iron, the gold into gold, &c. which could hardly take
place if the identical elementary fubftance formed them all.

Certain authors make a difference between elements and
principles; but it is difficult to form a clear idea of their
meaning. Principle, they fay, as matter, is a kind of ine
complete nf-ure, but e/ement is a perfeet or complete one.

Another gueftion has likewife been much difcufed among
the philofophers of antiquity: uamely, whether the ele:

4Z mente

ELEMENTS.

ments were corruptiblé or incorruptible ; and it is difficult
to conceive how the defenders of the former could poflibly
{upport a doctrine fo very contradi@tory; for if corruptibi-
lity means a decompofition, (and it feems that no other idea
can be formed of it,) a corruptible element is the fame thing
as a decompofible indecompofible fubftance. If by the
word corruptibility they meant fomething elfe, we mutt
acknowledge our ignorance of their meaning. It is farther
to be remarked, that fome of thofe philofophers admitted one
corruptible element, whilft others admitted more than one.
Of the former, the principal are Heraclitus, who held fire;
Anaximenes, air; Thales Milefius, water; and Hefiod,
earth; as the only element. | Hefiod is followed by Ber-
nardin, Telefius; and Thales, by many of the chemifts.

Among thofe who admit feveral corruptible elements, the
principal are the Peripatetics; who, after their matter Arif-
totle, contend for four elements; viz. fire, air, water, and
earth. Ariftotle took the notion from Hippocrates; Hip-
pocrates from Pythagoras; and Pythagoras from Ocellus
Lucanus, who feems to be the firft author of the dogma.

The Cartefians only admit three elements; which they
pretend are all that could arife from the firft divifion of
matter. See Cartesian Philofophy.

Paracelfus and his followers attempted to eftablith four
elements, which they called /alt, fulphur, earth, and mercury.
And fome chemifts, rejeQing the lait, retained only three,
viz. falt, fulphur, and mercury ; but their expreflions are fo
very indefinite and perplexed, as by no means to convey any
diftin& and fatisfactory idea.

The late difcoveries relative to the aerial, or permanently
elattic fluids, (which fhewed that thofe fluids confit of cer-
tain bafes, expanded and rendered elaftic principally by their
union with heat; alfo that heat renders ice fluid, water
elaftic, mercury volatile, &c.) produced a new and fingular
opinion refpeéting the elements, which was adopted by fe-
veral philofophers, and particularly by the count de Treffon,
in his Effay on the ele&tric fluid. According to this doftrine,
two primitive material fubftances are fuppofed to exift in
nature; one that inceffantly ats, and to which it ‘is effential
to be in motion; the other abfolutely paffive, and whofe
nature it is to be inert, and move intirely as directed by the
former. The ative principle has, by fome, been fuppofed
to be acertain fluid or element, which, according to its
various modifications, they thought, produces light, or
heat, or eleéricity. The other principle has not been at-
tempted yet to be defined. [We need not endeavour to give
a formal refutation of this do&trine, which ia evidently too
indefinite and infufficien:. :

Our great firlfaac Newton, confidering the primary elements
of bodies on the atomical fyftem (fee Aromicat Philo:
Sophy), fays, that all things duly regarded, it feems probable,
that God in the beginning formed matter in folid, maffive,
hard, impenetrable, moveable particles, of fuch fizes and
figures,and with fuch other properties, and in fuch proportion
to {fpace, as moft conduced to the end for which he formed
them; and that thefe primitive particles, being folids, are
incomparably harder than any porous bodies compounded of
them ; even fo very hard as never to wear out; no ordinary
power being able to divide what God made one in the firit
creation. While the particles remain entire, they may com-
pofe bodies of one and the fame nature and texture in all
ages; but fhould they wear away, or break in pieces, the
nature of things, depending on them, would be changed;
water and earth, compofed of old worn particles, and frag-
ments of particles, would not be of the fame nacure and tex-
ture now, with water and earth compofed of entire particles

in the beginning. And, therefore, that things may be lait.

ing, the changes of corporeal things are to be placed only ia
the various feparations, and new aflociations and motions, of
thofe permanent particles; compound bodies being apt to
break not in the midit of folid particles, but where thofe
particles are laid together, and only touch in a few points.
It feems to him hkewife, that thefe particles have not only
a vis inertiz, with the paffive laws of motion refulting there-
from, but are alfo moved by c-rtain aétive principles; fuch
as is gravity, end that which caufes fermentation, and the
cohefion of bodies. See Conesron, Earta, FERMENTA=
tion, Gravity, and PrincipLe.

Of all thefe opinions, that of the four elements, under
the names of fire, air, earth, and water, has been more ge=
nerally adopted, and hes prevailed for a much longer time;
until towards the latter end of the laft century, Dr. Hig-
gins, in his work upon Light, attempted to increafe their
number from four to feven; but the great improvements in
chemiitry which followed foon after, (having decidedly
fhewn that water avd the atmofpherical air are compound
bodies,) produced’a total change of opinion relative to the
elemests; in confequence of which the fcientific perfons of
the prefent day acknowledge for elements not thofe which:
are fuggefted by their fanciful fuppofitions, but thofe:
which they are not able to decompole.

According to this new fyftem, both philofophers and
chemilts in coalition, (for they are both inquirers into ghe
works of nature ;) rejecting the example of their predecef-
fors, endeavour to exprefs themfelves in a manner more con=
fonant with truth, and better authorized by the refult of
experiments. In the firft place, they acknowledge that
they are ignorant of the real number of elementary fubftan-
ces. Secondly, they confider as elements ali thofe bodies
which no known procefs has been able to decompound ; that
is, to reduce into fimpler bodies ; allowing, at the fame times
that this want of a€tual or practical decompofition at prefent
does not imply that a certain fubftance is abfolutely an eles
ment ; for by anew method of decompofition, that fubftance
which has long been confidered as an element, may be found
to be a compound body ; and, in fa@, fuch difcoveries are
now frequently made. Alfo, certain bodics which have at
one time been looked upon as diftin€& from each other, have
afterwards been found to be of the very fame nature.
Therefore, under the denomination of elements we muft now
underftand all thofe bodies which differ from each other in-
fome effential property, and which have not as yet been re>"
duced into fimpler bodies.

The lift, which follows, contains all the elementary bo-
cies which were acknowledged as fuch foon after the coms
mencement of the prefent century. We fhall then add alk
the material alterations, which the difcoveries made during.
the few years that have fince clapfed, have neceffarily in-
troduced, ;

Elementary fubfiances.

Radical fuccinic,
Radical acetic,
Radical tartaric,
Radical pyro-tartaric5.

Light,

Caloric, or calorific,
The eleGric fluid,
The magnetic fluid,

Oxygen, Radical oxalic,
Hydrogen, Radical gallic,
Azote, Radical citric,
Carbon, Radical malic,
Sulphur, Radical benzoic,
Phofphorus, Radical pyro-lignic,

Radical muriatic,
Radical boracic,
Radical fluoric,

Radical pyro-mucic, .
Radical camphoric,
Radical lactic,

Radical

rr

ELE
' |Arfenice,
|

Tungften,

Radical fach-laQic,
Radical formic,

Radical Pruflic, Molybdenum,

Radical febacic, Ctirome,

Radical bombic, Columbium,

Radical laccic, Tantalium,

Radical fuberic, Uranium, Acidifiable.
Radical zoonic, Tellurium, i

Pot-ath, Titanium,

Soda, } Alkalies. | Ofmium,

Ammonia, Palladium, — |

Gold, 7 Rhodium, |

Platina, | Iridium,

Silver, Lime, Fy
Mercury, Magnefia, ( Aika-
Copper, Strontites, { /ize.

Iron, Barytes,

Tin, The Metals | Silex, { The
Lead, Alumine, r Earths.
Nickel, | Yttria,

Zinc, Glucina,

Bifmuth, Zirgonia, and

Antimony, | Aguttina,
Cobalt, |

Manganefe, J

' The firft four of thefe’ elements may with propriety be
called hypothetical. Thefe are, fight, or that fluid which
renders objeCts perceivable by our eyes ; caloric, or that fluid
which is fuppofed to produce the phenomena of heat, viz. to
affe&t us with the fenfation of heat ; the ele@ric fluid, which
is fuppofed to produce the phenomena called e/edrical ; and
the magnetic fluid, to which the properties of the magnet are
attributed ; for, in truth, the phenomena which fall under
each of thofe four denominations, are only /uppo/ed to be the
effedis of a fingle fluid ; refpeGting the nature of which, how-
ever, various opinions are entertained. See the articles un-
der their denominations of Heat, Licut, Evrectricity,
and MaGnetism.

Several of the above radicals appear, in confequence of va-
rious experiments, to be of the fame nature ; but as this can-
not be made to appear without the detail of the experiments,
we muft refer the reader to the articles of their particular
names.

A very great alteration has been produced refpecting the
alkalies by the recent and capital difcoveries of Mr. Davy,
who has found that every one of the three alkalies is a com-
pound body. The pot-ath confifts of a metallic fubftance,
which he has called potafium, and oxygen ; the foda confilts
of another metallic fubitance, which he has called /odium,
and oxygen: fo that pot-afh and foda are two metallic
oxyds. Therefore in confequerfce of this difcovery, the two
alkalies, viz. pot-afh and foda, muft be ftruck out of the lift,
and two new metallic fub{tances, viz. /adium and potafium,
mutt be placed amongit the other metals. ‘Che components of
ammonia have not been as yet exaétly afcertained, though
no doubt remains of its being a compound fubttance.

Some of the earths, and efpecially the alkaline earthe, as
they are commonly called, have given ftrong indications of
their being compound bodies, and ofa metallic nature ; but
we mult refer the reader to the articles of their peculiar
names for farther particulars.”

A new metallic fubftance was lately faid to have been dif-
eovered in tungften, and is defcribed under the name of
cerium by Hifinger. Dr. Wollafton has very lately dil-
covered, that the two metallic fubftances columbium, and tan-
talium, are one and the fame thing; fo that one of thefe
spames mutt now be ftruck out of the lift of metals.

ELE

Exvemenrts are alfo ufed, figuratively, for the grotnds
and principles of arts and {cicnces.

_ Thus we fay, letters are the elements of fpeech : he does
not know the firlt elements of grammar. ;

The Eremenzs of mathematics have been delivered by
feveral authors in their courfes, fyftems, &c. The firlt
work of this kind is that of Peter Herigon, in Latin and
French, publifhed in 1664, in ten tomes; wherein are con~
tained the elements of Euclid, Euclid’s Data, Apollonius
Pergeus, &c. with the elements of arithmetic, algebrz,
trigonometry, architecture, geography, navigation, optics,
{pherics, altronomy, mufic, perfpeGiive, &c. The work is
remarkable for this, that, throughout, a kind of real and
usiverfal charaGters is ufed; fo that the demontftrations
may be underftood by fuch as only remember the charaéters,
without any dependence on language or words at all.

Since Herigon, the’ elements of the feveral parts of
mathematics have been laid down by others, particularly the
Jefuit Schottus, in his Curfus Mathematicus, in 1674; Sir
Jonas Moor, in his New Syftem of Mathematics, in 16815
De Chales, in 1674; Ozanam, in his Cours de Mathe-
matique, in 16993 and, above all, Chrift. Wolfus, in his
Elementa Mathefeos Univerfe, in two vols, 4to. the firlt
pubhfhed in 1713, and the fecond in 1715; a work held
in high eftimation. There has been another edition, of
this excellent work publifhed at Geneva, in five volumes
in quarto; the firft volume in 1732, the fecond in 17335
the third in 1735, the fourth in 1738, and the fifth in
1741.
The Elements of Euclid are the firft and beft fyftem of
geometry. We have abundance of editions and commenta
on the fifteen books of Euclid’s Elements, Orontius Fin-
cus firft publifhed the firlt fix books in 1530, with notes, to
explain Euclid’s fenfe. The like did Peletarius in 1557.

ic. Tartaglia made a comment on all the fifteen books
about the fame time, with the addition of fome things of his
own; and the like did Fran. Fluflates Candalla, a noble
Frenchman, in the year 1578, with confiderable additions,
a3 to the comparifon and inicriptions of folid bodies; which
work was afterwards republifhed, with a prolix comment,
by Clavius, whofe edition has fince been reprinted, at various
places and times. ;

Dr. Gregory publifhed an edition of all Euclid’s works,
including his Elements, in Greek and Latin, in 1703, fol.
But as the whole fifteen books do not feem neceflary, efpe-
cially for young mathematicians, fome authors have chofen
only the firit fix, with the eleventh and twelfth at moft. It
would be endlefs to relate the feveral editions hereof: there
is a French one of De Chales, and a Latin one of And.
Tacquet; the beft edition of the former of which is that of
Paris, 1709, by Ozanam; and of the latter, that of
Cambridge, in 1703, by Mr. Whifton. Mr. Tl’. Simpfon’s
Elements of Geometry 1s an excellent compendium of this
kind; and Dr. Simpfon of Glafgow publifhed, in 1756, @
Latin edition of the fix firft, and eleventh and twelfth books
of Euclid, with notes.

ELEMI, or Exemy, in Pharmacy, a pellucid refin, of
a whitifh colour, intermixed with yellowifh particles, and
often much of the colour and confiftence of wax ; of a pretty
brifk bitter, though not difagreeable tate; and a {mell
fomewhat like that of fennel.

It is ufually called gum elemi, though very improperly,
inafmuch. as it takes fire readily enough, and diflolves in
oleaginous liquors, which are the characters of a refin, not
agum. It totally diffolves in reétified fpirit of wine; and
in diftillation with water, fixteen ounces of gum yield one
ounce of effential oil. It flows from incifions made in the

422 trunk

ELE

trunk and large branehes of a Jarge and tall tree, of the olive
kind, growing in Ethiopia and Arabia Felix, It is alfo
found in Apulia, a province in the kingdom of Naples,
See Amyris.

Pomet in his Hiftory, and Lemery in his Di&tionary of
Drugs, deferibe elemi as a white refin, bordering on green,
odonferous, and brovght from Ethiopia, in cakes of two or
three pounds a-piece, and ufually wrapped up in the leaves
of the Indian cane.

It is excellent in difeafes of the head; and is proper to
digeft, refolve, and fuppurate. It is held a kind of na-
tural balfam; and is fovereign in the cure of all forts of
wounds.

One of the beft officinal digeftives, commonly called the
ointment or liniment of Arceus, confifts of fix parts of the
elemi, five or fix of turpentine, and twelve of lard, or a
mixture of lard and fuet melted together.

The true gum elemi is that above defcribed ; but there are
feveral {purious forts, fome natural, and others factitious,
frequently fold for it.

The factitious, or counterfeit, is ufually made of refin
wafhed in oil of afpic: though the ill {mell, and white colour
of this might eafily difcover the fraud. The natural gums,
obtraded from elemi, are,

1. A gum brought from the American iflands, in cags of
different weights, covered up with the leaves of a plant un-
known in Europe.

The fecond may be taken for common refin, but for its
{mell, which is fomewhat fweeter, and more aromatic.

The third is of an afh colour, bordering on brown, brought
ever in large pieces, and very dry and friable.

Pomet does not take any of thefe for different genuine
gums, but rather fuppofes them to be originally elemi,
enly impure, and coarfe, fince melted down, and made up
‘by the fire. :

ELENCHUS, in Antiquity, a kind of ear-rings fet with
large pearls.

Evencuus, Eacyxss, in Logic, by the Latins called ar-
gumenium, and inquifitio, 1s a vicious or fallacious argument,
which deceives under the appearance of a truth; the fame
with what is otherwife called /aphi/m.

ELEOCARPUS, in Botany, See Evmocarrus.

ELEOSACCHARUM. See EvzosaccHarum,

ELEOSELINUM, in Botany, a name by which fome
authors have called the paludapium or fmallage. Ger.
Emac. Ind. 2.

ELEPHANT, in Zoology. See Evernas.

Exverxuant, Z£/ephas, gives the denomination to an an-
cient and honourable military order, conferred by the kings
of Denmark on none but perfons of the higheft quality and
extraordinary merit.

{t is called the ** order of the Elephant,” from its badge,
which is an elephant with a caftle on its back, fet with
diamonds, and hung on a watery fky-coloured ribband, like
the George in England.

There are different fentiments as to the origin and infli-
tution of this order; the firit is that of Mennenius and
Hoepisgius, who attribute it to Chriftian IV. who was
ele&ed king in 1584. The fecond, that of Selden and
Imhof, who derive it from Frederic II: ele&ted in 1532.
Gregorio Leti goes back as far as Frederic I. who reigned
about the year i530. Bernard Robolledus will have king
John to be the author, who began to reign about 1478.
Agfhelmius, Rofferus, and Loefcher, hold it to have had
its rife under Chriftian I, father of Frederic I, Latftly,
Voigtius, Becman, and Bircherodius, maintain Canutus VI.
to have beea the firlt inititutor; and the occafion thereof to

ELE

bave been the croifades, This prince, according to the
chronology of Swaining, reigned towards the clofe of the
twelfth century, from the year 1168 to 1191. This, at
leaft, we are certain of, that the order was fubfifting in the
year 1494; there being a painting fiill‘extant, done that
year by count Reinden, a knight of this order. And we
have even authentic evidences of the matquis of Mantua’s
being created knight of the fame order by Chriftian I. in
1474. There are bulls of pope Pius If. and Sextus [V.
confirming the ftatutes of the order, authorizing the holding
of affemblies, or chapters, in the chapel of Rofchild, and
fettling the privileges of the knights. LEdmondfon fays,
that it was inflituted in 1478 by Chriftian I. king of D:n-
mark, on the marriage of his fon John with Chriftina,
daughter of Erneft, duke of Saxeny.

The order was firft called the “ order of St. Mary,’”
ordo S. Mariz; though it feems to have had the appellation
of the Elephant as early as Chriltian I.: witnefs the figure
of an elephant fo often ftruck on his coins, medals, &c.

The manner of its inftitution is thus related: ‘king Ca-
nutus having fent a fleet againft the Saracens in 1189, which
took Siluma aud Ptolemais, a gentleman among the Danifh
croifees killed an clephant; in memory of which extraordi«
nary accident the order was erected. This account is rene
dered the more probable by this; that it is referred to an
era, when nothing was more common than to take the fpoils
of a vanquifhed enemy for armories or cognizances ; and acs
cordingly, fome of the principal arms of the like kind now
on foot, e. gr. the lions of the Low-Countries, had their
rife at the time of the croifades, as is fhewn by Heuterius
and Hoepingius; which circumftances greatly corrobo-
rate the opinion of thofe who afcribe the order to king’
Canutus.

The collar of the order is of gold, compofed of elephants
and towers alternately, enamelled proper: to the front of
the cellar is pendent an elephant, with a eaftle on his back,
alfo a man, all enamelled proper: and on the fide of the
elephant a crofs of Danebrog in diamonds. ‘The knights alk
wear the badge pendent to a {ky-blue ribband, which pafles
{carfwife over the left fhoulder to the right hip. See the
abbot Juftiniani, Hii. de tutti gl’Ord. Milit. e Caval.
tom. ii. cap. 72.

The chapel of Rofchild was founded by Chriftian ¥. for
the affemblies or chapters of this order to be heldin. It
was firft called the ‘* Chapel of the Three Kings,” Capella
Trium Regum ; afterwards Frederick I. gave it the name of
the ** Royal Chapel.”

The order was reftored by Frederic II. who created
abundance of knights at the ceremony of his coronation,
which is the only time when the Danifh kings made any
knights of the Elephant. Chriitian V. augmented and en-
riched it very confiderably. In the year 1694, a grand
chapter of the order was held at Fredericfburg, in the chapel
of the knights, wherein fix German princes were admitted
into the order.

We have a multitude of writings on the fubje& of this
order, whereof that of Janus Bircherodius may ferve for all
the reft ; it is the lateft, moft ample, and learned. It was
publifhed at Copenhagen in 1705, under the title of * Bre-
viarium Equetftre, feu de illufiriflimo, & inclytiflimo Ordine
Elephantino,”? &c.

Evepnant’s Bones. Many teeth and bones of animals
have been found in a foffil ftate, both in Siberia and on the
banks of the Ohio, in North Americas The French
academicians, on comparing fome of thefe with the bones of
real elephants, determined, that they belonged to the fame
fpecies of animal : but Dr. Hunter has difcovered, on a more

accurate

ELE

accurate examination, that they are very different from
thofe of the elephant, and belong to another animal. The
tufks of the true elephant have a flight lateral bend; but
thofe brought from America have a larger twift, or {piral
curve, towards the {maller end: the grinders of the latter
are made like thofe of a carnivorous animal, being furnifhed
with a double row of high and conic procefles, as if defigned
to mafticate and not to grind its food ; whereas thofe of the
elephant are flat, and ribbed tran{verfely on their furface ;
befides, the thigh bone is of a very difproportionate thick-
nefs to that of the elephant, and has fome other anatomical
variations. And though the American tufks, when cut and
polifhed by the workmen in ivory, did not differ in texture
and appearance from the true ivory, Dr. Hunter concludes,
that genuine ivory mult be the production of two different
animals, and not of the clephant alone ; and that the animal
to which thefe bones belonged may be the fuppofed elephant
or mammouth of Siberia, and other parts of the world,
which is yet unkvown. Phil. Tranf. vol. lviii. art. 5.

The ingenious Ruffian naturalift, M. Pallas, was led to
conclude, from the circumfance that thefe bones are equally
difperfed in all the northern regions of Europe, that the
climate was probably, in the earlier ages, fuffictently warm
to be the native countries of the elephant, rhinoceros, and
other quadrupeds now found only inthe fouth. But when,
during his travels, he vifited the fpots where the foffil bones
were found, and could form a judgment from his own ob-
fervations, and not from the accounts of others, he re-
nounced his former hypothefis, and, in conformity with the
opinion of many modern philofophers, afferted that they mult
have been brought by the waters, and that nothing but a
fudden and general inundation, fuch as the deluge, could
have tranfported them from their native countries to the
regions of the north. In proof of this affertion, he adds,
that the bones are generally found feparate, as if {cattered
by the waves, covered with a ftratum of mud, evidently
formed by the waters, and commenly intermixed with the
remains of marine plants; inftances of gvhich he himfe!f ob-
ferved during his progrefs through Siberia, and which fuffi-
ciently prove that thefe regions of Afia were once over-
whelmed with the fea.

Evepuant caterpillar, a name given by fome authors to
a [pecies of infe&:, commonly known in Ireland by the
name of Connaught-worm, and {uppofed to be poifonous to
cattle which feedon it. See Connaught Worm.

EvEerHant, cra of the, in Chronology, an era among the
ancient Arabs, which commenced A.D. 578, in the year
when the Abaffines were vanquifhed in their expedition
againft Mecca, and in which Mahomet was born. From
this erathe Arabs computed their time for 20 years. ~ This
was followed by another, called that of the unjuft, or im-
mote war; and this was finally fucceeded by that of the

egira,

Everuant ffi. See Cuimera.

Exvepuant’s-foot, in Botany. See ELEPHANrOPus.

Fxepuant’s-head, in Botany, a {pecies of the rhinanthus,
which fee,

EvepHant mountain, in Geography, a mountain on the
8.E. coait of the iflandof Ceylon; 74 miles S.E. of Candy.

Exveruant’s noe, or elephani’s neu/fe, as it-is called by
the Dutch, is a fpecies of the'acus or needle fifh, caught in
the Eaft Indies, fo named from the refemblance of its fnout
to the trunk of an elephant. It is a very fingular -{pecies,
the lower jaw running out to a very long and fharp-pointed
{pine: it is round-bodied, and beautifully variegated with
fpots, and has on each fide a green line running from head

ELE

to tail. It is canght in falt waters, Ray’s Ichthyogr.
app. p. 4.
Evernant, water. See Hippopotamus.
_ ELEPHANTA, in Geography, a {mall ifland fituated
in a large found, about 54 rules E. of Bombay, on the coat
of Hindooftan, and acquired by the Englith from the Mah-
rattas, to whom it belonged. The circumference of the
ifland is about five miles, and the number of its inhabitants,
including women and children, about 200, who inhabit a
neat village near the landing place; they are employed in
cultivating rice and rearing goats for their fupport ; they
are under our protection, and pay about 56/. annually to
the government: the furplus revenue furnifhes their fimple
clothing. Their anceftors, as they fay, being improperly
treated by the Portuguefe, fled hither from the oppofite
ifland of Salfette. Its proper name is “ Gali Pouri,” but
the Europeans call it Elephanta, from the flatue of an ele-
phant formed of black ftone, which ftands in this ifland, in
the open plain, near the fhore. This ifland is famous for its
fubterraneous temple, formed in a hill of ftone, about 3 of
a mile from the beach, of which M. Niebuhr made draw-
ings, and which he has particularly defcribed. It is 120
feet long, and the fame in breadth, exclufively of the cha«
pels and adjacent chambers. Its height within is nearly
15 feet, and the whole of it is fituated in a hill of confie
derable height, cut out in the folid rock. The pillars
fupporting the roof are alfo parts of the rock, which have
been left ftanding by the archite&. The walls are oma-
mented with Sgures in baf-relief, fo prominent that they are
joined to the rock only by the back. Many of thefe figures
are of a coloffal fize, being Tome 10, fome 12, and fome
even 14 feet high. Although thefe baf-reliefs cannot be com-
pared, either in defign or ia execution, with the works of the
Grecian fculptors, they are much fuperior in elegance to
the remains of the ancient Egyptian feulpture; and they
are finer than thofe from the ruins of Perfepolis. Thefe
figures, probably, mark events relating to the mythology
and fabulous hiftory of the Indians, for they feem to be
reprefentations of gods and herees. The modern Indians
are fo ignorant, that they can give no information concern-
ing thefe curious remains of antiquity. One perfon, who
pretended to be wifer than the reft, affured M. Niebuhr,
that one of the largeft flatues was that of Kaun, one of
their ancient fabulous princes, notorious for the crueities
which he perpetrated upon his fifter’s children. The ftatue
is well-formed, and has eight arms, an emblem of power,
which the Indians give to their allegorical figures. None
of thefe figures have beards, but all of them have very
feanty whifkers. At prefent all the young Indians wear
whifkers, and as they become more advanced in life, they
commonly allow the whole beard to grow. The lips of
thefe figures are thick, and their ears are lengthened out
by large pendants; ornaments which almoft all wear. Sc
veral of them wear a {mall cord in the fafhion of a {carf; a
mode now prevalent among the Bramins. One woman has
but a fingle breatt; from which it fhould f{cem, that the
ftory of the Amazons was not unknown to the old Indians.
Several figures, as well mafculine as feminine, have one arm
leaning on the head of a male or female dwarf, whence we
may infer, that thefe moniters of the human fpecjes have
been always objeéts of luxury and magnificence among
the great. Several figures have hair on their heads, not of
native growth, but refembling a wig, whence we may con-
clude that this covering for the head is of very ancient ips
vention. The female bofom is perfectly round, which inti«
mates, that the Indian fashion of wearing thin wooden cafes
2 upon

ELE

apon the breafts is wery ancient. "The head-drefs of thefe
temale figures is commonly an high-crowned bonnet. Se-
veral are naked; the drefs of others more nearly refembles
that of the moderns. In feveral parts of thefe baf-reliefs
appears the famous Cobra de Capello, a fort of ferpenty
which the human figures treat with great familiarity.
Thefe ferpents are ftill very common in the ifle of Elephanta,
and the inhabitants fay that they are friendly to man, and do
no harm unlefs provoked ; their bite, however, is reckoned
mortal. On each fide of the temple is a chapel nine feet
high: and the walls of thefe chapels are covered with baf-
selief figures, on a fmaller feale than thofe upon the walls
of thetemple. The fmalleft of the chapels, having no fculp-
tured gure but that of the god ‘¢ Cannis,”’ is ftill in a ftate
of neat prefervation ; and the inhabitants repair hitherto per-
form their devotions. Before the entrance into this chapel
is a pile of fhapelefs ftones, bedaubed with red paint, fup-
pofed to be.reprefentations of the new objeéts of worfhip
adored by the Indians. Such red ftones are not uncommon
‘an other parts of India, and are held in high veneration.
The reft of the temple is now become the haunt of ferpents
and beafts of prey. Ona hill at a {mall diftance is another
temple; but it is not eafy of accefs. In India are other
temples of a fimilarkind. (See Sarserre.) As the Greeks,
and perhaps alfo the Egyptians, drew the firft elements of
their knowledge from India, thefe monuments of Indian
antiquity deferve particular examination ; as it might ferve
to throw new light on thofe opinions and modes of worfhip,
which were by degrees diffufed through other parts of the
Ealt, and at latt into Europe.

Mr. Goldingham, inthe fourth volume of the “ Afiatic
Refearches,” has given a particular defcription of the cave
of Elephauta, and of the figures which it exhibits. He
eftimates the length of the great cave at 135 feet, and its
breadth at nearly the fame dimenfione. The whole informa-
tion which he could obtain from the inhabitants was, that
they conceived it to have been formed bythegods. Some have,
without fufficient attthority, deduced its origin from the
Egyptians, from the Jews, or from Alexander the Great ;
but it is much more probable that the aaceftors of the
Hindu race were its fabricators; and this writer is of opi-
nion, that it wasa temple dedicated principally to Siva, the
deftroyer or changer. , Upon this principle he has endea-
voured to defcribe the feveral figures, with their appropriate
attributes and accompaniments, It is not fo eafy, fays this
writer, to afcertain the era of its fabrication. He has no
doubt, however, that it was pofterior to the great {chifm in
the Hindu religion, which, according to the Purana, hap-
pened at a period coeval with our date of the creation. But
without tracing it to this fabulous antiquity, we have ac-
counts of powerful princes who ruled this part of the coun-
try at a later period; particularly of one who ufurped the
government in the goth year of the Chriltian era, famed for
a paflion for architecture. Poflibly he might have founded
the cave; but no evidence occurs to fupport any hypothefis
beyond conje€ture.

ELEPHANTANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the ifland of Sardinia. Anton, Itin—Alfo, an epifcopal
town of Africa, in Mauritania.

ELEPHANTIASIS, in Medicine, A®usriacts, elephan-
tia, a loathfome, contagious, and hitherto incurable difeafe,
of the chronic kind; characterized by the appearance of
tubercles, producing great deformity of the face and limbs,
with a thickened, rough, and wrinkled ftate of the flcin,
lofs of hair on the chin and body, infenfibility of the ex-
tremities, ulcerations in the throat, nofe, fingers, &c. and
other cachectic fymptoms.

ELE

An extreme degree of confufion has prevaifed in the
writings of phyficians, with regard to this difeafe, in confe-
quence of the circumftance, that the Arabians have de-
{cribed the fame fymptoms, under the denomination of /epra,
or leprofy, to which the Greek phyficians had affigned the
appellation of elephantiafis; whence the term feprofy has
been indifcriminately applied to both difeafes. But, in our
inquiries concerning the nature of Jeprofy, we fhould con-
ftantly bear in mind, that the leprofy of the Greeks (/e-
pra ‘Gracorum) and the Arabian leprofy (/epra Arabum)
are altogether different in nature; and that the leprofy
of the Arabians is the elephantiafis of the Greeks. The
leprofy, properly fo called, as defcribed by the beft Greek
writers, is a difeafe of the fktn only, and much lefs formi-
dable than the elephantiafis; Hippocrates {peaks of the
former as an affection merely fuperficial, andto be ranked
among the blemifhes, rather than among the difeafes of the
body; (lib. xp cadw»,) and Galen, (De tumorib. preter
nat. cap. 13-) Atuarius, and Paulus A®gineta, make fimi=
lar obfervaticns. The Arabians have defcribed the different
varieties of the leprofy (/epra Grecorum) under the generic
terms of morphea andalbaras, with the fpecific titles alia
and nigra, white and black See Leprosy. juts

Vhat has contributed ftill farther to augment the confuse
fion, in wh'ch thefe difeafes have been involved. is, that mo
of the Arabians have alfo defcribed a difeafe, under the title
of elephantiafis, which is altogether different from both the
lepra and elephantialis of the Greeks, and which does ‘not
appear to have been known to the latter. This is a mere
enlargement, or thickening of the legs, with a change of
the colour and texture of the fkin, producing a refemblancey
it is faid, to the leg of the elephant; it is compared, in its
nature and origin, to the énlargement from varicoie veins
and was probably fimilar to the thick leg of Barbadoes, or,
in fome inftances, a fymptom of {curvy. Thus Avicenna,
in his chapter * De Elephantia,” obferves, that it confifts
of * am intumeicence of the feet, fimilar to what occurs in
the varix of the veins: fometimes, and indeed molt fre-
quently, it arifes from a melancholic humour, and fometimes
from a thick phlegm, and occafionally alfo from the fame
caufes, which render the veins varicofe ; it is at firft red, and
afterwards black; and is relieved by the fame circumitances
which relieve the varices.” (Avicen. lib iit, Fen. xxii.
Tract. i. cap» 16.) Thus alfo Rhafis writes refpeCting the
elephantia ; ‘* eft cum pedis creflities augeri videtur, et color
obfufcari, venze quoque que vites vocantur apparere cepe-
rint.””? (Ad Aimanfor, lib. ix. cap. 93.) And Avenzoat
aflerts fimply, that ‘* a preternatural {welling happens in
the legs, which is called elephantia, and this on account of
its refemblance in thicknels to the legs of the elephant.’?
(Lib. ii. cap. 26.) It ought not hereto be omitted, how-
ever, that Haly Abbas ftands alone among the Arabian
writers, upon this fubje@, in point of corre€tnefs; for, under
the term elephantia, both in his defcriptionof the fymptom
and his obfervations on the praétical treatment of the difeafe,
he has in view the proper elephantiafis of the Greeks; (fee
his works, Theorice, lib. viii, cap. 15. and PraGticey cap. 4:9
and he treats of the leprofy of the Greeks under the head
lepra. But he alfo defcribes the thick leg, diftinguifhing it
(or at leaft his tranflator has fo done) by the term elephas.
“ Que vero in cruribus et pedibus fiunt elephas vocatur, et
que dicuntur varices venz. Et elephanticus morbus apof-
tema eft melancholicum quod in cruribus fit et pedibus; et
ejus fignum eft, quod pedis figura figure eléphantis fimilis
fit, equalis, et non diverfa.”? (Theorice, lib. viti. cap. 18.)
We know not the original terms here employed, but if the
tranflation be corre&t, the intended diftinGtion is obvious.

For

ELEPHANTIASIS.

For after noticing the ulcerations of the face and nofe, be-
longing to elephantiafis, properly fo called, he fays, but
the diforder which takes place in the legs and feet is called
elephass (the elephant ;)”’ and he alfo terms it the ‘* elephant-
like difeafe,”? (elephanticus morbus.) ‘This diftinGion has
been noticed by Sennertus, as a contradi€tion on the part
of Haly Abbas; (fee Sen. Opera lib. v. part 1. cap. 45.)
where ic is obvious that the diftinGtion of the terms, employed
by the Arabian, is overlooked. The difference between
the leprofy of the Greek and Arabian writers has been fo
often pointed out by the leartied, that itis remarkable how
the confufion of the two difeafes fhould have fo often pre-
vailed. (See Fuchfii Paradoxa Medicing, lib. ii. cap. 16.
Gregor. Horft. Obf. Med. lib. vii. obf. xviii. . Epift. Hop-
nero. Turner, on Dif. of the Skin. chap. i. where part of
the epiltle of Horftiua is tranflated. Scnnertus, loc. cit.
cap. 40.) ; ;

The clephantiafis of the Greek writers, then, and of
Haly Abbas, (as diftin& from the elephas of that writer.)
is the fubjeét of our confideration at prefent. The origi of
the name is differently explained by different authors. ‘The
Arabians feem to have mifapplied the term, froma fuppo-
fition that it referred alone to a fimilarity in fhape, colour,
and other qualities of the fin, in the difeafe, to that of the
elephant; but it appears to have been adopted from a more
general analogy of the magnitude and feverity of the difeafe,
with the fize of the animal. ‘* Eft enim vifu foedus,” fays
Arretzus, ‘et in omnibus terribilis, quemadmodum et elephas
bellua:”? and Aétius obferyes, ** elephantiz quidem ex mag-
nitudine et diuturnitate affeCtionis nomen accepit.” It has
been ftated, too, by the poet,

“ Eft leprae fpecies, elephantiafifque vecatur,
* Que cunétis morbis major fic efle videtur,
Ut major cunétis elephas animantibus exitat.””
Macer, de Virib. herbarum.

Upon the fame principle, Aretzusobferves, that it has
been called the “ Herculean difeafe;”? fince no difeafe is
more powerful or more fatal. ‘* Magnus quidem potentia
morbus; ad mortem enim inferendam eft omoium longe « flica-
ciffimus.’”? Other peculiaritiesof the difeafe have given rife
to other denominations, to which the Greek writers allude.
Thus it was alfo called /atyriafis and fatyriafmos, partly on
account of the change of the teaturess which often occurred,
and rendered the countenance fomewhat like that given by
painters to the Satyr; and partly from the exceflive hibidi-
nous difpofition which accompanied the difeafe, (See
Aétius.) The lips, according to Galen, become thick,
the nofe fwells laterally, and therefore appears to be de-
preffed, the ears grow thin, the cheeks red, and tumours
arife here and there upon the forehead, fomewhat refembling
horns. (De tumorib. cap. 14.) And Aétius obferves, that,
as if by a fort of fpafmodic diftention of the mufcles of the
jaws, the face is dilated, and aflumes the appearance of
laughter, as inthe Satyr. Another condition of the coun-
tenance, under this difeafe, gained it the appellation of
feontiafis, or leo, the lion, or lion-face. Aétius and Areteus
attribute this name to the laxity and wrinkles of the fkin of
the forehead, which refembles the flexible eye-brows of the
lion. But the Arabian writers afcribe it to a different fource.
Haly Abbas fays, the countenance was called /eonine, be-
caufe the white of the eyes becomes livid, and the eyes of a
round figure: and Avicen obferves, that the term /eonine
was applied to the difeafe, becaufe it renders the counte-
nance terrible to look at, and fomewhat of the form of the
lion’s vifage. we

Symptoms of the Elephantiafis.—The fymptoms of this in«

curable difeafe, which is faid te be not only’ moft grievous
to the individual who fuffers it, but intolerable to byltanders,
fo that even the domeftics and attendants of the patient are
averfe to intercourfe with him, are detailed by A@tius and
Areteeus in nearly fimilar terms. Both thefe writers lament,
that the incipient fymptoms are not obfervable: there is no
unufual derangement of the conftitution, no obvious external
change, which, being feen at once, might fuggelt a timely
application of medicine: the difeafe preys for a long time
unobferved on the conftitution, and when its firft fymptoms
begin to thew themfelves externally, the malady is not then
commencing, but is completely eftablifhed, and the condition
of the patient is hopelefs, When the difcafe is about to ap-
pear, the perfon becomes fluggifh and inaétive, and is fleepy
after flight exertions, the bowels are coftive, but the appetite
remains unchanged. Thefe fymptoms, however, are not very
unfrequent in ordinary health. The firft external marks of
the difeafe generally appear in the face: the cheeks and chin
become thickened and red, but of a livid, not a florid hue:
pultular tumours arife, fometimes with a white top, and livid
bafe s and the veins under the tongue become varicofe and
black. The breathing is now flower and-more difficult, the
breath feetid, the fluggithnefs and inability of exertion in-
creafe, the appetite is ftili little altered, but continual eru€tae
tions occur, whicit are offenfive even to the patient, the urine
is thick, like that of cattle, the bowels extremely conftipated,
and the venereal appetite great. ne hate begins to fall off
from every part of the body, from the pubes, the eye-
brows, and the chin, and the hair of the head is thinned, and
the fealp becomes rough, and chopped, with deep fiffures.
The pulfe is {mall, flow, feeble, ‘as if moving through mud.”
The whole fkin becomes thickened and rough, and {mail livid
tubercles appear, more particularly on the tace, on the nofe,
aud about the ears: the nofe {wells and dilates, the lips grow
thick and prominent, and livid ; the earsenlarge, and become
red with a mixture of blacknefs, and ulcers form about their
bafe, the eye-brows grow prominent, thick, {mooth, and pen
dulous from their gravity, and of a divid or black colour; the
eyes of a dark orbrazem hue. This condition of the coun-
tenance, which fomewhat refembles the vifage of the lion,
gave origin to the name kontiafis. The teeth become
black ; the voice hoarfe, and ob{cure. At length fimilar puf-
tules and tubercles appear in the extremities, and every other
part of the body; much itching is fometimes occafioned,
and fcratching affords fome relief ; many thick and rough
ruge are alfo formed over the whore fkin, with deep fiffures,
which extend, in the feet, from the heel tothe middle of the
toes. As the difeafe increafes the tumours of the cheeks:
and chin, of the tocs and legs, ulcerate, and the ulcers dif-
charge a feetid fanies, anddo not heal; but new ones appear
one after another, and extend, until the nofe, the toes, fin-
gers, and even the hands and feet fall off. But even this
degree of difeafe, fays Aretwus, does not liberate the fufferer
from his fevere calamity and milerable life, although dif-
membered limb by limb: for the difeafe, like the animal
from which it derives its name, is characterized by longe-
vity. Yet fo weak and pufillanimous does the patient bee
come, that he ftill clings to life, although he avoids the fight
of friends, and receives no enjoyment whatever. The ap-
petite tor food is not greatly diminifhed, but che fenfe of talte
is loft, and neither food nor drink afford him anv gratifica-
tion: an infufferable languor and an unufual fenfe of
weight in the limbs opprefs him, but the fenfe of feeling in
every part of the body is nearly loit ; rabiofa ineft libido 5
yet every thing ia without pleafure ; eating and fafting, mo~
tion and reft, cleanlinefs and filth, are equally indifferent to
him, ‘The difficulty of breathing becomes extremely great,

amounting

ELEPHANTIASIS.

amounting to a fenfe of fuffocation, as if the patient were
ftrangled: and in this way life is frequently terminated.
(See Aretzi de Cauf. et Signis Morb. diétum. lib. 1i,
cap. 13. Aétii Tetrabibl. iv. Serm.i.cap. 120.) *

The ancients all agree in confidering the elephantiafis asa
cancer of the whole body, as well as in attributing it to the
generation of a melancholic humour, or black bile, of great
malignity, which contaminates the whole of the blood, and
is diflufed throughout the habit. They enumerate various
exciting’ caufes of this morbid condition of the body.
Among thefe the ufe of ftrong, vifcid, and indigeftible food
is much infifled upon; efpecially the ufe of falted meats, of
fith, and of affes’ fle/b, from which a thick and fluggith blood
was fuppofed to be generated. Climate is alfo faid. toge-
ther with this fort of diet, to influence the production
of the difeafe : whence Galen accounts for the frequent oc-
currence of elephantiafis at Alexandria, where the atmo-
{phere is hot, and often loaded with vapours. Hence alfo
Lucretius obferves,

«¢ Eft elephas morbus, qui propter flumina Nili
Gignitur /Egypto in media, neque preterea ufquam.”

Lib. 6.

Though this affertion of the poet be not ftriAly true, yet the
aifeafe appears to have originated chiefly in warm climates.
Pliny confidered the elephantiafis as peculiar to Egypt, and
obferves that it was not brought into Italy until the time of
Pompey. (Nat. Hift. lib. xxvi. cap. 1.) And Celfus re-
marks, that it was but little known in Italy in his time.
(De Med. lib. iii. cap. 15.) In later ages it has occurred to a
great extent in the fouth of Europe; and is mentioned by
travellers as ftill exiting there as well as in Arabia, Abyf-
finia, and the adjoining regions: it alfo occurs in the Wett-
Indies, as we fhall have occafion to mention more at large
below.

Contagion is another fource to which elephantiafis is at-
tributed. Itisnot tobe doubted that conta& with the dif-
eafed will excite elephantiafis, as in other chronic difeafes,
in which a morbid poifon is generated ; accordingly the dif-
order is mentioned as being frequently communicated by
cohabitation, either from an infected female to a found man,
or the contrary, or by the common intercourfe of hfe, In
the laft cafe it has been fuppofed to be communicated by ef-
fluvia, as in acute difeafes, and the air, in which the patient
breathes, is faid to be contaminated. (Avicenna, &c.) But,
this feems queftionable, both becaufe it is inconfiftent with
the general analogy, and becaufe the contagion does not ap-
pear to have been fo virulent, or to have extended itfelf with
the fame adtivity, as is obferved in contagious difeafes in ge-
neral, which infe& at a diftance. The difeafe has been
alfo obferved to be hereditary ; which has been attributed
to the contamination of the feminal fluids, by which the
foetus was engendered in difeafe. (Haly Abbas, &c.) But,
like other hereditary difeafes, or, more properly fpeaking,
like other difeafes, to which there isa connate predifpofition
in certain individuals, the elephantiafis is faid to have lain
dormant for one or more generations, and to have re-ap-
peared in the fucceeding ones.

‘Too much exercife, as well as too much imdolence, is faid
by Aétius to induce elephantialis, by contributing, as he
{uppofea, to thicken the blood. A thickened and arid con-
dition of the humours, indeed, is a leading fuppofition in
the pathology of the ancients in refpe&t to this difeafe;
and a dry and corrupt condition of the liver and {pleen is
affigned as the principal fource of this humoral corruption.
Hence caftration has been ferioufly propofed, as a remedy,

by which the habit might be rendered more moilt and ef-

j -
feminate, and its humidity retained. The author, jaf
quoted, obferves, that males are more liable to the difeafe thaa
females, and thofe efpecially about the age of puberty.

With regard to the cure of elephantiafis, it is admitted
univerfally by the Greek, Latin, and Arabian writers, that
the difeafe is incurable, except in the very commencement,
when its approach can fearcely even be fufpeGed. Nume-
rous expedients were practifed, however, with a view to re«
lieve it. Tor although we may ftretch our hand to the
miferable fuff rers in vain, fays Aétus, to leave them unaided
were an act of defpair and cruelty. ‘* Humanum enim et
plenum benevolentize fignum eft, in extremis etiam malis
ufque ad experimentum procedere, ad difficultatem affeétionis
compefcendam”’.

Moderate blood-letting from the arm is recommended to
be firft employed, and, after a few days, purging, by means
of glyfters, and colocynth. The whey of milk, and affes’
milk,- with other light diet, is then to be taken; and then
purging and vomiting, at intervals, by means of the black
hellebore, and {eammony, &c. (See Actus, loc. citat, cap.
122.) The fame writer occupies feveral chapters in the
enumeration of pills, and other internal medicines, proper
to be adminiftered ; and of liniments and cther fubltances
for external application, among which the dung of goats,
and other animals, was often recommended. Alun, fulphur;
nitre, vinegar, pepper, iris, &c. &c. were the remedies
chiefly depended upon, externally. The afhes of burnt
twigs, mixed with the fat of beats, as of the lion, panther,
&c., were alfo prefcribed, as linimente. (See Aretzi de
Carat. Morb. dictum, lib. ii. cap.13.) The fleth of the
viper was generally recommended as a remedy for the ele-
phantiafis. Actius calls it “* mirabilis elephantiafis reme-
dium ;”’ and it is faid by Aretzus to have been difcovered to
poffefs thofe remedial powers by accident; an infeGed per-
fon, expofed in a wildernefs, having, either from hunger, er
from a with to get rid of life, eaten a viper alive, and after-
wards recovered. Galen, and many fucceeding writers, have
recommended the ufe of vipers, prepared in various ways, as
beneficial in lepra, elephantiafis, and other difeafes of the
fkin. But ample experience has proved the inefficacy of this
medicine. (See Palmarius de Morb. Contag.) Dr. Willan
juttly remarks, that we canuot but diftruft the accounts of
the writers, who have more lately recommended the flefh of
vipere, ‘* when we read in them at the fame time, that equal
advantages accrue to the patient from living on pullets fed
with vipers’ flefh.”? (On Cutaneous Difeafes. Part ii. Gen.
Lepra. p. 142.)

Such is the account of the loathfome-and fatal diforder,
the elephantiafis, and the means of cure ufually reforted to,
as recorded by the ancients. In the later periods of Euro-
pean hiftory, efpecially in the tweifth and thirteenth centa-
ries, the fame difeafe fecms to have prevailed moft extenfively
throughout Chriftendom, more particularly in the fouth of
Europe; it was not, however, altogether confined to the
warmer countries, fince it was prevalent in England. Tt was
generally denominated /epro/y ; and from the numerous ul-
cerations, which were among its fymptoms, it was alfo called
Mortus Sti. Lazari, the d:feafe of St. Lazarus; and many
hofpitals, or lazarettos, were ere€ted for this difeafe alone.
According to Matt. Paris there were 2000 of thefe laza-
rettos in France, and 19,000 in Europe, in the thirteenth
century. (Hift. Engl. ad. ann. 1244.) ‘There were feve-
ral at the fame time in England; the principal or head of
thefe was in Leicefterfhire ; but it is faid, that the city of
Norwich alone contained five. But of this fubje& we fhall
treat more at large under the head of Leprosy. The vene-
real difeafe, for fome time after it was firft obferved, in 1493,

was

=

| eng e

NS

ELEPHANTIASIS.

was confidered as a varicty of the elephantiafis, or of the
Yaws; and itis conjefured by fome writers to have {prung
from that fource; as the leprofy is faid to have gradually
dilappeared, while Syphilis was diffeminated. See Sprengel.
Hitt. of Medicine (Gefchichte der Artzneykunde) vol. ii.
p- 660.

The elephantiafis feems to be at prefent nearly extin@ in
Europe. Inthe year 1755, a hofpital, called St. Lazare,
which had been eltablifhed trom time immemorial, is men-
tioned as exifting at Le Martigues, a fmall town in Provence,
in which perfons attacked with the /epro/y were fhut up.
The difeafe, as it occurred at that place and period, is faid to
have commenced with an elaftic {welling in the legs, with
infenfibilty of the fkin, gradually extending from the toes
to the knee; after which the veins became varicofe, the fkin
hard and f{caly, and then tuberculated. All thefe fymptoms
then appeared on the face, where the fin grew thick, form.
ing large wrinkles fullof {chirrous tubercles, *¢ which make the
poor wretches look frightful.” The fin, efpecially about
the joints, is next affected in the fame way. The patients
continued in this condition, with little fuffering, for years ;
the voice then became hoarfe, corroding ulcers of the palate,
and throat, and internal parts of the nofe, enfued, with foetid
breath, carious teeth, and a livid hue of the face. The
{chirrous tubercles then ulcerated, the bones beneath became
wearious, and in a few cafes the poor creatures loft their
fingers and toes. They became heétic, and fell into maraf-
mus, when the {mell of their per{piration was intolerable,
ard “ at length after about three or four years of fuffering,””
they died. (Scea letter from Dr. Joannis of Aix, in the

- Med. Obf. and Inquiries, vol.i, p. 201.) The great propen-
fity to venery was ftrongly exemplified in that hofpital ; and

the hereditary nature of the difeafe, to the fourth generation,
(when it feemed to wear out) was alfo obferved. It was
remarked too, ‘ that the hufband rarely communicates the
difeafe to his wife, born of healthy parents, though fhe may
bring into the world children that in time die of leproly ;”
which alfo concurs with the ftatements of the ancients,
There is at prefent a lazaretto, near Funchall, in the ifland
of Madeira, in which there were ten patients, labouring under
elephantiafis, in the year 1803, according to Dr, Adams.
We fhall {peak of the difeafe, as it was obferved in that hof-
pital, prefently.

In the warmer climates, the elephantiafis has been ob-
feryed, and frequently defcribed by phyficians and travellers,
during the laft (18th} century. Niebuhr has given an im-

» perfeét defeription of a malignant fpecies of leprofy, which

was prevalent in Arabia and Perfia, at the time of his jour-
ney into thofe countries, and which the natives denominate
Dsjuddam, and Mad:sjuddam ; but it would appear to be a
le(s fevere malady than the elephautialis, or lepra of the
Arabian writers. At Bagdat there were feveral barracks, in
one quarter of the town, into which all the leprous perfons
were compelled to retire by the magiftrate; but they were
allowed to go out every Friday, to beg alms in the markets,
It is faid, he remarks, tous renfermés qu’ils font, ils conti-
nuent leurs amours ; and he mentions the circumitance of a

“man, fhut up in the barrack, who contrived to infect .a

female, for whom he had a violent defire, by means of linen,
and then obtained an order for her imprifonment in the fame
place. (See Defcription de I’Arabie, tom. iii. p. 119.)
Bruce has alfo defcribed the elephantiafis as he obferved it
in Abyflinia, which, however, feems to have been principally
confined to the legs, and to refemble the e/ephas of Hely
Abbas, rather than the true clephantiafis. (Travels, book v.
chap. 2.)

The importation of this horrible malady into the Weft

Vor, KIL.

Indies, from Africa, appears to have been one of the punifh-
ments, which that abominable traffic, the flave trade, has in-
flied upon the inhabitants. ‘The fymptoms of the difeafe,
as detailed by Dr. Hillary, under the title of leprofy of the
Arabians, in his account of the difeafes of Barbadoes, eccord
fo accurately with the defcription given by the ancients, thet
his hiftory appears more like a tranfcript of the chapter of
Aretzus, or Activs, than a record of the obfervations of a
modern inquirer, in another climate. Dr. Hillary deferibes
two forms of the difeafe, which were alfo noticed by Haly
Abbas, (exclufive of the thick leg, or elphas,) in one of
which the limbs fall off from the joints; but in the other,
the ulcerations go on without this effe&. The former Dr.
H. calis the ‘ leprofy of the joints.’? (Obfervations on
the Air and Difeafes of the Ifland of Barbadoes, p. 322, &
335.—2d edit.) ”

Dr. Hillary, however, has defcribed another difcafe,
which is endemial in that ifland, under the title of ele-
phantiafis, having confounded the diflinétion between the
elephantiafis and elephas of Haly Abbas, and betweea
the elephantiafis of the other Arabian writers, and that of
the Greeks. Tne elephantiafis of Dr. Hillary appears to be
the elephantiafis of the Avabians generally, and the clephas
of Haly Abbas. Itis a difeafe confined to the leg, and
ufually ts one leg; which grows to a monftrous fize, the
v-ins becoming varicofe, and the {kin thick and fealy, with
filfures and chops upon the furface; but which affets the
funGtions and conttitution fo little, that patients often live
many years, fome have lived upwards of twenty, “ without
being fenfible of any other inconveniency of life, but that of
carrying along with them fuch a troublefome load of leg.’*
The feat of this difeafe is confined to the blood-veflels, cellu-
lar fubitance, and ‘kin, the mufcleés, tendons, and bones below,
being altogether unaffected. A great effufion or colleétion
ofa fatty and gelatinous matter, in the cells of the membrane,
conftitutes the bulk,of the difeafed limb: the'veins and arte
ries being alfo confiderably enlarged. he difeafe firft ap-
pears after a febrile paroxyfm, in which great-pain is felt in
the inguinal glands of the fide about to be affected. Hence
Dr. Hendy gave it the appellation of the ‘ glandular difeafe
of Barbadoes.’”? Dr. Rollo, in his treatife upon the fame
fubjeét, has properly noticed the miftake of D-. Hillary, ia
applying the term elephantiafis to this diforder? But this
error is general: the principal ufe of the term, in this coun-
try, at prefent, is its application to the thick ‘eg of this de-
{eription, which is often feen in perfons who have refided in
hot climates.

The true elephantiafis (of the Greeks) appears to have
firft vifited the ifland of Guadaloupe about the year 1730,
having been imported wich the negroes from Africa, ace
cording to Dr. Peyfonel, who has given a minute detail of
its progrefs and fymptoms, which agrees in all the leading
points with the defcriptions of the ancients. (See Philofoph.
‘TranfaQtions, vol. 1. part 1, for 1757, art. vii.) We fhall
here tran{cribe fome obfervations, rejative only to the conta-
gious origin of the difeafe, as it woud be fuperfluous ta
repeat the fymptoms, <* We were well affured,”’ fays M.
Peyfonel, ‘from our obfervations that the diftemper is cons
tagious and hereditary; and yet the contagion is not fo
ative, nor poifonous, as that of the plague, {mall-pox, nor
even as the ring-worm, itch, fcald, and other cutaneous
diforders: for; if-that were the cafe, the American colonies
would be utterly deftroyed; and thefe perfons fo infected,
mixed as they are in every habitation, would have already
infeéted all the negroes whom they come near.

“We believe, that this contagion does not take place, but
by long frequenting the company of the infected, or by

, 5A carnal

ELEPHANTIASIS.

carnal knowledge. Befides, we have obferved, that even
fuch long frequenting, or cohabiting with’ them, are not
always fufficient to communicate the difeafe; becavfe we
have feen women cohabit with their hufbands, and hufbands
with their wives, in the difemper, while one is found, and
the other infected. We fee families communicate and live
with leprous perfons, and yet never be infected ; and thus,
although experience, and the information of the fick, prove
the contagion, weare of opinion, that there muit be a par-
ticular difpofition in people to receive the poifon of the
leprofy.

‘As to what regards the diftemper’s being hereditary, it
is affuredly fo. We have feen entire families infe&ed; and
almoft every child of a leprous father or mother fall infen-
fibly into the leprofy; and yet, in feveral other families, we
have feen fome children found, and others tainted ; the fa-
ther has died of the difeafe, and the children grew old with-
out any infeGtion: fo that, though it is certainly heredi-
tary, yet we believe it is of the fame nature with thofe in
families troubled with the confumption, gravel, and other
hereditary diftempers; which are tran{mitted from father to
fon, without being fo very regular, as to affect every one
of the family.” In the female children of infeed parents,
the difeafe generally firft fhewed itfelf at the commencement
of menftruation, and continued flightly till they had had
one or two children, when the more fevere fymptoms began
to appear; but there was nothing regular in the period of
its occurrence in males.

The latef{ account of the elephantiafis, occurring in
Europe, is that which is given by Dr. Adams, in his “ Ob-
fervations on Morbid Poifons,’? 2d. edition, publifhed in
1807. The difeafe was minutely examined by that gentle-
man, in the lazaretto, near Funchall, in the ifland of
Madeira; and his defcription of its fymptoms refembles
that of his predeceffors, both ancient and modern, in the
general circumftances: there are feveral particulars, however,
in which his account differs from the hiftories detailed by
them. We have feen that the ancients and moderns concur
in afferting, that the venereal appetite is exceedingly in-
creafed, when the conftitution is under the influence of ele-
phantiafis. But the obfervation of Dr. Adams led him to
draw a conclufion dire&ly the reverfe of that juft flated.
For, on examining feveral young men, upwards of twenty
years of age, in whom the difeafe had commenced at or be-
fore the period of puberty, he found that they had no hair
on the chin and pubes, that the teftes were {mall, and evea
{carcely to be felt, and that the fcrotum, and all the organs
very much refembled thofe of a boy of fix or feven years old.
And in thofe men, who had been attacked by the difeafe,
fubfequent to the period of puberty, there appeared generally
a waiting of the tefticles, anda diminution of the beard and
hair of the pubes ; and one of them, a married mar, affured
him that he had loft the venereal defire.. Dr. Adams there-
fore concludes, ‘that all fuch boysasare attacked with the
difeafe, before the age of puberty, never acquire the diftin-
geithing marks of that change in the conititution ; on the
contrary, that the teiticles, forthe moft part, diminifh, and,
as far as can be colle&ted from their converfation, that they
retain the fimplicity of infancy in whatever relates to the
fexes ;”” and ‘*that fach as are affeed later inlife, gradually
lofe the power of procreation, as far as can be judged by
the changes which take place in the organs.” P. 267. 268.

Dr. Adams is difpofed to deny altogether the contagious
nature of the difeafe ;. partly from the confideration, that a
country mu be depopulated by it, if it were contagious ;
and partly from the faG&, that none of the nurfes in the la-
zaretto have fhewn any fymptoms of the difeafe, and. that

individual lazars have remained for years at home, without
infeGing any part of their family. Dr. Thomas Heberden
(in a paper publifhed in the Medical TranfaGtions of the
Coll. of Phyficians) has alfo contended for the fame point.
It is obvious, indeed, from all that has been written on the
fubjeé&t of elephantiafis, that, if there be contagion, it isnot
of a violent nature. It muftnot be omitted, however, that
the wife of the married lazar, juft mentioned, _ was alfo
Gifeafed, and that Dr. Adams heard of two other couple in
a fimilar condition; and alfo that the porter of the houfe
had become a lazar, fince his refiderce in the Jazaretto.

In addition to the fymptoms generally detailed, in the
hiftory of elephantiafis, Dr. Adams has ftated, that ‘‘in
the upper and anterior part of the thigh, nearly in conta&
with the lower part.of the ferotum, thereis, in almoft every
cafe, a firm (to appearance) glandular fwelling, moveable
and prominent, or concealed, according as the patient is fat.
or lean, or in proportion to the progrefs of the difeafe. It
is remarkable that none of the women are without it. In

“molt of the men thefe tumours are particularly promineni,

extending gradually upwards. In fome there are alfo ingui-
nal buboes. In every cafe the {wellings are indolent, never
giving pain, nor becoming difcoloured, nor fhewing any dif-
pofition to fuppurate.” P. 273. The defcription, which
the fame writer gives of the charaéteriftic tubercles of eles
phantiafis, is allo worthy of attention. ‘‘ Among the une-
quivocal marks,” be obferves, ‘* we may confider tubercles
about the face, particularly on the external ear, ale na/fi,
eye-brows, or forehead. Thefe tubercles, till an advanced
flage of the difeafe, are not only {mooth, but have for the
mo{t part a higher complexion than the. natural {kin, ap-
proaching nearer to the fanguineous hue, appearing as if femi-
tranfparent, fplendid as if the furface were fmeared with oil,
and, on a clofer examination, fometimes exhibiting {mall.
blood-veffels ramifying on their furface. At firft they rife
only a little above the fkin, have the natural colour of that
membrane, or are even paler. The circum{criptiomis irre-
gular, feldom circular, but befet with lateral projedtions,.
which, however, are not angular. The colour and eleva-
tion of the tubercles will, in moft inftances, remain ftation-
ary for a confiderable time; as they become redder, or in.
people of a fairer complexion, more tranfparent, they ae-

quire-the fplendour before-mentioned. Commonly the cen- -

tre becomes more elevated, and fo on towards the edges, fo
as to render the tubercle fomewhat rougher. They itll,
however, retain their {plendour, till they crack in one party.
in confequence of which the tubercle is fuffufed with a white
furfuraceous fubftance,”” &c. p. 271.

Dr. Adams fays nothing of the mode in which the eles
phantiafis proves fatal; he obferves, indeed, that ‘‘they,
for the moft part, feem to die of other complaints ;” he

does not mention the feetid breath, and carious teeth; and

was unable to difcover ulceration in the throat, although he
admits that the uvu/a difappears, and the os vomer is loft,
and the nofe therefore flattened. It is probable, indeed, .
that the fears of the ancients led them to exaggerate in their.
defcription of the humours of the difeafe, which they were
loath»to iaveltigate minutely ; and fomewhat of the fame ap--

prehenfions might have been felt by Hillary, Peyfonel, and:

others of the moderns, who have de(eribed it as not lefsloath-
fome. In the account of Dr. Adams, which is: illuftrated
by a portrait of a lazar, though it occafions deformity

enough, it certainly appears under much lefs hideousccloure. .

Method of Treatment.—It were almoit abfurd to talk of

the cure of a difeafe, which modern, not lefs than ancient,,

experience has uniformly denounced as incurable, when once
eftablifhed in the habit; and which has been daid to be com-
7 pletely

—eoSC OT, <_< a=

‘er

-

ELEPHANTIASIS.

pletely eftablifhed at the time when the unequivocal fymp-
toms of the difeafe firlt make their appearance. Both the
ancient and modern phyficians, however, concur in aflerting
the poffibility of curing it at its very commencement. Dr.
Hillary has given the moft ample direftions for the plan of
procedure both medicinally and dietetically.

“Tf the difeafe be taken in time,” he obferves, ‘‘ namely,
at the beginning, and firft appearance of its fymptoms, the
{pots above-mentioned, &c. we have fuflicient reafons to
believe it may be cured; and I have feen fome inftances of
its being cured. :

‘*¢ Notwithftanding that the feat of the venereal difeafe is
allowed to be chiefly in the expanfions of the membrana adi-
pofa vel cellulofa, as well as in this difeafe ; aud is principally
cured by the ufe of mercury, or different preparations of it ;
yet it is very remarkable that this difeafe is fo far from being
either cured, or relieved by it, that, on the contrary, it Is
greatly increafed, and all its fymptoms much aggravated by
the ufe of mercurials. I grant that it feems to abate the
diftemper for a little time, but it foon returns with almoft
double force and violence after it :\and antimony, or the belt

reparations of it, which are of little fervice in the former,
are found to be the molt efficacious medicines in the cure of
this difeafe, if properly given, and the difeafe be taken in
time.

«* When the above-mentioned [pots firfl appear, either of
a. yellowifh, or brownifh purple colour, in order to diftin-
guifh whether they are the true fpots of this leprofy, (the
lepra Arabum,) or they are {pots of another kind, which are
not uncommon in this climate, and look like them, but pro-
ceed from another caufe, and are of no bad confequence ;
anoint the fpots gently with a little oleum tartari per de/i-

_ guium, and a little after rub it well off, and if the fpots dif-
appear, and return not again, they are not leprous f{pots;
but if they remain, or foon return again after being thus
anointed and rubbed, they are the true leprous fpots, though
the patient finds himfelf perfe€tly well in all other refpects,
and may continue fo for many months. Wherefore it 1a ne-
ceflary to attempt the cure before the difeafe gains further

ound, and becomes inveterate.

‘To which purpofe, if the patient be of a fanguine ple-
thoric conftitution, it is advifable to bleed, to ten, twelve, or
fourteen ounces; after which an antimonial vomit fhould be
given; and then let them enter on the following courfe of
medicines, and continue it for two or three months.” This
treatment, it may be remarked, is-a copy of that recom-
mended by the ancients, from hypothetical notions of the
morbid condition of the humours in ejephantiafis, and was
probably repeated by Dr. Hillary from fimilar notions, with-

. out good grounds; for as the difeafe is altogether of a

chronic nature, and as it is well afcertained, that, in other
chronic cutaneous affeftions, general bleeding, and emetics
are altogether deftitute of utility, we may prefume that thefe
meafures had little influence in eftablifhing the cure, when
that was accomplifhed.

The following.are Dr. Hillary’s formule: R. /u/phuris an-
timonii pracipitatt, drachmas iit; mercurit calcinati levigati,
grana xxx; gummi guaiaci pulveris, drachmas iii; balfami
guaiaci quantum fufficit; olet /afafre, guttas xx; mifce,
fant pilule go: OF thefe pills the patient is directed to take
three every night, at bed-time, together with fifty drops of
the following tin@ure, and three ounces of the decotion.

_ The tinéture confifls of antimonial wine 3ii, aromatic
tinGiure 3{s ; and the deco@ion is as follows.

i radicis farfaparille, uncias iti ; corticis faffafre unciam ;
falis diuretici unciam dimidiam ; mifce, et coque, vale claufo,
in aque pure libris uifsad libras iifs, et cola; colature adde

tindure antimonit wnciam 3 aque juniperi compofile ancien cum
femifle ; facchari quantum fufficit. mifce.

Three ounces of this decoétion, with fifty drops of the
tin@ure, are alfo ordered to be taken every morning.

‘« This metbod,”? Dr. Hillary fays, ‘ fhould be continued
two months, or longer, if the fpots do nor entirely dilap-
pear before that time, for it is neceflary to continue them
for fome time after the fpots are gone off. And the {pots
fhould be rubbed well once or twice a day, with a warm dry
flannel cloth, firft holden a littke over the fumes of burning
fulphur, mixed with a little antimony, end daily continucd:as
long as the fpots remain. If the difeafe does not abate, and
the fpots, torpor, and numbnefs decreafe, it is fometimes
neceflary to repeat the antimonial vomit two or three times
during this courfe, efpecially when the difeafe is hereditary
or proves obftinate : and in this cafe it is neceflary to repeat
the whole courfe ever again two or three months after, how-
ever in the next {pring or autumn following, or both, if the
leaft fymptoms then appear, as we know no difeafe that is
more obftinate or more difficult to cure.

“ As to the dietetic part of the cure, it is not only ne-
ceflary that the patients live temperately, but there are feve-
ral things which muft be placed among the /edentia‘in this
difeafe, from which the patient muft abftain. They mu
religioufly abftain from all {wine’s flefh, and all fat meats,
and every thing that is oily, fat, or greafy, either in fauces
or other ways, and that not only during the time they are
under this courfe of medicines, but for many years after.
They may eat any fort of flefh meats at noon, that are not
too fat, too much falted, or too high feafoned, with roots,
greens, and plain fauces; but the more plain, fimple, and the
lighter, and more eafily digefted they are, the better: they
fhould be alfo very temperate in the ufeof wine and all fpirit-
ousliquors, and {triGly abftain from all kinds of malt liquors,
for they are by no means a proper drink in the hot climates,
ae they are too vilcidand glutinous a liquid, they require more
labour and aétion, in order to digeft and animalize them,
than can be well ufed here (in the Welt Indies); and as the
heat is great, and we perfpire much and foon,” &c. ** they
often do much hurt, as 1 have often obferved, and therefore
mention it here. Small punch, moderately acid, is a much
more proper beverage for the hot climates. Their diet alfo
mornings and nights fhould be light and eafily digefted, and
gently attenuating and diluting.

“© Thefe rules may feem to be too rigid and fevere to fome,’
but they are abfolutely neceffary, if the patient is obliged to
continue in a bot climate, and yet delires to recover his
health, and live free from this dreadful diftemper. It is
highly probable, that removing into a colder climate may
confiderably contribute to their recovery, and re-eltablifh-
ing their health, efpecially as a hot climate is the parent and
producer of this difeafe.””

Other writers confirm the flatement that mercury, the
effeGtual remedy for the venereal difeafe, which the clephan-
tiafis refembles in fome of its fymptoms, is ufciefs, if not ab-
folutely pernicious, in the latter. Dr. Joannis, fpcaking of
the difference between the two difeafes, remarks, that the
Jeprofy is not fo eafily communicated as fyphilis ; ‘* nor
will it yield to the fame remedies. On the contrary its viru-
lence is increafed by them, and they oiake it break out with
more violence. This has been particularly experienced,

_when, after due preparations, mercurial fri€tions have been

employed.’? (Med. Obf. and Inquiries, before quoted, p.210.)
And Dr. Peyfonel fays, that antivenereal remedies were of
no fervice, and * very often haltened the progrefs of the

difeafe.’?
Mr. Bruce procured a quantity of the infpiflated juice of
5&2 cicutay

ELE

cicuta, (the conium maculatum of Linneus,) prepared by
Baron Storck, at Vienna, which he adminiftered diligently
to fome perfons, labouring under the difeafe, in Abyffinia ;
but without any fuccefs. At Martigues, fulphur, both in-
ternally and externally, fudorifics, antifcorbuties, mercurials,
{weeteners, diluents, viper-broths and whey, were had re-
courfe to, but they had little or no effe@ ; fo that, when
D-. Joannis wrote, they contented themfelves with pref{crib-
ing a mildand moift dict, and left them to wait the laf mo-
ment which was to free them from their fufferings. In a
word, it is obvious that the moderns, with all their power-
ful additions to the catalogue of the Materia Medica, have
not been more fuccefsful than the ancients in the cure of
elephantiafis, and have been led by experience to follow the
plan, which they adopted, in refpe& to the dietetic courfe,
as a flender palliative. Dr. Adams, indeed, affirms, that a
generous diet certainly protraéts life, and renders it more
tolerable, according to the experience of the lazaretto in Ma-
deira; but he admits that all other remedies have proved in-
effectual (Loc. cit. p. 281.) It may be obferved, however;
that an aétive medicine, which has not long. been admitted
in‘o pra&tice, hes occafionally proved fuccefsful in the cure
of fome partial affeGions, which have fometimns been deemed
cancerous, and fometimes confidered as elephantiafis, namely,
the lupus, or noli me tangere ; which corrodes and deftroys by
ulceration the parts that it attacks. This medicine is the
arfenic, a preparation of which was introduced by Dr. Fow-
ler, of York, and which experience has proved to be a fafe
and valuable remedy, for feveral difeafes. Whether this fub-
ftance might prove beneficial in the early ftates of elephan-
tiafis is a queftion, which can as yet only be replied to on
conjeGure, deduced from a flight analogy.

The cure of the thick leg of warm climates, which is com-
monly at prefent called elephantiafis, is not profecuted with
more fuccefs, when it ia once eftablifhed, than the difeafe of
which we have juft been fpeaking. The chief meafures of
thofe phyficians, who have treated the diforder in thofe cli-
mates in its commencement, have been dire&ed to diminifh
the febrile paroxy{ms, by which it is preceded, by emetics,
cathartics, diaphoretics, and the ufual remedies of fever ; and
afterwards to ftrengthen the fyftem by the ufe of Peruvian
bark, the mineral acids, and the cold'bath. This method
Succeeds when the leg is not already grown large; but after-
wards, Dr. Hillary obferves, ** we can only fay with Rhafes,
that it is incurable ; and nothing but amputation can relieve
them from fuch a load of leg; but, alas! this does not re-
lieve the unhappy patient from the difeafe, unlefs the fever
be taken off alfo, as above ; for this operation has been often
performed, but always without removing the difeafe, for
the fever has certainly returned, and the morbid matter has
as conftafitly fallen upon the other leg, and produced the
fame effeéts.”” (Loc. citat. p. 316. ,

ELEPHANTINE, fomething that relates to, or partakes
of, the qualities of elephants.

The term is chiefly applied to certain books of the ancient
Romans, wherein were recorded the tranfactions of the em-
ae and the proceedings, aGts, &c. of the fenate. This

learn from Poilio and Vopifcus, in the life of the emperor
‘Facitus, where he obferves, that in the fixth prefs of the
Ulpian library, was kept one of thefe libri eclephantini;
wherein, for a long courfe of time, were written down the de-
crees and editts of thefenate. In fome of thefe books were
regiltered all the a&ts and proceedings of the fenate, and the
magiltrates of Rome ; in others, the proceedings and events
in the provinces, the armies, &c. There were about thirty-
five large volumes of them, as many as there were tribes.
them were likewife contained the births, and claffes of the

I

ELE

citizens, with the mufters, and all things belonging to the
cenfus, They are renewed every five years with the cenfors,
ana were all anciently kept in the erarium, or public trea-
fury, in the temple of Saturn. 3

Vigenere, and feveral others, believe thefe books to have
been called elephantine, by reafon of their enormous bulk.
but Loifel, on the feventeenth chapter of the eleventh book
of Aulus Gellius, gives us a different etymology ; and affures
us, they were called elephantine, becaufe compofed of ivory
leaves or tablets, which every body knows is a produ@tion
of the elephant. See Dirtycua.

Everuantine, in Ancient Geography, a town and ifland
of Egypt, on the Nile, about a femi-ftadium diitant from
Syene. This ifland is half a league long by a quarter wide,
Thetown defcribed by Strabo no longer fubfilts ; but a {mall
village is built upon its ruins, near to which is a fuperb gate of
granite, which formed the entrance of one of the porticoes of
thetempleof ‘Cnept.”? A building furrounded by thick walls
and rubbith formerly made a part of it ; an elevated rampart at
the point of the ifland ferved to defend it againft the inunda-
tion. The mlometer formed of a block of marble, fo favour-
ably fituated in this place, for difcovering the firft appearance
of the increafe of the waters, and for regulating the labours
of the hufbandman, is no more, a part of it being probably
buried under the fand and mud of the Nile.

ELEPHANTIS, a promontory of Afia Minor, on the
Bofphorus of Thrace, towards the northern part of the pro-
montory Caracion.

ELEPHANTOPUS, in Botany, fo named by Vaillant
from rAcdas, an elephant, and rss, the foot, becaufe, as he him-
felf informs us in the Memoires de l’Academie des Sciences
for 1719, of the form and pofition of the radical leaves in
E. feaber. The claffical meaning of the word, however,
is rather ivory-footed. Linn. Gen. 452. Schreb. 589.
Willd. Sp, Pl. v. 3. 2389. . Joffl. 178. Gaertn. t. 165.
Mart. Mill. Di@.v. 2. Clafs and order, Syngenefia Poly-
gamia-fegregata. Nat. Ord. Compofite, Linn. Corymbifere,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. | Common calyx many-flowered, permanent, of
three large, broad, acute leaves: partial four-flowered, ob-
long, imbricated ; its fcales lanceolate-awl-fhaped, pointed,
erect, four of them equal and longer than the reft. Cor.
compound, tubular: florets all perfe&t, four, or five, equal,
ranged ina fimple feries ; their petal tubular, with a narrow
limb, in five deep, nearly equal, divifions. Stam. Filaments
five, capillary, very fhort; anthers united into a cylindrical
tube. Pif?. Germen ovate, crowned; ftyle thread-fhaped,
the length of the ftlamens; ftigmas two, flender, fpreading.
Peric. none, except the permanent calyx. Szeds folitary,
compreffed ; down of five briltles. Recept, naked.

Obf. Gertner has rightly corre&ted the defcription of
Linnzus and Schreber, that the ¢ florets are ligulate,’? an
error fuppofed to have arifen from their two external feg-
ments being occafionally glued, as it were, together. This
miftake involved a much more important one, retained in
the Genera Plantarum, that “ this genus fhews there are
no limits between the flofcular (tubular) and femi-fiofcular
(ligulate) flowers of Tournefort ;”? which remark now falls
to the ground.

Eff.Ch. Partial calyx with four or five tubular florete,
all perfe&t. Receptacle naked. Down briftle-fhaped,

Linnzus defcribes two {pecies of this genus, Willdenow
fix, all natives of the Welt Indies, except the firft and origi-
nal one, E. /eaber, which grows in moiit fhady fandy places
in the Eaft Indies. * This 1s the Ana-Schovadi of Rheede’s

Hort. Malab. v. 10. 13. t. 7, who informs us that this Mala- '

bar name is equivalent to ‘the traces of an elephant’s foot,’”*
aa

x

ELE

as if the leaves had been trodden flat by the fteps of that
animal ; and that its appellation among the Bramins, Aftipada,
has the fame fignification. ‘This idea was adopted in the
generic name by Vaillant. The qualities of the herb are
flightly aftringent. Its root is woody and perennial. Leaves

chiefly radical, depreffed, elliptic-oblong, undulated, rough.

Stem a {pan or more in height, corymbofe. J lowers pale
crimfon, moft confpicuous for the large heart-fhaped rigid
leaves of the common calyx. We know nothing remarkable
of the remaining fpecies, fome of which have {piked flowers.
‘Their general habit is rough and rigid, like the above.

ELEPHAS. See Rurnantuus.

Exeraas, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Ethiopia,
above Egypt, near the Avalite gulf. Ptolemy. Arrian
calls it a promontory.

Exveenas, in Zoology, a genus of the Bruia order, in the
clafs Mammalia. The Linnean charaéter of the genus
confifts in having no fore teeth in either jaw ; elongated tufks
in the upper jaw only ; probofcis very long and prehenfile ;
and the body rather naked.

Of the elephas, or elephant, genus there isin the opinion
of Linnzus only one {pecies, and this, from its valt fuperi-
ority in fize to all other quadrupeds he was acquainted with,
she denominates maximus. Since the time of Linnzus we
are better informed concerning the natural hiftory of the ele-
phant tribe; and it appears at prefent there are fufficient
yeafons for believing not only in the exiftence of two, if not
three diftinét recent {pecies, but alfo one, perhaps two, or
even more, the remains of which are found only in a ftate of
petrifa@ion. Among the number of thefe it is fcarcely to
be queftioned, in our opinion, that the maximus (or recent
elephant) of Linnzus comprehends two dilti.€ kinds, and
that the remains of a third, an animal of the antediluvian
race, and entirely different from either, is very clearly afcer-
tained. ‘The remainder may require farther confideration.

To the attention beftowed on the purfuits of natural
hiftory in France we are in fome meafure indebted for the
afcertainment of the two former, but not entirely fo; and it
is not to the French naturalifts alone that we owe the dif-
covery of the third. It wasa fa& long fince obvious to
us, and very probably to many others, that from the ftruc-
ture of the grinders of the elephants brought to Europe for
the fake of their ivory, there muft be two diltin& animals
to which thefe diffimilar teeth belonged. And, whoever
has beftowed the leaft attention to the ftupendous remains
of the animal popularly called the behemoth, and by natu-
ralifts the mammoth, can on no very rational ground difpute
that there either does or has exifteda third kind of elephant,
admitting the latter as one. By the term elephant, as it
refpects the mammoth, we indeed wifh to fpeak with cau-
tion: it poffeffes fome charaéters which ought, perhaps, to
be confidered as generically diftinét from thofe -of elephas.
In this place we neverthelefs admit it under that denomina-
tion, and that not merely for the purpofe of argument,
but becaufe we know among the beft naturalifts of the con-
tinent, in the prefent period, it is fo confidered; and we
fhall not incautioufly place our folitary opinion againft this
general conclufion. Its fpecifical characters are obvioufly
diftin&t from either of the living kinds, and in its generical
diftinGtions it certainly approaches nearer to the elephant than
any ‘other race of animals known to us. Examples of the
teeth of both the firft mentioned kinds of elephants, of the
elephants’ teeth and tufks found at a confiderable depth in
the ground in various parts of the country, and alfo the re-
mains of the mammoth we poffefs in great variety, and from
a due confideration of thefe we believe ourfelves enabled to
decide the important fact, that there are at Jeaft two different

E*LE

fpecies of the elephant tribe, and the evident teltimony of
ae which has exifted at fome remote period of the
earth,

A valuable paper on the fubje& of the two firft appeara>
in the Memoirs of the French National Inftitute by Cuvier.
His obfervations are offered in a conclulive manner, and cor-
roborate our ideas with refpe@ to the two fpecies of living
elephants; the mammoth he admits as very diftin@ from
either, but as a {pecies of elephant. His remarks are the
refult of an examination of various fpecimens in the Ne-
tional mufeum. This colleGtion afforded him examples of
the ficulls of both fpecies of the living elephants, of which
we have only feen one, and the difference of thefe is very
remarkable. The two fpecies are named by Cuvier Capenjis
and Jndicus, the firft inhabiting Africa, about the Cape of
Good Hope, the other India. The African fort has the
front of the head convex and inclined, the tufks larger, and
the perpendicular layers of enamel, which, with the fofter
oficous matter, compofe the grinders, exhibiting on the top,
or worn furface, a number of rhomboidal fpaces, and which
are equally obfervable in a tranfverfe {ion of the tooth.
The elephant of Afia (Indicus) is larger: the front of the
full, inftead of being convex, is deeply concave, and the
upper part fo dilated as to exhibit two pyramidal eleva-
tions; and the grinders have the enamel layers difpofed in
the offcous fubftance in diftin& tranfverfe parallel lines, in-
ftead of rhomboidal compartments. The grinder of the
mammoth, we may add, has the upper furface divided into
eight, ten, or more diftin@ conic prominences, rifing at leaft
an inch above the furface, and difpofed tranverfely in pairs.
This laft has rather the appearance of the tooth of fome car=
nivorous animal than that of the elephant; and we rather ful-
pet, in contradi€tion to the current opinion, that its habits «
were different. See our article Mammoru.

From the confideration of {pecies, we muft defcend ta”
varieties, of which there are feveral in the ‘elephant tribe ;
fome of which may perhaps hereafter be admitted as diftingt
{pecies, as well as the former. The natural colour of the
common, or Indian, elephant is cinereous, from which they
fometimes vary to white. The latter colour has been faid,
in fome inftances, to arife from illnefs, or particular mala-
dies to which the animal is liable ; an affertion to which the
lefs degree of probability mult be attached, as we know the
high confideration in which the white elephants are held in
India. The elephants of the Cape are of a red, or reddifh
colour, as we are well affured, and in particular by Levail--
lant in his fecond journey through the interiér of Africa. -
But what we confider more remarkable and deferving of furs -
ther inveftigation, is that, in his fubfequent travels through
the fame parts, he {peaks of a race of elephants which never
have tufks, and the head of which is lefs elongated than the
other forts, This feems to point-out the-exiftence of a:
third living {pecies.

And lattly, while treating on this fubje&, we muft not
omit to mention that myfterious animal the fukotyro. "This
is the animal introduced to the notice of Europe by a de«
{cription and figure given in the works of Niewhoff, a
Dutch traveller, who fpent fome time in the Eaft Indies,
about the year 1563, and pretends to have feen it in the
ifland of Ceylon. To us it appears of the moft ambiguous
charaéter, and the reprefentation fo miferably defedtive,
that we cannot venture any opinion on its genera, except
that we believe it is not really what it profefles to be, an
animal of a new genus. It beara fome refemblance to the
elephant ; and the French writera even call it the dwarf
elephant (éléphant-nain) ; notwithftanding which it exhi-
bits no appearance of a probolcis 3. its fnout is rather thar ed

- the

ELEPHAS,

the hog, and, in point of fize, it correfponds. with the buf-
falo. The lefs confidence muft be repofed on the authori-
ties of the French writers in’ claffing this uncertain quadru-
ped with the elephants, fince itis obvious, they have never
feen the. animal, and it is ferioufly to be apprehended, we
allow more credit to Niewhoff for the exiftence of his fu-
kotyro than he really merits.

It has been our aim to point out the diftin@tive cha-
racters of the two f{pecies of elephant, capenfis and indicus, in
order to fhew that what we have heretofore been taught to
confider as a fisgle {pecies, does certainly comprehend two,
It would be improper to affirm the exillerce of more than
two living kinds, aithough we are inclined to think chere
muft be more.
bones, teeth, and tufks of elephants, found buried at va-
rious depths in the earth, and many ingenious remarks and
theories on this topic might be related. Few, however, of
thefe writers feem aware of thofe definitive chara&ters, by
which thofe remains are referable to different {pecies of the
guadruped race; and it is only tke obfervations of thofe
attentive to fuch charaGers we can repeat with confidence.
After this comment it is unneceflary to obferve, that thofe
relics which are generally confounded under the denomina-
tion of elephants’ teeth and bones, are, in our opinion, the
remains of more than one kind of animal. The obferver
fhould be cautious alfo in deciding between the recent and
foflil bones, or, in other words, between thofe which have
merely undergone a natural decay, from remaining long in
the earth, and thofe which are ftri€tly mineralized; the laft-
mentioned, fo far as our own obfervations extend, beirg in-
dicative of {pecies which are never found in a living ftate.
A more obvious inftance of this than the mammoth affords,
need not be adduced.

We fhall now proceed to the hiftory of the common ele-
phant of India, the largeft of all quadrupeds found at this
time in a ftate of nature. The fize of this animal, its
firength, and fagacity, have rendered it in ail ages the
admiration of mankind. The height of the elephant,
which is often exaggerated by the early writers, appears to
be from ro to 14. feet, and one of the larger fize is generally
about 16 feet long from the front to the origin of the tail.
The circumference of the neck 17 feet, and of the body
in its moft dilated part about 26 feet. The legs are
fhort and about fix feet in circumference, and the tail flen-
der, and about fix feet long.’ Thefe are the dimenfions of
the largeft elephants, and exceed thofe of the ordinary fize
by nearly one-third. In proportion tothe fize of the ele-
phant his eyes are very {mail, but they are lively, brilliant,
aad capable of great expreflion. The mouth appears be-
hind the trunk, which latter hangs between the two large
tufks, which are the principal weapons of the elephant’s de-
fence. The feet are fhort, clumfy, and divided. into five
hoofs, or toes; the tail is terminated by a few large hairs.
The teats in the female elephant are two in number, and
fituated at a {mall diftance behind the fore legs. But the
mol fingular organ of the elephant is the trunk, which is
at once the inftrument of refpiration, and the limb by
which the animal fupplies itfelf with food. The trunk, of
an elephant is about eight feet long, five feet in circum-
ference near the mouth, and eighteen inches near the extre-
mity. Itis a pipe of an irregular conic figure, and widened
at the end; the fuperior fide of the trunk is convex, and
furrowed tran{verfely, and the inferior fide is flat, and) has
two longitudinal rows of {mall protuberances. The upper
part of the trunk correfponds with the extremity of the
nofe in other quadrupeds, and the inferior as an upper lip,
including the noitrils. ‘Che trunk is a continued canal, di-

Writers often mention the difcovery- of.
y

vided into two cavities by a longitudinal partition: thefe
eavities afcend along the fore part of the upper jaw, where
they make a turn inwardly and defcend into the palate,
and then terminate in two feparate orifices; they have like=
wife each a feparate orifice at the end of the trunk. At the
place where the cavities make a turn, and before they enter
into the bones of the head, there is a moveable cartilaginous
plate fituated in fuch a manner as enables the animal to fhut
the canal, and to prevent the water, with which! it occa
fionally fills the crunk, from entering the paflage of the

nofe, where the organs ferving for the fenfation of {mell are-

placed: the tip is flattifh, circular, and furnifhed with a
projecting point, or flefhy moveable hook, of extreme fen-
fibility, and with which he can fuck up the [malleft objects
at pleafure, and which he manages with as much dexterity
as a man does his hand, taking up grains of corn, or the
{malleft pieces of grafs, and conveying them to his mouth.
When he drinks he thrufts his trunk into the water, and
fills it by drawing in his breath and exhaufting the air.
When the trunk ts thus filled with water, he can either
throw it out to a great diftance, or drink it, by putting the
end of the trunk in his mouth. In each jaw are four large
flat grinding teeth, with the upper furfaces flat, and ftriated
or fcored. The two large tufks, by fome called the horns
of the elephant, produce the fineft ivory. Thofe imported
into Europe are chiefly fuch as are found in the woods of
Africa. Inftances have fometimes occurred in which, on
fawing a toot, a mufket bullet has been found completely
imbedded in the central part without any vifible indication
on the outfide, the ivory having gradually grown over and
enclofed it. The ears are large and long, fituated clofe to
the head, and are commonly pendulous, but he can raife
them or move them with great facility, and frequently ufes
them asa fan, to cool himéelf, or to defend his eyes from
duft and infe&s,

The texture of the fkin is uneven, wrinkled, and knotty,
full of deep fiffures, and refembling the bark of an oak tree.
and in the fiffures, which are moilt, are fome briftly hairs.

Buffon {uppofed the ancients to have been deceived when
they tell us that the elephants cover like other quadrupeds,
and has brought forward a multitude of arguments to prove
its impoffibility, from the peculiar fituation of the parts of
generation in the female. The vagina being placed in the
middle of the abdomen feems to have been his princi-
pal objection, and hence Buffon afferts that the union of the
elephants could not be accomplifhed in the ordinary way of
quadrupeds. De Feynes and Travenier pofitively aflure us
that the fituation of the fexual organs confirms this faét, and
that thefe animals cannot intermix unlefs they have more time
and conveniency for the purpofe than other quadrupeds, and
that it is for this reafon they never evince their natural paf-
fions, unlefs in the enjoyment of full liberty and res
tirement. Many anecdotes on this fubje& are related by
travellers, and which in general tend to fupport the con-
jectures of Buffon; but from the obfervation of M. Blefs,
who was fecretary for the {pace of twelve years to the Dutch
government in Ceylon, M. Buffon was fo far convinced
both his judgment and the information he obtained had
deceived him, that in his fupplement he retraGts the opinions
advanced in the former part of his Natural Hiftory. The
obfervations of M. Blefs are to the following effeci: * I
have perceived (fays this writer) that the count de Buffon
is deceived’ with regard to the copulation of the elephants.
I know that in feveral parts of Afiaand Africa thefe ani-
mals, efpecially during the feafon of love, remain in the molt
inacceflible places of the forefts: but in theifland of Ceylon,
where I lived twelve years, the land being every whee ns

abite

ee

ee

staat oY ae maa

ELEPHAS.

habited, they cannot fo eafily conceal themfelves, and having
often examined them, I perceived that the female organ is fi-
tuated nearly under the middle of the belly, which would lead
us to think, with M. Buffon, that the males cannot cover the
females in the manner of other quadrupeds. However,
there is only a flight difference of fituation. When the fe-
male courts the careffes of the other fex, fhe proftrates her
fore legs only on the ground, and every difficulty is thus re-
moved. I can likewifeaffirm that the elephants go with young
about nine months, In the feafon of. love the males are
ftrongly chained for four or five weeks, and are, during that
period, fo furious, that their cornacks, or governors, cannot
come near them without danger. The domeftic female ele-
phant, on thefe occafions, fometimes make their efcape and
join the wild ones in the woods. Some days afterwards her
cornack goes in queft of her, and calls her by name, till the
comes. She fubmits with complacence, and allows herfelf to
be conducted home, and fhut up in the ftable. According
to the recent obfervations of Mr. Corfe, related both in the
Philofophical Tranfa&tions of London, and the TranfaGtions
of the Bengal Society, it appears, however, that the elephants
both couple and produce young in a ftate of domeftication.
In order to determine this experiment, a couple of elephants
wereput to rut in an inclofed {pace, where they had abundance
of food, and every necefflary accommodation. At firft they”
were only fociable, at length they became more familiar, and
began to fhew figns of fondnefs, by frequently carefling each
other with their trunks, and on the 28th of June, at night,
the expetations of their obfervers were fulfilled. They were
feen to cover like the horfe, and this was witneffed no lefs
than five times in the courfe of fixteen hours.

Elephants, even in a favage ftate, are peaceable and gentle
creatures, and are faid never to ufe their weapons but in de-
fence of themfelves or companions. Their focial difpofitions
are fo ftrong that they are feldom found alone, but march
always in large troops; the oldeft and moft experienced lead
the van ; the younger or lame cnes keep in the middle, and
thofe of a fecond rate, as to age, walk in the rear. The fe-

- males carry their young on their tufks, embracing them at

,

the fame time with their trunk. They feldom march-in
regular order but when they reckon the journey dangerous,
fuch as an expedition to cultivated lands, where they ex-
pect to meet with refiftance, on other occafions they are
lefs cautious: fome of them falling behind, or feparating
from the reft, but feldom fo far as to be without the reach
of affiftance, by alarming and affembling their companions.
Jt is dangerous to offer them the leaft injury ; for they run
ftraight upon the offender ; and although the weight of their
body be great, their ftepsare fo large, that they eafily outrun
the {wifteft man, whom they either pierce with their tufkts, or
feize with their trunk, dart him into the air like a-ftone, and
then trample him wnder the feet. But they are faid never
to attack any perfon unlefs provoked. However, as they

are extremely fenfible and delicate with regard to injuries,

it is always prudent to keep out of their way. ‘Travellers,
in countries they inhabit, kindle large fires, and beat drums
during the night, in order to prevent their approach. After
being once attacked by men, or falling into an ambuhh, they
are faid never to forget the injury, but feek every oppor-
tunity for revenge. As they are endowed perhaps with
a more exquifite fenfation of fmell than any other animal,
owing to the great extent of their nofe, they can {cent a
man at a great diftance, and trace him by his footfteps.
Elephants are peculiarly fond of the banks of rivers, deep
vallies, and marfhy grounds, efpecially in the depths of foretts.
‘They delight in drawing up water into their trunks, when
they do not drink it, and amufe themfelves in dafhing the

water around; they cannot endure cold, and are equally
averfe to an excefs of heat: in order to avoid the feorching
heat of the fun, they retire to the thickeft and moft thady
parts of the foreft. The bulk of their bodies is fo enormous
that they do not often go into deep waters. The ordinary
food of the elephant confifts of roots, herbs, the tender
branches of trees, frnit, and grains, and they abhor animal
food. When any of them difcovers a fine pafture, he invites
his companions to the repaft, and. as they devour a large
quantity of food in a fhort time, they are always fhifting
their pafture. When they meet with cultivated grounds
they make prodigious defolation, and deftroy more planta
by treading them down than they ufe for nourifhment,
which taft is very confiderable, and amounts to about 150
pounds of herbage every day. As they conftantly graze mn
large trcops they lay wafte whole ficlds in an hour. The
Indians and negroes employ every art to prevent them from
vifiting their cultivated lands, by making great noifes and
burning large fires rowed their fields. However, thefe pre-
cautions are not always fuflicient to prevent the elephants
from viliting them. They chafe away the domettic animals,
put the inhabitants to flight, and fometimes throw down their
habitations. Elephants are hardly fufceptible of fear; the
only things which can furprife them, or ftop their courfe, are
fire works, fuch as fquibs, crackers, &c. the effeéts of which
are fo fudden and fo quickly repeated, that the elephants
frequently turn back, and when one runs, all thie reft follow
his example.

Although the focial difpofition in the .clephant be re-
markable, in the rutting feafon their docility gives place to the
ftronger impulfe of love. They fteal off in couples to the
molt fecret parts of the foreft. ‘The elephant, when it comes
into the world, is as large asa young boar, and eqaal to
an ox in fize when fix months old. The young fuck the
teats of the female with the mouth, and not the trunk, as
erroneoufly reprefented,

The manner of taking and taming elephants merits atten-
tion. In forefts, and fuch places as are frequented by ele--
phants, the Indians choofe a {pot, and inclofe it with {trong
palifadoes: they ufe the largelt trees as the principal ftakes,
to which are fixed fmaller ones, in a tranfverfe dire&tion.
Thefe crofs trees are fo fixed as to allow aman to pafs ealily
through. ‘There is likewife a large entrance left for the ele-
phant, over which, is fufpended a ftrong’ barrier, which is
let down afterwards as foonashe enters. [n order to decoy
him into the enclofure, the hunters take along with them a
tame female in feafon, and travel about till they come fo near
that the cry of the female can reach the male, whom they
previoufly obferve in the forelt; then the guide of the fe-
male makes her give the cry peculiar to the feafon of love,
to which the male inftantly replies and approaches. The
guide then makes the female proceed towards the artificial
inclofure, repeating her cries as fhe proceeds ; fhe enters the
inclofure, the male follows her, and the Indians immediately
fhut the port behind him.. He no fooner difcovers that he
is enfnared than his paffion for the femalg is converted into
rage and fury. The hunters entangle him with {trong ropes,
and bring two or three tame elephants to pacify him, andin
a word, by the application of torture and carefles, reduce him
in a few days to obedience... i

There are many other methods of catching elephants:
Inftead of making large inclofures with palifadoes, like the
kings of Siam and other monarchs, the poor Indians are con-
tent to adopt a molt fimple method; they dig deep pits in the
roads, frequented by elephants, covering them with branches
of trees and turf, into which the elephants are ici pee

) hg

BE EPI AS. :

by their enormous weightin attempting to pafs, and being
unable to extricate themfelves, are eafily taken. .

The elephant, when tamed, isthe mof friendly and obe-
dient of ail animals, andis entirely attached to the perfon
who-feeds and takes care of him. He readily underftands
figns and the founds of his mafter’s voice, and diftinguifhes the
language of paffion, command, and fatisfaction. He receives
his orders with attention, and executes them with alacrity
and prudence. He eafily Jearns to lower his body for the
convenience of thofe who mount him. He careffes his friends
with his trunk. With this wonderful organ he alfo lifts
burdens, and affifts thofe who are loading him in laying them
onhis back. ‘When yoked in a cart or waggon, he pulls
equally and cheerfully, unlefs abufed, or injudicioufly chal-
tied. His guide is generally mounted on his neck, with a
{mall iromrod fharp at oneend, and with this hé direéts his
motion by pricking him on the ears and hgad, but more
frequently it is fufficient to direé&t him by the voice. A
tame elephant will do more labour than fix horfes, and he
requires a quantity of food in proportion. They are the
principal bealts of burden in many parts of Africa and the
Eaft Indices. Theycarry facks and bundles of all kinds on
their neck, back, andtufks. They never lofe or damage
any thing committed to their care; and it is faid, they will
ftand on the edge of a river, take bundles off their neck and
tufks, and lay them carefully ia any partof the boat de-
fired, and try with their trunk whether they are properly
firuated, andif they be loaded with cafk:, they go in quelt
of ftanes te prop them, and prevent them from rolling.

The elephant is not only the moft traétabie, but the moft
inte'liyent of animals, fenfible of benefits, refentful of inju-
ries, and endowed even witha fenfe of glory. Some extra-
ordinary inftaoces of this, though often related, may bear
repetition. In Indiathey were once employed in launching
fhips ; one was dire€ted to force a veffel of large fize into the
water, the work proved fuperior to his ftrength, his matter,
with afarcaftic tone, defired the keeper to take away this
lazy beaft and bring another; the poor animal inftantly re-
peated his efforts, fra€tured his fkull, and died on the {pot.
The celebrated ftory of the taylor at Delhi ts recorded as a
remarkable example of the elephant’s fagacity. The ele-
phanr, pafling along the ftreets, put his trunk into the win-
dow of a taylor’s fhop, where feveral people were at work,
one of whom pricked the end with his needle; the beaft paffed
‘on, but in the firft dirty puddle filled his trunk with water,
andon his return difcharged it over thofe who offended him,
and fpoiled their work. This is related by Ludolph. (Hift.
ZEthiop:) who alfo gives the folowing anecdote. An elephant
at Ad{meer, which often pafled through the market, as he
swent by a certain herb-woman always received from her a
mouthful of greens. At length he was feized by one of
his periodical fits of rage, broke from his keeper, and run-
ning about the market, put the crowd to flight. Among
others, was this woman, who in her hatte forgota little child
fhe had brought with her, The animal recolle&ed the {pot
where his benefaétrefs ufually fat, and taking the infant up
gently with its trunk, removed it to a place of fafety.

Buffon relates, that afoldier at Pondicherry, who was ac-
cuftomed, whenever he received his portion of provifions, to
convey a certain guantity of it to one of thefe animals,
having one day drank rather too freely, and finding birnfelt
purfued-by the guard, who were going to take him to prifon,
took refuge under the elephant’s body and fell afleep. In
vain didthe guard try to force him away from this afylum,
asthe elephant protected him with his trunk. ‘The next
morning-the foldier, recovering from his drunken fit, fhud-

dered with horror to find himfelf ftretched under the belly

/

of thishugeenimal. The elephant, which, without doubt,
perceived the man’s embarrafiinent, -careffed him with his
trunk, in erder to infpire him with courage, and make-hin
underftand that he might now depart in fafety.

In the memoirs of the French Academy of Sciences, we
are told the following circumitance. A painter was defirous of
drawing the elephant which was kept in the menazeric at Ver~
failles in an uncommon attitude, namely, that of holding his
trunk raifed up in the air with his mouth open. The painter’a
boy, in order to keep the animal in this pofture, threw fruit
into bis mouth, but asthe lad frequently deceived him and
made an offer only of throwing him the fruit, he at lait
grew angry, andas if he bad known the painter’s intention
of drawing him wasthe caufe of the affront, inftead of re-
venging himfelf on the lad, he turned his refentment on
the mafter, and taking up a quantity of water in his trunk,
threwit upen the paper on which the painter was drawing,
and fpoiled it,

At the Cape of Good Hope it iscuftomary to kill thefe
animals for the fake of their teeth by the chace. Three
horfemen well mounted aud armed with lances attack an
elephant alternately, each relieving the other as they fee their
companion preflcd, till the beaft is fubdued. Three Dutchmen
(brothers, ) who had made large fortunes by this bufinefs,
had determined to retire to Europe and enjoy the fruits of
their labours; but refolved before they went, to have a laft
chace by way of amufement; they met with their game,
and began in the ufual manner; but unfortunately one of
their horfes feil down and flung its rider; the enraged eles
phant infantly feized the unhappy man with its trunk, flung
him upto a valt height in the air,and received him on one of
its tufks ; then turning towards the two other brethren, as if
it were with an afpect of revenge and infult, held out to
them the impaled wretch writhing on the bloody tooth.

By the ancient Indians, elephants were much ufed in war.
Porus, the Indian monarch, is faid to have oppofed the paflage
of Alexander overthe Hydafpes with eighty-five elephants.
A number of thefe taken by Alexander were afterwards, as
is recorded, fent into Greece, where Pyrrhus employed them
fome years after againft the Romans in the battle of Taren-
tum. Boththe Greeks and Romans foon learnt to get the
better of thefe monitrous animals; they “opened their ranks
and allowed them to pals through; neither,did they attempt
to hurt them, but endeavoured to kill their guides. Now that
fire-arms are the principal inftruments of war, clephants, who
are terrified at the noife and flame, inftead of being ufeful in
a charge, would tend only to embarrafs an army. However,
in Cochin and other parts of Malabar, and alfo in Tonquin,
Siam, and Pegu, where fire-arms are little underitood, they
are ftill ufed in battle. The guide fits altride upon the neck,
and the combatants fit or ftand upon the other parts of his
body. They are more commonly ufed in thofe provinces of
India where the ufe of fire-arms prevails, for fording rivers,
and carrying magazines, military cheits, or even the field.
pieces in {wampy grounds, where they cannot readily be
drawn by horfes. In croffing rivere after the keepers have
loaded them fufficiently, (and they carry from three to four
thoufand weight,) they faften ropesto them, of which the
foldiers taking hold, either {wim or are drawn acrofs the
river. They are alfo ufefulin foreing open the gates of a
city or garrifon, or forcing any entrance, to prevent which,
moft of the garrifons in India have large {pikes ftuck in their
gates that proje& to a cenfiderable diitance.

Elephants are however retained by princes in India, ra-
ther for the purpofes of luxury and magnificence than any
real utility, and the expence of keeping them is prodigious.
The greateft care is taken in the management and ae er:

e

ELEPHAS.

of thefe animale, which after their daily feeding, bathing,
oiling, and rubbing, are often painted about the ears and head
with various colours, andtheirtufks furrounded with rings
of gold and filver. When they appear in ftate to grace pro-
ceffions or other ceremonies, they are cloathed in the mot
fumptuous trappings. It is faid to be not an uncommon
circumitance, if a nabob is difpofed to ruina private gen
tleman, to make him a pretent of an elephant, which he is
afterwards obliged to maintain at a greater expence than he
can afford; by parting with it, he would certainly fall under
the difpleafure of the grandee, befides forfeiting ail the
honour which his countrymen think is conferred upoo him
by fo refpeGtable a prefent. That the elephant lives to 4
great age is not unknown; ina ftate of flavery and labour,
fome have been faid to live from one hundred to one hundred
and thirty years; whether, as fome writers aflert, in its ftate
of wildnefs, it lives to the age of two hundred years cannot
eafily be determined; they are alfo faid not to attain their
full growth till they are thirty years old, and that their pro-
pagative abilities do not fail at the age of one hundred and
twenty. In Africa, where elephants are far more numerous
than in Afia, the natives hunt them forthe fake of their ficth
as well astbeivory of their tufks. The trunks they efteem
a delicious morfel. So numerous are the herds of elephants
in fome parts of Africa, that the natives are compelled to
live in fubterraneous dwellings to avoid them. ‘Their tufks,
which are found in the woods by the negroes, form an article
of immenfe commerce in Congo and Guinea, and alfo in
Acra, Ante, Benin, Rio de Calbari, and on the Gold
Coatt.

The ancients held the elephant in high veneration for his
fagacity. ‘Uhey pretended that he underftood the language
of men, and, what was infinitely more to its honour in their
ideas, the worfhip of the gods: they adored the fun and
moon, and offered fupplication for favours, and gratitude for
benefits beftowed. The mcderns entertain other notions,
and afcribe it to a fuperiority of intelle& over the whole
brute creation: for it is not infliné&t merely, but reafon
which they allow the elephant to poffefs. From the ob-
fervations, however, of our countryman, Mr. Corfe, whofe
refidence in India afforded him an opportunity of inveftigat-
ing the fubje&t with exa€tnefs, it does not appear that the
elephant is altogether entitled to that elevated character
with which it has been fo frequently honoured; and that
neither its docility nor its memory can be allowed a very high
rank, when compared with thofe of fome other animals ;
and that the fcrupulous delicacy which, it was pretended,
forbad all public demonftration of its natural paflions, is a
mere fable. A female elephant has been known to forget
her young one, after having been feparated only for the
fhort {pace of two days, and to repel its advances: and an
elephant, alfo, which had efcaped from its confinement, has
again fuffered itfelf to be trepanned, and reconducted to its
former {tate of captivity.

The account alluded to is given by Mrs Corfe in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaétions for the year 1799, and cannot fail
to prove highly conclufive and fatisfaGtory to every curious
reader. r. Corfe obferves, that both male and female
elephants are divided by the natives of Bengal into two
cafts, namely, the Koomareah and the Mergee. The firft
confifts of the large and full-bodied kind ; the fecond, of the
more flender, with longer legs and thinner trunk in propor-
tion: it is alfo a taller animal, but not fo flrong as the
former. A long trunk is always confidered as a great beauty
in an elephant ; fo that the koomareah is preferred, not only
on this account, but for his fuperior flrength in carrying
burthens, &c. Many indillinét varieties are again produced

Vou, XI.

from the intermixture of thefe two breeds. The torrid zone
feems to be tke natural clime of the elephant, and the moft
favourable for the produétion of the largeft and hardie&
race ; and, when this animal migrates beyond the tropics,
the fpecies degenerates. On the coafts of Malabar, cle-
phants are taken as far north as the tertitories of Ccorgah
Rajah; but thefe, according to Mr. Corfe, are much in-
ferior to the Ceylonefe elephant.
“ The tufks in fome female elephants,”’ fays Mr. Corfe,
* are fo {mall as not to appear beyond the lip; whilft in
others, they are almoft as large and long as in one vanety of
the male, called mooknah. The gricders are fo much alike
in both fexes, that one defcription may ferve for both,
The largeft tufks, and from which the betft ivory is fupplied,
are taken from that kind of male elephant, called daustelah,
from this circumftance, in oppofition to mooknah; whofe
tufks are not larger than thofe of fome femal-s. An ele~
phant is faid to be perfect, when his ears are large and
rounded, not ragged or indented at the margin; his eyes
are of a dark hazel colour, free from fpecks; the roof of
his mouth and his tongue without dark or blackith {pots of
any confiderable fize; his trunk large; his tail long, with
a tuft of hair reaching nearly to the ground. There mut
be five nails on each of his fore-feet, and four on each of the
hind ones; his head well fet on, and carried rather highy
the arch or curve of his back rifing gradually from the
fhoulder to the middje, and thence defcending to the i fer-
tion of the tail; and all his joints frm and ttrong. In one
variety of the elephant, the tufks point-downwards, pro-
jeGting only a little way beyond the trunk. The tufks of
the elephant are fixed very deep in the upper jaw; and the
root of the upper part, which is hollow and filled with a
core, goes as high as the infertion of the trunk, round the
margins of the nafal opening to the throat; which opening
is jult below the protuberance of the forchead. Through
this opening the elephant breathes, and by. its means he
fucks up water into his trunk: between it and the roots of
his tufks there 1s only a thin bony plate. The firt or milk
tufks of an elephant never grow to any contiderable fize,
but are fhed between the firft and ‘fec nd year,,when not
two inches in length. The time at which the tufks cut the
gum varics confiderably: fometimes a young clephant has
his tufks at five months old, and fometimes not till feven.
Even in a feetus, which has arrived at its full time, thefe
deciduous tufks are formed. A young elephant fhed one of
his milk-tufks on the 6th of November, 17¢0, when ab ut
thirteen months old; and the other on the 7t of December,
when above four months old. ‘Two months afterwards, the
permanent ones cut the gums; and on the 19th of April,
{79t, they were an inch long. Another young elephant
did not fhed his milk-tufks til he was fixteen months old;
which proves that the t:me of this procefs varice confider-
ably. The permanent tufks of the female are very {mal’,
compared with thofe of the male; and do not take their rife
fo deep in the jaw. The largeft elephant tufks Mr. Corfe
ever faw in Bengal did not exceed the weight of 72 pounds
avoirdupois; at Tiperah, they feldom exceed 50 pounds
each. Both thefe weights are very inferior to that of the
tufks brought from other parts to the India Houle, where
fome have weighed 150 pounds each. Thefe, Mr. Corte
fufpeéts, were from Pegu. The African elephant is faid to
be fmaller than the Afiatic ; yet the ivory-dealersin Loudon
affirm that fhe largeft tufks come from Africa, and are of a
better texture, and lefs liable to turn yellow than the Indian
ones: a circumftance which corroborates the truth of the
{pecifical diftin@tion between the Afiatic and African ele-
phante, The increafe of the tufks arife from. circular layers
5B of

ELE

of ivory applied internally, from the core on which they are
formed, ffmilar to what happena in the horns of fome ani-
mals. The grinders of elephants may be cenfidered as com-
pofed of feveral diftin@ lamine or teeth, each covered with
its proper enamel ; and thefe teeth are merely joined to each
other by an intermediate fofter fubftance, ating as a cement.
This ftruéture, even at firft glance, mui appear very cu-
rious, being compofcd of a number of persendicular laming,
which may be confidered as fo many teeth; each covered
with a ftrong enamel, and jemed to one another by the
common offeous matter: this, being much fofter than the
enamel, wears away fafter by the maftication of the food;
and in a few months aiter thefe tceth cut the gum, the
enamel rifes confiderab!y higher, fo that the furfaee of each
grinder foon acquires a ribbed appearance, as if originally
formed with ridges. The number of thefe teeth, or pro-
portions, of which an elephant’s grinder is compofed, varies
from four to twenty-three, according as the animal advances
in age; fo that the grinder, or cafe of teeth, ina full-grown
elephant is more than fufficient to fill one fide of the mouth.
The thape of the grinder of the lower jaw differs from thofe
of the upper, which are very convex -on the back part;
whereas the lower has a bent or curved dircétion, adapting
itfelf to the fhape of the jaw, and is concave on the furface,
The grinders, like the tuiks, are already formed even in the
very young animal. The firft fet of grinders, or milk-teeth,
ezin to cut the gum eight or ten days after birth; they are

not fhed or caft as the milk -tufks are, but are gradually
worn away during the time thofe of the fecond fet are coming
forward. Mr. Corfe could not afcertain the exa& time at
which the fecond fet of grinders makes its appearance; but
when the elephant is two years oid, the fecond fet is then
completely in ufe. At about this period the third fet be-
gins to cut the gum; and from the end of the fecond to the
beginning of the fixth year, the third fet comes gradually
forward as the jaw lengthens, not only to fli up-this addi-
tional {pace, but alfo to fupply the place of the fecond fet,
which is, during the fame period, gradually worn away.
From the beginning of the fixth to the end of the ninth
year, the fourth fet of grinders comes forward, to {upply the
gradual walte of the third fet. After this period, other fets
are produced ; but in what proportion, and in what time, is
not yet afcertained: but it is reafonable to conclude that
every fucceeding grinder takes a year longer than its prede-
ceffor to be completed; and confequently that the fifth,
fixth, feventh, and eighth fets of grinders will take from five
to eight years (and probably much longer) each fet, before
the pofterior lamina has cut the gum. ;

The curious reader, defirous of farther information on the
hiftory of elephants, may confult the following, among other
valuable publications on the fubje&, with advantage:
“¢ Defcriptio nova Elephanti,”” &c. P. Gillius, 1562, 1565,
(feorfim edita 1614); ‘* Hiftoria Elephanti,’’ J. Pretorius,
1607; Elephas, das ift, Hiftorifcher und Philofophifcher
Difcurs vondem Elephantem,” C. Horn, 1629; * L’Hif-
toire des Eiephants,” S. de Priezac, 1650; ‘ Elephas
Brutum non-brutum,” &c. J. Lipfius, 1650; -‘* An Ac-
count of taking and taming Elephants in Zeylon,”’ Strachan,
Phil. Tranf.; ‘* De Elephantis,’? &c. C. Cuperus, 1719;
«¢ Sur un Elephant qui a vecu a Naples plufieurs Années,’
Mem. Fr. Acad.; ‘ Gefchichte des Elephanten,’”? Berl.
17773 ‘ Account of catching wild Elephants at Tipura,”
Corfe, Bengal Tranf., &c.

ELEPORUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in
Brutium.

ELERA, a town of Afia, in Batanza, a country of
Syria. Ptolemy.

ELE
ELERO, in Geography, a river of Piedment, which runs

into the Tanaro, near Carri.

ELESCHEYVI, a town of Roffian Siberia, in the go-
vernment of Tobolfk, on the Tchulim; 84 miles E.N.E. of
Tomik.

ELEVATIO, in Profedy, the fame as arfis.
Arsis.

Exevatio, Arfis, in Mufic, the lifting up the hand or
foot in beating time, ferves to mark the unaccented parts of
a bar, and ts called the up, or that ta& or portion of a bar
which occupies the fecond or fourth part cf a meafore. Ic
was the contrary with tbe ancients. An elevation of voices
in finging, is aicending to the acute.

Is the Roman Catholic church, the lifting up the hoft or
body of our Saviour is called clevatio, or the elevation, for
which there is a particular fervice. me

ELEVATION, the altitude or height of any thing,
See ALTITUDE. :

The word is formed from elevare, to raife or lift up.

Evevation ofa Star, or other point, in the fphere, is
an arch of the vertical circle, intercepted between {uch far,
or other point, end the horizon.

Hence, as the meridian is a vertical circle, a meridian al-
titude or elevation, 2. e. the elevation of a point in the me-
ridian, is an arch of the meridian, intercepted between that
point and the horizon. Y

Exvevation of the Pole, denotes the altitude of the pole
above the horizon of any place, or an arch of the meridian,
intercepted between the pole and the horizon.

Thus, in Plate X11. Affronomy, fig. 102, A Q being fup.
pofed the equator, H R the horizon, H Z PN the meridian,
and P the pole; P R is the elevation of the pole.

Tn which fenfe elevation ftands oppofed to depreffion or
depth. See DEpression.

The elevation of the pole is always equal to the latitude of
the place; that is, the arch of the meridian intercepted be-<
tween the pole and the horizon, is always equal to the arch
of the fame meridian, intercepted between the equator and
the zenith. ‘Thus, the north pole is elevated 51° 32! above
the horizon of London; and there 1s the fame dillance, or
number. of degrees, between London and the equator; fo

See

‘that London is likewife in 51° 32’ ofwnorthern latitude.

To obferve the elevation of the pole of any place, fee
Poxe and Larirupe.

Evevation of the Equator, is an arch of the meridian,
lefs than a quadrant, intercepted between the equator and
the horizon of the place.

Thus AQ, as before reprefenting the equator, H R the
horizon, P the Pole, and HZPWN the meridian; HA is
the clevation of the equator. See Equator.

The elevations of the equator, and of the pole, together,
are always equal to a quadrant; confequent!y, the greater
the elevation of the pole, the lefs the elevation of the equator,
and vice ver/a. :

Thus, in the figure ju cited, PA is fuppofed by the
conitru@tion a quadrant, and HA+AP4+-PR a femi-
circle; confequently, HA + P R is a quadrant.

Exevation of the Equator, to find the. Find the eleva-
tion of the pole, after the manner hereafter direted, under
the article Poxe.

Subtraé the elevation found from a quadrant, or 90°;
what remains is the elevation of the equator. Thus, the
elevation of the pole .51° 32’, being fubtraéted from 90°;
leaves the elevation. of the equator 38° 28’.

Exevation, in rchite@ure, is the orthographic projec=
tion of an edifice, or objeét, by a fyftem of rays parallel to
the horizon. Hence its’ ule in defcribing the vertical Baris

©

ELE

of objects, particularly when thefe objeAe confit of planes,
afd when thefe planes are parallel to the plane of proje€tion,
By the ufe of plans and elevations, we are enabled to com-
municate our ideas of a defign to others, who are thereby
enabled to put them in pradtice.

Exeyarion, inthe Lomifh Religion, is applied to that
part of the mafs wherein the prieft hoifts or raifes the hof,
with the cup above his head, for the people to adore it, after
having firft confecrated and adored it himfelf.
© Whilft. the prielt ofliciates at mafs, a bell is rung at the
elevation, to apprife the people to caft their eyes upon their
tiew-formed Saviour and adore him.

St. Lewis decreed, that they fhould fall on their knees at
the elevation, in imitation of certain religious whom he does
not name. ‘ihe Chartreux, and the religious dela Trappe,
flill obferve this ceremony of proftrating themfelves at the
elevation.

Evzevyation, Angle of, in Mechanics, is the angle ARB
{Plate KXXIL. Mechanics fig. 4.) comprehended between
the line of direétion of a proje&tle A R, and the horizontal
line AB. See Proyscrive and Ancie. ~

Evevation of a Cannon or Mortar piece, is the angle
which the chafe of the piece, er the axis of the hollow cy-
linder, makes with the plave of the horizon.

ELEVATOR, in Anatomy, is a name given to feveral
mufcies of the body, which have the office of elevating or
drawing upwards the parts into which they are inferted. It
thas the fame import with levator or attollens, and is direGly
oppolite to depreffor.

'Evevaror dle Naff, is a name given by Cowper to the
‘Compreffor narium, which fee.

Evevaror Auris, is the fame with attollens auriculam.
‘See Ear.

Exvevator Humeri, is an old name for the Deltoides,
which fee.

Exvevator Labiorum communis, the fame with levator
anguli oris: See DeGiurition.

Exevaror Labii inferioris, is defcribed in the article
‘Decuiutition, under the name of levator menti.

Erevaror Lalit fuperioris, is a name givin by fome
authors to that part of the levator labii fup-rioris and ale
nafi, which is inferted into the upper lip. See Decuuri-
‘TION. f

Evevartor Oculi, is the fuperior ftraight mufcle of the
eye. Sze Eve.

Evevaror, in Surgery, an inftrument for raifing de-
preffed portions of the fkull.

Belides the common elevator, now generally preferred by

all the belt operators, feveral others have been invented, as,
for inflance, the tripod elevator, and another, which was
firtt devifed by M. 1. L, Petit, and a‘terwards improved by
M. Louis.
* The common elevator is an exceedingly fimple kind of
inftrument, being in faét a mere lever, the end of which is
fomewhat bent, and made rough, in order that it may be
‘Jefs apt to flip away from the piece of bone which is to be
raifed. This inftrument may be ufed by forming a fulcrum
for it, either in the hand which holds it, or en the fingers
of the other hand ; or the operator may make a fixed point
for it on the edge of the opening made with the trephive,
or of that which the accidertal violence has occafioned. In
the firft cafe, it has been objeéted, that the inftrument can-
not be employed with much force; the hand may give way ;
or the elevator may flip away from the bone againit which it
‘prefles, and thus produce a confiderable concuffion, In the
fecond cafe, it has been found objeGionable, that the part
on which the inftrument is placed may be forced inward,

ELE

Such were the inconveniences which led to the invention
of the tripod elevator, one piece of which confitts of three
branches uniting above into one common trunk. This part
of the elevator 1s pervaded by a long fcrew, having below a
kind of hook, and above a fort of handle for turning it. It
is with the hook that the depreffed portion of bone is to be
elevated. This partof the inftrument is to be introduced
into the opening made in the cranium, as foon as the clevator
has been put in a proper polition; and it isto be made to
afcend, by turning the fcrew. Formerly, the tripod ele-
vator was alfo fometimes ufed conjointly with a fort of ferewy
which was firft fixed in the piece of bone about to be ele-
vated, and then drawn upward, by placing the hook in a
ring, which was attached to its upper part.

The inventors of the tripod elevator were certainly very
well acquainted with the imperfections of the common one 5
and they endeavoured to obviate them, by procuring a
firmer fulcrum, and a greater degree of power. But it was
neceflary to change the fituation of their clevator, as often
as there was occafion to raife a different portion of bone;
and the hook, alfo, being conneéted with an inflexible piece
of feel, the dire&tion of which was always the fame as that
of the inltrument, it became troublefome and difficult to
place the hook under the piece of bone, which ftood in need
of being raifed.

On the foregoing accounts, M. J. L. Petit was induced
to invent anew elevator. This confifted of a lever, mounted
on a handle, and {traight throughout its whole length, ex-
cept jult at its very end, which was flightly curved, in order
that it might be more conveniently put under the portion of
bone which was about to be elevated. ‘he lever under
confideration was pierced at various diftances from its bent
end with feveral holes, intended for the reception of a little
kind of moveable ferew-peg, which was fixed on the top of
a fort of bridge. This latter part of the infirument con-
fitted of a kind of arch, the ends of which were long and
covered with little cufhions, while on :ts centre was placed
the little ferew-peg already mentioned. M. Petit wifhed
the peg to be joined to the bridge by means of a hinge ; and
as he often found it neceffary to elevate feveral different
pieces of bone in the fame cafc, he thought that the little
ferew fhould not be completely faftened in che hole, but that
the inftrument fhorld be capable of being turned to the
right, or left, or toany point of the cranium. However,
the {truG@ture of the ferew only allowed the inttrument, on
turning this to the right or left, to be applied with its edge
obliquely under the bone which one wifhed to elevate.

M. Louis endeavoured to remove the inconveniences of
Petit’s elevator, by {ubitituting for the hinge a fort of pivot.
This conftru@ion rendered the lever capable of being readily
moved in every dire&tion, and of being put under any point
of bone, which required being elevated, without any necel-
fity for altering the pofition of the bridge forming the
folerum.

We have only to repeat, ref{pedting elevators, that all the
beft: modern furgeons give the preference to the common
one, which is molt fimple, and is found to -anfwer every
defirable purpofe. See Trepan.

ELEVE, a term purely French, though of late ufed alfo
in our language. Literally it fignities a dilciple or fcholar,
bred up under any one, being formed from the Italien,
allicvo, an apprentice or novice.

It was filt ufed by the French writers, in fpeaking of
painters; fuch a painter was an cleve of Da Vinci, of
Raphael, &¢. From painting it came to be applied to fuch
aa {tudied or learned any other art under a matter. In the
Royal Academy of Sciences, there were twenty cleves; and

5B2 in

EL E
in that of infcriptions, ten eleves,
in concert with the penfionaries.

The denomination eleve, however, was afterward fup-
preffed, and that of adjoint {ubftituted in its room ; becaufe
every body did not know the fenfe affixed to it by the aca-
demy: and hence the penfionary academifts had not, as
formerly, each of them an eleve; but the eleves became
adjoints, or affociates of the academy. See AcaprEmy.

ELEUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Afia Minor,
on the coatt of Ionia; placed by Thucydides in the vicinity
of the town of Miletus. ;

ELEUSA, an ifland of Cilicia, according to Pliny;
named Sebatta by Ptolemy; fituated N. of Rhodes—Alfo,
an ifland of Greece, on the coaft of Attica, in the Saronic
gulf, S. of mount Hymettus, and oppofite to a {mall pro-
montory. Pliny.

ELEUSIN, a town of Greece, in the ifland of Thera.
Prolemy.

ELEUSINE, in Botany, Gertn. t. 1.
Rus, {p. 12.

Eveusine, in Ancient Geography, a village of Egypt,
fituated near Alexandria and Nicopolis, on the canal of
Canopus, according to Strabo.

ELEUSINIA, in Antiquity, the myfteries of the goddefs
Ceres, or the religious ceremonies performed to her honour ;
thus called from Eveufis, a maritime town of the Athenians,
wherein was a temple of that goddefs, famous for the cele-
- bration cf thefe myfteries. See Cerzaia.

Some writers call the city where the Eleufinia were cele-
brated, Eleufinia or Eleufis: Warpocration confirms this
orthography, in deriving its name from Eveufinus, a fon of
Mercury ; to which opinion Paufanias likewife adheres, in
his Attics. Others who write it Eacwois, Advent, fuppofe
it thus called becaufe Ceres, after running over the world in
fearch of her daughter, ftopped here, and put an end to her
purfuit. Diodorus Siculus, lib. v. will have the name
Eleufis to have been given this city, as a monument to pof-
terity, that corn, and the art of cultivating it, were brought
from abroad into Attica. .

The Eleufinia were the moft folemn and facred ceremonies
in ufe among the Greeks; for which reafon they were called
myfleries, by way of eminence. They are faid to have
been inftituted by Ceres herfelf, at £l/eufis, in memory
of the zeal and affeGtion wherewith the Athenians received
her.

This is the account Ifocrates gives in his Panegyric: but
Diodorus Siculus affures us, lib. vi. that the Eleufinia were
inftituted by the Athenians, in gratitude to Ceres, for hav-
ing inftruGed them to lead a lefs barbarous and ruftic life:
yet the fame author, in the firft book of his Bibliotheca, re-
lates the thing in another manner.

A great drought, fays he, having occafioned a, miferable
famine throughout all Greece, Egypt, which had that year
reaped a moft plentiful harvelt, beftowed part of the fruits
thereof upon the Athenians. It was Erechtbeus that brought
this extraordinary fupply of corn: in commemoration of
which benefaGtion, Erechtheus was created king of Athens,
who inftruéted the Athenians in thefe myfteries, and the
manner of celebrating them.

This account comes near to what we are told by Hero-
dotus and Paufanias, viz. that the Greeks acquired the
knowledge of their gods and their religion from the
Egyptians,

Theodoret, lib. i, Grecanic. Affe&. writes that it was
Orpheus, not Erechtheus, who made this eftablifhment,
and who. inftituted for Ceres what the Egyptians pra@ifed

The eleves were to ac&t

See Cyrnosu-

RUE

for Ifis; which fentiment is confirmed by the f{choliaft on the
Alceftes of Euripides.

Eleufis, the city where thefe myfteries were celebrated,
was fo jealous of the glory thereof, that, when reduced to
the laft extremity by the Athenians, it would not furrender
but on this condition, that the Eleufinia fhould not be taken
away ; though thefe were no religious ceremonies peculiar to
the town, but were held common to all Greece.

There were two kinds of Eleufinia, the greater, and the
lefs ; thofe we have hitherto been {peaking of were the
greater.

The defer were inftituted in favour of Hercules; for that
hero detiring to be initiated into the former, and the
Athenians not being able to gratify his wifhes, becaufe the
law prohibited any ftranger being admitted; being loth,
however, to give him an abfolute denial, they inftituted new
Fleufinia, in which he affited. Thefe were afterwards
celebrated at Agra, near Athens. The greater were held
in the month of Boedromion, which anfwered to our
Auguft; and the leffer in the month Antheflerion, which
happened in our January. People were only brought to:
partake of thefe ceremonies by degrees; at firft, they were
to be purified ; then admitted to the lefler Eleufinia; and at
laft initiated into the greater. Thofe, who were yet only
at the leffer, were called myfle; and thofe admitted to the
greater, epopt2, or ephori, i. e. infpectors. They were
ufually to undergo a probation.of tive years, before they
pafied from the leffer to the greater.
they were contented with a fingle year; immediately after
which they were admitted to the moft fecret religious parts
of the ceremony. When any perfon was initiated, he was
introduced by night into the temple, after having his bands
wafhed at the entry, and a crown of myrtle put upon him.
Then was opened a little box, containing the laws of Ceres,
and the ceremonies of her mylteries; which the initiated
perfon was to read and tranfcribe. A flight repaft fucceeded
this ceremony ; after which the myfta entered into the fanc-
tuary, over which the prieft drew the veil, and then all was
inftantly in darknefs. A bright light fucceeded, and ex«
hibited to view the ftatue of Ceres, magnificently adorned ;
and while they were attentively contemplating it, the light

eagaio difappeared, and was fucceeded hy profound darknefs.
Peals of thunder, and flafhes of lightning, and a thoulgnd
monttrous figures that were perceived on all fides in the
midft of the fanGtuary, filled the initiated with confternation
and horror; but the next moment a calm fucceeded, and
there appeared in broad day-light a pleafant meadow, in
which all feemed to dance and participate of mirth. Amidit
this jollity and mirth, it is faid, the tenets of the myfteries
were revealed. Meurfius has an exprefs treatife on the
Elenfinia, where moft of thefe points are proved.

Secrecy, as Le Clerc after this writer fuggefts, was en-
joined with great ftri€tnefs, not fo much to conceal the
abominations charged on thefe myfteries by the Chriftian
fathers, as becaufe the initiated were thus let into the firft
hiltory of Ceres and her daughter, which it was neceflary to
conceal from the public; but if it were known that thefe two
goddefles were merely mortal women, their worfhip would
have become contemptible. Cicero (Tufc. Quaft. Li.
c. 13.) favours this opinion. See Mysteries.

The matter of thefe myfteries, as related by Arnobius and
La@antius, was an imitation, or reprefentation, of what
mythologifts teach of Ceres. They lafted feveral days;
during which, the people ran about with burning torches in
their hands; facrificed abundance of vi&tims, not only to
Ceres, but alfo to Jupiter; made libations from two veffels,
oue of them to the eaft, and the other to the weft ; marched

in

Sometimes, indeed,.

|
|
.

.

8 2)

in pomp to ZLieufis, making paufes from time to time,
wherein they fung hymns, and facrificed victims; and this
they performed uot only in going to Zleu/is, but in returning
back to Athens. For the reft, they were obliged to keep
it an inviolable fecret; and the law condemned to death any
one who fhould dare divtlge their-myfteries. Tertullian, in
his book againft the Valentinians, relates, that the figure
fhewn in the Eleufinia, and which was fo exprefsly prohibited
to be made public, was that of a man’s privy parts. Theo-
doret, Arnobius, and Clemens Alexandrinus, likewife make
mention ot it; but they fay it was the figure of a woman’s
privities.

The day after the feaft, the fenate affembled at Aleu/is,
apparently te examine whether every thing had been ma-
naged according to order.

ELEUSINUS Sinus, in Ancient Geography, an ancient
name for the Saroric gulf.

ELEUSIS, a town of Attica, on the bank of the Saronic
gulf, N. W. of Athens; in which the Eleufinian mytteries
were celebrated. See the preceding article.

Dr. Adam Clarke has lately (viz. in 1808) publifhed a
fac fimile of a Greek infeription found on a ftone, which was
formerly difcovered at Eleufis. This infcription, according
to the fuggeftion of the late learned profeffor Porfon, was
pofterior to the fubjugation of Greece by the Romans, as
appears by the mixture of the Roman with the Greek names.
The ftone was fezn by M. Spon at Eleufis in 1676, and pro-
bably by Mr. George Wheeler, who accompanied him, and
who afterwards fettled in Englaod. But Dr. Chandler,
about 100 years after, could not meet with it, though he
made diligent fearch for it: the ftone was, therefore, proba-
bly removed before his time. It is not improbable that
Wheeler might have brought it with him. By fome acci-
dent or other it fell into the hands of fome perfon, who, ig-
norant of its value asa relic of Grecian antiquity, put it down
in the back kitchen of a houfe in North-green, Worhhip fireet,
London, where it long ferved the purpofe of a paving ftone
and chopping block. Here it was dilcovered in the year 1807.

ELEUTHERA Cirictra, a port of Cilicia, fituated at
the angle which was formed by mount Taurus and mount
Amanns, in the vicinity of Cappadocia and of Syria.

EveuTHERA, a town placed by Ptolemy in the interior
of the ifle of Crete, and fo called from Eleuther, one of the
Curetes.

Exveutuera, or Alabafler ifland, in Geography, one of
the Bahama iflands, whofe climate is healthy and foil fertile.
It has a fort and a garrifon, N. lat. 25° 14/. W. long. 76”

Shad:

ELEUTHERA, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town
of Beeotia, which was afterwards transferred to the Athe-
nians. In this town was a temple dedicated to Bacchus, and
alfoa cavern and a fountain. —Alfo, a town on the river Iter.
Steph. Byz.

“ELEUTHERIUS, in Biography, bifhop of Rome, was
a native of Nicopolis, and flourifhed in the fecond century.
He’ was firft a deacon of the church, and about 177, or per-
haps fooner, was eleGted bifhop on the death of Soter. Soon
after his elevation, letters were addrefled to him by the mar-
tyrs of Lyons, then firut up in prifon, on the fubje& of the
peculiar-tenets of Montanus and his followers ; the obje& of
which was to recommend healing and temperate meafures in
the treatment of that fe€&. During the epifcopate of Eleu-
therius, the church is faid to have enjoyed much peace, not-
with{tanding the parties which rofe up, aud which zealoufly
contended for the truth. Among thefe were perfons headed
by Florinus and Blaftus, both prefbyters, who maintained

that God was the author of evil as well as good.. They.

7

ELF

were degraded for this herefy, and cut off from the body of
the faithful. Eleutherius died in the year 192, and he is
remembered by the additions which he made to the pontifical
code, and which refleét credit on his liberality: of thefe,
one enacted that a man fhould not abftain from any fort of
meat that was commonly eaten ; and the other, that fentence
fhould not be pronounced again{t any one accufed of crimes,
unlefs he were prefent to make his defence. According to
Bede it was at this period that an embafly was fent by Lucine,
king of Britain, to Rome, to requeft the pope to fend over
proper perfons to explain to him and his people the nature
of the Chriltian faith. Eufebius and other early hiftorians
not having noticed this faét, it {tands on very doubtful autho-
rity. Lardner. Moreri.

EvfeuTHerius, Eacu9epios, in Antiquity, a Greek words
fignifying Jiberator, or deliverer. It was ufed by the Greeks
as a furname, or epithet of Jupiter, given him on occafion
of his having gained them the viGtory ove: Mardonius, gene-
ral of the Perfians, and killed, as they fay, 300,000 men of
his army ; and, by that means, delivered them from the
danger they were in of being brought under the Perfian
yoke.

The word is formed from sawepos, free.

There were alfo feafts folemnized on this occafion, in ho-
nour of Jupiter Eleutherius, and called Eleutheria. They
were held every five years, with races of armed chariots, &c.
The Scholiaft on Pindar, Olymp. Od. 7, fays, they were
celebrated at Platea, the place where the victory was
obtained. ‘

The Samians had another feftival of this name, in honour
of the god of Love ; and flaves, when they obtained their
liberty, were wont to keep a flated holiday in remembrance
of the happy day in which they were made free. Potter’s
Archeol. Gree. lib ti, cap. xx. tom.i. p. 388. -

ELEUTHEROPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Paleftine, fituated at the diftance of 6 miles S. of Diofpo-
lis, 20 miles from Jerufalem, and 24 miles from Afcalon, ac-
cording to Antonine’s Itinerary. .On the W. and N. it was
bounded bya plain, and on the E. by the mountains of Judea.
It wasan epifcopal fee und+r the metropolis of Cefarea 5 and
after the divifion of Paleltine into two provinces, it belonged
to Paleftina Prima.

ELEUTHERUS; a river of Pheenicia, whofe fource
was among the northern eminences of mount Libanus, and
which, {welling at certain times of the fummer by the lique-
faction of the fnow, might derive its name, (crevSepos, free.)
trom.this circumftance. Sandys, and others after him, fuppofe .
it to be the fame with the Caffimair, betwixt Sidon and Tyre.
Whereas Ptolemy, withwhom Dr. Shaw agrees, places it ac-
cording to the prefent pofition of the ‘* Nahr el Berd,” 6
miles to the northward of Tripoly. Both thefe rivers agree
in a circumftance mentioned by Pliny, that at a certain feafon
of the year, this river is fo full of tortoifes, that they were
eafily taken. This river forms the boundary betwixt Syria
and Pheenicia. —Alfo, a riverof Sicily, the fource of which
is marked in De |’ IMle’s chart, in mount Cfatas, and its mouth
E. of Orethus. Its modern name is ** Fiume di Mifilmel:.’’

ELF, or Erves Locks, in Antiguity, locks of hair longer
than the reft, or complicated .and matted hairs, which are
fuppofed to have been twifted into knots by the latent in-
fluence of elves or fairies,.to which Shakefpear adverts.

«¢ This is that very mab,
Toat plats the manes of horfes in the night,
And cakes the elf locks in foul fluttifh bairs ;
Which once.entangled much misfortune bodes,’’
Midfummer Nights Dreams.
A fuperttitious notion, which originated in the aaa
©

LLG

of the dark ages, and is {till prevalent among the fecluded
vulgar ; who confider it ominous of ill luck to have thefe
pulled or thorn: they are therefore preferved with great care,
as being efteemed a favourab!e appearance. To this cuitom
Apuleius alludes, when he fays, ‘* Adjuro per dulcem capilli
tui nodulum.”’

Etrs, or Live, called alfo Fairies, the names of deities
honoured among the Saxons, with a kind of facrifice called
Alf blot.

Exrs arrows, a name given by the people of fome parts
of Scotland to certain ftone weapons which they find, and
which have been in ufe before tools and weapons of iron were
afed there. It is not only in Scotland that thefe are found,
but in America, and many other places alfo. hey are
ftyled by fome ceraunia, and thunder-bolts, and are fuppofed
to have fallen from the clouds in ftorms of thunder; others,
not lefs erroneoufly, fuppofe them to be natural foflils; but
their true origin is from the workmanfhip of man, out of
common fiints, and other ftones. Woodward’s Cat. Foff. ii.

sae

F ELFCARLEBY, or Errxarursy, in Geography, a
{mall town of Sweden, in the government of Upial, on the
Baltic fea, near the place where the river called the Dal
Elbe, or Dal Elfwe, difcharges itfelf into that fea.

ELFDAL, or Errpaten, a fmall town of Sweden,
in the province of Dalecarlia.

ELFEDSJ. a mountain of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen; 12 miles N. E. of Abuarifch.

ELFRIC. See vrric.

ELPSBORG, O tp, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Welt Gothland, with a ftrong caftle near the fea ; 4 miles
S. W. of Gothenburg.

Exrssorc, New, 2 fortrefs of Sweden, in Weft Gothland,
on an ifland at the mouth of the Moldal; 4 miles W. of
Gothenburg.

ELGA, ariver, which rifes 3 miles N. from Penna Ma-
cor in Portugal, and runs into the Tagus, between Alcan-
tara and Rofmarilhal, feparating the countries of Spain and
Portugal, during its whole courfe of about 30 miles.

ELGATTAN, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Algiers ; 37 miles 5. of Bona.

ELGEND, a town of Arabia, in the country of Hadra-
matt; 60 miles W. of Hadramaut.

ELGERSBURG, a {mall town of Germany, in the
duchy of Saxe Gotha, not far from the Thuringian foref,
remarkable for its manufacture of lamp black.

ELGG, a town and lordfhip of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Zurich,

ELGIEHAMA, a town of Africa, in the empire of
Morocco, about 2 leagues from mount Atlas.

ELGIN, the capital of the county of Elgin, formerly an
epifcopal fee, but at prefent a royal burgh, or borough, is
fituated upon the river Loffey, about feven miles from the
point where it falls into the North fea, at the diltance of 108
miles from Edinburgh. The name of Elgin, from whence the
county has received one of its denominations, the other being
Moray, is fuppofed to be derived from He/ry, general of the
army of Sigard, the Norwegian earl of the Orknies, who,
about the year 927, conquered that part of Scotland north,
comprehending the prefent counties of Caithnefs, Rofs,
Sutherland, and. Moray. For the Norwegian hiftory relates
that he built a town to the fouthward of Duffeyrus, and
Elgin anfwers that defeription as to its feite, which is alfo
confirmed by the name. The Norwegians had an harbour
at Burgh Duffeyr; feveral of their princes were named
Helgy, and the infcription on the common feal of this place
ia, “ figillum commune civitatis de Helgyn.” During the

Ere

irruptions to which this part of Scotland waa fubjeGed by
the northern men, Elgin had a royal fort. Tt appears to have
been firfi incorporated in the time of Alexander II. about
the year 1234. ‘The charter grants a commion guild to the
burgeffes, whence it probably then poffeffed fome foreign
commerce; for, in 1383, a large veffel, called Par coa/?, was
the property of the guild. Mr. Pennant defcribes it asa
good town, having many old houfes bnilt after the ancient
manner, the frents projecting over pizzas, like thofe in the
city of Chefter; and it abounds with ecclefiaftical antiqui-
ties, which befpeak its former confequence. ‘The noble ca=
thedral, from its ruins, appears to have been once a magnie
ficent pile. A large tower on the north and fouth fide of
the building ftill remains; but the central one, with the lofty
{pire and the whole roof, are fallen, which, with the muti-
lated fragments of monumental figures, reprefenting prelates,
peers, and knights, in awful dilapidation, befpeak the vanity
of all attempts at pofthumous perpetuity. At the ealt end
two tiers of lancet-pointed windows remain; but the body
is fo ruinous as to be not eafily defined. The welt door is
richly decorated with carving, aad the choir is beautiful, with
a light baluftraded gallery running round the whole. Among
other diftinguifhed perfonages, Boethius faye, king Duncan
T., who was flain by Macbeth at the fiege of Invernefs, is
buried here. ‘This cathedral was built by Andrew de Moray,
AD. 1224, on land granted by Alexander II., whofe re-
mains, the fame year, were depofited in the choir. The
principal tower was ereéted, and fome other additions made
to the building by bifhop Innes, as appears from an in-
{criptiononacolumn. ‘The country in the vicmity being
fertile, extremely pleafant, and provifions plentiful, are cir-
cumltances that induce many wealthy families to take up
their winter abode in Elgin, which may be confidered to the
highlands what Edinburgh is te the lowlands of Scotland.
In 1792 it contained 658 families, and 2920 fouls. Pen-
nant’s Tour in Scotland, and fir John Sinclair’s Statiftical
Account of Scotland.

Exoin, County of. See Moraysaire.

ELGIS, atownof Egypt; fix miles S. of Abu-Girgé,

ELGUS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Afia
Minor, in Lycia.

ELHAM, or Exam, in Geography, a town of Kent,
England, was at a former period a place of fome note and
confequence; for, according to Pnilipott, in his hiftory, &c. of
the county, “ though now the magnificent ftru€ures, which
in elder times were here, be difmantled, and have only left a
mafs of deplored rubbifh to dire& us where they ftood, yet
in Domefday Book it is written, that the earl of Ewe, a
Norman, and near in alliance to the Conqueror, held it, and
left the reputation of an honour unto it, as the reputation
of the aid granted at the making of the Black Prince
aknight, in the twentieth of Edward III., doth war-
rant.” The grant of the market was made in the thirty-
fifth of Henry III., at the inftance of prince Edward, who
then owned the manor, and who afterwards alienated it to
archbifhop Boniface. Itis now the property of fir Henry
Oxenden, bart. of Broome. Elham park, of which men-
tion occurs in the records of the time of Henry III., is now,
like feveral other ancient parks in this part of the county,
overgrown with wood.. The church 18 a large building,
confiiling of a nave, aifles, and chancel, with a maflive em-
battled tower, crowned witha {mail fpire. The nave,
which is divided from the aifles by pointed arches, opens to
the chancel by a very large pointed arch. Elham is fixty-
five miles diftant from London, contains 27 houfes and 144
inhabitants, and has four sonual fairs; the market has been

long difcontinued. Hasted’s Hiuttory of Kent.
EL-

ae

_ment.

i Oe

EL-HAMMA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Tripoly. N, iat. 34° E. long. 10° 40!.

ELI, in Biography, high-prieft of the Ifraclites, and
judge of that people for go years, was a defcendant of
Ithamar, the younger branch of Aaron’s houfe, and united
the offices of high-prieft and judge about the yrar 1156
B.C. Heis charged with contributing to the degeneracy
of the people over whom he prefided, however pious and
good with refpect to his own character, by want of refolutioa
to reprove and punifh immorality, acd by a culpable inatten-
tion to the condu@ of his own fons. The negligence of
Ehi in the difcharge of his office entailed calamities both on
the Ifraelites and on his own family. The former were de-
feated by the Philillines, the two fons of Eli were flain,
and the ark, which was a fymbol of the divine prefence, was
captured by the enemy. The affli¢tive intelligence over-
powered the remaining ftrength of Eli, fo that he fell
backwards from his feat, and broke his neck, and died in
the Sth year of his age.

ELIA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Greece, in the
Peloponnefus ; fuppofed by Polybius to be the moft pleafant
part of Lacenia. Livy fays that it lay E. of the mouth of
the Eurotas.—Alfo, a town of Palefline, between Naplous
and Afcalon, according to Antonine’s Itinerary. Some
fuppofe that it was the fame with Jerufalem, which the
Romans called ** Alia.”

ELIAC Scuoot, in the hiltory of Philofophy, a fchool
eftablifhed by Phedo of lis, and fo called from the place
of his birth. This {chool adhered fo clofely to the doc.
trine of Socrates, that it is {carcely to be confidered as a fe-
parate fet. Phado, its founder, was defcended from an
Hluftrious family, but being deprived of his patrimony in
early life, he was fold as a flave at Athens. Socrates, how-
ever, accidentally obferving in his countenance traces of an
ingenuous mind, perfuaded one of his friends, Alcibiades or
Crito, to redeem him. T'rom this time Phedo became a
difciple of Socrates, and devoted himfelf to the diligent ftudy
of moral philofophy under his inftruGtion ; and he adhered
to the laft to his mafter with the moft affeftionate attach-
He inftituted a {chool at Elis, after the Socratic
model, which was continued by Pliftanus, an Elian, and
afterwards by Menedemus of Eretria, whence it obtained
the name of the “ Eretrian’” {chool. Menedemus, having
removed this {chool to Eretria, delivered his lectures to his
difciples, not feated on circular benches around him, which
was the ufual mode, but whilft they attended him in whatever
poflure they pleafed, ftanding, walking, or fitting. Menede-
mus rofe, from the contempt with which he was firft received,
on account of the vehemence of his mode of difputing, into
high eReem, and was intrufted with a public office, to which
was annexed an annual ftipend of zoo talents. He dif-
charged his truft with fidelity, and accepted only a fourth
part of the appointment. He was honoured with feveral
important embaflies, by which he effentially ferved his coun-
trymen ; but becoming jealous of his intimacy with Antigo-
nus, who became one of his difciples, they induced him to
make his efcape to this prince. Thus mortified and dif-
appointed, he precipitated his end by abftaining for feveral
days from food, and died in the 84th year of his age, and
about -the r24th olympiad. His genius was verfatile and
his elocution fluent. Severe in inveighing againft the
vices of others, and pure in his own manners, he commanded
univerfal refpeét. In his mode of living he was fingularly
temperate; and his entertainments, confifting chiefly of ve-
getables, were always enlivened by liberal converfation.

Nothing farther is known concerning the preceptors of
the Eliac or Eretriac {chools, but that they ftudioufly avoided,

ELI

and flrenuoufly oppofed, the fophittical fooleries of the Mee
garic fect, and adhered clofely to the fimple doGtrines, and
ufeful precepts, which they had received from Socrates.
Brucker’s Philof. by Enfield, vol. i.

Enias Leyira, in Biography, a celebrated Jewihh rabbi,
who flourifhed in the 16th century, was a native of Ger-
many., but {pent the greateft part of his life at Rome and at
Venice, where he was employed in teaching the Hebrew lan-
guage. He was diftinguifhed not only by his learning, but
by his critical jadgment; and accordingly he expleded many
of the unfounded traditions of the Jews; and particularly
that which referred the introdu@tion of the vowel points to
the time of Ezra, rightly afcribing it toa mach later period,
or about the 6th century of the Chriftian era. He was the
author of feveral valuable works, that facilitate an acquaint-
ance with the Hebrew language and writings. Among
thefe’ we may enumerate his ‘* Mafforet Hammafforet,”? and
his ‘ Sepher Zickroneth,”? or colicGtion of Maforetic ob-
fervations from ancient authors: his ‘* Chaldaic, Talmudic,
and Rabbinic Lexicon,” publifhed in 1541, fol. ;—his He-
brew gloffary, entitled ** Th'fbi,” pubhihed by Fagius in
1542, 8vo, ;—and feveral works on Hebrew grammar, &c.

Evias, Marruew, or Marrtuias, a painter of hiftory
and portraits, born at Caficl in 1658. His parents were
very poor, and he was employed in taking care of cattle,
and whillt they were grazing he amufed himfelf by endea-
vouring to draw figures on the ground. A painter of
hiltory, of the name of Corbeen, one day faw him draw-
ing a fortification, with fome figures, in his ufual mode; and
pleafed with the youth’s ingenuity, requefled of the parents
of Elias to Jet him educate him, and teach him the art of
painting. Corbeen behaved liberally fo him; and Elias re-
paid it by diligent fudy, and making very confiderable pros
gvefs in the art, being very grateful for the great kindnefs
he had received from -his mafter. Corbeen appears to have
maintained him fome time at Paris for his improvement,
whence he went to Dunkirk, and there painted an altar-
picce, reprefenting the death of St*.-Barbe, which raifed his
reputation. He defigned corre&tly, and compofed his pic-
tures well, but did not fucceed fo well in colouring. His
works coft him much labour to fket¢h out, and prepare for
the eafel, which defe& of his genius he was con{cious of, and
endeavoured to conceal, by not allowing any one to fee his
preparations, His portraits of men are generally more ap-
proved than thofe he painted of women, which want grace
and beauty. He died in 1741, aged 83.

Exias, Mount St. in Geography, a mountain near the fhore
of the N.W. coaft of America, N.W. of Admiralty bay,
and S.E. of Prince William’s found.

ELIBERIS, or Ivitserris, in Ancient Geography, a
large and rich town of Gallia Nafbonnenfis; fituated S. of
Rufcino. Conftantine the Great re-eftablifhed this town,
and built a caftle, which he called after the name of his
mother Helena. It is fuppofed to be the modera L/na.—
Alfo, the name of a river, which watered the above-men-
tioned town, fuppofed to be Le Tec.—Alfo, atown of Spain,
in Beetica, which was a confiderable place, and feated on a
mountain, called Sierra d’ Elvira.

ELIBIA, an epifcopal town of Africa, in the procon-
fular province.

ELICA Pasnyvum, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by:
the people of the Eatt Indies toa kind ef red orpiment,
found very frequently in that part of the world, and given
foternally after calcination, in intermitting fevers.

ELICE, or Hauice, in Botany, a name by which the
ancient Greek writers bave fometimes called the willow,
though the more general name amofg them is ~. om

ycbive

ELI

fychius. gives many inftances of the willow being called
helice.

ELICHMAN, Joun, in Biography, an eminent phyfician,
was a native of Silefia, and praétifed medicine with great
reputation in the r7th century. His fkill as a linguift was
extraordinary, for he was well verfed in fixteen languages.
He propagated an opinion, which, to thofe acquainted with
the idioms and founds of the two tongues, mult appear ex-
tremely excentric: that the German and the Pertian were
cognate, or derived from the fame origin. Hemade a Latin
tranflation of the Tablet of Cebes, which, with the Arabic
verfion and the original Greek text, were publifhed io the
year 1640, under the infpeGtion of that celebrated critic
Salmafius, who prefixed an ample and learned introduction.

ELICHRYSUM, in Botany, iasxeucos, or irzsox¥0205, from
trios, marfhy, and xpus9s, gold, 1s an ancient Greek appellation
for fome yellow flower growing in marfhy fituations. The de-
feription of Diofcorides may very well apply to Graphalium
orientale, or rather to G. Stoechas of Linnzus; efpecially as
he mentions rough and rugged ground, not marfhes, for the
place of growth of his cAuypusov. What the poets intended
by the above name is more difficult to determine ; nor does
Theophrattus lend us much affittance. Among the moderns
Matthiolus has taken Yanacetum annuum for the plant in
quettion, but without much probability. Tournefort
adopted the name for a genus of his own, which includes
the two: Gnaphalia above-mentioned, among numerous
other f{pecies whofe flowers are not yellow, neither do
fcarcely any of them grow in moift piaces. Linnaeus, there-
fore, who united this genus to the Gnaphalium of the fame
author, retained the latter name, aa by far the moft fuitable
of the two. This decifion was reverfed by Gertner, becaufe
he followed Tournefort in eftablithing Santolina maritima as
the only true Graphalium ; and by afluming the {pecitic name
verum, he feems to imply that this plant is the yaPaAtoy of
Diofcorides, a point equally difficult to confirm or refute.
Finally, Wilidenow, at the fuggettion of Juffieu, in judi-
cioufly feparating from the Linnegan Xeranthemum fuch
{pecies as, contrary to the generic character, have a naked
receptacle, has -chofen for them the name Liichry/um, by
which many of thefe plants had already been called in va-
rious books. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.3. 1903. (Xeranthemum;
Linn. Gen. 420. Schreb. 551. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.179.
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Juff. 179.) Clafs and order, Syz-
genefia Polygamia-Juperflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite nucamen-
tacez, Linn. Corymlifera, Joff.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx imbricated ; fcales numerous,
lanceolate, {cariofe, permangnt, the inner ones longer than
the difk, coloured, fhining, forming a radiant circle round
the whole compound flower. Cor. compound, unequal ;
florets of the difk very numerous, all perfect, tubular, fun-
nel-fhaped, much thorter than the calyx, in five equal {pread-
ing marginal fegments; thofe of the circumference fewer,
female, tubular, the length of the former, five-cleft, but
rather unequally. Stam. (in the perfeét florets) Filaments
five, very fhort; anthers forming a cylinder about as long as
thecorolla. i/. (in the fame florets) Germen fhort ; ftyle
thread-fhaped, longer than the ftamens; ftigma cloven: the
female florets differ only in having a fimple club-fhaped
ftigma, and no traces of ftamens. eric. none, except the
calyx fearcely at all altered. Seed in both kinds of florets
alike, oblong ; down capillary or feathery. Recept. naked.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down capillary or feathery.
Calyx imbricated, its inner feales forming a coloured fpread-
ing radius.

Willdenow enumerates twenty-three {pecies of this genus,
which include molt of the fineit everlalting-flowers of the

Eee
Cape of Good Hope. Several more, however, require to
be added to this lift from New Holland, efpecially Xeranthee
mum bradeatum, Venten. Jard. de la Malmaifon, t. 2, Andr.
Repof. t. 375, an annual {pecies of great {plendour, which,
if raifed on a hot-bed in the {pring, or even in the, natural
ground, proves very ornamental to the flower-garden in au-
tumn, and may be preferved for a winter nofegay of long
duration. This flower outvies the fulgidum, Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t. 173, Curt. Mag. t. 414, an old inhabitant of the green-
houte, native of the Cape.’ More eiegant Cape fpecies,
perhaps, are the fa/ciculatum, Andr. Repof. t. 242, and
JSefamoides, Curt.. Mag. t. 4253 but efpecially proliferumy
Andr. Repot. t. 374. All thefe laft require the thelter of a
green-houle or confervatory, and regular, but moderate fup-
lies of water in winter.

ELICIT, or Exicirt, in Evhics, is applied to an a@ of
the will, immediately produced by, and of the will, and received
within the fame.

Such are willing, nilling, loving, hating, &c. Thefe
aQs are denominated elicit, becaufe, being before in the power
of the will, they are now brought forth into a&, But they
are fo far intrinfic, that fome authors confider them as the
willitfelf; aud deny they ought to be diftinguifhed from it any
more than light isto be diftinguifhed from the fun.

ELIDION Promontorium, in Ancient Geography, a
promontory of Thrace, in the fouth<rn part of the promontory
“© Eftie,”? and in the eaftern part of the “ Rhodiorum

ortus,”? on the Bofphorus of Thrace.

ELIDRION, a word ufed by the early writers in JZedi-

‘cine, in feveral different fenfes; fome ufing it as the name

of mattic, others of raphontic, and others of crude mers
cury. Some of the chemical writers have alfo made it
exprefs a certain mixed metal, compofed of three parts; one
filver, another brafs, and the third gold,

ELIENESS, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on the
S. coaft of the county of Fite, at the mouth of the Frith of
Forth. N. lat. 56° 10’. Long. 0° 22! 'E. of Edinburgh.

ELIENSIS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town of
Africa , in the Byfacene territory.

ELIGENDO Viripario. See Viripario.

ELIGIBILITY, in the Romith Canon Law. A bull
of eligibility, is a bull granted by the pope, to certain per-
fons, to qualify them to be chofen, or invelted with an of-
fice, or dignity, whereof they were before incapable, by rea-
fon of want of age, birth, or the like.

The word is formed of the Latin eligere, to chufe; whence
the word eligibilitas, &c.

In feveral churches in Germany, a perfon, who is not
of the chapter, cannot be elected bifhop, without a bull of
eligibility.

ELIGIL Morsus, a name given by fome medical writers
to a fiftula.

ELIGMA, a name given by Nicolaus, Myrepfius,
and fome other authors, to that form of medicine, now
called a linétus or Jambative.

ELIJAH, or Exsas, furnamed the Thi/bite, from his
native town or territory, in Biography, was one of the mott
diftinguifhed of the Jewifh prophets. He commenced the ex-
ercife of the prophetic office about 920 years B. C. and
his firft commiffion was dire@ed againit Ahab, whofe im-
pious charaCter and encouragement of idolatry merited re-
proof. The fovereign, however, was incenfed, and the prophet
was obliged to withdraw from the threatened effeéts of hia
indignation, During his retirement, Providence miraculoufly
afforded him the means of fubfiftence. In the mean while
the country was vifited with a famine, asa token ot divine dif-
pleafure, and at the termination of this dittrefs, which en

three

ELI

three years, the prophet made another attempt, under divine
admonition, to reclaim Ahab fromthe profligacy of his conduct.
The fir interview produced mutual recrimination ; but Elijah
determined to evince to the full fatisfa@tion of the affem-
bled Ifraelites the abfolute nullity of thofe Sidonian deities,
in whom they had confided. The conteft between the pro-
phet and the priefts of Baal is beautifully narrated in the
facred writings; the refult, however, was the complete tri-
umph of the former, and the ignominious defeat of the latter,
who became viGims to the indignation of the people, whom
they had deluted into the praftice of idolatry, and the vio-
lation of the divine law. The dominion of Jehovah, as the
only true God, was fienally difplayed: and Elijah mani-
felted his divine commiffion, by the fucceeding event. The
country was relieved under the diflrefs oceafioned by a fe-
vere drought; for in anfwer to the prayers of the prophet,
and in fulfilment of his promife, rain fell in great abundance.
Jezebel, Ahab’s wife, was enraged, and Elijah was obliged to
withdraw into the kingdom of Judah, and to conceal himfelf for
fome time in the wildernefs, depending for his fupport on the
extraordinary interpofitions of Providence. Elijah was af-
terwards employed in various commiffions, which he executed
with a fidelity and fortitude very honourable to his charac-
ter. His companion in the clofing f{cenes of his life was
Elifha, who was feleGted to be his fucceffor in the prophe-
tic office, and who was permitted to be the witnefs of his
miraculous tranflation, by which he was exempted from the
common lot of mortality. This event took place in the
year 896 B.C. (See 1 Kings, xvii. xviii, xix. xxi.
2 Kings, i. ii.) At a fubfequent period; the Jews, mifinter-
preting the prophecy of Malachi (iv. 5,) entertained an opi-
nion that Elijah would again appear on earth as the har-
binger of the Meffiah. But this prophecy, properly under-
ftood, would only have led them to expeét a forerunner and
herald of the Meffiah, poffeffing the fpecial power of Elijah,
‘and animated by fimilar refolution and zeal in the caufe of
public piety and virtue. It is reedlefs to recite the apocry-
phal tales that have been related by Chriitians and Maho-
metans with regard to this juftly celebrated prophet ; or to
mention the fuppofititious writings that have been afcribed
to him. Bayle will fupply the curious with fpecimens of
fuch fables.

ELIM, in Ancient Geography, a place on the eaftern coaft
of the Red fea, which was the fixth ftation of the Ifraelites.

ELINE, in Mujic, the name given by the Greeks to the
weaver’s fong. See Sonc.

ELINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Greece, in
‘Thefprotia. Steph. Byz.

ELINS, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Braclaw; 26 miles N. E. of Braclaw.

ELJOBELI, a town of Arabia, in the country of Ye-
men; 25 miles S. of Abu-Arifch.

ELIOT, Joun, in Biography, known by the title of the
apottle of the North American Indians, was a native of Eng-
Jand, and born about the year 1604. He was educated at
Cambridge, and engaged himfelf as an affiftant to a fchool,
till an opportunity fhould occur when he might embark in
the work of the miniftry. Conneéting himfelf with the
Puritan party he was obnoxious to all the evils which the
Puritans foffered during the reign of Charles I. To enjoy
his own opinions uncontrolled he embarked for America, and
became a member of an independent church at Bofton. He
officiated for the paftor of that congregation during his ab-
fence in England, and would have been chofen afterwards
to the joint office of minifter, but he confidered himfelf bound
by a promife to referve his fervices for fome friends who
projected oily fimilar to that which he had undertaken.

OL, .

EL

Thefe friends left their-native country in the year 1632, and
fettled at Roxburg, in New England. Here Mr. Eliot
became their minifter, and paffed with his countrymen and
friends the greater part of his life in the ative difcharge of
thofe duties which belong to the paftoral office. In Eng
land he had fuffered perfecution, yet he had not learned to
refpeét the right of private judgment, with refpe& to others,
and, in America, maintained the divine right of congrega~ .
tional church authority, while he denied that of epifcopacy
or prefbyterianifm. This was the fault of the times, and
perfecution, it is more than probable, would have been ex-
ercifed by every party, had they pofleffed the power of
drawing the fword. Mr. Eliot, in the year 1646, began to
devote -himfelf moft ardently to the caufe of the native
Indians, whom he wifhed to introduce to the advantages of
civilization and Chriftianity. For this purpofe, he learned
their language, and preached among them with confiderable
fuccefs. He was expofed in this arduous undertaking to
many and very ferious hazards; but he fuftained every evil
with fortitude in the perfuafion that his labours and fufferings
would be produ€tive of much good. He undertook and
accomplifhed the mighty tafk of tranflating the bible into
the Indian language: this was printed at Cambridge, in New
England, in the year 1664, and a fhort time before Mr. Eliot’s
death, it was reprinted with correGtions by Mr. Cotton,
his fellow-labourer in the Indian miffion. By the exertions.
and influence of this excellent man, many of the wandering
‘Indian tribes were collected into regular focteties, and formed
into congregations, which were inftruéted by him, and by
others who joined him, in the manner beft adapted to their
capacities. At Roxburg he eftablifhed a free grammar
{chool, which has been eminently beneficial to the interefts of
learning in the New England ftates: and among the Indians
he formed fchools in which many were trained to ufeful
knowledge, and fome of whom became qualified for a liberal
education, which they afterwards received at college. The
meafures adopted by Mr. Eliot were aided by large con-
tributions from England, with which eftates were purchafed
and placed in the hands of truftees, who were afterwards
incorporated under the title of ** The fociety for the propa-
gation of the Gofpel in foreign parts.’ ‘This venerable
apoftle continued his labours till he arrived at his eighty-
fourth year. He died in the latter end of the year 1689,
having attained to the great age of eighty-fix. Gen. Biog,
ELIOTT, Georce Avcustus, lord Heathfield,
youngeft fon of fir Gilbert Eliott of Stubbs, in Roxburgh-
fire, Scotland, was born about the year 1718. He was
educated at home by a domettic tutor till he was of an age

‘fit to be fent to the univerfity of Leyden, where he made

coufiderable progrefs in the ancient and modern languages.
At the royal military fchool of La Vere in Picardy, he made
himfelf matter of taétics, and of the feveral branches of {cience
connected with military life. He next made a tour through
thofe parts of the continent which were belt calcuiated to ex-
hibit to him in praétice what he had fludied iu theory. Pruffia
was a model for true military difcipline, and in her army he
ferved for fome time asa volunteer. At the age of 17 he re-
turned to his native country, and was introduced by his
father to lieutenant-colonel Peers of the 23d regiment of foot,
as a youth anxious to ferve his king and country in the
profeffion of arms. He was accordingly entered as a volun-
teer in that regiment, where he continued fomething more
than a year, when he joined the engineer corps at Woolwich,
and purfued the ftudies of the place with pi ardour till he
was made adjutant of the fecond troop of horfe grenadiers.
With this body he went to Germany, was foon introduced
into active fervice, engaged in feveral fevere aQions, and was

5C wounded

ELT

wounded at the battle of Dettingen.’ He rofethrough the
gradations of captain, major, and lieutenant-colonel, and re-
figned-the commifion which he held as engineer. After this he
was appointed. aid-de-camp to George IT., and became highly
diftinguithed for his zeal and talents in the military fervice.
In the year 1759 he was appointed to raife a regiment of
light-horfe, which was celebrated for aGtivity, difcipline, and
enterprize, under.the name of “ Eliott’s.light horfe.” This
he commanded in-Germany, where he atted as a laff officer,
and on every occafion he maintained a very high reputation.
He was called’ from the continent to be employed the fe-
cond-in command at the Havannah. On the peace of
1763, his regiment was reviewed by the king, when they
prefented- him. with the flandards they had taken from the
enemy. His majeity, in teftimony of their high merit, al-
lowed them to be denominated, ‘*’ The 15th, or King’s
Royal Regiment of Light Dragoons”? In 1775. general
Eliott was appointed commander in chief of the forces in
Treland, but his ftay in that country. was very fhort, and foon
after he was appointed to the command.of Gibraltar, where
he had full opportunity. to difplay the greatnefs and energy
of his charaGter... His fyftem-ot life was peculiarly adapted
to a fervice that required great vigilance. He -was one of
the. moft-abftemious men of his age; his fultenance was
awvegetable diet and water, He flkpt only four hours at a
time, and inured himfelf to habits of order and watchful-
nefs, fo that circumftances, painful and difficult to be borne
by other men, were to him rendered pleafant by daily prac-
tice. Wich a-very.moderate number of men, general Eliott
foiled all the attempts of a numerous. foe; and when the
operations of the fiege were quickened, and rendered more
formidable, he ftill maintained that fuperiority of defence
which kept danger at a diftance. The final very ferious at~
tack by: the famous floating batteries, fays a writer, “ only
afforded one of the grandeft fpectacles of deftruGtion that
was ever beheld.”? On his return to England.the gratitude
of the Britifh fenate was as-forward as the public voice, in
rendering him.that homage, which his diftinguifhed condu&
deferved. The thanks of both houfes-of parliament were
voted to the general; and his-fovereign.conferred on him
the honour of knight of the Bath, with a penfion during
his own life, and that of another, whom he fhould nominate.
On the 14th of June, 1787, his majelty advanced him to a
peerage, by the title of lord Heathfield, baron Gibraltar,
permitting him-to take, in-addition to his family arms,. the
arms of the fortrefs which he had fo bravely defended. His
lordfhip died July the Sth, 1790, inthe feventy-third year of
his age. By his lady, the danghter of fir Francis Drake,
he left one fon and a daughter
ELIPAND, archbifhop of Toledo, flourifhed in the
eighth century. He was the intimate friend of Telix of
Urgella, and maintained, with him, that Jefus Chrift was
the fon of God, not by nature, but by adoption. ‘This
opinion caufed long and violent difputes, and was con-
demned by the council of the church held in the Friuli,
under Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileia, in the year 7g1. It
was afterwards condemned, together with its author, in an
aflerably of prelates, which had been convened by Charlee
magne at Ratifbon. Felix retraéted, but Elipand fearlefsly
avowed his adherence to what he conceived to be the truth ;
neither the threats of his enemies, nor the perfuafions of
his friends, could induce him to retrat an iota of what he
had before vindicated. Some Spanifh bifhops endeavoured
to convince himand Felix, who was again become the con-
vert to his old opinions, of the truth of the reputed ortho-~
dox dogtrine:-they were feconded by a letter of Charle-
magne himfelf. to. the two bihops, entreating them to res

Et

nounce their herefy, and’to unite with: the other prelates of
the Catholic church, in a common creed. Felix again
yielded to the remonftrances of his fuperiors, which excited
Llipand to write againit him. This was in the year 7995
and he died very foon afterwards.. Moreri.

ELIQUATION, or Liguation, in Afetallurgy, ia an
ingenious proce({s. of feparating filver from copper by means
of lead, which appears now, however, to be very little em-
ployed ; but a fhort account of it may be here given.

When rough unrefined copper contains filver in the pros
portion proper for this operation, it is firft melted with
a large quantity of lead, and the mixed alloy is caft into
loaves or, conical maffes. Thefe are then fet in a furnace
on an inclined plane of iron, with a {mall channel grooved
out and heated to a degree juft below that of the melting
point of the alloy, during which the lead melts, or, as it
were, fweats out of the loaf, carrying with it the filver, and
the copper is left behind as a reddifh black fpongy mafs.
This lait is properly the procefs of eliquation. The filver-
holding lead is then purified on a cupel, in the way which
will be defcribed under the article Srrvrr.

Eliquation can only be performed with certain proportions
of the three metals concerned in the procefs, Accerding to
Cramer (Docimafia pra@tica: proceflus 43), every half
ounce of filver requires r7lbs. (or 544 times its weight) of
lead for its extra¢tion from copper by a fingle eliquation ;
and on the other hand, the lead fhould not be more thaa
about four times the weight of the copper, otherwife the
mafs will prove too fulible, and the whole loaf will melt
down at the heat neceflary for the extra€tion of the lead and
filver. On the other hand, if the lead is lefs than about
24 times the weight of the copper, the loaf of liquation will
not yield all the lead in one procefs, and much of this me-
tal, and along with it part of the filver, will remain after the
operation.

The above data (allowing four times as much lead as
copper) would therefore give for the due proportrons of the
alloy 544 parts of lead, 136 of copper, and one of filver.
Other metallurgilts diminifh the lead fomewhat, making it
to the copper only as 11 to 3.

The whole procefs of liquation is defcribed at length in a
valuable paper by Duhamel, in the Memoires de l’Acad,
for 1788, from which the following ia a fhort extract.

The lead and crude filver-holding copper, being duly
proportioned, are thrown into a high blaft furnace, the
floor of which is lined with a mixture of clay and charcoal,
yammed hard, and laid in an inclined direGtion, fo as to con
vey the melted metal into a feparate receptacle. The crude
copper is firt broken in fmall pieces when hot, and aflayed,
to determine the proportion of filver. Either lead or
litharge is ufed in the mixture; if the latter, it 1s mixed
with charcoal to promote its redution, and 120 parts of
the litharge are taken as equivalent to 100 of lead. The
furnace being firlt heated by itfelf for fome hours, a bafket
full of the fcoriz from the firft reduGion of the copper ore
is thrown in, which foon melts, and forms a vitreous glazing,
that proteéts the walls of the furnace from the violent action
of the blaft. The mixed metals are then thrown inatinters
vals, and the whole foon melts into atriple alloy, which flowa
into the receptacle, whence itis tapped out into iron moulds,
whereby it aflumes the conical fhape requifite for the fubfe-
quent eliquation. The heat required in this firlt operation is
much lefs than that at which copper melts, fo that the fufion
and reduétion of the litharge go on {peedily, and in a well-
managed furnace, feven loaves of liquation, each weighing
about 350lbs,, may be caft in an hour.

The next procefs is the- s/iquationy which is a in

i a lure

Oa

et,

EOUT

a furnace conflrudted for the purpofe, ulually holding ‘fix
loaves, fet on iron bars, feparated from each other by bricks,
and having a channel beneath to convey the filver-holding
lead into a bafon as it melts out. The management of the
heat is here of great importance. If the procefs goes on
well, the lead flows out eafily, and the loaves gradually fink
down, and become honey-combed, without lofing any fen-
fible portion of their copper. If the heat is too great, par-
ticles of copper are vifibly carried down with the lead, which
muft be immediately prevented by flackening the fire.
When the lead has ceafed to flow, the loaves are taken out,
and when cold have a-dark red colour and a crumbly tex-
ture. It requires about four hours to eliquiate the loaves,
The firft portion of the lead is always the richeft in filver,
but whatever caré is taken'in the procefs a little of both
filver and lead remains, together with part of the iron, ar~
fenic, and other impurities of the copper.

To colle&t the {mall remaining portion of filver, a number
of the porous loaves remaining after Jiquation are ranged
in a kind of oven fo as nearly to fill it, and are made mode-
rately red-hot by the flame of wood drawing through it, by
which a quantity of mixed metal and fcoriz drops down on
the hearth, confilting of lead holding arlittle filver, of iron,
fuiphur, arfenic, fome copper, and fcorie, ‘Vhis mafs is
wathed in a ftamping machine, by which the fcorie are got
rid of, and the metals alone remain, which undergo a fur-
ther purification. When the dropping from the oven-fur-
nace begins to be red and compaét, it is a fign that all that
is heterogeneous to the copper, which cam be extracted -in
this way, is got out, and the copper itfelf begins to melt.
‘The loaves are then taken out, and appear varnilhed with a
thick vitrefcent mafs, which, on dropping them into cold
water, cracks in every diretion, and when cold, may be
knocked off with a hammer, leaving the copper confiderably

ure. © This procefs lafts about 30 hours.

© The filver, now transferred to the lead, is afterwards re-
fined in the ufual manner.

- The procefs of eliquation, though highly ingenious, is
expentive and difficult to condu&, and requires a large {np-
ply of lead. ‘To perform it economically, it alfo requires
a copper holding a pretty exaét proportion of filver, that ts,
from 3ds to $ths per cent. of filver, neither more nor lefs, and
hence, where there are parowls of copper of greater or Icfs
richnefs in filver, much judgment is exercifed in mixing
them in fuch proportions as to allow of eliquation with the
lealt expence.

ELIRE. Sce Conce d’£lire.

ELIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of Greece, fitu-
ated to the weit of the Peloponnefus, bounded on the north
by a part of Achaia, on the ealt by Arcadia, on the fouth
by Meffenia, and on the welt by the Ionian fea. The
Jength, from fouth to north, was about 20 leagues, and its
breadth, from welt to eaft, from fix to feven. It was wa-
tered by a great number of {mall rivers, which rendered it
very fertile. By ancient authors, however, it is chiefly dif-
tinguifhed by its groves of olive-trees; and it was much fre.
quented by the Greeks who attended the Olympic games.
Befides ite olives, it furnifhed abundance of hemp, flax, and
filk. This country was divided into three parts, viz. Trie
phylia, to the fouth, the Pifatide, in the middle, and
Elide Proper, to the north.

Exits, was alfo the name of the capital of the fore-men-
tioned province, fituated in the northern part of it, on the
river Peneus. This town, indeed, gave its name to the”
‘province, and, according to Strabo, was built foon after
the fiege of ‘Troy. It was adorned with temples, porticoes,
and gymnafia, where the athlete were formed for varigue

ELI

kinds of combat. Pluto, Bacchus, and Venue, had their
re{pective temples in this city. -The ftatue of Venus bore
the name of “Cceleftis,” and it was’formed by Phidias-of
gold and ivory. The feet of the goddefs ‘relted upon a.
tortoife.

ELISHA, in Biography, a Hebrew prophet, was the
fon of Shaphat, and feleéted by Elijah, from the purfuits of
agriculture, to be his fucceffor in the prophetic office.
Many inftances otcur in the abftra& of his “hiffory, con-
tained in ‘the facred writings, which evince the miraculous
powers with which he was endowed, and which ferved aa
teftimonies to his prophetic commiffion. To the feriptures
we fhall refer the reader for an account of them. Eliflsa’a
life and office were continued to a very advanced age, and
terminated about the year 830 B.C. See 1 Kings, xix.
2 Kings, ii —ix. xiii.

ELISI, Fizirro, -an Italian finger of the firft clafs,
with a /oprano voice of great compafs; who, though ar
admirabie finger, was ftill a greater ator: his figure was
large and majeltic, and his voice clear, well-toned, and full.

He was fond of diftant intervals, of 4 or 19 notes, and
took them well. Several airs of Jomelli, which he intro-
duced in different operas, were calculated to fhew the dex-
terity and accuracy with which he could ferm thefe remote
intervals. He fung an “ Aria parlante ia Ariannae Tefeos
fra {tupido ¢ penfofo,’’ compofed mot admirably by Galuppi,
in a new and fine Ryle of dramatic mufic; in which the
accompaniments, in two of three {mall triplets after each -
note in the bafe, had a new and fine effe&.

Eelifi remained here at firft only one feafon, part of 1760
and 176t. But the impreffion which his performance made
on lovers of mufic and judges of good finging, was not foon
forgotten.

ELISION, in Grammar, the cutting off, or fupprefling
a vowel at the end of a word, for the fake of found or
meature.

Elifions, excepting in poetty, are but little known in
Englifh; in Latin, French, &c, they are frequent, and
confift moftly in fuppreffions of the final a2, e, andi: asin
Phillida amo ante alias. Si ad vitulum pees, &e.

In writing, clifions are often marked by an apoftrophe;
as egon’ quem queram? for egone. Emin’ ego te? for emines
Veniflin for venifline, &c. Lett’ efperance, tor cette; Phommey
for fe homnie.

In the pronunciation we make frequent elifions, but do
not mark them in writing; thus we write +//que it, but pro-
pounce rify’ it. So the French pronounce un’ ame, but
write une ame. In effect, they never mark any elifions but
at the end of the monofyllables je, we, le, #¢, <2, gue, and law
They never elide in the 0, nor #, nor ¢, but in the conjunc-
tion fi, before #/; nor a, but in /a, ’

In poetty, the fyllable in which a vowel is elided,
is never reckoned; and great care is taken to avoid the
clafhing of fyllables where there is no elifion, this making
what they call a hiatus or cha/m.

Some reduce the e@hiipfis under the head ofelifions; asin
monfrum, borrendum, ingens, kc. See Ectuxrrsis.

ELISORS, or Erectors, in Law, are two clerks of
the court, or two perfons of the county named by the court,
and {worn, to whom the venire fhall be direéted, in cafes of
exception or challenge to the fheriff or coroners for kindred
or partiality, for the choice of a jury. Thefe clifors
fhall indifferently name the jury, and their return is final :
no challenge being allowed to their array.

ELISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelo
ponnefus, in Arcadia, which was deltroyed by the Laceder-

sCz maonians,

ELE
morians.—Alfo, a river of the Peloponnefus, in Sicyonia,
the fame with £ifon.

ELIXATION, or Lixiviation, is the feparation by
means of folution, of a fimple or compound falt, from any
infoluble matter with which it is naturally or cafually mixed.
‘Water is the menftruum employed for this purpofe, and the
method of performing it varies according as the water is
ufed, hot or cold. In the former cafe, a boiler is nearly
filled with water, and when the liquor is fufficiently hot,
the fubftance to be lixiviated is carefully ftirred in: the in-
foluble refidue is then withdrawn by means of a rake, or
any other convenient inftrument, and other portions of the
mixture are added, and treated in the fame way as the firlt,
till the liquor is fufliciently faturated.

In cold lixiviation (as of alum ore), a cafk with a falfe
bottom is filled with the earthy mixture, and water is then
poured on till the mixture is covered by it. After remain-
ing in this ftate for a longer or fhorter time, according to
circumftances, the plug-hole at the bottom of the caflc is
opened and the liquor drains through, carrying with it all
the foluble parts and leavieg, the infoluble behind: the water
thus faturated is called a hxivium.

ELIXIR, in Pharmacy. This term was applied to a
large clafs of liquid medicines, confifting for the moft part
of refins, aromatics, or other powerful medicines, infufed in
fpirits of wine, and employed for internal ufe. In fad,
elixirs fo nearly refemble the tin@tures, in their general com-
pefition, that the term clixir is now entirely dropped in the
modern pharmacopeeias, and the formule for fome of the
moit valuable preparations of this clafs have been tranf-
ferred, with fome alteration and much fimplification,
either to the clafs of tin@ures, or to that of /pirits. ‘The
term elixir, however, is {till retained’ in popular ufe.

Menage derives the word from the Arabic, elicfir, pro-
perly fignifying fradion, becaufe elixirs have the force of
breaking difeafes: others more naturally derive it from the
Arabic, alexiro, an artificial extra@ion of fome effence;
others from the Greek, eaxiov, oil, and cugw, L draw, q. d.
an extra& of the oil, which is the effential part of mixts;
others from the Greck verb, aazfew, J help, or aff, becaufe
of the great fuccours we receive from elixirs.

Exrxir alves, a name given in the late London Difpenfa-
tory to the medicine commonly known by the name of
‘ elixir proprictatis,””? and now called “ tin&tura aloes
compolita,’”? whichis there ordered to be made in the fol-
Jowing manner: take tin€ture of myrrh a quart ; powder of
focotrine aloes, and fine faffron, of each three ounces 5
digelt them a due time, and then prefs off the tinéture, and
filtre it for ufe. The ‘ chixir proprictatis’” is a remedy
faidto have been firft invented by Paracelfus. See Tinc-
TURE.

Evixir myrrhe compofitum, is now called |“ tinéura
fabine compofita.’” See Tincrure.

Exixtr paregoricum, a name given in the late London
Difpenfatory to the * elixir althmaticum’ of Quincy,
which is there ordered to be made thus:

Take flower of benjamin, and {trained opium, of each a
dram; camphor, two feruples; effential oil of annifeeds,
half a dram; rectified {piritof wine, a quart; digelt all to-
gethera proper time, and then {train off the fpirit. This
allays tickling coughs, relieves difficult breathing, and 1s
ufeful in many diforders of children, particularly in the
hooping-cough. Thedofe for an adult is from 50 to 100
drops. This is now called ‘* tin@ura opii camphorata.’’
See TINCTURE.

Evixir, facred. See Tincture of Rhubarb:

_ Exvixiz/alutis. See Tincture of Sena,

_ Ing out the elixir.

ELT

Exixir flomachic, is prepared by boiling two ounces of
gentian-root, one ounce of Curafloa oranges, and half an
ounce of Virginia {nake-root, and infufing them for three:
or four days in two pints of French brandy, and then ftrain«
This isan elegant ftomachic bitter. A
{mall glafs, twice a day, relieves in flatulencées, indigeition,
want of appetite, and fimilar complaints. A large dofe alfo,
relieves the gout in the ftomach.

Exvixir of vitriol, acid, is prepared by gradually mixing
one pint of the aromatic tinéture with three ounces of oil
of vitriol; and after the feces have fubfided, filtering the
elixir through paper in a glafs funnel. This is faidto bean
excellent medicine for hyitericand hypochondriac patients,
afflicted with flatulencies, ariling from a relaxation or debi-
lity of the ftomach, andinteftines. It is to be taken on an
empty ftomach, twice or thrice a day, in a glafs of wine:
or water, or of any bitter infufion; and the dofe may be
from 10 to 40 drops.

Exixir, among the d/chemi/ls, is ufed for the philofo-
pher’s {lone, or the powder of projeGion; and fometimes for -
an univerfal medicine, . which will cure all difeafes, called, by
way of excellence, the grand elixir.

Thofe two things mott alchemitls take to coincide; fo that
what will make gold, they think, will cure all difeafes. See
PHiLosoPpHER’s flone.

The notion of a grand elixir'isof along ftanding. :

ELIXIS, a name given by fome of the Old Writers to
that form of medicine now called a linus.

ELIXOIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Hy-
perboreans, at the mouth of the river Carambyca (the
Dwina ;) now the Pode/em/ea at the mouth of the Dwina.

ELIZABETH, in Biography, queen of England, one
of the moft celebrated fovereigns of thig or of any.
country, was the daughter of Henry VIII. by his queen
Anne Boleyn, and born in the year 1533. She was edu
cated ia the principles of the Proteftant religion, and was
diftinguifhed for her attainments in claflical literature. By
the latt will of her father fhe was nominated third in order
of fucceffion, but by the influence of the duke of Northum->
berland, fhe was by an act of Edward VI. excluded from
the crown, to which neyerthelefs fhe attained on the death
of her fifter Mary. During, however, the reign of that
filter, fhe was treated with the utmott indignity and feverity,
committed to the ‘l'ower, and threatened with {till more
awful calamities. Her confinement in this fortrefs was fhort,.
for even the judges of Mary could find no plea .againit her,
and fhe wasient from thence to Woodftock, where, though
kept in fafe cultody, fhe was treated with much refpeét.
Her futferings and her principles endeared her to the nation,
and fhe became fo extremely popular that it was,in a fhort
time, deemed impolitic to put any reflraint upon her. When.
fet at liberty the chofe ftudy and retirement, and was very
fubmiffive to the wil of -her fifter. Attempts were made
to draw her into fome heretical declarations, but in every
inftance fhe ated with fo much prudence and caution as to
give ber enemiesno hold uponher. She complied with the -
external forms of the eftablifhed religion, though it was
well known, fhe was inimical to the principles which her
fifter efpoufed, and which led her to the mott atrocious a&a .
of cruelty,

On the death of Mary, Elizabeth was. immediately. proe -
claimed fovereign, to thefatisfactiom.of the great) majority
of the people; indeed almoft all defcriptions of perfons re-
joiced in the change, as that in which the glory. of the
country, and the fafety of individuals feemed fo’ much cons
cerned. Elizabeth was at Hatfield when fhe heard of her
fifter’s death, and, after. a. very few days, the repaired to

the

ELIZABETH.

_he metropolis through immenfe crowds of the people, who
ftrove with each other who fhovuld difplay the ftrongett tef-
timonies of their refpe& and affection. On her entrance
into the Tower, her mind was fo ftrongly aff-G&ed with a
comparifon of her prefent profperity with her former fuffer-
ings, that fhe fellon her knees, and exprefled the warmett
acknowledgments to Almighty God for the deliverance
which had been afforded her from the mott cruel perfecution ;
a deliverance, fhe faid, no lefs miraculous than that which
Daniel had received from the den of lions. From this mo-
ment, in the true fpirit of the Chriftian religion, fhe deter-
mined to forget all the injuries the had endured, and forgave
all who had been inimical io ber principles during the reign
of Mary.

Propofals of marriage had been formerly made her by the
King of Sweden, which fhe thought fit to decline: a fimilar
offer was now made by Pailip of Spain, her late fitter’s huf-
band, which the likewife rejected, fignitying, in both cafes,
that fhe was determined to lead a fingle life. She now turned
her thoughts to the reftoration of the principles of the re-
formation, which was effected by the firft parliament that
met after her acceflion, and from this period England took
the decided ftation among Pvoteltant countries, which it
has ever fince maintained.

Elizabeth at this time arrogated to herfelf that fuprema-
cy over the faith and worfhip of her fubjeQs, which before
was fuppofed to belong exclufiyely to the court of Rome.
In her feveral plans re{pecting religion, fhe preceeded with
great caution ; the checked the forward z-al of thofe who
were for overletting, at once, the eitablifhed religion of the
country; fhe publifhed a proclamation by which the prohi-
bited all preaching without a f{pecial licence, and though the
difpenfed with thefe orders in favour of fome preachers of
the Proteitant religion, fhe took care that they fhould be
the moft calm and moderate of the party.

By the Catholics, Mary, the young queen of Scotland,
who had received her education in France, was regarded as
the true fovereign of England; the even zflumed the enfigns
and title of Englifh royalty, which Elizabeth could never
forget nor forgive. Mary, when fhe found it wasin vain to
look to the crown of Eng!and, in oppofition to the reign-
ing queen, wifhed to be regarded as the prefumptive fuccef-
for to the throne, which wes refufed. From this time Mary
was confidered as a rival, and every means was taken to
thwart her projects, and difappoint her expectations, The
condué& of Mary, which will be more: diftin@ly noticed
under herowa article, was not only imprudent in the higheit
degree, but furnifhed ample fcope for the inveétives of her
enemies. In 1568, fhe was obliged, from fear of her own
fubje&ts, to take refuge in Bogland, and her retreat was fo
fudden, that fhe had no opportunity of giving to Eliza-
beth any previous intimation of her intentions. It was re-
folved by the Englifh miniftry to detain her a perpetual
prifoner, and a fort of pretext was given them, by her offer
to fubmit the juitice of her caufe to. the judgment of her
fifter queen. Anaccufation was accordingly brought againtt
her by the regent Murray, and commiflioners appointed to
hear the cafe. Mary refufedto reply tothe charges exhi-
bited againft her, and demanded to be reftored to her king-
dom, or to be fent to France, a favour which was as pofitively
denied. The confequence of this meafure was.a fecret ne-
gociation between Mary andthe duke of Norfolk, the head
of the Catholic party, who propofed marriage to, her, and
was fupported in_his views by the kings of I'ranceand Spain.
The difcovery of this project caufed the duke to be com,
mitted to the Tower, This was followed by. other rebel-
lions and infurreCtions which excited in the mind of Eliza:

beth much uneafinefs; and various negociations were carried
on with the Scots for her reftoration, but without che.

Elizabeth was now confidercd aa the head of the Protef-
tant party in Europe, and in this chara@ter fhe made a
treaty of alliance with the French Hugonots, and afforded
them aid in men and money, and received in returo the, port
of Havre-de-Grace, which was held fome time by an Eng-
lith garrifon, but was at length obliged to furrender. Bee
tween France and Spain thers was an avowed league for the
extirpation of herefy, and Elzabeth felt herfelt juftified,
by way of felf defence, to give affiftance to the caule of
Protettantifm, wherever it was in danger of being fuppreffed
by force. She not only gave a favourable reception to the
Flemifh exiles who tock refuge in England, from the tyran-
py of the duke of Alva, and brought over their arts and ine
duftry, but fhe ventured upon itopping a large loan of
money which fome Genoefe merchants were feuding by fea
tothe duke, and which fome Hugonot privateers had feized
and brought into the Englifh ports. The Spanifh court res
taliated, by exciting an infurreGtion among the Englifh cas
tholics, at the head of which was the duke of Norfolk, who
was afterwards difcovered, tried, convicted and beheaded,
for his crimes. Qn the horrible maflacre at Paris, in
Augult 1572, Elizabeth put herfelf and court into deep
mourning, and received, with a marked and folemn filence, the
French embaffador who was fent to apologize for rhe bloody
deed. But fhe was too prudent to break entirely with the
French court, and fuffered negociations to be carricd on for
her marriage with the king’s brother, the duke of Alencon,
the youngeft fon of Catherine de Medicis, whom, after a long:
courtfhip, fhe reje€ted, and fent back to the Netherlands in
great wrath. :

In 1575, Elizabeth, as the head of the Proteftants, was
offered the poffeffion and fovereignty of the revolted Dutch »
provinces, on condition of becoming their protectrefs againft
the Spaniards. This for the prefent the rejected, though in
about three years after fhe ventured to fign a treaty of alliance
with the united ftates. In the year 1584, an aflociation was
entered into by the fubjeéts of England, comprehending
perfons of all ranks, with a view of affording her perfonal
protection againit her enemies, who were fuppoled to be
chiefly adherents to Mary Queen of Scots. About this -
period laws of great feverity were enaéted againit the Jefuits »
and popifh priefts, a plot having been difcovered to aflaffinate
the queen, which was known to be favoured by. the papal
court. Elizabeth now ventured to fet at defiance the hotti-
lity of Spain, by entering into a treaty with the revolted Low
Countries, by which fhe engaged to sffift them with a con-
fiderable force, on condition of having fome of their ports
put into her hands for fecurity. She might indeed have pof-
{fled herfelf of the fovereignty, but was fatisfied with having
her favourite, the ear) of Leicefter, admitted into the council
of the ftates. At the fame time the fent a powerful. arma-
ment againfi the Spanifh fettlements in the Wett Indies, under
fir Francis, Drake, and entered into a ieague of mutual dre
fence with; James king of Scotland, whofe friendthip fhe cul-
tivated, though fhe kept his, mother in prifon,

Another confpiracy againit the hfe of Elizabeth was
detected in 3586; the perfons principally engaged in it
unqueftionably maintained a correfpondence with the unfor-
tunate Mary, though it has been doubted whether fhe was
privy to the intended affafimation. ‘The plot was unravelled
by. her minifter Walfingham, who [offered the plan to be
carried on till he had dete&ted all the confpirators, and bad
fufficient evidence under her own band, to involve the queen
of Scots.as a participator in the intended offence. Fourteen
of the confpirators were convicted and executed, sag iors

erle

. ELIZABETH.

herfelf was brought te trial before a grand commiffion of
forty noblemen and privy counfellors, who after the ufual
forms pronounced and figned a fentence of death againft her.
But Ehzabeth was unwilling to fign the warrant of execu-
tion, and was anxious to remove the odium of the deed from
herfelf. Parliament, probably by-her defire, demanded the
execution of the fentence, as fhe wifhed it to be fuppofed
that her compliance was extorted from her by the clamours
ofthe people. She is, however, charged with being privy to
an attempt made upon the keepers of the prifoner to induce
them to difparch her in a more private manner. This they
nobly rejected, and a letter, figned by Walfingham to fir
Amias Poulet, on this fubje@ is ftill extant, to the difgrace
of that minifter who could condefcend to fo bafe an expedi-
ent. At length the warrant was made out, and the deed was
executed, Feb. 8. 586-7. As foon as the news was com-
municated to the:queen, fhe affeéted an excefs of grief and
aftonifhment. She even pretended that the thing had been
done contrary ‘to her inciination, and committed to prifon
Davifon, who had beemher agent in the bufinefs, and hed him
brought to trial and heavily fined. Inno inftance, perhaps,
was hypoenfy carried to a bigher pitch than in this by Eliza-
beth, which was equally derogatory to her good fenfe, and
to the known firmne(s of her mind in difficult cafes. The
diffimulation of the queen was not, however, without its
effect; it foftened the refentment of the king of Scotland,
who, inftead of revenging the death of his mother, entered
into an amicable correfpondence with the court of England.

The next thing which engaged the attention of the queen
and her minilters was the famous Armada, which, as we have
feen, was intended for the entire conqueft of the ifland. (See
Armapa.) Elizabeth next became the ally of Henry IV.
m order to vindicate his title, and eftablifh him firmly on the
throne of France, and for fome years the Englifh auxiliaries
ferved in France, while feveral naval expeditions, undertaken
by individuals, or by the queen, raifed the reputation of
England to an extraordinary height. At this period Robert
Devereux, earl of Effex, the queen’s favourite, highly diftin-
guithed himfelf, but the events of his life have been already
éefcribed. See Devereux.

In 1601, Elizabeth held a conference with the marquis de
Rofni, who is better known in hiftory as the celebrated
Sully, for the purpofe of eftablifhing, in concurrence with
England, a new fy{tem of European power, with a view of
controlling the vatt influence of the houfe of Auftria, and
producing a lafting peace. The queen coincided with his
projects, and the French minifter departed in admiration of
the folidity and enlargement of her political views. The
-queen, having fuppreffed an infurre@tion in Ireland, and ob-
higed all the Spanifh troops fent to its affiftance to quit the
ifland ; fhe turned her thoughts towards relieving the burdens
of ber fubje&ts; the abolifhed a number of monopolies, and
became extremely popular. But the execution of her favour-
ite, the earl of Effex, gave a fatal blow to her happinefs.
When fhe learnt from the countefs of Nottingham, that he
had folicited her pardon, which had been concealed from her,
dhe at firft became furious with rage, and when the violence
of anger fubfided, fhe fell into the deepeft and moft incurable
melancholy, rejecting all confolation, and refufing food and
fuftenance of every kind. She remained for days fullen and
immoveable, ‘ feeding,” fays the hiftorian, ‘* her thoughts on
her affliGtions, and declaring life and exiftence an infufferable
‘burden to her’. Few words fhe uttered, and they were all
expreflive of fome inward grief, which fhe cared not to reveal:
but fighs and groans were the chief vent which fhe gave to
her defpandency, and which, though they difcovered her

forrows, were never able to eafe or afuage them: “Ten daya
and nights fhe lay upon the carpet, ieaning on cufhions which
her maids brought her, and her phyficians could not perfuade
her to allow herfelf to be put to bed, much lefs to make trial
of any remedies which they prefcribed to her. Her anxious
mind at laft had fo long preyed on her frail body, that her
end was vifibly approaching ; and the council being affem-
bled, fent the keeper, admiral and fecretary, to know her
will with regard to her fucceffor. She anfwered with a faint
voice, that, as fhe had held a regal fceptre, fhe defired ne
other than a royal fucceffor. Cecil requeftinz her to explain
herfelf more particularly, fhe fubjoined, that fhe would have
a king to fucceed her, and who fhould that be, but her
nearelt kinfman, the king of Scots? Being then advifed by
the archbifhop of Canterbury to fix her thoughts upon God,
fhe replied, that the did fo, nor did her mind in the leaf wan-
der from him. Her voice foon after left her; her fenfes
failed ; fhe fell into a lethargic lumber, which continued
fome hovra, and fhe expired gently, without ferther ftruggle
or convulfion, in the 7oth year of her age, and ‘forty-ffth
of her reign. ;

‘© So dark a cloud overcaft the evening of that day which
had fhone out with a mighty luftre in the eyes of all Europe.
There are few great perfonages in hiftory who have been
more expofed to the calumnies of enemies, and the adulation
of friends, than queen Elizabeth, and yet there is fearcely
any whofe reputation hasbeen more certainly determined by
the unanimons confent of pofterity. The unufual length of
her adminiftration, and the ftronge features of her chara@er,
were able to overcome all prejudices; and obliging her de-
tractors to abate much of “their inveCtives, and her admirers
fomewhat of their panegyrics, have at laft, in fpite of po-
litical fa@tions, and, what is more, of religious animolities,
produced an uniform judgment with regard to her conduét.
Her vigour, herconftancy, her magnanimity, her penetra~
tion, vigilance, and addrefs, are allowed to merit the higheft
praifes, and appear not to have been furpaffed by any perfon
that ever filled a throne: a conduct lefs rigorous, lefs impe-
rious, more fincere, more indulgent to her people, would
have been requifite to have formed a perfe&t chara&ter. By
the force of her mind, fhe controlled all her more aGive
and ttronger qualities, and prevented them from running
into excefs. Her heroifm was exempt from temerity, her
frugality from avarice, her friendfhip from partiality, her
ative temper from turbulency and a vain ambition; fhe
guarded not herfelf with equal care or equal fuccefs from
leffer infirmities ; the rivalfhip of beauty, the defire of ad-
miration, the jealoufy of love, and the fallies of anger.’

Under the wife condu& of Elizabeth the Proteftant re-
ligion was firmly eftablifhed, factions reftrained, govern-
ment ftrengthened, the power of Spain nobly oppofed, and
withitood, oppreffed neighbours fupported, a navy created,
commerce rendered flourifhing, and the national glory aggran-
dized. No fovereign was ever more jealous of power and
prerogative; yet fhe was truly ambitious of obtaining the
general affetions of her fubje&ts. She made, during her
long reign, frequent progreffes, and paid many domettic
vifits, which were partly the refult of policy, partly of eco-
nomy. She wifhed to be thought a friend to literature, but
never difplayed the liberality of a patronefs. Her manners
and language were but little fuited to the delicacy of the fe-
male character.

«© When we contemplate her as a woman,” fays Mr.
Hume, “ we are apt to be ftruck with the higheft admira-
tion of her great qualities and extenfive capacity, but we
are apt alfo to require fome more foftnefs of difpofition, fome

; greater

ELIZABETH.

greater lenity of temper, fome of thofe amiable weaknefles
by which her fex is diftinguifhed. But the true method of
eftimating her merit, is to lay afide all thefe confiderations,
and confider her merely asa rational being, placed in au-
thority, and entrufted with the government of mankind.
We may find it difficult to reconcile our fancy to her as a
wife or miftrefs, but her qualities as a fovereign, though wich
fome confiderable exceptions, are the object of undifputed
applaufe and approbation.”” The laxity of her morals in
fome particular points has given occafion to reproach, and it
is impoffible to juftify her condu& with regard to the queen
of Scots, but the was neverthelefs great as a fovereign, though
not eftimable asa woman. , Hume’s Hilt. of England.

Exvizazern, emprefs of Rufflia, was the daughter of Peter
the Great, was born in 1709, and when arrived at years of
maturity, was admired for her perfonal attractions. By the
revolution of the year 1741, Ivan, whom the emprefs Anne
had nominated for her fucceffor, was fet afide, and Eliza-
beth renewed in her perfon the line of Peter the Great upon
the throne of Ruffia. Although her beauty, as well as
rank and large dowry, occafioned feveral offers, none of
them were accepted, and fhe died fingle. rom the period
of her acceflion, fhe renounced all thoughts of the connu-
bial ftate, and adopted her nephew Peter. Her diflike to
marriage, however, did not proceed from any difinclination to
men; for fhe freely owned to her confidents, that fhe was
never happy but when in love ; ifacapricious paffion, which
was ever changing its object, may be dignified by that name.
he fame chara¢teriftic warmth of temper hurried her no lefs
tothe extremes of devotion; fhe was fcrupulovfly exa& in
herannual confeflions of the wanderings of her heart, in ex-
prefling the utmoft contrition, and in punétually adhering to
the minuteft ceremonies and ordinances of thechurch. With
yegard to her difpofition, fhe is generally ftyled the humane
Elizabeth; as fhe made a vow never to*infli@ any capital pu-
nifhments during her reign, and fhe is alfo faid to have fhed
tears upon the news of victories gained by her troops, from
the refle&tion that they were not obtained without great
bloodfhed. By an edi& paffed in her reign, corporal penal-
ties were fubitituted, except in fome cafes of high treafon,
in the room of capital fentences. From this fuppreflion of
capital punifhment in all inftances excepting treafon, the
hamanity of Elizabeth’s difpofition has been highly extolled,
and the has been reprefented, not only by the lively Voltaire,
but even by the fagacious Blackftone, as a pattern of legifla~
tive clemency. It fhould be recollected, however, that the
ttate prifons were filled with wretched fufferers, many of
whom, unheard of and unknown, perifhed in dampand un-
wholefome dungeons; befides, the ftate inquifition, or fecret
committee, appointed to judge perfons fufpeéted of high
treafon, had conftant occupation during her reign; many,
upon the flighteft {urmifes, were tortured in fecret; many un-
derwent the knoot, and expired under the infliction of this
torture. ‘Two ladies of rank underwent this cruel punifh-
ment, had their tongues cut out, and were banifhed into
Siberia. ‘The mind of Elizabeth was perpetually haunted
by fufpicions of the infecurity of her elevated ftation, and
by the dread of a revolution fimilar to that which had placed
heronthethrone. Elizabeth eftablifhed the Academy of
Arts, and annexed it to the Academy of Sciences. (See
AcapEmy.)

‘This empre{s died in 1761, the 21ft year of her reign and
the 53d of herage; in December, the fame month in which
She was born, and in which fhe was advanced to the throne.
Peter 111, whom fhe nominated as her fucceflor, was in

about fix month’ reduced to the neceffity of abdicating the
empire, in favour of Catharine I. (See Caruartne.) He
died on the 7th day of his confinement at Rob{cha, a {mall
imperial palace, 20 miles from Peterhof, and his remaias
were interred in the church of the convent of St. Alexander
Newfki at Peterfburgh. Coxe’s Travels in Ruffia.

Evizazetu, in Geography, a polt-town of America im
Lancafter county and {tate of Pennfylvania, containing about
3° houfes, a Dutch church, and 546 inhabitants; 18 miles
N.W. by W. of Lancafter, and 84 W. by. N. of Philadel.
phia.—Alfo, a fhort fouthern arm of James river, in Virgi«
nia; affording an excellent harbour, fufficiently capacious
for the accommodation of 300 fhips. The channel is from
150 to 200 fathoms wide, and at common flood-tide it has
18 feet water to Norfolk, feated near the mouth of its eaft-
ern.branch.

Exizazetn’s Bay, a bay in the ftraits of Magellan, at
the entrance of which are two [mall reefs, that appear above
water. All round the bay there is-good landing, though it
is much expofed to the welterly winds. The beit place for
anchoring is Paflage point. Sufficient wood may be pros
cured here for the ule of fhips, and there is good watering
at a fmall river. The ifland affords celery and-cranberries.
S. lat. 50° 43’. W. long. 73924!. Variation 2 points
ealterly.

Evizazeru, Cape, a lofty promontory on the N.W.
coalt of America, S.W. of Prince William’s found. Ns
lat. 59° ro!.. E. long. 207° 45'——Alfo, a headland and
townthip of North America, in the county of Cumberland,
and ftate of Maine. The cape lies in N. lat. 43°33! W-
long. 70° 10’, E. by S. from the centre of the town g
miles. The town contains 1355 inhabitants. It was ins
corporated in 1765, and lies 126 miles N.E. of Bofton.

Evizanetn City, acounty of Virginia, in America, lying
between York and James rivers, having Warwick and York
counties on the W. and Chefapeak bay on the E.and N.
On its fea-coaft are feveral {mall iflands, thechief of which
are Long and Egg iflands. The-S.E. extremity: of the
county is Point Comfort. It contains 1256 free inhabitants,
and 1522 flaves.

Evizanetu City, a town of Pafquatank county in Ns
Carolina, in which is a polt-office ; 299 miles from Wath=
ington.

Evizasetu’s J/land, liesin the flraits of Magellan, and
affords a fupply of frefl water, celery, and fome wild fowl.
The fhores alfo abound with fhell-fih.

Exizasetu Sflands, a group of {mall iflands on the S.E.
fide of Buzzard’s bay, extending fouth-wefterly. from the
extremity of Barnftable county in the Maflachufetts, and
bearing N.W. from Martha’s vineyard; fituated between
4° 24'and 41° 32’ N. lat., and between 70° 38! and 70° 56?
W..long, They are about 16 in number; and the chief of
themare Nafhawn, Pafqui, Nafhawenna, Pinequefe, and
Cattahunk: all thefe belong to Duke’s county.

Exizanets-Grand, a town and diftri& of Rouffia, in the
province of Catherinenflaf, feated.on the Ingul,. falling into
the Bog.

Evizasetu- Town, a poft-town and borough of Ame-
rica, in Effex county, New Jerfey; pleafantly fituated on
afmall creek which enters into Arthur-Kull. Fts foil is
equal to any in the fate, of which it is one of the oldeft
towns, having been purchaled of the Indians in 1664, and
fettled foon after, ‘The compact part of the town containa
about 150 houfes, 2 brick churches, one for Prefbyterians
and the other for Epifcopalians, and anacademy, It liee

15 miles

ELK

rs miles S.W. by. W. of New York.—Alfo, a town of
Alleghanny county, in Pennfylvania, on the S.E. fide of
Monongahela river, between Redftone Old Fort and Pittf-
burg, about 1S miles from each. Many boats are built here
for the trade and emigration to Kentucky, and in the vici-
nity are feveral faw-mills. Ithas 1g04 inhabitants. An-
other town of the fame name in this county contains Ir in-
habitants. .N. lat. 40° 13’. W. long. 79° 22,—Alfo, a
poft-town of Maryland, and capital of Wathington county,
formerly called ‘ Hagarftown,”’ feated in the fertile valley
of Conegocheague. The houfes are 300. Epifcopalians,
Prefbyterians, and German Lutherans have each a church.
The court-houfeand market-houfe are handfome buildings,
and the gaol is a fubftantial edifice of ftone. The trade with
the weftern country is confiderable, and there are many mills
inthe neighbourhood on Antietam creek.—Alfo, the chief
town of ‘T'yrrel county, in Edenton diftri&t, North Carolina.
It hasa gaol,court-houfe, and a few dwelling-hovfes, 4omiles
from Fayetteville, and 55 from Wilmington.—Alfo, a poft-
town and the chief in Bladen county, North Carolina,
feated on the N.W. branch of Cape Fear. It has a court-
houfe, gaol, and about 30 houfes, 36 miles S. of Fayette-
ville, and 47 N.W. of Wilmington.—Alfo, a poft-town of
Effex county, in New York, fituated on the W. fhore
of lake Champlain, N. of Crown point, containing goo in-
habitants; 529 miles N. by E. from Wafhington.—Alfo, a
townfhip in the county of Leeds, in Upper Canada; the
ninth townfhip in afcending the river St. Lawrence; well
watered by the river Tonianta, and three other ftreams.

ELK, acreek of America, in Northumberland county,
Pennfylvania, which, uniting with Penn’s creek, falls into
the Sufquehanna, 5 miles below Sunbury.— Aifo, a navigable
river of the eaftern fhore of Maryland, which rifes in Chefter
county, Pennfylvania, by two branches, viz. Big and Little
Elk creeks. Ai their confluence ftands Eikton.—Alfo, a
fhort navigable river in the ftate of Teneflee. It rifes on the
N.W. fide of Cumberland mountain; runs S. wefterly, and
falls into the Teneffee, a little above the Mufcle fhoals ;
about 40 miles W.N.W. of the creeks’ croffing place.

Exx Jake, one of the chain of {mall lakes which conne&ts
the lake of the Woods with lake Superior. N. lat. 48° 41'.
W. long. 93°.

Exx, in Ornithology, a name by which mapy have called
the cygnus ferus, or wild fwan, a {pecies of Anas. See
Duck.

Exx, in Zoology, a fpecies of the cervus, or ftag. See
Cervus alces.

ELKARRIE, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
country of Yemen; 24 miles N.E. of Abu-arifch.

ELKASSARAN, a town of Arabia, in the country of
Yemen; § miles E. of Chamir.

ELKE, is mentioned in our Stafuier, asa kind of yew to
make bows. 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 9. ;

ELKHORN, in Geography, a {mall water of Kentucky
river, in America. The Elkhorn lands, fituated in a bend of
Kentucky river in Fayette county, where this {mall river
rifes, are much efteemed.

ELKRIDGE, a fmall town of America, in Ann Arun-
del county, Maryland, on the S. bank of Patapfco river,
and on the W. fide of Deep-run; famous for the bright
tobacco called * Kite’s foot ;”? § miles S.W. of Baltimore,
and 19 N.W. of Annapolis. N. lat. 39° 123!.

ELKTON, a poft-town of confiderable trade, at the
head of Chefapeak bay, in Maryland, and the capital of
Cecil county; though, fays Mr. Weld, it is a dirty dif-
agreeable place. The tide flows up to the town, and it derives
great advantages from the carrying trade between Baltimore

ELL

and Philadelphia. . Upwards of '250,c00 bufhels of wheat
are colleéted here annually for {upplying thofe markets, or
the neighbouring mills. Elkton confifts of one Rreet, con-
taining about 90 houfes, irregularly built,. a court hoefe,
and a gaol. On the W. fide of the town is an academy. It
is to miles N.E. of Charleftown, 47 S.W. of Philadelphia,
end 56 N.E. of Baltimore.

ELKUVAR, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Tobol.

ELL, Utwa, a meafure, which obtains, under different
denominations, in moft ccuntries.

The ell is the ftandard, or meafure, whereby cleths, Ruffa,
linens, filks, &c.. are ufually meafured, or eftimated, ane
{wering, in good meafure, to’ the yard of England, the
canna of Italy, the vara of Spain, the palm of Sicily, &c,

Servius will have the elito be the {pace contained between
the two hands when firetched forth; but Suetonius makes
it only the cubit.

The ells which occur moft frequently in England, are
Englifh and Flemifh; the ell Englifh contains three feet nine
inches, or one yard one quarter, Englifh meafure; the ell
Flemifh contains twenty-feven inches, or three quarters of
ar ; fo that the ell Englifh is to the Flemifhieilas five to
three.

M. Ricard, in his Treatife of Commerce, reduces the ells
thus: an hundred ells of Amfterdam are equal to ninety-
eight three quarters of Brabant, Antwerp, and Broffels;
to fifty-eight and an half of England and France; to an
hundred and twenty of Hamburgh, Frencfort, Leipfic, and
Cologne ; an hundred and twenty-five of Breflaw; an hun-
dred and ten of Bergen and Drontheim ; and an hundred
and feventeen of Stockholm.

ELLEDAT, in Geography, a town of Ceylon; 12
miles S. of Candy,

ELLEHOLM, a fmall and very ancient town of Swe-
den,.in the province of Blekingen ; 7 miles from Carlfhamn,
which formerly had a caftle.

ELLENBOGEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Bregentz ; 17 miles S.S.E. of Bregentz.

ELLENHOFEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Bregentz; 14 miles E.N.E. of Bregentz.

ELLERENA, a town of North America, in Mexico,
and province of Zacatecas; 25 miles W. of Zacatecas.

ELierena, a town of Spain, in the province of Eftre-
madura, fituated in a low traét abounding with fruits and
paftures, atthe foot of Sierra Morena, and containing about
7000 inhabitants, diftant 17 leagues\S.S.E. of Merida, near
the border of Andalufia. In the mountains, 4 miles from
the town, a filver mine was formerly difcovered.

ELLESMERE, a market town of Shropthire, which
lies 16: miles N.N.W. from Shrewfbury, and 176 N.W.
from London. It is pleafantly fituated on an eminence near
the margin of a deep lake, which occupiesa {pace of one
hundred and tawenty acres, well ftocked with fith, and parti-
cularly eels, whence the towniderives its name. From its
form and other circumftance$ it appears to have been a very
ancient place, and lying im the marches of Wales, being
diftant from the boundary ftone three miles, a mound called
Wat’s dyke fix, and about nine from the celebrated Clawdd
Offa : it was at an early period very ftrongly fortified. Ac-
cording to the Chronicle of Chefter the caftle, with the fer-
tile diftri@ around, was given by king John as a dower with
his natural daughter Joan,:when he beftowed her in marriage
on Liewellin, prince of North Wales. After the death of
that prince it came into the family of L’Eitrange, and
John L’Eftrange was governor of the caftle in the thirty-
third year of Henry I. Leland {peaks of the caftle ae

7 tanding

'

ELL

flanding in his time, that the town had four well-built
ftreets, and was privileged with two annual fairs; but at
that time had no market. The building is now no more,
and the fite, ftill furrounded with three walls and fofles, is
formed into a bowling green, from whence is a mott delight-
ful profpe&t. Tbe number of houfes, as appears by the re-
turns made under the population act, was 1035, inhabited
by £553 perfons.

This town formerly gave name to the hundred, which at
prefent is denominated Pim-hill. It gives the title of baron
to the family of Egerton. ‘Thomas Egerton, celebrated
for his talents and virtues, was made lord keeper of the great
feal by queen Elizabeth ; and lord high chancellor, baron of
Ellefmere, and vifcount Brackley, by king James: anda de-
{cendant, John William Egerton, is now lord Ellefmere,
and earl of Bridgewater. This place has of late been much
benefited by a navigation, called the Ellefmere canal, which
forms a communication between the river Dee at Chefter, and
the Severn at Shrewfbury. This was cut under the fan€tion
of an a& paffed in the thirty-fourth year of the prefent reign ;
and, by fubfequent aéts, has been extended and ramified by
collateral branches ; which communicate with other parts of
Shropfhire, and the interior of Wales. The aquedué,
formed by a bridge of numerous arches, over which the canal
paffes acrofs the wide-flowing river Dee, is confidered as a
chef d’euvre of modern engineering, and mafonry. This
fyftem of inland navigation in the counties of Chefter,
Flint, Denbigh, and Salop, was firft fuggefted by Mr. John
Duncombe ia 1789; on which the opinion of Mr. Jeflop
having been taken, and an aét obtained, the execution of
this grand defign was confided to Mr. Thomas Telford, the
‘engineer, under whom the fame ‘has been now nearly com-

leted. (See Canar.) A rail-way branch has been made to
las- Kynafton collieries fince that article was written. A
fteam-engine at Ellef{mere park, ereéted for the purpofe of

{applying the Wirral part of the line with falt water from
‘the Merfey, has dettroyed the fith in this part of the canal,
and is {aid to have much inconvenienced fome farmers on the
line, by the want of frefh water for their cattle, although
fome miles inland, as is alfo the cafe on the Droitwich canal,
from the falt {prings by which the fame is fupplied. On the
opening the famous Port-Cyfylty aqueduct, an appropriate
oration was delivered, and was fince printed, fee the Gentle-
man’s Magazine, vol. Ixxv. p. 1228.

ELLEZELLES, a {mall town of France, in the de-
‘partment of Jemappe, chief place of a canton in the diftri&
of Tournay, with a population of 4co8 individuals. The
canton contains four communes and 14,430 inhabitants, upon
a territorial extent of 70 kiliometres,

* ELLICHPOUR, a fine city of Hindooftan, the capital
of a large province or diftrit of the fame name ; fubje& to
the Nizam; but payinga *chout,’”? or nominal fourth part
‘of its revenues to Nagpour. It was anciently the chief city
~of Berar Proper, by which Mr. Rennell diltinguifhes the pro-
vince knewn in Ayin Acbaree by that name; for Berar, in
modern acceptation, includes the whole country between
~Dowlatabad and Oriffa; the eaftern part of which was nei-
ther reduced by Acbar, nor even known, in particulars, to the
author of the Ayin Acbaree ; 122 miles nearly W. of Nag-
‘pour: N. lat. 21° 124, E. long, 78° 511,
~ ELLIGER, Orromar, in Biography, called the Old,

‘a painter of fruit and flowers; he was born at Gottenburg
‘in 1633. He ftudied and imitated with great fuccefs the
peculiarities of Daniel Segers. Elliger’s works are much
‘efteemed upon the continent, but are here very little known.
‘He paffed fome time at the court of Berlin, isvited there on
+ Von. XIL,

ELL

aecount of his merit and reputation; it is not known when
or where he died.

His fon, known by the name of the younger Elliger,
ftudied hiftoric paiating. He was bern at Hamburgh in
1666, and having acquired fome facility of handling under
his father, he was placed as a difciple with Michael Van
Moffcher, a fkilfui painter of converfation peers: but ainr-
ing at fomething of a higher cat, he took Gerard Laircffe
for his mafter, under whom he quickly acquired thofe prin-
ciples of compofition which he defired, and working upon
them, gained confiderable reputation.

Several of his largeft and beft works are at Amft-rdam.
The eleQor of Mentz rewarded, in a very amp'e manner, the
exertion of his talents upon two defizns, ore, the * D ath of
Alexander,” the other, the «¢ Nuptials of Pelcus and The.
tis,’”? which were much admired and app'auded. Elliger,
however, politely declined the honour of being appcinted
principal panter to the cle@tor; and unhappily gave up che
latter part of his life to diffipation and diunkenne(s; which
weakened his talents and ruined his reputation. ‘He dicd i
1732, eo d 66.

ELLINGTON, in Geography, a townthip of America,
confilting of about 200 families and 1209 inhabitants in Tol-
land county, Conneéticut, dillant about 12 miles N.E, of
Hartford city, and 6 W. of Tolland.

ELLIOTY, Witiam, in Biography, an Englifh’ en-
graver, of a mild and benevolent mind, who refided in Lon-
don, and died in the year 1766. He engraved fome larze
plates for the elder Boydell, but his works are not highly
celebrated. A large landfcape, after Gafper Poulin, feve-
ral after the Smiths of Chichetter, and a portrait of Helena
Formaus, (the fecond wife of Rubens,) are mentioned by
Strutt, as among the belt of his engravings.

ELLIPOMACROSTYLA, in Natural Hiftory, the
name of a genus of cryftals. ‘Ihe word is derived from the
Greek cAAw@ris, imperfect, paxedc, long, and cvros, a column, and
exprefles an imperteét cryttal, with along column. The
perfect figure of cryttal being a column terminated by a
pyramid at each end; thofle which want this chara@ter are
citeemed imperfe& ; and accordingly bodies of this genus are
defined to be imperfect cryftals, with fingle pyramids; one
end of their column being affixed to fome folid body, and
compofed of thin and flender hexangular columos, termi«
nated by hexangular pyramids. Of this genus there are
feveral {pecies.

ELLIPOPACHYSTYLA, the name of a genus of
cryftal. ‘The word is derived fromthe Greek iaacmys, impers
Sed, ways, thick, and ¢vao;, a columa, and exprefles a cry{s
tal of the imperfe& kind, withathick column. he bodies
of this genus are cryflalscempofed of an hexangular column,
confiderably thick and fhort, and affixed irregularly at one
end to fome folid body, and terminated at the other by an
hexangular pyramid. Of this genus there are only two
known f{pecies.

ELLIPSE, or Exuipsts, in Geometry, one of the conic
{etions, is formed by the common {edition of a plane and a
conic furface, when the curve line common to the two fur-
faces completely {urrounds the.cone, and the cutting plane is
neither parallel to the bafe of the cone, nor takes a {ube
contrary pofition, See Conics, Def. 5th, and Schol.
Prop. 34.

The periphery of the ellipfe, like the circle, returns into
itfelf, and completely inclofes fpace. In familiar language,
this figure is called an oval.

The definitions relating to’ the ellipfe have already been
laid down in the article Conics, where the principal pro-

5D : pertics

ELLIPSE.

perties which it poffeffes in cofsmon with the other figures,
produced by the interfetion of a plane and a conic furface,
have been demonftrated. ‘The more charatteriftical proper-
ties, which are peculiar to the ellipfe, will at prefent engage
our attention.

» 1. If tworcircles be defcribed, (Plate VII. Conics, fig. 1.)
one upon the greater axis of an ellipfe, and one upon the
leffer axis, thele two circles will touch the periphery of the
ellipfe only at the extremities of the common diameter; and
the circle upon the greater axis will fall entirely without the
ellipfe, and the other circleentircly within it. This is mani-
felt from Prop. 39, Conics.

The circle upon the greater axis is fometimes called the
circumfcribed circle; and the circle upon the leffer axis, the
inferibed circle of the ellipfe.

2. If a point, F, be affumed in either axis of an ellipfe,
and from that point an ordinate be drawn both to the el-
lipfe and to the circle defcribed upon that axis; then fhall
the ordinate of the circle, FG, be to the ordinate of the
ellipfe, F H, as A B, the axis upon which the circle is de-
fcribed, to the other axis D E.

For, (Cor. 2. Prop. 28, Conics)
BOP ix) bib, on biGa vb Ee 2A Be eye
And therefore FG: FH:: AB: DE.

3. Let MN, (fg. 2.) intercepted between the axes of
an cllipfe, be equal to the difference of the two femi-axes,
AC and CD: then, if MN be produced, fo that MG =
CDand NG = AC; the point G will be in the peri-
phery of the ellipfe.

Draw GO and GF perpendicular to C D and A B, and
draw CH parallel to NG, and produce FG to meet it in H:
then CH = NG= AC: therefore H isin the periphery
of a circle defcribed upon the axis A B. The two triangles
NGO and HCF are plainly equal in all refpeéts, there»
fore NO = HF.

Now,NO:0C:: NG: MG; ‘
ithatis; ae ay GuRis ACC 1:
therefore the point G is in the periphery of the ellipfe (2).

And if mn, intercepted between the axes of an ellipfe,
be equal to the fum of the femi-axes AC and CD; and
the point’G be taken, fo that nG = AC, anda G=CD:
it may be fhewn, by the like reafoning, that the point G is
in the periphery of the ellipfe.

4. If from a point ( fig. 3.) without an ellipfe two tan-
gents be drawn to the curve, and a ftraight line to the centre;
the laft-mentioned line will bife& the chord that joins the
two points of conta%.

Draw C P and CQ, femi diameters of the ellipfe, paral-
Jel to the tangents TM and TN; and produce the fame
tangents to meet a diameter F G, parallel to the chord MN,
in Dand E. Then TM and TN are preportional to
CP and CQ {Cor. 1. Prop. 28. Conics), and alfo to
MD and NE (2. 6. Euc.); therefore MD and NE axe
proportional to CP and CQ. Therefore,

MDa uN EB? ss CRC @?

Pp 8. Coni NE*: FE ehiG)s| COC Gs
HOP. 3h ORIG HDF ie: D Gry Dis CGAaGPy
Confequently DF x FG = FE x EG (22. 5. Euc.);
and by adding C G* to both, DC? = CE*% ‘Therefore

DC=CE; and TC will bik MN. :

Cor.—The tangents I'M and 'T'N are inverfely propor-
tional to the perpendiculars C R and CS, drawn to them
from the centre of the ellipfe.

Let MC and CN te joined: becaufe MO = ON, the
triangle TMC = triang'e CNT: therefore TM x CR

~~

= TN x CS, for thefe reGtangles are the doubles of the
triangles.

5. If a tangent of an ellipfe HB (fig. 4.) meet a di-
ameter produced, and an ordinate HF be applied to the
fame diameter from the point of contact: then, the femi-
diameter C A will be a mean proportional between C B and
CF, the parts between the centre and the tangent, and
the centre and the ordinate.

Let A M, a tangent of the curve, meet HP in M; and
draw AH and CM cutting AH in O, and HF in Ne
join AN. The triangles AOM and HON are equal in
all refpe&ts; for they are equi-angular, and HO= A O(4);
therefore A M HN isa parallelogram (33.1. E.) Becaufe
N A is parallel to B H, therefore,

BC CAM IM CLICNe
and becaufe HF is parallel to AM (Cor, 1. Prop. 16,
Conics), therefore, _
ALWCwWeP siOMaGN:
Confequently BC : CA :: CA: CF.’

Cor.—The retangle BF x FC = AF x FD.

For BOX’ CF = BC x*CA'— CR = A Chee
ieee dg i ual DS

6. If GP (fg. 5.) drawn perpendicular to a tangent
of the curve at G, cut the axis A B in P, and theaxis DE
in Q, then will PG be to Q Gas the f{quare of the axis
D E te the fquare of the axis A B.

Let the tangent meet the axis A B produced in T, and
graw GF perpendicular to AB. Then, (Cor. 2, P. 28,
Conics)

DE?: AB*:: GF?: AF x FB;

Becaufe P G T is a right-angled triangle,
Therefore; (Cor.'8.°6°E.) GF = TF x FP; allo
(Cor!s. PAP Se FE Pi Fc ies therefore
DBAs AUB ee Peso PS Papen Noses mee.
But P’G ys *GiOr:: shi bene C:

Therefore PG : QG :: DE? : AB*

9. If a parallelogram RSTU (jg. 6.) be formed by
drawing tangents to an ellipfe at the extremities of two
conjugate diameters M N and PQ: that parallelogram fhall
be equal to the reGtangle under AB and DE, the two
axes of the ellipfe.

From D, one of the extremities of either axis, draw D L
perpendicular to that axis, and let it meet one of the fides
of the parallelogram in L; join CL and DM, and draw
CH perpendicular to RS. Becaufe DL and LM are
tangents, C L will bifec&t DM (4), and confequently the
triangles CLD and CLM will be equal: therefore CD
x DL=CHx LM. Therefore

CD CH LM Diz
But (Cor. 3. 28. Contes) CP > CA :: LM: DL;
Therefore CD > CH: CP 2€A3,.
Confequently, AC x CD=CP x CH.

But C P x CH is one-fourth part of the parallelogram
RSTU, and AC x CD is one-fourth part of the reGe
angle AB x DE: therefore, parallelogram RSTU =
ABx DE.

8. The fum of the fquares of any two.conjugate dia-
meters of an ellipfe (fig. 7.) is equal to the {um of the
{quares of the two axes.

From M and P, the extremities of two. conjugate dia- _

meters of an ellipfe, draw MT, PS, tangents of the curve
cutting the axis BA in T and S: draw M Hand P K on.
dinates to the fame axis, and PO an ordinate to the axis
DE. Becaufe MN and PQ are conjugate diametere,
therefore M T is parallel to PQ, and PS to MN: hence
the triangles CMT and CPS are equieangular, and the

perpendiculars

;
:
;

ELLIPSE,

gaat MH and PK will cut the two bafes fimi-
arly. ‘Therefore, :
Cire TH eS esas

And (1. 6. E.) Cl x CH: CHxTH:: CSxCK : CK
But (Cor. 2: 28. Conics) AC?: AH x HB :: CD* : MH;
And (5, & Cor.) AC?= CT x CH, and AH x HB=CH
x TH; therefore,

CiSisg CHK 13, © Ke: Cp ?, ME

And (5.) becaule CS x CK=AC’,

ACG Ke 2x4, DS ie MPs
Now, if this laft proportion be compared with the two

following ones, viz.
AC?: AHxHB:: CD?: MH’,
(Cor. 2. 28. Conics.) 4 AC? : CK’, or PO? :: CD?: DO
OL

x ,
we muft infer that CK? = AH x HB, and MH?
DOx OE. Therefore,
Ck? + KP? +MH'*+HC?= AH x HB +HC*+
DO x OE+4-CO*

But the firlt of thefe fums is = MC* + CP’, and the fe-
cond is = AC?+ CD’: therefore. MC? + CP? = AC?
+ CD». i

. If AGand BK (fg. 8.), two tangents of an el-
lipfe, be both parallel to the femi-diameter CD, and be in-
terfected by athird tangent G K; the fquare of CD will be
equal to the rectangle AG x BK, which is ceatained by
the parts of the parallel tangents between the points of con-
ta& and the third tangent.

Join AB, which will pafs through the centre C (Cor. 18.
Conics): draw HQ parallel to AB, and HO to CD:
produce CD to meet GK in P. Then AC and CD are
conjugate diameters (Cor. 24. Conics), and HO is an or-
dinate to AB, and HQ to CD. Therefore (5),

Cl HOA cA se SO.

Convertendo, CT : TA :: CA: AO,
Alter. & Comp.CT : TB:: TA: TO.
Therefore, by fimilar triangles,
PC)? BK "AG: HOvoreQ:
Confequently, BK x AG=PCxCQ. But,
(5) PC xCQ = CD, therefore BK x AG= CB

10. Two right lines, Mf and MF ( fg. 9.), drawn
from a point in the periphery of am ellipfe to the two foci,
make equal angles with the tangent M'T, drawn from the
fame point.

Let the tangent MT meet the greater axis produced in
T, draw MK perpendicular to the fame axis, and produce
fMwtwO. Then,

(47. 1. E.) fM?—- MP =f? — KF;
that is, (f(M + MF)(fM — MF)=F fx (fK— KF).

But fM + MF = 2AC (42. Conics), fF =2FC,

and fk — KF = 2CK: therefore,

AC x LEONE = FC x CK.

Therefore. AC : CF :: CK aa

But (5) WT CyetC Anca CA nt iC Ke
Ex z2quo, TC : CF :: AC, or = of MEM

And, componendo & dividendo,
TC4+CF, or Tf: TC—CF, or TF :: fM: MF:
therefore (3. 6. E.) TM bifeéts the outward angle FMO;
that is, FM and {/M make equal angles with TM.
tox. IfMP (fg. 10. Plate VIII.) touch an ellipfe, and
Me be drawn from the point of contact to either focus, then
CP, drawn from the centre paraliel to Mf, and limited by MP,

= be equal to AC, half the tranfverfe axis of the els
ipfe.

Draw MF to the other focus, and alfo FR and CS pa.
rallel to MP. Becaufe FC = Cf, therefore fIS=SRi
And becaufe f M and F M make equal angles with MP (9),
it is plain that the triangle MRF will be ifofceles, and
FM=MR. But2zSM=f/M+MR=f/M+MF=
2 AC (42. Conics): therefore SM = AC. And, becaufe
CSMP isa parallelogram, therefore CP = SM = AC.

Cor. 1. If FP be joimed, it will be perpendicular to

Let CP meet MF in H; then MF will be bifeQed in H.
Becaufe CP is parallel to Mf, therefore the angle HPM ia
equal to the angle HMP: therefore PH = HM = HF:
therefore P is in the circumference of a circle defcribed
upon the diameter MF; and the angle MPF, in a femi-
circle, is a right angle.

Cor.2. If FP and fQ be drawn perpendicular to a
tangent of an ellipfe from the two foci, the points P and
are in the circumference of the circle defcribed upon the
tranfverfe axis 2s a diameter.

12. The rectangle under FP and fQ, any two per-
pendiculars drawn to a tangent of the curve from the foci,
is equal to the fquare of the lefs axis CD.

For the points P and Q are in the circumference of a
circle defcribed upon the greater axis AB: theretore, if
PF be produced to meet that circle again in O, the feg«
ment Q PO, which contains a right angle, will be a femis
circle: therefore QC and CO are in one right line, and the
two triangles QCf and OCF will be equal, and Q f will
be equal to FO. Therefore Qfx FP=OF x FP=
AESHFE =A CAC = € Date 2. Ganice)

13. A ftraight line Tf (fg. 11.), drawnefrom the in=
terfection of two tangents of an ellipfe to one of the foci,
will make equal angles with two right lines Mf and Nf,
drawn from the points of contact to the fame focus.

Draw MF and NF to the other focus, and produce fM
and fN till MG be equal MF, and NH to NF: draw
TG, TF, TH. Becaufe TM makes equal angles with
MG and MF (10), it is plain that TG= TF (4. 1. E.):
and, fora like realon, TH = TF: therefore TG = TH.
But f/M+ MF =fN+NF (42. Conics); that is, fG
=fH. Hence, it is plain, that the two triangles 1G f
and TH F are equal in all refpeéts (8. 1. E.), and the angle
T/G is equal to the angle T fH.

Cor. t. The two lines T f and TF, drawn to the foci,
divide the angle MTN, contained by the tangents, into
equal parts.

For, GTF —fTF=2MTF-—/TF=GT¥,
And, HTF + /fTF=2NTF&+/f/TF=Hif;
Therefore, 2 MTF ~/f1TF =>2NTF+/TF:
And hence, MT f= NTF

MTF=NTFf.

Cor. 2. If two tangents of an ellipfe Cie. 12.), drawn
from the extremities of a chord pafling through one focus Fy
interfe&t in T; then TF is perpendicular to the chord
MN. For the angles TFM and TIEN (fig. 11.) are, in
all cafes, equal; and when MF and FN are in one nght
line, each of them becomes a right angle.

14. Ifa taagent of an ellipfe, as DE (fig. 53-)s inter-
fe& two perpendiculars drawn: from the extremities of the
tranfverfe axie, in the points D and Ej then two right
lines, drawn from thefe points to one of the foci F, will
contain a righ. avole.

Draw FM vo the point in which DE touches the ellipfe~
then, becaufe AE and BD are tangents of the curve, PE

5D2 will

ELLIPSE,

will bife& the angle AFM (13), and FD will bife@ the
angle DFM; whence the propofition is manifett.

15. If MN (fy. 14.) be any chord drawn through the
focus of an elliple, and PQ, likewife drawn through the
focus, be ordinately applied to the tranfverfe axis AB:
then, four times the re@angle MF x FN will be equal to
the reGangle MN x PQ.

Draw MS and NR perpendicular to AB, and NG,
MK, PH, perpendicular to the direétrix that correfponds
to the focus IF. . Then (43. Conics),

PF : PH,orFL :: NF : NG,or LR

(17h re Ei) odkihy ee cieseN Bc 2B sadeRG
In like manner, PF: PH::: PF — FM: FS.

11, 5. E. andalternando, NF —-PF : PF—FM: FR
TP Sict NF F Ms
Therefore, (NF — PF) x FM =(PF—FM) x FN:
And 2NF x FM= PF x MN;
Therefore, 4NF x FM=PQ x MN.

16. Let ABCD bea quadnilateral figure ivferibed in an
ellipfe, and from M any pomt in the curve, let PQ and RS
(jigs. 15, and 16.) be drawn parallel to two adjacent fides
ABand AD; and let the firlt of thefe lines meet the op-
polite fides of the figure in P and Q, and the feeond, the
two other oppofite fides in R and S: then the ratio of the
reGangle MP x MQ to the reétangle MR x MS will be
equal to the ratio of the fquare of the diameter of the ellipfe
drawn parallel to AB to the {quare of the diameter drawn
parallel to AD.

When the two fides AD and BC (fg. 15.) of the
quadrilateral are parallel, let the right line, which bifects
AD and BC, cut RS in BK, and let RS meet the eliipfe
again in O: becaufe MO, AD, and-BC, are all parallel,
it is plain that the right line which bife&ts AD and BC will
be a diameter of the ellipfe, and will bifeét the remaining
line MO: but the fame line which bifeéts AD and BC
will alfo bife& RS parallel toe AD and BC, and terminated
by the right lines which limit AD and BC: hence, it is
plain, that RO= MS. Therefore the ratio of the reQ-
angle RM x MS to MP x MQ is equal to the ratio of
RM x MO to RA x AD; thatis (28. Conics), to the
{quare of the diameter of the ellipfe drawn parallel to AD
to the {quare of the diameter parallel to AB.

When BC is not parallel to AD (jf. 16.) let it, pro-
duced if neceflary, meet AD and RS in T and U; let RS
meet the curve again in O, and join BO, QS. Then, by
fimilar trianglee,

BEE sa TA wR s TR;
CL De CUR suis: :
Therefore, BT x CT: TAx TD:: BUx UC: URx US,
but (28. Cosics), BT xCT : TAxTD :: BUXUC:
MU x UO;
Therefore, MU x UO=RU x US; and
US! U0l 2 UM si Res UQ ss WE:

Therefore (2. 6. E.) SQ and BO are parallel; confe-

quently the triangles QMS and BRO are equi-angular,

and,
SM: OR :: MQ: RB;
Therefore. SM x MR : ORxRM :: MQ x MP:
RBx RA,
Alternando,

SMxMR:MQ»xMP:: ORx RM: RBx RA.
But (28. Conics}) the ratio of OR x RM to RB x
RA is equal to the ratio of the fquare of the femi-diameter of
the ellipfe parallel to A D to the fquare of the femi-diameter
parallel to AB: whence the propofition is manifett.
Gor,t, The ratio of SMx MR to MP x MQ is

conftantly the fame, wherever the point M is affumed in the
periphery of the ellipfe.

Cor. 2. If, from any point M ( fig. 17. PlatelX.) affumed
in the periphery of an cllipfe, four right lines, MH,MK,MG,
and ML, be drawn fo as to make given angles with the four
fides of a quadrilateral infcribed in an ellipfe ; then the ratio
of MK x MG, the reGtangle contained by two of the
lines drawn to the oppofite fides of the quadrilateral, te
MH x ML, the ref&tangle of the lines drawn to the other
two oppolite fides, will be conftantly the fame, wherewer the
point 18 aflumed in the periphery.

For, having drawn the lines MPQ and RMS, as int
the propofition ; the four lines MK, MG, MH, and Mi
will have given ratios to the four lines MP, MQ, MR,
and MS,-each to each: and hence the ratio of MK x
MG toMH x ML, is compounded of the ratioof MP
x MQ to MR x MS and given ratios:' whence the
corollary is manifeft.

Of the defcription of an ellipfe in plano.

t. When the tranfverfe axis (fig. 18.) and the two foci of
an ellipfe are given, any number of points in the curve may
be thusfound : Take any point O in the tranfverfe axis A B,
and from F and f, the two foci, as centres, with radii refpects
ively equal to AO and BO, let arcs of circles be defcrib-
ed to interfe&t in M and m; and thefe two points will be
in the periphery of the ellipfe (42. Conics ): and, by affum.
ing different points in the tranfverfe axis, as many points as
fhall be thought neceflary may be found in the periphery of
the figure.

When the two axes are given, the foci may be readily
found (Cor. Def. 23. Conics) ; and then the curve may be
defcribed by this method.

2. Divide the femi-conjugate axis C E, (fg. 19.) and the
two halves of the tranfverfe axis AC and CB, into the
fame number of equal parts, in the points, 1, 2, 3, &c.: with

the radius C E defcribe a quadrant of a circle,and draw ir; °

2r, 37, &c. ordinates of the circle; alfo draw 1 L, 2 L,
3 L, &c. perpendicular to AB, and refpeGively equal to
Ir, 2r, 3r, &c: then will all the points L, L, L, &c. be
in the periphery of anellipfe, of which A Band ED are
two axes. The reafon of this conitruGion is manifeft
from (1).

3. An ellipfe (fg. 18.) may alfo be defcribed in various
ways, by a point which is made to move by proper mechani-
cal contrivances. And, firft, if the ends of a thread, which
is exaGtly equal in length to the tranfverle axis A B, be
fixed in the foci-F and f; and a deferibing pencil be carried
quite round, till it return to the place it fet out from, in
fuch a manner as to keep the thread always ftretched out;
then the curve, fo defcribed, will be the periphery of an
ellipfe, as is manifeft from P. 42. Conics.

4. If two rulers, as F Hand / K, (jig. 20.) each equal in
length to the tranfverfe axis AB, have their extremities
fixed in the focifo as to be moveable round thefe points ;
and if the other extremities of the rulers be connected by a
third ruler H K, which is equalin length to F f, the diltance
of the two foci, fo as to be moveable about the points H and
KX: then if the ruler H K be moved round the centres F
and f, the interfeGtion.of the rulers f K and FH will de-
fcribe the periphery of an ellipfe, of which A B is the tranf-
verfe axis, and F and f the two foci.

For join F K: itis plain that the triangles F H K and
FF K are equal in all refpe&ts, for the three fides of the
one are equal to the three fides of the other, each to each ;
therefore the angle MF K is equal to the angle FKM :

4 therefore

ELLIPSE.

therefore FM = MX. Therefore FM + Mf= fK =
AB: confequently M is in the periphery of an ellipfe, of
which A B is the tranfverfe axis, and F and the foci,

5- If PM (figs. 21, and 22.) be taken in a ftraight ruler
equal to the femi-tranfverfe axis, and MQ ~qual to: the
fem:-conjugate axis; and if PQ, which is equal to the
fum or difference of the two femt-axes, be fo moved that
its extremity Q may flide along BA, and its extremity
P along the line CD; then the point M will defcribe the
periphery of the ellipfe which has AC and CD for its
femi-axes. ‘This is manifeit from (3). Elliptical compaflcs
are an inftrument conftruted as in jig. 21.

6. Ifa ruler CO, (figs. 23, and 24.) equal to half the fum
or half the difference of the femi-axes of an ellipfe, be move-
able about the centre of the ellipfeC ; and another ruler
OP, of anequal length, be conne&ted with it fo as to be
moveable about the point O; and if O M’be takenin O P,
{o as to be equal to half the difference of the fame femi-axes
in the firft cafe, and to half their fumin the other cafe:
then-if the ruler C O be moved round about the cestre C,
while the point P is made to flide along the tranfverfe axis
AB; the point M will deferibe the periphery of the
ellipfe.

In CO, orin CO produced, take O K and OL each
equal to O M; join M L and M K, and let M KS, produced
if neceffary, cut the tranfverfe axis A B in H: becaufe the
two lines C O and O Mare, the one, equal to half the fum,
and the other, to half the difference of the femi-axes A C
and C D; itis plain that CK = CA, and CL=CD:
and becaufeO P = OCand OM = OL, therefore M L
is parallelto AB: but the angle KML, in a femi-circle
right angle, and therefore K H is perpendicular to A B.

ow, G

Gn GE eee nei DK Bi: HM;
and, becaufe K is in the periphery of the circle defcribed
upon the tran{verfe axis, therefore M is in the periphery of
the ellipfe (2).

Of the area of an ellipfe.

1. The area of a circle defcribed upon the tranfverfe axis
of an ellipfe, is to the area of the ellipfe, as the tranfverfe
axis is to the conjugate axis.

Let a polygon (fiz. 25.) of an even number of fides, be
infcribed in the circle upon tie tranfyerfe axis, fo as to have
two of the angles that are diametrically oppofite fituated in
Aand B ; and from all the other angular points of the poly-

on let perpendiculars, FO, GC, &c. be drawn to A B, and
et a polygon be formed within the ellipfe by joining all the
points where the perpendiculars cut the periphery : becaufe
the ordinates FO, GC, &c. of the circle, have a conftant
ratio to the correfpondent ordinates NO, DC, &c. of the
ellipfe, namely, the ratio of AC to C D; therefore the fe-
veral triangles FBO, FOC, F GC, &c. that compofe the
polygon in the circle will have the fame conflant ratio of
ACto CD, to the feveral triangles NBO, NOC, and
DNC, &c. that compofe the polygon in the ellipfe, each to
each (1. 6. E.); confequently the polygon inferibed in the
circle will have to the polygon infcribed in the ellipfe the
ratioof AC to CD (24. 5. E.)

And becaufe a polygon of an even number of fides may be
infcribed in the circle, which fhall be greater than any {pace
lefs than the circle, it is clear that no {pace lefs than the cir-
clecan have to the ellipfe the fame ratio that AC has toC D:
for if fo, then a polygon greater than the clipe might
be infcxibed in it.

And, again, nofpace greater than the circle ean have te
the ellipfe the fame ratio that AC has to CD: fer then
the circle would have to a fpace lefs than the ellipfe, the
fame ratio that AC has to CD: but a polygon may be
infcribed in the ellipfe thar fhail be greater than any fpace
lefs than the ellipfe ; and, then from what has been fhewn,
the correfponding polygon in the circle would be greater
than the circie itfelf.

Therefore the circle upon the diameter A B is to the
ellipfe as AC is to CD.

Cor. The area of the ellipfe is equal to the area of acire
cle defcribed with a radius equal to a mean proportional be»
tween the femi-axes A C and CD.

For the circle upon the diameter A B has to the circle,
whofe radius is equal to a mean proportional between AC
and C D, the fame proportion that A C has toC D.

By this propofition the quadrature of the ellipfe is made to
depend upon the quadrature of the circle. And this is true
not only of the whole elliptic area, but of any fegment of it.
For, by the like reafoning, it may be fhewn that any fegment
of the circumfcribing circle, as MBF, has to the corre-
fponding fegm=<nt of the ellipfe K BN, the fame proportion
that AC has to CD; tharis, the fame proportion that the
whole circle has to the whole ellipfe.

Of the reBification of the ellipfe.

The length of a circular arc and the area of the fe&or
which {tands upon it, increafe in the fame proportion: and
hence the menfuration of circular areas, and the finding of
the lengths of the bounding arcs, are problems fonearly con-
nected, that the folution of the one is a confequence of that
of the other. But the arc of an cllipfe is a curve line of un-
equal and continually varied flexure, and increafes aftera very
different rate from the area which it bounds. And the find-
ing of the lengths of fuch arcs has been found to bea proe
blem of a higher and more difficult clafs than the menfura-
tion of the correfpondent fpaces. * There are few problems
on which more has been written than on the reétification of
the ellipfe. The complete folution of it has required the
fucceflive labours of many ingenioue mathematicians, and has
been the occafion for inventing fome of the niceft artifices
in the whole compafs of analylis. The fubje& is too ab-
ftrufe to be difcuffed in this place, and we fhall be content
with giving a uleful formula for the computation of an ellip-
tic arc.

Let AC, (fig. 26.) the femi-tranfverfe axis of an ellipfe,
be = 1; CD, the femi-conjugate, = 6; 1-2 = 3; CF
=*; FE = p> then

AC? CD? AF x ¥ P's Fes;
that is, Tes has ss 1; eis Eh
and hence y= 54/1—x*. Alfo, let Edenote the length
of the elliptic are D E, between the conjugate axis and. the

ordinate : thes, E = % he a Pe

1—x*. ft —*
To find the fluent, we may aflume E=A°+ ee.
11 — x
+ { AM x + AG 63 + Ald 5 4, &c. } Av) — xi; then by .

taking the fluxion of this expreffion, and equating it to the
former value of E reduced into a feries, we hail eafily ob-
tain the following equations for determining the aflumed
co-eflicieate, AM, AN), AW), &c. viz.

i: =

ELL
r= AC AC)
—ie = 9 A® — 2 A

= 5 AS —4 AW

2.4
pe Sola AC) a Gian)

&c. &e;
A.nd by combining thefe equations fo as to extermimate A"),
A), AW, &c. we gels

P
Rig tes Dh | CGR PULSE Th EE Sigs
Ep Se ae eee =~",
2 2 we A QAO eae AO
— &c.

By means of this feries A) may be computed, and then the
remaining co-eflicients of the aflumed feries will be found by
the foliowing eafy formulas :

AY mI Ae
Aw es 24 qe Ses
3 23
A®) ES: Aw ihe Se
5 aed Ree
AO) 6 A (5) Tape egies
re 244-6 7
&e. &e.

When « = 3, or when E_ becomes a quadrant of the
ellipfe, the expreffion will be reduced to its firlt term

Poel 2 7 = A x = ™@ denoting 3.14159, &c.

C/A anid

ELL

ments their courage; or in general, that the hope of affite
ance at hand naturally raifes courage, and gives people new
ftrength.

If the poet had added a word, and faid, * Ollis {pes ad«
dita fuicitat iras,” the paflage had been exprefsly reftrained
to the firft fenfe, and had ceafed to be a fentence, and coms
menced only the application of a fentence; the fuppreffion
of that word makes it a fentence in form. j

This, that excellent critic looks on as one of the finefleg
of the Latin tongue, wherein it had valtly the advan-
tage of the modern tongues. Trait. du Poeme Epique,
p- 466, &c.

Evumstrs has a place in Walther’s Lexicon as a mufical
term, to cxprefs a paflage when broken, and rendered im=
pericét by a reft; but though fome note is left out in mo-
ments of rage and perturbation, tt is underftood, or the time
would be broken.

ELLIPSOID Figure of the Earth, in Geology. The tere
raquéous globe, having been found by the meafurement of
degrees in different latitudes, by the rates of the vibration of
a pendulum in different parts, &c. to agree nearly with an
ellipfoid, having the polar axis for its conjugate diameter,
which fir Ifaac Newton had fhewn to be the form which a
fluid mafs revolving on an axis would affume ; Mr. White-
burit, Mr. Kirwan, and other geological writers, have thence
inferred, that the folid matters of the globe were once ina

the periphery of a circle whofe diameter is 1: and hence uid fate. Itis worthy, however, of confideration, that the

the quadrant of the ellipfe is equal to
Sy a naa tata pO AM ae ote
2 22) 24 24 2 (408 2.0400

On the fubje& of the re€tification of the cllipfe, fee the
Edin. Tranfaétions, vol. iv. and v. London ‘Tranf.1804. Lan-
den’s Memoires. Le Gendre, Mem. del’Acad. 1786. Le
Gendre Mem. fur les Tranfcendantes Elliptiques. Euleri
opufcula, Berlin, 1750. See Quaprarurs, and Recri-
FICATION.

Exurrsts, in Grammar and Rhetoric, is a verbal figure, or
a figure of fyntax, wherein fomething is fuppreffed, or left
out, ina difcourfe, and fuppofed or underftood ; or it is a
defe&t or omiffion of fome part of a fentence, which mutt
be fupplied in order to render the conftru€tion complete and
fully to exprefs the fenfe. See on this fubje& the Port
Royal Latin Grammar, vol. ii. p. 168, Kc. See ZEUGMA,

This figure is often ufed in proverbial {peeches, as when
we fay ; ‘*many men, many minds,”’ that Is, ‘* have many
minds ;”’ alfo, “‘ the more danger, the more honour,”’ that
is, ‘* gains more honour.” This figure alfo occurs, when,
being under the tranfport of a violent paffion, a man is not
at leifure to {peak every thing out at length, the tongue
being too flow to keep pace with the rapid motions of the
mind, fo that on thefe occafions we only bring forth broken
interrupted words and expreffions, which reprefent the vio-
lence ofa paffion better than any confiltent difcourfe. When
ufed in this fenfe, it is more generally called apofopefs,
which fee. See alfo AsynpeToN.

F. Boffu confiders the ellipfis as a mode of difguifing fen-
tences, by {uppreffing the word which fhould make the parti-
cular application, and leaving the whole ina kind of ingenious
ambiguity. Thus, the Trojans, in Virgil, being reduced by
‘Turnus to the laft extremity, and ready to be deftroyed, by
/Eneas coming to affit them; upon whith the poet fays,
Spes addita fufcitat iras.”? Which expreffion fignifies either,
in particular, that the hope they conceive retrieves and aug-

prefent appearances and the Newtonian theory may be per-
fetly reconciled, without having recourfe to a foft or lique-
fied flate of the hard fubftances which now appear in the
earth ; the inconceivable number of fragments into which
the earth is now divided by its faults or fiffurea, appear to
give it a facility for obeying the impulfes of gravity and cen
trifugal force towards an equilibrinm, almoft as’ great as in
a fluid, taking the immentity of the mafs into confideration 3
and it is only by the juft equilibrium of all its prefent parts,
aqueous and folid, that the continents and iflands now preferve
an elevation above the aqueous {pheroid, which they evi-
dently once had not; as their aquatic mineral remains
teftify.

The term fpheroid is fometimes ufed when {peaking of the
earth’s figure, fynonymoufly with ellipfoid; but M. Bouguer
having applied the term {pheroid to a folid generated from a
curve of the fourth order, whichhe conceived would agree
better with the terreftrial meafurements then known than an
ellipfoid, it will be weil hereafter to preferve thefe diltinc-
tions, and not ufe the term ellipfoid, but for the igure genee -
rated by a true Apollonian ellipfis, referving the term
fpheroid for any other kind of folid, generated by the roe
tation of an oval curve, or nearly approaching thereto.

ELLIPTIC, or Evurprica, fomething that belongs

to an ellipfis.
* Excvretic-4rch, in Archite@ure, a part of the curve of
an ellipfisemployedin an arch. It has this advantage over
a circle when employedin bridge building, that it not only
faves materials, but gives more room under the arch at the
hanches, and therefore, in anavigab'e river or canal, veflels
will pafs more eafily under it than under a circle.

Exvurptic dre. Sée CaTENaARIA.

Exvuiptic Motion. Theory of the elliptic motion of the
planets round the fun. (Plate XII. Aflronomy, fig. 103.)

Definitions. —Vhe excentricity of the orbit is the dittance
CS of the centre from the focus, ‘The radina vector is a

2 ine

-

ELLIPTIC.

Hine drawn from the centre of the fun to the centre of the
lanet. If M reprefent the place of the planet fora given
infant, S M isits radius vector.

The line of apfides is the greater axis of the ellipfe, and
- it marks the aphelion and perihelion of the planet. The
aphelion A, or fuperior apfide, is the point in which the

lanet is at its greateft diftance fromthe fun. The perihelion
b. or lower aplide, the point in which it is the neareft.

The anomaly is in general the diftance of a planet from
its aphelion, but fome modern altronomers have adopted the
method of reckoning the anomaly from the perihelion ; for
fintce this muft be done in the cafe of comets, it appears
more uniform and confiftent to make a general rule ferve for
all, However, a8 this is a mattertotally indifferent to the
theory, we thall for the prefent {uppofe the anomaly reckoned
from the aphelion.

‘There are feveral ways of confidering this diftance.

The ¢rue anomaly is the angle formed at the focus of the
ellipfe, by the radivs veétor and the line of apfides, as
ASM.

The excentric anomaly is the angle formed at the centre of
the ellipfe, by the greater axis and the radius of a circum-
fcribing circle, drawn to the extremity of an ordinate pafling
through the place of the planet, aa NC A. The mean ano-
maly is the diftance from the aphelion fuppofed proportional
to the time, fo thata planet which fhould employ fix months
to go from A to P, would at the end of one month have 30°
of mean anomaly. If a line CX be takento mark the
mean anomaly, and this line be fuppofed to revolve uniformly
round the centre C, the line C X will at firft be more ad-
vanced than the line CN, becaufe A N increafes flower to-
wards theaphelion, the real motion of the planet being lefs
than the mean motion, and this diftance X N will increafe,
as long as the real motion is flowerthan the mean motion.

The difference between the true anomaly and the mean ano-
maly forms the equation of the centre.

Since the mean anomaly is proportional to the time, and
is a portion of the time of a whole revolution, it may be
meafured by any quantity that has a uniform increafe; thus,
not only A X, the angle A C &, and the fe€tor A C X, may
be taken to reprefent the mean anomaly, but even the eliip-
tic feGtor or area A S M formed by the radius vector S M,
the portion of che greater axis S A, and the ellipticarc AM.,
Becanfe the areas deferibed are proportional to the times.

Kepler, having found that the planets defcribed ellipfes,
with areas proportional to the times, it only remained to
conclude the true place for a given time.

When the whole time of a revolution of a planet is known,
for example, that of the earth equal to12 months, and it is
required to affign its place in its orbit at the end of one
month, the problem confifts in determining the feQor ASM
fuch, that it will be =4,th of the whole furtace of the ellipfe
this feGtor is the mean anomaly, and may be expreffed in de-
grees by dividing 360° by 12. It is in degrees, minutes, and
feconds that the anomalies are always found in aftronomical
stables.

When the mean anomaly is known, or the furface of the
fetor A MS, a queftion arifes, how to find the true ano-
maly, or the angle A S Mof this fe@or. Kepler perceived
the difficulty of this problem, ‘having given the mean ano-
maly to find the true,” even in a circle, for the difficulty is
the fame asin an cllipfe, and he invited the mathematicians
of his time to endeavour to find a folution, This problem
fill continues tobe called the “ Problem of Kepler,’”? who
thus expreffes himtelf onthe fubje.

Hac eft mea fententia; que quominus videbitur geome-
trice pwehritudinis, hoc magis adhortor geometras ut mihi

folvant hoe problema. Data areA partis femicirculi, dato.
que pun&o diametri, invenire arcum et angulum ad illum
punétum : cujus anguli croribus et quo arcu data area coms
prehenditur ; vel aream femicirculi ex quocumque pun@o
diametriin data ratione fecare. Mihi fufficit credere folvia
priore non poffe propter arcus et finus erspoyeruxy.

This problem has never yet been folvedin any other man-
ner than by approximation. But in pra@tice the inveltigation
is very much fimplified by reverfing the queftion, and fup-
pofing known the true anomaly to find the mean. This
method is fhorter and often more exe&t than the dire@ me-
thod; it was very fuccefsfully employed by La Caille in deter-
mining the motion of the fun; and is founded on two theo.
rems, which only fuppofe known fome properties of trigono-
metry and the conic fetions.

Lemma.—In an ellipfe AMP, about which is circum.
{cribed the circle A N P, CX being the line of mean ano-
maly, M the true place of the planet, RMN an ordinate
pafling through the planet, the circular feftor ANS A
fhall always be equal to the circular fe&or A C X, which ree
prefents the mean anomaly.

Demonftration.—Let T be the whole time of a revolution,
and ¢ the time employed by the planet in going from A to
M, then, becaufe the areas are proportional to the times, we
have#: T':: feGtor A MS: to the whole furface of the
ellipfe. In the fame manner, fince A C X isthe mean ano-
maly, #: T:: AC X: furface of the circle. But by the
property of the ellipfe A MS: AN S:: the furface of the
ellipie : the furfaceof the circle. Wehave thus two pro-
portions, with three terms incommonr, from which it may
be inferred that A CX and ANS are equal to each
other.

The fquare root of the perihelion diftance is to the fquare
root of the aphelion diftance as the tangent of halt the
true anomaly is to thetangent of half the excentric anomaly,

Demonflration.—In the triangle RS M (by the property
of right-angled triangles,) the tangent of half the angle
RS M is equal to the oppofite fide RM, divided by the
fum of the two other fidesS R, SM. Hence in the right-
angled triangles MS R, N CR, we have this proportion ;

RN

tang. MS Ritang- ZN CR: oe oy ORECI

Inftead of the ratio R M: RN, fubftitute C DtoC A,
which is equal to it by the property of the ellipfe, and in~

ftead of SR+ SMits valuePR. 2 © and likewife PR
Z -

iaftead of CR + CN, then the above* proportion will be
changed into the following. '
CD.CA. CA

1 : oo Ss
Tang. MSR: tang. J NCR PR.SA PER

:CD:SA. If a bethe femi-diameter of the ellipfe.
e the excentricity CS, then tang. 2 MSR: 2NCR
2xCD:SA: /Plé:a+e; dividing the two laft
terms by /a@ + e;tang. } MSR: tang. ENCR
Va—e: Vate:: VPS: 7 3SA, orthe {quare roop
of the perihelion diftance is to the {quare root of the aphe-
lion diftance as the tangentof half the true anomaly is to
the tangent of half the excentric anomaly. ;

The difference between the excentric anomaly and the
mean anomaly is equal to the product of the excentricity by
the fine of the excentric anomaly. :

Demonftration.—The circular feQor ANS A. is equal to
the fector of the mean anomaly AC X, if the common pore
tion ACN be taken from both, the fetor NC X will be
equal to the triangle CNS. The area of the tee

EL-LUP TLC,

N CX is equal to the produ& of CN by half the arc NX.
The area ot the triangle CNS is equal to the produ of
CN by half the height ST, which is a perpendicular let
fall from the focus S upon the bafe N C, continued beyond
the centre C; thus the two areas being equal, and having
one of the multipliers C N common to both, the other mul-
tipliers are alfo equal ; therefore the arc N X is equal to the
ftraizht line ST’. But in the triangle STC, T being a
right angle, S T is equal CS. fin. TCS, according to the
common expreffion of reétilinear trigonometry ; therefore
NX=CS.fin. TCS=CS.. fin. ACN; therefore the
difference N X between the excentric anomaly AN, and
the mean anomaly A X, is equal to the produét of the excen-
tricity CS by the fine of the excentric anomaly ACN.

In order that the lines NX, ST, CS, may be compared
with each other, they muft be expreffed in parts of the fame
denomination.

The mean anomaly is exprefled in degrees. minutes, and
feconds; therefore S T, and the excentricity CS, muft be
expreffed in feconds. To obtain it, it is fufficient to know,
that the radius A C of any circle whatever, A N X, is equal
to about 57°, or tothe are of 206264".8; thus the arc
equivalent to the excentricity C 5 may be obtained by ftat-
ing this proportion: the mean diftance, or the radius A C,
ts to the excentricy C S as the arc equal to the radius is to
the arc equivalent to CS, or to the number of feconds
which the excentricity contains. Therefore this number is
20626448 CS

Vol Oy :

If we ftate AC :CS:: 1:22, that isto fay, if ¢ is the
x<centricity in parts of the mean diftanee, e-will be equal
Cs

A
be fufficient to multiply the number 206064".8 by e, the
logarithm of which is 5 3144251332. This is alfo the
arithmetical of the log. fin. of 1, fo that 2062644.8=

"

; and to exprefs the excentricity in feconds, it would

"
= 7h and the fin. r= Sore GTB: Whenever Mayerwithes
to exprefs a quantity ia feconds, he divides it by the fine of
1, Jf, on the contrary, he wifhes to exprefs a number of fe.
conds, in decimals of the radius, he multiplies it by the fine
ef 1, In fact, the fine and the arc of 1! are apparently equal.
We may fay 1: fin. 1% ::.a number of feeonds is to the
fame number expreffed in fimilar parts to thofe of the fine 1",
that is to fay, in decimals of the radius, and the fourth term
of this proportion is in fin. 1". This method may be re-
tained more eafily, and fin. 1! takes up lefs room in a for-
mula, Sometimes 57° is written inftead of 206264."8.

Jt is the fame in all quantities which are found in caleu-
lations expreffed in parts of radius; where it is required
to have themin feconds, they are multiplied by 206264",
where the conilant log. 5.3144251332 is added to their log.

It is rhe contrary if their ares are in feconds, and they
are required in decimale of the radius.

Before we proceed to give an example of the above theo-
rems, we fhall infert the following table for each planet, which
contains the two conftant logarithms computed for the pro-
portions of the two theorems.

The firlt for the excentric anomaly, is half of the difference
between the logarithm of the aphelion diflance and that of
- the perihelion diftance ; this added to the logarithm of the
tangent of half the trae anomaly gives the logarithm of the
tangent of half the excentric anomaly.

The fecond logarithm ferves to find the mean anomaly ; it
is the fum of the logarithm of the excentricity and of the
log. of 57°, &c. anare equal radius. This eonftant logarithm

added to the fine of the excentric anomaly gives the logarithnt
of the difference between the excentric and mean anomalies.
In the fame table is annexed the logarithm of the minor axis,
which ferves to find the diftance. It is the half fum of the
logarithms of the aphelion and perihelion diftances.

Piece

—-—. ] ——..

Mercury | 0.0905430 | 4.6272651 | 9.5784504
Venus 00029905 } 361522975 | 9 8593275
The Sun 0.0072927 | 3.539489 | 9.9999387

j Mars 0.0405448 4.2833172 | 0.1810076 §
Jupiter 9.0203955 | 3-9903597 | 9.7157339 }

: Saturn 0.0244439 | 4.06433060 | 0.9788940 4
The Moon 0.0239255 | 4.0550625 | 9.99934 12 ff
Herfehel 0.0206824 | 3.9919124 } 1.2801270 ff

Lxamplee—Suppofe the true anomaly of Mars to- be
1° 0° S! 40", and that it be required to convert it into mean
anomaly, the logarithm of the aphelion diftance, according
to the tables of De la Lande, is 5.221552; the log. of the
perihelion diftance 5.140463; the half difference of their
logarithms 0.0405448, this is the conftant logarithm for
the firft analogy, as in the above table.

The diftances which anfwer to the two logarithms of the
tables, are 1665530 and 1381856, the half {um of thefe two
diftances is 1523692, thisis the femi-axis of the ellipfe, or the
mean diftance ot Mars from the Sun, the half of the difference
between thefe diftances is 141837, or the excentricity. This
excentricity muft be convertcd into a fra€tion, the mean
diftance of Mars being taken as unity; thus,

152369: 1:: 14183 : 0.0930877, which is a decimal
fraction of the diftance of Mars, and its logarithm is
8.9688921. To reduce it into feconds, it muft be multi-

plied by the are equal radius, which gives 19200, whofe

logarithm is 4.2833172-

Log. of excentricity 14183.7 ° = 4.1517895
Subt. log. of femi-axis 152369 - - 5.4828974
Difference - 2 2 4 - 8.968821
Add log. of 57° or arc = rad. - = 53144254

Sum of the conftant log. of the 2d proportion 4.2833172
Conftant log. for the rit. - - - 0.0405448
Log. tang. of 2 true anom. 15° 4! 20! 94392374

Log. tang. of } exeent. anom. 16° 28'13".8 9.4707822
"Therefore the excent. anom. i§ 3256.176.

Conft. log. for the 2d proportion = 4 2833172
Log. fin. excent.anom. 37°56!27".6 = 9.7354198
Log. of 10440".9, or = 254 09 = 4.0187365
Add, excent.anom. - 32 56 27.6 -

Meananomaly - = 35 50 28.5

_—_ -

If the true anomaly furpaffes 180° or fix figne, take its

fupplement to 360°, and after having found the mean anomaly, —

take its {upplement te 360°, that the mean anomaly may be
always reckoned according to the figns.

In this manner we may find the mean anomaly having
given the true, but it is ufually the true anomaly we with to
find. ‘The mean anomaly. being given, we mult then proceed
thus ;

By infpetion of the tables, it may be feen nearly what equa-
tion of the centre corre{ponds to the degree of anomaly which

is given. ‘This is to be applied to the mean anomaly, to mare
t

a

ELL

the true, and this true anomaly is to be converted back again
into mean, by the preceding rules. If the mean anomaly which
refults is the fame as that given, it fhews that the equation
employed is correét; if the mean anomaly is found too great,
then the fuppofed true anomaly muft be diminifhed, and
thus by thefe two fuppofitions, by a fimple proportion, a
mean anomaly may be found which exactly accords with the
given one, the difference between this and the true anomaly
employed to find it is the exa& equation fought.

The radius veGtor, or the diftance of the planet from the
fun, is found by means of the true anomaly, and the excentric
anomaly by making the following proportion.

Sin. of true anom. : fin, excen. anom. :: 4
: radius vector.

Demonflration.—Draw the line NQ parallel to the radius
vetor MS; then by fimilar triangles SM: QN:: RM:
RN::CD:CK or CN; henceSM:CD :: QN:CN::
fin. QCN : fin. CQN :: fin. RCN: fin. RSM, and
fin. RSM: fin RCN:: CD: SM, whichis the diftance
required.

It is to facilitate the ufe of this theorem that in the above
table is inferted the logarithm of the minor axis for the prin-
cipal planets. By the property of the ellipfe C D, or
4SD?—CS=V7/7CP—Cs?=V7CP+CS x
/CP —CS5; thatis, C D is equal to the produé of the
f{quare roots of the aphelion and perihelion diftances.

Example--The true anomaly being 30° 8’ 40”, the
excentric anomaly 32° 56! 27”.6, it is required to find the
radius veAtor or diftance of Mars from the fun. Add together
the log. of the aphelion diftance and the log. of the perihelion
diftance, take the half of their fum, which 1s equal to the log.
of the femi-axis - cola ae - = 0.1810076
Add log. fin. excen, anom. 32° §6'27".6 = 9.7354193
9-:9164269
g-7008609

az,

minor axis

Subt. log. fin.trueanom. +2 = =~

Remainder is the log. of the radius }

vector 0.64273 : g * 0.2155660

Exuipric Space, is the area contained within the circum-
ference, or curve of the ellipfis.

It is demonftrated: 1. That the elliptic {pace is to a circle
defcribed on the tranfverfe axis, as the conjugate diameter
is to the tranfverfe axis.

2. That the elliptic {pace is a mean proportional between
two circles defcribed on the tranfverfe and conjugate axes.
See Exripsis.

Exurptic Conoid, is the fame with the {pheroid.

Exxiprtic Specula, or Mirrors. See Mirxor,

Exuiptic Winding-flairs. See Stairs.

Exutptic Wind-mill. See Winv-miLt.

Exuiptic Compafes, an inftrument made ufually in brafe, for
the drawing any ellipfis or oval, by one revolution of an index.
See Exuipsis and Compass.

Extiptic Dial, is an inftrument ufually of brafs, with a
joint or fold together, and the gnomon to fall flat, for the
fake of the pecket.

By it are found the meridian, hour of the day, rifing and
fetting of the fun, &c. See Diav.

ELLIPTICUM Fotrum, in Botany. See Lear.

ELLIPTOIDES, an infinite ellipfis, 7. e. an ellipfis de-
fined by the equation a y"+4+"= bx" xa—x", wherein m
>1orn >i. See Evvipsis.

Of this there are feveral kinds or degrees ; as the cubical

Vor. XII.

ELL

elliptoid, wherein a y?=bx* x a—x. A biquadratic or furs
defolidal elliptoid, or that of the third order, wherein ay*=
b x*?xa—x

If any other ordinate be called v, and the correfpondent
abfcifs = ; there wil be

m+n

ay =b z™"Xa—z":
Confequently,

m+n
ay tav 2: be® Xa—x": b z™Xa—z"s
m+n mtn
That is, y iV ss x™xa—ax"s zZ™KXa—z"

ELLIS, Joun, in Biography, an eminevt naturalift, the
celebrated affertor of the animal nature of Corallines, was
born, we believe, in London, about the year 1710, but our
opinion is founded chiefly on conjetural evidence. By a
book now before us, in kis hand-writing when a boy, it ap-~
pears that he began the ftudy of vulgar fraétions OG. 1. 17235
and purfued it afterwards to a corfiderabie extent. He is
prefumed to have been engaged in merchandize, and poffibly
in fome public office, or place under governrent, but of his
precife occupation or ftation in life, we have no exaét inform~
ation. He foon imbibed a general tafte for natural hiftory,
and having numerous friends and correfpondents in various
parts of the world, efpecially America and the Weft Indies,
he was indefatigable in procuring feeds and fpecimens of
plants, as well as infe€ts, fhells, corals, and every kind of
natural curiofity. He laboured to difcover and to teach the
beft methods of colle¢ting and preferving fuch objeAs, as
well as to procure receipts for varnifhes, cements, colours,
or any thing elfe which might be ufetul to him as a pr: tical
naturalift, Microfcopical enquiries foon engaged his atten-
tion, and he improved the microfcope then in ufe, fo as to
render it more convenient for his purpofe. He was the
friend of Peter Collinfon, of the Rev. Dr. Hales, and of
Dr. Alexander Garden, with whom he agreed no lefa in tafte
for natural fcience, than in exccllence of moral and religious
charaéter through life.

The ftudies and amufements of Ellis have indeed had many
votaries, whofe numbers, for acentury paft, have been rapidly
encréafing in this and other countries. But how few among
thefe vaft numbers have, like him, had the lot of making a
grand and original phyfiological difcovery, which removes a
numerous and intricate tribe of beings from one kingdom of
nature to another, and fo clearly elucidates their whole eco-
nomy that no fubfequent doubts can arife, at the fame time
diffufing collateral light, in various direétions, through other
ranks of creation! ‘The progrefs of the difcovery of the
animal nature of corals and corallines, to which we allude,
is well detailed by our author in the introduGion to his Natue
ral Hiftory of Corallines, publifhed at London in 1755, in
quarto, with 37 plates of the various f{pecies. The idea
appears to have occurred to him in the autumn of 1751, and
{pring of 1752, when in difpofing fpecimens of various ma-
rine productions, hitherto deemed plants, upon paper, he
foon learned, by their difference of texture, to difcriminate
fuch as he fufpe&ted to be more of an animal than vegetable
nature. He prefented a colleGtion of thefe new-difcovered
animals to the Royal Society, of which he was already become
a fellow, and his opinions were confirmed by thofe of feveral
learned naturalifts there aflembled. This original coll Qion
ftill remains in four glazed frames, over the chimney-pi.ce of
an apartment ix the Britifh Mufeum. In Augutt 1752, Mr.
Ellis undertook the necefiary examination of thefe produc-
tions in a living ftate in the ifle of Shepey, accompanied by
a draughtfman. Here he fir faw the various living animals,

5E of

m+n

EL Ls,

of which the corallines were but the fhells or cafes, and we
may calily conceive the pleafure with which he watched their
yarious movements in queft of food, or in the enjoyment of
animal life, all fo flrikingly decifive of the truth of his pre-
conceived theory. In June 1754, the celebrated botanift and
artift Mr. Ehret accompanied him in an excurfion to the
Suffex coalt; and the pencil of this able man was well em-
ployed in the fervice of his difcoveries as they arofe, The
fruits of this excurfion were communicated to the Royal
Society, in the 48th volume of whofe TranfaGions the re-
marks of Mr, Ellis on the fubje€t in queition are found, im
one letter to the Rev. Dr. Birch, and three others to Mr.
Peter Collinfon. A fourth letter to the laft-mentioned na-
turalift is printed in the 49th volume of the fame publication,
containing an account of a ‘curious ficthy coral-like fub-
ftance.”’? Thisis now named d/cyonium Schlofferi. Another
excurfion in Auguf 1754, along the northern ceaft of Kent,
in company with Oeder the celebrated Danifh botanift, fur-
nifhed Mr, Ellis with feveral new ideas on the fubject of his
refearches, efpecially the mode of propagation ot thefe ani-
mals. He alfo learned to preferve the polypes in an ex-
panded ftate, by fuddenly immerfing the fpecimens in proof
fpirit, by which the vital principle was extinguifhed before
they could withdraw into their cells. By thefe repeated obs
fervations upon our Britifh coraliines, and comparing them
with fome of the exotic more folid or horny kinds, this acute
plulslopher was enabled to prove that even thefe laft are
ormed upon the fame principle. Nothing can be more cer-
tain than that their ftems, however folid, are originally con-
geties of tubes, filled up and obliterated by the fubfequent
depofition of horny matter, as the polypes advance upwards,
and branch off into various new colonies. ‘The fame may be
ebferved of the more ftony productions properly called corals.
Thefe are likewife aggregate animals, whofe fhells while foft
cohere laterally into one common mafs; whereas univalve
fhell-fith are folitary individuals, whofe fhells as they encreafe
are convoluted upon themfelves. In the famous Wentletrap,
Turbo fcalaris, thefe convolutions do not touch each other,
except by the intervention of thin tran{verfe plates ; the fame
thing is remarkable in the ftraight tubes of the coral named
Tubipora mufica.

The doétrine of Mr. Ellis however did not efcape contro-
verfy. Dr. Job Bafter, a learned Dutch naturali{t, com-
municated to our Royal Society fome doubts upon the fub-
je&t, which are printed in the soth volume of the Philofophi-
eal TranfaGtions, where alfo Ellis’s reply -may be feen. ‘The
great Ruffian naturalift Dr. Pallas was likewife among his
opponents, as well as that indefatigable writer fir John Hill;
but the fcruples of the latter were afterwards fo far removed,
that he tried to extend the difcovery of Ellis to Fungs,
wanting to prove them alfo of an animal nature; in which
he was unqueftionably as much miftaken as in his previous
difbelief of the animal nature of corallines. To detail the
arguments on either fide would now be fuperfluous. We
fhall conclude the fubjeét by remarking, that notwithftand-
ing the difcoveries of Ellis, Liunzus has, even in the laft
edition of his Sy/lema Nature, retained fo much of the old
error as to define Zoophytes “ compound animals, which
bear flowers, their vegetating {tem pafliog by metamorphofis
into a flowering arimal.?? In a note he explains his opinion
that the animals do not, like thofe of ttony corals, form their
cafes or fhells, but are themfelves formed by thofe thells,
which he conceives to be truly of a vegetable nature. He
allows indeed the flowers to be real animals, with organs of
generation and of motion. ‘This error is correted by Gme-

2

lin, who juftly unites the Lishophyta and Zoophyta of Linnens
into one order under the latter denomination, and defines tuerm
compound animals, flowering like plants;” fuch at leaft
is his meaning, though animalium is printed for plantarum
more.

In botany Ellis diftinguifhed himfelf by an account of
two new genera, the Halefia aud Gardenia, primted in the
Phil. Traaf. vol. 51. The former was named after his
learned friend the Rev. Dr. Hales, and is an American flowe
ering fhrub or tree of great elegance, which bears our cli-
mate well; the latter 1s a fine Indian fhrub, well known in
our ftoves, named after Dr. Garden, long refident in Caro=
lina. He publifhed alfo afeparate pamphiet on the Venus’s
Fly-trap; fee Dion 2a mu/cipula; and was the author of a
fourth new genus, Gordonia, vamed after Mr. Gordon of
Mile-end. Every genus therefore which he eftablifhed has
remained unfhaken, ard we may venture to prediét will ever
continue fo, while botany cortiumes a {cience. The Gordo=
nia was defcribed in the Goth vol. of the Phil. Tranf. along
with a new {pecies of J/licium, or Starry Anife, from Wett
Florida. In the 57th vol. of the Tranf. Mr. Ellis defcribes
fome Conferve, hitherto unknown. One of his mott fa~
vourite botanical objets was to afcertain the trne Varnifh~-
tree of Japan, which he contends, in oppofition to Miller,
to be diftin@ from the American Toxicodendron. ‘The con-
troverfy may be feen in the 49th and 5oth volumes of the
Phil. Tranf. The point feems not yet well determined, but
the American plant is certainly Rhus Vernix of Linneus.
Our author publifhed feparately an hiftorical account of
Coffee, with remarks on its culture and ufe, and a plate of
the fhrub; alfo a defcription of the Mangoftan and Bread
fruit, with four plates. Thefe are quarto pamphlets, and
the latter contains many ufeful ‘direétions to voyagers, for
bringing over thefe and other vegetable produtions.’? This
laft fubje& frequently engaged Mr. Eliis’s attention, and
makes a feparate quarto pamphlet publifhed in 1770. In
the srft and 58th volumes of the Phil. Tranf. are papers of
his, on the prefervation of feeds. Nor were thefe all the
feientific purfuits of his indefatigable mind. He wrote alfo
in the Tranf. various other papers on Corals, Sea Pens, and
ether animals of the fame tribe, as wellas on the Cochineak
Infe& ; on the Coluber Cerafles, or Horned Viper of Egypt 5
on that fingular animal, found by his friend Garden in Caro-
lina, the Siren lacertina of Linnzus, now efteemed a Murena 3.
on the ftrudture of the Windpipes in feveral birds and in the
Land Tortoife ; and even on the method of making Sal Am-
moniac in Egypt. Itappears moreover, by many {pecimens
of his colle€ting, that he was an affiduous obferver of the
internal ftru€ture or anatomy of vegetables, on which ne
doubt he had conferred with Dr. Hales, whofe experiments
and obfervations be feems often to have had in view.

It would have been extraordinary if the numerous com-
munications of Mr. Ellis to the Royal Society had failed of
the peculiar reward, fo richly merited, which that learned
body has in its power to beftow. Accordingly Sir Godfrey
Copley’s medal was, on the goth of Nov. 1768, delivered
to him by Sir John Pringle, then Prefident ; and it being
ufual to tingle out fome one or two papers in particular for
fuch a compliment, one ‘‘on the animal nature of the genus
of Zoophytes called Corallina,” in a letter to Linnzus, and
another on the 4éinia /ociata,”’ in a letter to the earl of
Hilifborough, both printed in the 57th vol. of the T'ranf.
were feleted for this purpofe.

Of the private occurrences of the life of this diftinguifhed
man we have not much information. In a manufcript letter

to

eee

ELL

to the Rev. Mr. Borlafe dated March 3d, 1964, the follow.
ing paflage is remarkable. ‘ You too greatly over-value my
little progrefs in natural knowledge. Had I been regularly
bred toit I might have made fome progrefs in it worth notice,
but I affure you the fmall advance I have made in it was only
sto amufe a mind diftreffed by a feries of misfortunes, and [
.thank God it has had that great and good effect, fo as to
render this part of my life the molt happy of the whole, by
my being taken notice of by men of worth and honour.’
‘Thus modeftly wrote a man whofe difcoveriee form an epocha
in natural feience, and thus felt a Chriftian philofopher,
whofe heart expanded to all his fellow-creatures! He was
at this time much acquainted with the excellent Dr. Solander,
who laboured with him at the ftudy of exutic Zoophytes,
as well.as of the Britifh Sea-weeds. On the former fubjeé&
aifplendid pofthumous work in quarto appeared in 1786,
under the diregtion of the author’sdaughter, who dedicated
itto fir Jofeph Banks. This book is illuftrated by 63 beau-
tifml engravings, fome of them inferior to none in natural
Aultory. Whether Mr. Ellis had been unfuccefsful in trade,
or from any other caufe not perfe&tly at eafe in his circum-
dtaaces, we know not, but he wrote as follows to a friend in
Feb. 1764. ‘I thank God the agency for Welt Florida,
which my lord Chancellor (Northington) has got me,
makes me eafy and happy, and I hope will prove of ufe to
matual hiftory. My bufinefs does not oblige me to leave
Loncon.”” It appears.that in 1757 he refided in Laurence-
Jane ; in 1771 inor near Gray’s-inn; and that he had occa-
fionaly a fummer refidence at Fulham. In a letter ito an-
vother riend, dated Gray’s-inn, Jan. 2. 1771, is the follow-
ing palage. ‘ By lord Northington’s goodnefs I have been
made agent of Welt Florida, and lately have got the agency
of Dominica. This:comfortable income shas.enabled me to
purfue vith fpirit my favourite ftudy of natural hiftory.??
After a fries of declining health, Mr. Ellis died on the 15th
of OGobr 1776, being, as we prefume, about 66 years of
age, thoujh the time of his birth isnot mentioned either in
the advertiement prefixed to his pofthumons work, or in the
Gentleman; Mayazine for 1776, where heis faidito have died
onthe sthof Odtober. His perfon was tall, his features
expreflive ar] ftrongly marked. Of the time of his mar-
riage, or anyparticulars concerning his wife, we have no ac-
count. Oneonly daughter, named Martha, furvived him,
to whom he dft a handfome competency, and for whom he
had the-ftronpit parental affeétion, which fhe moft abun-
dantly meritedind returoed. ‘This excelleat lady, who in-
herited her fater’s tafte and charaéter, more efpecially his
piety and fenfibity of mind, with a confiderable likenefs to
his perfon, was he fecond wife of Alexander Watt, efq.
of Northaw, H-+ts. She bore her hufband feveral fons,
now for the mofbart engaged in the naval fervice of their
country, and oncovely daughter, who furvived her mother
but afew years. re. Watt died in childbed at Northaw in
the {pring of 1795 Her will, writteh entirely in her own
hand, and a letter ) her bufband, found after her deceafe,
are worthy of the jn of a Richardfon and the charaéter of
a Clarifla, She horured the writer of this article with her
friendfhip, and enriced him with all her father’s original
{cientific correfpondce and other papers, as well as {ome
fpecimens illuftrative f his writings. The bulk of Mr.
Ellis’s mufeum was hoever fold by au&ion in London in
June 1791. Ellis’s MS. and printed works. S.

Exuis, in Geograph a river of America, in the ftate

of Maine, being a bran of Great Amerefcoggin river.
ELLISIA, in Bota, named by Linnreus in honour of
John Ellis, efq. F. R.Sauthor of feveral botanical differ-
tations and difcoveries. Linn, Gen. 97. Soreb. 109,

ELL

Willd. Sp. Ply. 1.815. Mart. Mill. Dié&t.v. 2. Juff. 129.
Clafs ard order, Feetandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. A/peri-
folie, Linn, Borraginea, Jufl.

Gen. Ch, Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep, lanceolate,
fpreading, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, funncl-
fhaped ; tube nearly cylindrical, much {maller than the calyx,
marked internally with 15 ftreeks; limb in five obtufe feg-
ments. Neary two fmall tecth at the bafe of each ftamen.
Stam. Vilaments five, awl-haped, fhort; anthers roundith.

"il. Germen fuperior, roundifh, briftly; ftyle thread-
fhaped, fhort; tligmas two, oblong, erc&. Peric. Capfule
coriaceous, roundilh with a traufverfe ftridture, downy, of
two cells and two valves, deciduous. Seeds two in each cell,
ove above the other, globofe, dotted. Correéted from the
MSS of Linnzus communicated by Dr. Smith.

Eff. Ch. Corotla funnel-fhaped, much narrower than the
calyx, Capfule coriaceous, fuperior, of two cells and two
valves, Seedstwoin eachcell, dotted, one above the other.

E. Nydelea, Linn. Mant. 336. Now. A&. Upfal. v. 1.
g7- t. 5. f. 5. (Polemonium NyGelea; Linn. Sp. Pi ed.
2. 231. Scorpiurus humilis virginianus, follis rutaceis ;
Moris. v. 3. 451. Sect. 11. t. 28..f. 3.) This, the only
known {pecies, is a native of Virginia, and is more fingular
in fru€tification, than beautiful or remarkable in appearance.
It is preferved in fome curious botanical gardens, but is hardy
enough to bear our climate without any care. Root annual.
Stem decumbent, much branched, leafy, brittle. Leaver
alternate, ftalked, pinnatifid, roughifh. Flowers {mall,
pale blue, on fimple folitary ftalks oppofite to the leaves.

ELLISVILLE, in Geography, a poit-town of America,
in Cumberland county, Penniylvania, 156 miles from
Wathington.

ELLOPIA, in Ancient Geography, a name formerly given
to the ifland of Euboea, from E,lops the fon of Ion, who
fettled in this ifand.—Alfo, an inland town of this ifland,
which, according to Strabo, flood at the foot of mount
Telebrium. The inhabitants of this place were compelled,
after the battle of Leuétra, by the tyrant Philiftides, to
leave their native country, and fettle at Iflima.—Alfo, a
country of Greece, in the vicinity of Dodona.—Alfo, a
town of Greece, toward Dolopia.

ELLOPIUM, a town of Greeoe, in ZEtolia, according
to Polybius.

ELLORA. See Evora.

ELLORE, in Geography, one of the northera circars of
Hindooltan, N.E. of Condapilly, and N.W. of the bay of
Bengal. See Cincar.—Alfo, the capital of this circar,
32 miles N, of Mafulipatam. NN. lat. 16° 43’. E. lovg.
Br? aia!.

ELLOTIA, Eadwriz, among the Greeks, a feltival in
memory of Europa, Agenor’s daughter ; who was called
Eaawris by the people of Crete.

ELLSWORTH, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
in Hancock county and ftate of Maine, on both fides of
Union river; incorporated in 1800.

ELLWOOD, Tuomas, in Biography, was born at the
village of Crowell, near Thame, mn Oxtordfhire, in the year
1639) where he received his «education, which, owing to the
narrow circumftances of his fother, was very limited. When
he had attained the age of 21, he was accidentally thrown
among the quakers, and.received indelible impreffions, in
favour of their {entiments, from the preaching of Edward
Burroughs. This alteration in his religious principles gave
great offence to his father, who could not brook the change
of manners, language, and drefs, aflumed by his fon, and
who behaved tewards him with an unbecoming feverity,
eftea infliGing ea him blows, and a kiad of domeltic im-

5E2 prifoument.

ELE

prifonment. At length the young man was permitted to
pay a vifit to a friend; and, on his return, paffed moft of
his time in the kitchen and among the fervants, in order
that his father might not be offended with his wearing a hat
in his prefence. He foon after became a writer, and a
aealous preacher among the friends. His firft work was en-
titled, “« An Alarm to the Priefts, or a Meffage from Heaven
to warn them.” In the fame year, 1660, when this was
publifhed, Ellwood was arrefted and imprifoned at Oxford,
on account of an intercepted letter, which was interpreted
by the government to be of a political and libellous nature.
His imprifonment was fhort, and not attended with any cir-
cumttances of peculiar rigour,

Ellwood was now looked up to asa diftinguifhed preacher,
and felt the want of more learning than he had acquired in
early life, and applied all his leifure time in improving him-
felf. He, by means of his friend Ifaac Penington, procured
the employment of reader to the great Milton, which obliged
him to read many Latin books, fo that the language foon
became familiar to him; and as Milton eafily knew, by the
tone of his voice, whether he underitood his author, he
would, in difficult cafes, top him, and explain thofe parts
which he did not feem to comprehend. This confinement
did not agree with his health ; and he was in a fhort time
obliged to leave London. In 1665, Ellwood procured
apartments for his maiter at Chalfont, and was the occafion
of bis writing Paradife Regained, by afking him, what he
who had faid fo much on Paradife Lott, could fay of Para-
dife Found? Ellwood was again imprifoned in Bridewell
and Newgate, for being found at a meeting of the friends in
London; but was difcharged, after a fhort time, without
the form of a trial. He was next {tle&ted by his friend
Tfaac Penington, as the tutor to his children, an employ-
ment in which he continued till the year 1669 ; but, during
his refidence in this family, both he and his patron were ar-
refted at Amerfham, while attending a funeral at the
quakers’ burying ground, and committed to Aylefbury
gaol, where they were kept till the enfuing affizes, when
they, with other prifoners of the fame defcription, were or-
dered to be fined 65. 8d, each, and difcharged. This fum
they refufed to pay, and were committed for one month
Jonger. Scarcely had Ellwood efcaped from this prifon,
when he was committed to the houfe of corre€&tion at Wy-
combe, where he was confined a quarter of a year, At the
latter end of the fame year he was married, and fettled at
Hungerhill, near Amerfham, Bucks, where he became a
zealous adherent to the rifing fociety of the friends; and
was extremely ufeful, after the pafling of the ‘* Conventicle
AG,” in fupprefling the infamous trade of {pies and in-
formers. In one inflance, he was able to prove an alibi
with regard toa friend; and then indi@ed and convifted the
informers of perjury.

Ellwood now became an author, and publifhed many
works, which were highly efteemed by the friends of his
party. For one, viz. ‘* A Caution to Conftables and
others concerned in the Execution of the Conventicle AG,”
he was cited to appear before the magiitrates, who were em-
powered to commit him to prifon till the next affizes, but
who took his word for appearing when called on, and never
treubled him more on that head. In 1694, he publifhed a
poithumous work of George Fox, which contained a volu-
yninous journal of the events of his life; and in 1705, he
gave the public the firft part of ‘* Sacred Hiftory, or the
hiftorical Part of the Holy Scriptures of the Old Tefta-
ment ;”” which he continued, in the year 1709, by a volume
of the hiftory of the New Teftament. This was the prin-
cipal work of our author, who died of the palfy, on the 1ft

ELL

of March, 1713, in his 74th year. He was a man of cone
fiderable abilitics, poffefled much natural wit, and fome
learning. His integrity was unqueftionable; and his zeal in
what he thought right could be damped by no obftacles, nor
by any fufferings to which he was expofed. Gen. Biog.

ELLYCHNIOTOS, in the medical writings of the
Ancients, the name of a fort of tent ufed by the furgeons,
and made of cotton or lint, rolled up into the form of the
wick of alemp or candle. See the next article.

ELLYCHNIUM, a name given, by the ancients, to
that fort of matter, whatever it was. which ferved them in
common ufe for the wicks of their lamps, and had, befides
this, its ufe in furgery. Galen exprefsly dire@s the ufe of
the foftelt ellychnium, fuch as that of Tarfus, inftead of
fponge, in chirurgical cafea. But we are far from being
afcertained, at prefent, of what this ellycknium of Tarfus
was. The commentators have guefied differently as to the
meaning of the word ; and Cornarius fuppofed it to fignify
a fort of {pongy and light fungus, which, when properly
wrought up, might be made to ferve for the wicks of lamps,
being very inflammable, as we well know many of the fan.
gufes to be, particularly that fort which the people of fome
countries call fpunck, and ufe inflead of tinder, to citch
fire from the fparks of flint and fteel; and when in its na-
tural lax ftate, might, by its open {fpongy texture, bevery
well fuited to imbibe any medicinal fluid, and retain it a
long time, while applied to any difeafed part. Other) have
gucffed it to be the xylon, or cotton of the ancients but,
from Galen’s propofing it to be ufed inftead of {pojge, it
feems much more probable to have been what Conarius
fuppofes. Galen, lib. xiii, and xiv. Cornar. Cgnment.
in 3. Ker. tom.

ELLYS, Anruony, in Biography, a learned gelate of
the church of England, was born about the yér 1693.
He ftudied at Clare-hall, Cambridge, where he tek his de-
grees. He obtained feveral valuable livings; ax was, im
the year 1728, created do€tor of divinity, yen king
George II. paid a vifit to the univerfity of /ambridge.
After this he took an a@tive part againft the rpeal of the
tet and corporation a&ts, and wrote one of the bleft works
on that fide of the queftion, entitled, “* A Plejfor the Sa-
cramental Teft, as a juft Security to the Churd eftablifhed,
&c.””? He next publifhed an anfwer to Hales Effay on
Miracles. This was publifhed in 4to. in tb year 1752;
and almoft immediately afterwards, Dr. Ellyswas promoted
to the {ce of St. David’s. He died at Gjcefter, in the
year 1761, aged 68 years. After his a in 1763, was
publifhed the firft part of a work entitled, | Tra&ts on the
Liberty, {piritual and temporal, of Pro/ftants in Eng-
land ;” and in 1765, the fecond part was iven to the pubs
lic. The defign of the former is partljto vindicate the
eftablifhment of the church of England aginft the objeGions
of the proteftant diffenters ; but principay to examine and
confute the tenets of the church of Rome The fecond part
relates to civil liberty, in which the arbor vindicates the
principles of the whigs; and in the djuffion he has cole
leG&ed a large fund of hiftorical, conitutional, and legal
knowledge. The work was drawn ujtnder the patronage
of government; and on account of t} labour which it coft
him, he was rewarded with the bifpric of St. David’s,
though, for reafons not now known't was not publifhed
till after his death. The bithop kewife publifhed fome
fingle fermons. His charaéter is Awn by the editors of
his pofthumous works, as not or eminent for his fine

arts, extenfive knowledge, and fold judgment ; but for a
heart fo overflowing with benevole/é and candour, as never
even to conceive terms of acrimoy towards the opinions or

4 perfons

ELM

perfons of thofe who differed from him; and he always
thought a perfon, though on the right fide of a queftion,
with principles of perfecution, to bea worfe man than he
that was on the wrong. Biog. Brit.

ELM, in Agriculture, the name of a very common de-
ciduous tree, of which there are different {pecies and va-
rieties. See Utmus.

The common or Englith elm, and moft of the other forts,
fucceed well in foils of a ftiff, loamy, retentive quality,
which are in fome meafure inclined to moifture, growing in
fome cafes to confiderable height and fize of bole. They
are occafionally planted both as hedge-row timber and in
mixcd plantations, thouzh their wide fpreading branches
reodcr them in fome degree improper for the latter fituations,
Jn the former cafes, the banks fhould be well cleaned and
wrought over, and the trees be planted out about the latter
end of September, being well fecured by proper fakes from
the effets of the winds. Their heads fhould likewife be
confiderably reduced before they are fet out, but without
injuring the leading fhoots, or the branches being too clofely

runed,

Thefe trees are well fuited for being planted out in the
view of affording fhelter, or as a {creen for breaking off the
violence of the winds, as they are capable of being trained
up in the form of a hedge, being kept conftantly clofely cut
in, to make them grow thick and clofe, as well as to a great
height. Near tillage land they are, however, very ob-
jeCtionable, as their roots run very extenfively near the fur-
face of the ground, and of courfe ob{trué the operations of
the plough.

In the planting of this fort of trees, great care fhould be
taken not to bury their rnots too deep, efpecially when the
foil is of the clayey or loamy kinds. The plants fhould not
be too large when planted out, as they do not fucceed fo
well. The plants may be railed by fuckers, and from feeds
in fome of the forts.

As timber, the common elm is probably to be preferred
to molt of the other forts; but fome of the other kinds
grow equally large in foils which fuit them. This is the
cafe with that which is called the witch-elm. The worft fort
in point of timber is that which is ufually denominated the
Dutch elm.

Exum, in Botany. See Uimus.

Exum, in Geography, a {mal! town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Giaris; 6 miles S. of Glaris.

Exm-Baré, in Pharmacy. The bark of the elm has been
ftrongly recommended, and is oceafionally ufed in obftinate
cutaneous complaints. It is given in the form of decodtion
(deco&tum corticis ulmi) of moderate ftrength ; that is,
about an ounce toa pint of water, and in the dofe of at lealta
pint daily. This deco@ion is mucilaginous and {lightly
altringent.

Euim-Wood, Petrified, in Natural Hiflory. It is related
by Mr. Stedel, that he found pieces of elm-wood, which had
been left about feven years in a fountain near Ulm, and had
become petrified or converted into tone. (6 Roz. 8vo, 3d
part, p» 18.) The alleged converfion of wood into filicious
ftony maffes, in modern times, has been doubted by mott
modern writers: and indeed it appears doubtful, whether
any of the numerous filicious ftones, that are found with a
ligneous texture, can be identified with any recent or known
woods, but like the animal remains which often accompany
them in a petrified or altered ftate, when {cientifically exa-
mined and compared with recent fpecies, they are found all
to belong to a prior race of organized beings now totally ex-
tin&. See Petrified Woon.

ELMA, in Geography, a town of Roffia, in the govern-

ELM

ment of Archangel, at the conflux of the river Elma with
the Petchora; 312 miles E. of Archangel,

EL-MACIN, in Biography, an Egyptian, who fuc-
ceeded his father as fecretary to the council of war, under
the fultans of Egypt, in the year 1238, is chiefly known ag
author of a chronicle of the Mahometan caliphs, written in
Arabic, which commences with Mahomet, and goes down
to the reign of Moftader-Billah, who died in the year 1138.
He relates year by year, but in few words, what concerns
the Saracen empire, intermixing with it a portion of the hif-
tory of the Chriftians of the Ealt. He is fuppofed, from
his manner of writing, to have been a Chriflian; yet enjoyed
places of truft and diftinlion under the Mahometan princes
His hittory was tranflated out of the Arabic into Latin, by
Erpenius, and printed in both languages at Leyden, ip
folio, in the year 1625. Bayle.

ELMARAD, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
country of Yemen; § miles N.N.W. of Zebid.

ELME, Saint, a {trong caltle of the ifland of Malta,
onarock clofe to the town of La Valette, which pr: teéts the
two harbours.—Alfo, an old caftle of France, near Colioure,
in the department of the Eaftern Pyrenées.

EL-MEDEA, calkd allo Africa (Turris Hannibalis),
fea-port town of Africa, m that part of the country of
Tunis which was the ancient Bzacium or winter circuit,
fituated upon a peninfula, 5 miles to the fouth of Cape
Demafs. It appears to have been formerly a place of great
{trength and importance. The port, which was an area
nearly of 100 yards fquare, lies within the walls of the city,
with its mouth opening towards Cap oudia; but it is noc
now capable of receiving the fmalleft veffcl. Leo fays, that
it was founded (or poffibly rebuilt) by Mahdi, the firit pa-
triarch of Kaerwan, and therefore afflumed his name; but
the delicacy of the ruins afford reafon for fufpecting, that
the founder was not an Arabian. ‘Thuanus has miltaken
this place for Aphrodifium, which Dr. Shaw fuggelts, in
his “ Travels,’ to have been more probably at Faradeefe, a
{mall viliage and port in the plains of Hamam-ct.

ELMEDINA, or Atmepin&, a town of Africa, in the
empire of Morocco, on the edge of mount Atlas.—Alfo,
another of the fame name, near the fea-coalt.

ELMEN, or Att Sarza, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony, and principality ot Magdeburg ;
io miles S.S.E. of Magdeburg.

ELMENAU. See Ivmenav.

ELMHAM, North, once a city, is now an incon-
fiderable village in the county of Norfolk, England,
about 4 miles north of Eaft Dereham, It was given by
the Saxon prince Sigebert to Falix, who converted the
Eaft Anglians to Chriftianity, and was the firit bifhop of
that part of the heptarchy. At the time the province of
Eaft Anglia was divided into two diocefes, this place bes
came a feat of the bifhop prefiding over the northern portion.
During this partition, ten bifhops fucceffively refided
here; but in the time of Wybred the 11th, the fees were
again united, and fourteen others fubicquently fate, till the
fee was removed from this place to the eity of Norwich, by
Herbert de Loffinga, in the time of William Rutus, A. D.
1094. The bifhops of Norwich continued occafionally to
refide here ; anda fine caltle, moated round, was erected by
bifhop Spencer, inthe time of Richard II, The ruins of
this palace flill remain ; and the fite of the ancient cathedral,
built by bifhop Herbert, is ftill vifible. Near it fubter-
raneous hollows have been difcovered, and old wells, which
have been filled up. In an enclofure near Broom.clofe, half
a mile from the village, the ground was perceived to fink
circularly in three different plages ; in one of whieh the hole

wae

ELM

was 12 feet broad, and 20 feet deep. But veftiges of
higher antiquity have been. traced: for in this clofe were
found numerous urns, including divers brafs inftroments,
Roman coins, and a filver feal ring or annular fignet, orna-
mented with an eagle hold*ng a thunderbolt. Henry VITI.
granted the manor to Thomas lord Cromwell, who was the
firft lay propmetor. The prefent poffeffor is Richard
Milles, efq. in right of his mother, the elde& daughter of
Richard Warner, efg. who built a handfome manfion here
in 1729, which feat ts called North Elmham Park.
ELMINA, or La Miwa, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fetu or Fetou, fo called bv the Portuguefe,
but by the natives Oddena, which is very long but narrow ;
the houfes being built of a ftone, hewn out of aneighbour-
ing rock. In the year 1684, this town war fo populous and
fo powerful, and the inhabitants fo brave, that they were
the terror of the whole coaft. Since that period it has been
depopulated by the ravages of the fmall-pox, and by the ty-
rannical government and wars of Commendo. ‘This town is
feated on the river Benja, in a low, flat peninfula, formed
by the ocean on the fouth, the river on the north, Com-
mendo on the welt, and the famous citadel of St. George
d’Elmina on the eaft. Towards Commendo it is fortified
by a ftrong wall of large ftone, a deep ditch, and fome p'eces
of cannon. The wall begins at the fea-fide, and ftretches
along to the banks of the river, which feparates the town
from the fort on mount St. Jago. The Dutch call this fort
Confradbourgh, which they built for the fecurity of El-
mina, in a fituation that commands both the town and their
chief fa@ory. The inhabitants are robuft and warlike, but
more civilized than other negroes, on account of their fa-
tniliar acquaintance with the Europeans. Their ufual oc-
cupations are fifhing, trading, and making palm-wine and
oil. Their commerce extends along the coalt, as far as
Whidah. In the town are many artizans, who work in
metals in a manner little inferior to that of the beft European
mechanics. They caft and carve in gold and filver; they
make buttons, plain or filligree rings, chains, fword-hilts,
and other ornaments; nor are they ignorant of the method
of cutting, grinding, and polifhing cryftal and glafs. The
town contains about 200 houfes, occupied chiefly by me-
chanics. It is divided into three di&riéts, each of which is
‘governed by a chief, called by the negroes kaffo; witha
sumber of fubordinate officers. Thefe three chiefs, with
their councils, form the regency and legiflative part of this
fmall republic ; fince the Portuguele rendered it independent
of the kings of Fetu and Commendo, who poffefs the fo-
vereigrty of the whole country befides. The inhabitants
have thus found means to render themfelves formidable to all
their neighbours, and to acquire an independence that is not

ELD

poffeffed any where elfe on the Gold Coaft. The river
Benja, which glides by the walls of the town, furnifhes a
fine bay falt, produced in the fame manner as in different
parts of Europe. The citadel of Elmina ftands on a rock,
bounded on one fide by the ocean, defended by ftrong baf-
tions, and furrounded by a high {tone wall, in the centre af
the Gold Coaft, fo as to be commodioufly fituated for the
purpofes of trade and the fecurity of the trader. The
works of this fort were begun by the Portuzuele, and com-
pleted by the Dutch ; and 1t is faid to be lerger, more con-
venient, and beautiful than Cape Coaft, though lefs pleafent
in refpeét of fituation. The fort of Conradfbourgh ftands
on movant St. Jago, on the frontier of the kinzdom of Fetu.
Below mount St. Jago the company have a fine garden, in-
clofed by ‘high ftone walls, and beautifully laid ont in par-
terres and rows of orange, lemon, palm, and cocoa-trees;
and furnifhing all forts of fruits, roots, and pulfe, peculiar
to that country, as well as the natural growth of Europe.
In the centre ftands a magnificent dome or temple, fur-
rounded by lofty trees, which afford the moit deiightful
cooling fhade and fragrance.

ELMORE, a townfhip of America, in Orleans couaty,
and ftate of Vermont, containing 45 inhabitants.

ELMOROSIA, a name given by the Moors to a difh
they are very fond of. It is made of pieces of beef, or of
camel’s flefh, ftewed with butter, hosey, and water; fome
add rob of wine to it, and others garlic ; but there are always
added onions, faffron, and falt. “Phil. Tranf. No. 253.

ELMSHORN, in Geography, a {mall town of Denmark,
in that part of Holftein called the county of Rantzau, fitu-
ated on the river Aue, which runs into the Elbe, and by
means of which the inhabitants carry on a good trade, chiefly
in turf and charcoal. The population does not amount to
more than 1000 individuals. It is on the road from Hufum
to Hamburgh, 26 miles N. of the latter place.

ELNBOGEN, a town of Bohemia, and capital of a
circle or diftri@, within tke circle of Saatz, called “the
circle of Elnbogen,”? or “ Loket;” fituated on a rock,
furrounded with mountains, near the Egra; 62 miles W. of
Pregue, and 32 S.W. of Saatz. ee

ELNE, a fmall town of France, in the department of
the Eaftern Pyrenées, on the river Tech, not far from the
Mediterranean fea; 6 miles S. of Perpignan.

Exng, a river of England, in the county of Cumberland,
which runs into the Irifh fea; 4 miles N. of Workington.

ELNIA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Smo-
lenfk ; 32 miles E.S.E of Smolenfk. N, lat. 54° 25’. E.
long. 33° rol.

ELOANX, a name given by fome writers to auripig-
mentum, or orpiment.

THE END OF VOL. XII.

_ Stthas and Prefton,
KAwe-Street Square, Londow.

AE Rees, Abraham
5 The cyclopaedia

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

——

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

0 100 € gp gy El 6€
2 WALI SOd 4IHS Avg JONVY GQ

|

MAIASNMOG LY in